Kári Stefánsson - Knowledge

52: 478:, are difficult to detect except by looking at very large genealogies. deCODE combined genomic and genealogical data on some 150,000 people to demonstrate that this process is, like crossover recombination, more common in women; is age dependent; and that male and female gene conversions tend to be complementary in type, so that they hold each other in check. In 2019, deCODE utilized the genealogies, the large number of whole genome sequences (WGS) that it had completed in the preceding years, and genotyping data on the majority of the population, to publish a third recombination map of the genome. This is the first created using WGS data, and like the previous maps has been made openly available to the global scientific community. 502:— has been key to this productivity. It makes it possible to use both broad and rigorous definitions of phenotypes, rapidly test ideas, and for deCODE scientists to follow where the data leads rather than their own hypotheses. This has led to a range of discoveries that link diseases and at times use the genetics even to redefine phenotypes in unusual ways, and Stefansson has spent significant time explaining these discoveries and their utility to the scientific and lay media. Typically, discoveries made in Iceland are published alongside validation in outside populations. Conversely, deCODE has often used its resources to validate discoveries made elsewhere. Among the more noteworthy of these discoveries are, by disease and trait: 394:

questionnaires; undergoing detailed clinical examination and measurements; and giving blood for the isolation of DNA; all of this takes place at a special clinic and requires the commitment by participants of several hours to complete. The IHD was never built, its scientific and business rationale largely superseded by the response of Icelanders to contribute their data one by one. By 2003, with some 95% of people asked to participate agreeing to do so, more than 100,000 were taking part in the study of one or more of three-dozen diseases. By 2007, this had grown to 130,000; and by 2018 to more than 160,000. This is roughly 70% of all adult citizens, 60,000 of whom have had their whole genomes sequenced.

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they demonstrated that genetic risk factors for schizophrenia and autism confer cognitive abnormalities even in control subjects; they linked schizophrenia, bipolar disorder with both creativity and risk of addiction; they identified genetic variants associated with educational attainment and childhood cognition; and demonstrated that these variants are currently under negative evolutionary selection. In addressing common psychiatric disorders and cognitive processes and traits across a population, this body of work has contributed to the present understanding of these conditions not as discrete phenotypes but as related through the disruption of fundamental cognitive functions.

715:"it is impossible to overlook a pervasive paradigm involving biobanks recruited with full population engagement, historical medical registry data, investments in large-scale genetic data collection and statistical methodology, and collaborative follow-up across academic and industry boundaries. What is often overlooked is that Kári and his colleagues at deCODE provided the template for this discovery engine. Moreover, it is easy to forget that when Kári founded deCODE Genetics 21 years ago, these concepts were considered quite radical and unlikely to succeed. He was both literally and figuratively on a small island of his own. As 310:, which had little experience of funding work using distantly related patients. But Stefansson saw potential in Iceland for using the same approach to find the genetic component of virtually any common disease. This was beyond the scope of an academic laboratory, and he made contact with venture capital firms to find out if such an enterprise could be funded as a private company. In the summer of 1996 he raised $ 12 million from several American venture capital funds to found deCODE genetics. He and Gulcher moved to Iceland to set up operations and resigned their positions at Harvard the following year. 655:

productivity challenges in drug development and Stefansson has funded the company principally by partnering with pharmaceutical companies. A $ 200 million gene and target discovery deal with Roche in 1998 was an early sign of the industry's interest in genomics to make better drugs. Other partnerships were formed with Merck, Pfizer, Astra Zeneca and others. In the mid-2000s the company brought several of its own compounds into clinical development but did not have the financial resources to continue their development after its insolvency and restructuring in 2009.

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where it occurs in the body. deCODE published holistic evidence of this in a familial aggregation of all cancers diagnosed in anyone in Iceland over fifty years, as well as other aggregation studies. These have demonstrated through basic genetics that while certain site cancers clustered in families, others cluster in a non-site specific way, pointing to common molecular causes. They discovered the chromosome 8q24 locus as harboring risk variants for many types of cancer, and variants in the TERT, TP53 and LG24 genes as risk factors for multiple cancers.

1978:, the company described the mutual lack of activity: "As of March 2004, a government-mandated review of the IHD's data encryption and protection protocols, which began in April 2000, had not been completed. When and if this review and issuance of related security certification is completed, we will evaluate whether and when, if at all, to proceed with the development of the IHD in light of our priorities and resources at that time. In light of our current business plans and priorities, we do not expect the IHD to be a material aspect of our business in the near future." 596:

relationship between citizens and private enterprise, which seemed logical to Stefansson, counterintuitive to others and is disliked by some, is becoming ever more common. One factor underlying its success and driving participation in Iceland is clearly national pride, turning the country's small size and historical isolation into a unique advantage in an important field. Another is that discoveries are applied to trying to create and sell actual products to improve medicine and health. In a 2017 interview Iceland's former president

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in a way that was not possible with only SNP-chip and GWAS data. Importantly, they could identify rare, high-impact mutations affecting common phenotypes — in brief, the most extreme versions of common diseases — yielding drug targets with potentially better validated and more tractable therapeutic potential. This "rare-for-common" approach is now being followed by many drug companies. The identification of ASGR1 was an example of this and was taken into drug discovery to develop novel cholesterol-fighting drugs.

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a genetic map of the genome that was used to complete the final assembly of the reference human genome sequence. By mid-decade, even former critics acknowledged that what Stefansson was building in Iceland through fully consented individual participation and datamining was indeed an important example to prospective genome projects in the UK, US, Canada, Sweden, Estonia and elsewhere, and to the foundation of new institutions like the Broad Institute.

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Icelandic national identity number, and is used by thousands of citizens every day. The version used in research replaces names with encrypted personal identifiers overseen by Iceland's Data Protection Commission. This makes it possible to create pedigrees connecting the genetic and phenotypic data of any group of people in an anonymized manner. Stefansson and Gulcher published the structure of this data protection system for other genome projects to use.

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within a month of the acquisition, delivering information that has helped to avoid clinical failures and prioritize and guide trials. Harper claims that this "target-first drug development" model enabled the company to address its own version of the industry's endemic productivity problem. He estimated that "just having strong genetic support for half your pipeline you can improve your rate of return on R&D investments by approximately 50%."

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its national health system. In 1995, he and his colleague and former graduate student, Jeffrey Gulcher, decided to go to Iceland to study multiple sclerosis. Working with doctors in the national health system they identified hundreds of patients and relatives who gave them blood samples to begin their research. As Icelanders they were almost by definition related, and due to the national pastime of genealogy those relationships could be established.

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cancer, and clonal hematopoiesis. Three studies over nearly a decade demonstrated the power of the population datasets in Iceland by showing that both common and rare variants linked to increased nicotine addiction and the number of cigarettes smoked per day were also a risk factor for lung cancer and peripheral artery disease; that is, that a genetic predisposition to smoking was at the same time a risk factor for smoking-related disease.

574:. Another very large study, analyzing clinical and whole-genome sequence data from some 300,000 people, found more than a dozen relatively rare variants corresponding to elevated cholesterol levels. However the genetic links to CAD risk provided a new view of how cholesterol is linked to heart disease. They reported that measuring non-HDL cholesterol better captures risk than measuring LDL cholesterol, which is current standard practice. 2432: 5004: 688:

carriers and the National Hospital has built up its counseling and other services to help those decide how they wish to use this information to protect their health. Given the disease and mortality rates from breast and prostate cancer associated with BRCA2, the availability of this information should enable the prevention and early detection of hundreds of cancers and save dozens of lives.

1652:(subscription required), volume 17, page 620, July 1999. Icelandic opponents to the IHD created an organization called Mannvernd to fight it and to encourage people to exercise their right to opt-out. The number of opt-outs provides one concrete measure of opposition to the idea as well as, conversely, a measure of how many people either favored the idea or held no strong opinion. According to an 482:

the Icelandic population; observations of the phenomenon of genetic drift, as an isolated population diverges from it source populations over time; the relationship between kinship and fertility; the impact of population structure on disease associated variants and vice versa, and a population-wide catalogue of human knockouts, people missing certain genes.

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population. Using bioinformatics and statistics, deCODE could then combine and mine all this data together for correlations between variation in the sequence and any disease or trait, in a nearly hypothesis-free manner. The business model was to fund this effort through partnerships with pharmaceutical companies who would use the discoveries to develop new drugs.

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developing the disease. Stefansson looked for an association in deCODE data which confirmed that Icelanders did not have the exact variant found by Altshuler's team but did have another in the same gene that was clearly protective for T2D. The deCODE team then added their variant to the paper that was published in Nature Genetics.

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maintaining local control over its data and science. With Amgen's full support it has continued to publish both commercially relevant gene and drug target discoveries and on human diversity and evolution, providing a high-profile example of how commercial goals, basic science and public dissemination of results can be mutually beneficial.

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hundreds of local and international institutions and organizations with whom deCODE has collaborations. A large number of these are noteworthy contributions to the field and Stefansson and several of his deCODE colleagues are consistently ranked among the most highly cited scientists in genetics and molecular biology.

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data by a private enterprise and to presumed consent as the model for the use of medical records in research. They argued that the project put individuals' data privacy at risk, would stifle scientific freedom, and they generally disapproved of the new venture-funded model of biomedical innovation that deCODE represented.

2631:, Volume 71, Issue 4, pp 877-892, October 2002. Like many early linkage-based findings, this association itself has not proved fruitful, but substantial later work has been done on the pathway. See for example A Buonanno, "The neuregulin signaling pathway and schizophrenia: From genes to synapses and neural circuits," 455:

fertility rates than non-carriers. A second recombination map published in 2010 utilized 300,000 SNPs and revealed different recombination hotspots between women and men, as well as novel genetic variations that affect recombination rate, and that do so differently in European and African populations.

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scientists in cutting-edge fields; and following international norms of consent while setting new standards in large-scale research, with oversight by public bioethics and data protection bodies and novel data and privacy protection protocols. Critics at the time remained unconvinced. Stanford bioethicist

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One instance of Stefansson's view of the role of genetics in drug development and in the context of the growing genomics industry in Ann Thayer, "The Genomics Evolution: Small technology providers and major drug firms become allies to find the causes of disease, to validate targets, and to understand

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volume 26, page 395, December 2000. One example of the relative genetic homogeneity but global utility of studying the Icelandic population is breast cancer. Around the world there are many variants in the BRCA2 gene known to confer substantial increased risk of breast cancer, but in Iceland there is

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In 2014, Stefansson met David Altshuler, then deputy director of the Broad Institute, who stopped at deCODE on his way back from Finland and Sweden. Altshuler had been leading a T2D research effort and had found a rare variant that seemed to protect even those with common lifestyle risk factors from

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to whole-genome sequencing – this participation is unique as a proportion of the population and has also consistently comprised one of the largest collections of genomic data in the world in absolute terms. Using the genealogies deCODE can impute the sequence data of the entire population, yielding a

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Stefansson was attacked for the IHD and his broader approach. He argued that far from supplanting traditional data sources or researchers, deCODE was creating a new scale of resources and opportunities including for the health service; benefitting the community by repatriating and employing Icelandic

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When he was recruited from Chicago to Harvard, Stefansson began to think that the genome might provide a better starting point than biology. Genes encode proteins, so identifying the genes and specific genetic variations that patients tended to share more often than healthy individuals should provide

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he has pioneered the use of population-scale genetics to understand variation in the sequence of the human genome. His work has focused on how genomic diversity is generated and on the discovery of sequence variants impacting susceptibility to common diseases. This population approach has served as a

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In 2006, one Reykjavík resident and a participant in deCODE research said that about 90% of people thought taking part in research funded by pharmaceutical companies made sense, while about 10% were against it, roughly capturing the participation rate of those asked. Michael D Lemomick, "The Iceland

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This was not an obvious thing to look for. Even prominent experts who predicted the future power of population genetics and association studies seem not to have considered that linkage analysis could be extended to common diseases, and aid in association studies, through population-wide genealogies.

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More broadly, Amgen's longtime chief scientific officer Sean Harper said in 2018 that "with the acquisition of deCODE we gained an industrial capability to do population genetics" that could provide human genetic validation for any target or compound. deCODE assessed Amgen's entire clinical pipeline

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The integration with Amgen coincided with the beginning of large-scale whole-genome sequencing at deCODE and the imputation of that data throughout the company's Iceland dataset. With that data, Stefansson and his colleagues at Amgen believed that genomics could be transformative to drug development

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deCODE discovered the link between type 2 diabetes (T2D) and variants in the TCF7L2 gene, the most important common known genetic risk factor known, and variants in the CDKAL1 and other genes linked to insulin response and both increased and decreasednT2D risk. The deCODE team has made contributions

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Stefansson is probably best known for the contribution he and his deCODE colleagues have made to the discovery of genetic variations linked to risk of disease and to a range of other traits. The population approach — the scale and breadth of resources and the focus on cross-mining disparate datasets

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The primary means of recruitment for deCODE research has been through collaboration with physicians across the health service who construct lists of patients with different diseases who are then invited to take part. Participation entails not only written informed consent but also filling out health

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published their draft sequences of the human genome in 2001, his vision for population genetics had already taken shape and was yielding early discoveries of sequence variation linked to disease, human evolution and population history. In 2002, deCODE used its capabilities in Iceland to publish

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in breast cancer, was among the scientists who recognized the potential of these records. As she told the New Yorker, "to be able to trace the genealogy of an entire nation for a thousand years...and obtain samples of blood and tissue from healthy living people...could become one of the treasures of

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In April 2019, Stefansson was named first president of the Nordic Society of Human Genetics and Precision Medicine, formed to create a pan-Nordic framework for human genetics research and the application of genomics to healthcare across the region, with the aim of generating and integrating genomic

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became a common term, he wanted to provide its foundation : to find and validate drug targets rooted in disease pathways rather than rely on trial and error in medicinal chemistry, and to be able to test and prescribe drugs for patients likely to respond well. This addresses longstanding

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created a computerized national genealogy database that linked all living Icelanders and included the majority of people who have ever lived in Iceland over the past eleven hundred years. In 2003, one version of this database, called Íslendingabók, was made freely available online to anyone with an

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variant had been found in Iceland, but he wanted to look at the most common public health problems. The Wall Street Journal called the venture a "big gamble," citing noted scientists that "to date, there's no scientific proof that researchers can decipher the genetics of a complex disease among the

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Iceland had the data sources required for this "population approach": a high-quality single-payer healthcare system; a relatively homogeneous population that would make finding disease variants less complex; an educated citizenry that was willing to contribute DNA and medical and health information

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gene linked to significantly increased risk of breast and prostate cancer in Icelanders. This was the first time that deCODE, which is primarily a research organization, returned information from its research data to participants. Stefansson had tried for many years to convince the Icelandic

638:. deCODEme included polygenic risk scores built principally on its discoveries to gauge individual predisposition to dozens of common diseases, an approach followed by 23andMe and others. deCODE's published risk markers provided the most rigorously validated foundation for all such services. 552:

Stefansson and his colleagues have made numerous pioneering discoveries of genome variants conferring risk of many common cancers. They have played a role in shaping the now commonly accepted new paradigm for understanding cancer: that it should be defined at least as much in molecular terms as in

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gene in schizophrenia, leading to substantial research in this novel pathway. Over the next fifteen years they used standard GWAS and reduced fecundity as an intermediate phenotype to home in on SNPs and copy number variations (CNVs) linked to risk of schizophrenia and other disorders;

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Contributions to population history and genetic anthropology include pioneering work on the mutation rate and mechanisms in mitochondria and the Y chromosome; comparing ancient to contemporary DNA; characterization of the respective Norse and Celtic roots of mitochondria and Y chromosomes in

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Leading his deCODE colleagues to continually build and re-query these population datasets, Stefansson has made a steady stream of contributions to the understanding of how variation in the sequence of the genome is generated and its impact on health and disease. Myles Axton, the longtime editor of

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authorizing the creation of such a database and its licensing for commercial use was passed in 1998. But it was fiercely opposed by a group of local academics and doctors as well as many international bioethicists. Opponents of the Iceland Health Sector Database (IHD) objected to the use of public

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An important question was whether and where such extended genealogies might be found. It was not one that occurred to many leading geneticists to ask with regard to common diseases. As an Icelander, Stefansson knew the country's passion for genealogy first hand and had grown up with and trained in

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deCODE has discovered a number of sequence variants linked to risk of prostate cancer (as well as a protective variant), breast cancer, melanoma and basal cell carcinoma, thyroid cancer, urinary bladder cancer, ovarian cancer, renal cell cancer, gastric cancer, testicular cancer, lung

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Stefansson and his team have used the breadth of the company's datasets and links between diseases and traits to discover new risk variants for mental illness, but also to refine the understanding of the perturbations that define these conditions and the nature of cognition itself. Studies in the

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mutations. In a much discussed paper from 2012 they demonstrated that the number of such mutations — variants that appear in the genomes of children but are not inherited from either parent — increases with paternal age and constitute a major source of rare diseases of childhood. A detailed

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These discoveries, tools and observations have been shared with the scientific community in hundreds of scientific publications. Stefansson guides and oversees all research at deCODE and is senior author on its papers, with project and group leaders the first authors and co-authors drawn from the

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From its inception, Stefansson's strategy was controversial. The genomics community was still far from generating a first human genome sequence; he was proposing a data system for mining hundreds of thousands of genomes. Genes linked to rarer syndromes had been identified in isolated families in

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Stefansson conceived deCODE as an industrial-scale enterprise for human genetics. Unlike the prevailing academic model of scientists undertaking discrete projects in their separate labs, he proposed to gather and generate as much genealogical, medical and genomic data as he could from across the

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Stefansson's academic work was focused on neurodegenerative disease. The protein biology approach to this research involved trying to map complex processes using limited samples, mainly of brain tissue from deceased patients. Although publishing steadily, Stefansson was frustrated by the pace of

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Axton also pointed out that notwithstanding deCODE scientists' hundreds of publications elsewhere, 111 papers, or five percent of the papers published during his tenure at the journal over the preceding twelve years, had come out of deCODE. Axton's comments are from his remarks at deCODE's 20th

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Stefansson also oversaw deCODE bringing to market clinical tests for polygenic risk of type 2 diabetes, heart attack, prostate cancer, and atrial fibrillation and stroke. Marketing of these products and deCODEme ceased with the company's financial troubles in 2011, but recent high-profile

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They then showed that older women recombine more than younger women; that higher recombination correlates with higher fertility; and that a large inversion on chromosome 17 is at present under positive evolutionary selection in European populations, with carriers having higher recombination and

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In 2002, deCODE published its first recombination map of the human genome. It was constructed with 5000 microsatellite markers and highlighted 104 corrections to the Human Genome Project's draft assembly of the genome, immediately increasing the accuracy of the draft from 93 to 99%. But from an

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deCODEme and other tests apart from 23andMe are no longer offered, but contemporaneous examples of deCODE discoveries being foundational to personal genome scans examining validated risk for type 2 diabetes and coronary artery disease can be seen in G Palomaki et al., "Use of genomic panels to

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was to develop better methods. In the meantime, one solution was to use genetics – how the genome is mixed and passed from one generation to the next – as a means of deriving more information from the available data. Siblings share half their genomes; but cousins one eighth, second cousins one

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With no response from the health system, Stefansson went ahead and put the matter in the hands of citizens. As of late 2018, some 40,000 people, more than ten percent of the population, had utilized the site to learn their BRCA2 status. Hundreds of people have been able to learn that they are

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In more than a dozen major papers published over nearly twenty years, Stefansson and his colleagues used their holistic view of an entire population to build a novel picture of the human genome as a system for transmitting information. They have provided a detailed view of how the genome uses

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While deCODE comprises the first and most comprehensive national genome project in the world, it has never been government funded. It has always been a business that relies on the voluntary participation of citizens and national health system doctors as partners in scientific discovery. This

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Stefansson and his cardiovascular research team have worked with collaborators around the world to discover common and rare variants associated with risk of atrial fibrillation, coronary artery disease (CAD), stroke, peripheral artery disease, sick sinus syndrome, and aortic and intracranial

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By far the longest, deepest and most productive partnership has been that with Amgen. In 2012, Amgen bought deCODE for $ 415 million. Since then it has operated as a wholly owned but quite independent subsidiary, applying its capabilities across Amgen's drug development pipeline while

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to the understanding of genetic variation influencing a range of other diseases and traits including glaucoma; menarche; essential tremor; tuberculosis susceptibility; height; gene expression; hair, eye and skin pigmentation; aortic valve stenosis; rhinosinusitis; and dozens of others.

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What stirred the most controversy was Stefansson's proposal in 1997 to create a database of copies of medical records data from the national health service to correlate with genealogical and genomic data. Supported by a large majority of the public and members of parliament, the

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One pillar of the success of Stefansson's strategy has been his ability to convince tens of thousands of people to volunteer to take part in deCODE's research, and to connect and analyze their data using the genealogies. An early partnership with local software developer

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progress and often by not knowing whether the proteins he was characterizing were involved in causing disease or the product of the disease process. He and his colleagues came to question even the accepted definition of multiple sclerosis (MS) as an autoimmune disease.

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risk. Stefansson resigned both positions in 1997 after founding deCODE and moving back to Reykjavík. Since 2010, he has held a professorship in medicine at the University of Iceland. He is a board-certified neurologist and neuropathologist in both Iceland and the US.

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studies from Massachusetts General Hospital have revived interest in the medical value polygenic risk testing. These tests are using more markers and new algorithms to build upon the risk variants and approach pioneered in Iceland for these same diseases.

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essentially one disease-linked variant, which was published on the eve of deCODE's operational launch in Iceland: Steinnun Thorlacius et al., "A single BRCA2 mutation in male and female breast cancer families from Iceland with varied cancer phenotypes,"

4106:, Volume 15, pp 600–611, August 2013; Evaluation of Genomic Applications in Practice and Prevention (EGAPP) Working Group, "Recommendations from the EGAPP Working Group: genomic profiling to assess cardiovascular risk to improve cardiovascular health," 371:

As the architect, scientific leader and very public face of deCODE, one of Stefansson's fundamental contributions has been to demonstrate that genomics can be done at national scale, and to provide a realized example of how to do it. By the time

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Ministry of Health that this was a serious public health issue that deCODE's data could address at virtually no cost, and it was but one of the clearest-cut of many such possible precision medicine applications to healthcare in Iceland.

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evolutionary biology perspective it demonstrated in new detail the non-random location of recombinations - the reshuffling of the genome that goes into the making of eggs and sperm - and that women recombine 1.6 times more than men.

4756: 738:, Finland, France, Hong Kong, Japan, Netherlands, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Sweden, and Turkey. Projects funded either largely or partially by pharmaceutical companies to inform drug target discovery include 1706:

Stefansson and Gulcher estimated that by 1999 more than 700 articles and interviews had been published. For this and their view on the benefits of what deCODE was doing: "An Icelandic saga on a centralized healthcare database,"

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On deCODE's early successes and their importance as an example to other biobank projects and the field in general see also Nicholas Wade, "Scientist at Work/Kari Stefansson: Hunting for disease genes in Iceland's genealogies,"

1208: 419:, noted at deCODE's 20th anniversary celebration that this leadership had put deCODE and Iceland "in the forefront of a revolution that has delivered much of what was promised in the mapping of the human genome." 1343:

An authoritative mid-1990s view of the promise of genetics in diagnostics, Min J Khoury and Diane K Wagener, "Epidemiological evaluation of the use of genetics to improve the predictive value of disease risk factors,"

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See Stephen D Moore, "Biotech firm turns island into a giant genetics lab," op. cit. On the advent of "precision medicine" as a term, Luke Timmerman, "What's in a Name? A Lot, When It Comes to 'Precision Medicine',"

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An early description of the discovery model and process by Stefansson and Gulcher when they still planned to build the IHD, in "Population genomics: laying the groundwork for genetic disease modeling and targeting,"

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An influential early – and at that time still largely theoretical – discussion of different possible approaches to common rather than rare diseases is ES Lander and NJ Schork, "Genetic dissection of complex traits,"

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population of Iceland – or any country." And deCODE was a private company that was taking an entire nation as a unit of study, with the unprecedented level of public engagement and participation that would entail.

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launched websites to enable people everywhere to try to use genetics to build out their genealogies. In November 2007, deCODE launched deCODEme, the first personal genomics service, followed the next day by

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Stefansson has worked to turn his company's discoveries into medically useful and commercially successful products. Some were highly innovative and paved the way for new industries and markets. In the years after

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On acquisition and its rationale in broad context, as well as deCODE being left in independent control over its data, see Matt Herper, " With DeCode deal, Amgen aims to discover drugs like we meant to in 1999,"

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His work has been recognized by patient and research organizations such as the American Alzheimer's Society and by major international publications and bodies including Time, Newsweek, Forbes,

192:. He was the second youngest of the five children of Sólveig Halldórsdóttir and Stefán Jónsson, a radio personality, writer and democratic socialist member of parliament. He completed his secondary education at 844:

mixes critical and humorous references to deCODE and Stefansson by creating a vaguely sinister genetics institute based in Reykjavík headed by a scrupulously polite, petite brunette named Karitas. In the

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Volume 26, Issue 12, pp 2364–2376, 15 June 2017; S Gretarsdottir et al., "A Splice Region Variant in LDLR Lowers Non-high Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol and Protects against Coronary Artery Disease,"

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In 2018, most advanced national genome efforts were still aspiring to generate and assemble 100,000 whole genome sequences in one place. See Alex Phillipidis, "10 Countries in the 100K genome club,"

1833:, Volume 31, pp 225–226 and 241–247, respectively, 10 June 2002. On how the map improved the accuracy of the reference sequence see Nicholas Wade, "Human genome sequence has errors, scientists say," 1898:

on the idea of using rapidly developing technologies for generating more data – SNP chips and then sequencing – to power discovery. Lee Silver, "Biology reborn: a genetic science breakthrough,"

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gene that confers substantial protection from coronary artery disease, the leading cause of death in the developed world. This finding is being used in drug discovery and development at

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that about 75% of women with a BRCA2 risk mutation will develop breast cancer before the age of 80. On the poorer prognosis of carriers of BRCA2 variants with prostate cancer, see MR Akhbari

220:. Stefansson says that he owes much to his brother, who suffers from schizophrenia. He initially thought of becoming a writer, and attests to being a voracious reader. His favorite author is 4033:

12 February 2006. Those who do not agree remain vocal even as emulation of the deCODE model proliferates: See for example Emma Jane Kirby, "Iceland's DNA: the world's most precious genes?,"

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Vol. 298, Issue 5596, pp. 1158–1161, 8 November 2002. No one else had comparable genealogies, but Eric Lander was inspired by the scale and data-driven approach in Iceland and founded the

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58(6):1201-9, April 2004. Apart from Mannvernd's, another website in Berkeley, California was devoted to the anthropological implications of deCODE and genetics research in Iceland:

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revived nearly verbatim discussions from a decade earlier about both the value of such tests and the gaps in doctors' and the general public's understanding about what the results mean.

1156: 3765:, Volume 49, pp 1398–1402, 7 August 2017; J Gudmundsson et al., "Two variants on chromosome 17 confer prostate cancer risk, and the one in TCF2 protects against type 2 diabetes," 5053: 1848:

In 1999, Icelandic anthropologist Gisli Palsson already noted the success of the deCODE model: Gisli Palsson and Paul Rabinow, "Iceland: The case of a national genome project,"

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Volume 375, pp 2349-2358 (December 2016); Amit V Khera, "Genome-wide polygenic scores for common diseases identify individuals with risk equivalent to monogenic mutations,"

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Wiki page. A more detailed discussion by a longtime observer, anthropologist Gísli Pálsson, in "The Web of Kin: An Online Genealogical Machine," in Sandra C. Bamford, ed.,

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Stefansson and Gulcher cite polls showing public support for the IHD of 75%, in "An Icelandic saga on a centralized healthcare database and democratic decision making,"

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However, in the mid-1990s the tools for reading the sequence of the genome were primitive. Data was scarce and expensive to generate, and a major early focus of the

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See for example Francesco Cuca et al., "The distribution of DR4 haplotypes in Sardinia suggests a primary association of type I diabetes with DRB1 and DQB1 loci,"

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On the thinking behind the Roche deal, with only a modest dose of the fevered hyperbole and innuendo of the time, see Eliot Marshall, "Iceland's blond ambition,"

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This discovery attracted significant scientific and media attention. See, for example, Matt Herper, "Amgen researchers find gene that reduces heart attack risk,"

4639: 1872: 1419: 4657: 4123: 3374: 2525: 878:. Graphic artist Jón Páll Halldórsson explains that the similarities between his portrayal of the Norse God Odinn and Kári Stefánsson are purely accidental. 4171: 4537: 1398: 1671: 722:

Following on Iceland's success, countries now pursuing or planning national genome projects of varying scale, scope and rationale include the UK (via the

1185: 208:. He was married to Valgerður Ólafsdóttir from 1970 until her death on 11 November 2021. In June 2012, his daughter, Sólveig "Sóla" Káradóttir, married 1656:, in the five years following the passage of the law authorizing the IHD, just over 20,000 people had opted out, or 7% of a 2003 population of 288,000. 3712:, Volume 38, pp 320–323, 15 January 2006; A Helgason et al., "Refining the impact of TCF7L2 gene variants on type 2 diabetes and adaptive evolution," 4297:, identified in families with rare hypercholesterolemia and then developed more broadly for lowering cholesterol and reducing risk of heart disease. 2723:, Volume 18, pp 953–955, 8 June 2015; GW Reginsson et al., "Polygenic risk scores for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder associate with addiction," 1164: 2539: 282:

a foothold in the pathogenesis of disease. In doing so they might point to biologically relevant targets for new drugs and predictive diagnostics.

3990: 4497: 1497:

A good early outline of Stefansson's vision and the business model in Stephen D. Moore, "Biotech firm turns Iceland into a giant genetics lab,"

3652: 3613:, "Genome-wide association study identifies a sequence variant within the DAB2IP gene conferring susceptibility to abdominal aortic aneurysm," 1669:(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008); David Winickoff, "Genome and nation: Iceland's Health Sector Database and its legacy," 3478:

Volume 35, pp 1526–1531, 1 June 2015; A Helgadottir et al., "A Common Variant on Chromosome 9p21 Affects the Risk of Myocardial Infarction,"

719:

put it, "the number of countries now investing millions in similar resources is an astonishing testament to the perspicacity of his vision."

2538:

Stefansson presented an early explanation of the 'broad but rigorous' approach to the definition of phenotypes powered by datamining at the

1808:

A list of deCODE's key publications, on virtually all of which Stefansson is senior author, are listed by year on the company's website at

1735:

J Gulcher, K Kristjansson, H Gudbjartsson, K Stefansson, "Protection of privacy by third-party encryption in genetic research in Iceland,"

1465: 826: 2320: 2513: 1450: 1287:

His particular focus was myelin degeneration in multiple sclerosis. A selection of his publications from this period can be searched on

5048: 4715: 4048:

The breadth of impact of the model and Finnbogadottir quote in Catherine Offord, "Learning from Iceland's Model for Genetic Research,"

1929: 610: 490: 3053:, "Common variants on 1p36 and 1q42 are associated with cutaneous basal cell carcinoma but not with melanoma or pigmentation traits," 2069:, "Large-scale whole-genome sequencing of the Icelandic population" published as part of the "Genomes of Icelanders" special edition, 1544: 51: 4467: 4353: 4187: 4050: 2039: 4900: 2519: 1711:

A partial snapshot of the number, flavor and sources of articles can be seen from an archived view from May 1999 of the website of

755: 4786: 3664: 3600:, "The same sequence variant on 9p21 associates with myocardial infarction, abdominal aortic aneurysm and intracranial aneurysm," 1835: 1402:, Vol. 273, No. 5281, pp 1516–1517, 13 September 1996; Aravinda Chakravarti, "Population genetics: making sense out of sequence," 2116: 176:

model for national genome projects around the world and contributed to the realization of several aspects of precision medicine.

290:

thirty-second, etc. Studying patients linked by extended genealogies should therefore make it possible to more efficiently find

4865: 1534:, Volume 13, pages117–119, 1 May 1996. deCODE now has a website that enables Icelanders to find out if they carry the mutation. 3929:, Volume 40, pp 835–837, 18 May 2008; P Sulem et al., "Genetic determinants of hair, eye and skin pigmentation in Europeans," 2896: 5063: 4439: 2507: 600:

captured a common view: "If Icelanders can contribute to the health of the world, I'm more than proud. I'm grateful."

3747:, "Identification of low-frequency and rare sequence variants associated with elevated or reduced risk of type 2 diabetes," 3471:, "Common Sequence Variants Associated With Coronary Artery Disease Correlate With the Extent of Coronary Atherosclerosis," 3225:, "A population‐based familial aggregation analysis indicates genetic contribution in a majority of renal cell carcinomas," 2786:, "A population-based familial aggregation analysis indicates genetic contribution in a majority of renal cell carcinomas," 1594:, "Mapping of a gene for type 2 diabetes associated with an insulin secretion defect by a genome scan in Finnish families," 437: 3851:

G Sveinbjornsson et al., "HLA class II sequence variants influence tuberculosis risk in populations of European ancestry,"

2942:, "Genome-wide association and replication studies identify four variants associated with prostate cancer susceptibility," 1130: 518:(AD) and protects the elderly from cognitive decline. It has been widely cited and used to inform the development of 257: 4367: 4086: 1719: 1328:

For contemporary views of this potential, MS Guyer and FS Collins, "The Human Genome Project and the future of medicine,"

650:

Yet Stefansson's principal goal has always been to use the genome to inform the development of better drugs. Years before

2505:(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016) and Stefansson addressed the reconstruction of Hans Jonatan's genome in the 2024: 1855: 2579: 1961:

A good early description of how people are asked to participate and how their data is used in research is on pp. 7-9 of

1481: 4625: 4307: 1262: 701: 4643: 3815:

P Sulem et al., "Genome-wide association study identifies sequence variants on 6q21 associated with age at menarche,"

3551:

TE Thorgeirsson et al., "A variant associated with nicotine dependence, lung cancer and peripheral arterial disease,"

2008: 252:, and in 1983 joined the faculty. In 1993 he was appointed professor of neurology, neuropathology and neuroscience at 4912:

A literary critique of these references in Lucy Burke, "Genetics at the Scene of the Crime: DeCODING Tainted Blood,"

4661: 3005:, "Common variants on chromosomes 2q35 and 16q12 confer susceptibility to estrogen receptor–positive breast cancer," 2975:, "Genome-wide associations for benign prostatic hyperplasia reveal a genetic correlation with serum levels of PSA," 2965:, "Insertion of an SVA-E retrotransposon into the CASP8 gene is associated with protection against prostate cancer," 2065:

volume 40, pages 1068–1075, 17 August 2008. The first published sequence imputation dates from 2015: DF Gudbjartsson

4593: 3448:, "Rare SCARB1 mutations associate with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol but not with coronary artery disease," 679:

that enables Icelanders to request the analysis of their sequence data to determine whether they carry a SNP in the

193: 4351:

On lack of response from the government see Andy Coghlan, "Warn people of genetic health risks, says deCODE boss,"

3681:, "Variants with large effects on blood lipids and the role of cholesterol and triglycerides in coronary disease," 3174:, "European genome-wide association study identifies SLC14A1 as a new urinary bladder cancer susceptibility gene," 4995:

Kári in Time's 2007 "list of the 100 men and women whose power, talent or moral example is transforming the world"

2573: 1688:

40, no. 2, pp153-91, Winter 2000; and Jon Merz, "Iceland, Inc?: On the ethics of commercial population genomics",

824:

from a sample of Davíð's hair. He is the model for Hrólfur Zóphanías Magnússon, director of the company CoDex, in

5058: 4387: 4306:

A discussion of progress in this strategy is in Meg Tirrell, "Iceland's genetic goldmine and the man behind it,"

3561: 3538: 3463: 3416: 3279: 2997: 2778: 2672:, "Common variants conferring risk of schizophrenia," Nature, volume 460, pp 744-7, 6 August 2009; Niamh Mullins 2633: 2627: 2548: 2362: 1690: 1068: 859: 3658: 3277:, "A genome-wide study of allelic imbalance in human testicular germ cell tumors using microsatellite markers," 1576: 402: 5019: 4807: 3321:

F Zink et al., "Clonal hematopoiesis, with and without candidate driver mutations, is common in the elderly,"

1899: 1768: 1762:

How Stefansson's population strategy transformed thinking in the field and gene discovery by the mid-2000s in

1346: 1102: 522:

inhibitors as potential treatments. Stefansson and the deCODE team have also discovered variants in the

4730:

ASHG Honors Kári Stefánsson with William Allan Award: Geneticist to Receive Award at ASHG 2017 Annual Meeting

4233: 2088:

anniversary conference, held in Reykjavík on 30 September 2016, available in video on the company website at

567: 346: 307: 4153: 2952:, "A study based on whole-genome sequencing yields a rare variant at 8q24 associated with prostate cancer," 2838:, "A study based on whole-genome sequencing yields a rare variant at 8q24 associated with prostate cancer," 1543:

The resources and their utility for gene discovery is concisely summarized in deCODE's first press release:

264:, he and his colleague Jeffrey Gulcher decided to return to Iceland to perform genetic studies to determine 4851: 4100:

determine risk of developing type 2 diabetes in the general population: a targeted evidence-based review,"

1974:

By 2004, the government and deCODE had effectively stopped all work on the IHD and moved on. On page 10 of

813: 787: 386: 4065: 3491:, "The gene encoding 5-lipoxygenase activating protein confers risk of myocardial infarction and stroke," 3018:, "Common variants on chromosome 5p12 confer susceptibility to estrogen receptor–positive breast cancer," 4801: 4028: 3372:, volume 21, pp 594–600, 8 March 2016. Megan Brooks, "Genes affect smoking behaviour, lung cancer risk," 3184:, "Genome-wide association study yields variants at 20p12.2 that associate with urinary bladder cancer," 2448:

A Helgason et al., " An Icelandic example of the impact of population structure on association studies,"

4901:Þjóð(ar)saga Sjóns: Pólitísk ummyndun á sameiginlegum minningum Íslendinga í sögulegum skáldverkum Sjóns 4742: 4218: 2776:, "Cancer as a Complex Phenotype: Pattern of Cancer Distribution within and beyond the Nuclear Family," 1417:

Nicholas Wade, "SCIENTIST AT WORK/Kari Stefansson; Hunting for Disease Genes In Iceland's Genealogies,"

804: 597: 458:

This map also showed that while women are responsible for most recombination, men generate the bulk of

4928: 3404:, "A frameshift deletion in the sarcomere gene MYL4 causes early-onset familial atrial fibrillation," 2815:, "Genome-wide association study identifies a second prostate cancer susceptibility variant at 8q24," 1712: 1653: 4689: 4275:

A Kamb, S Harper and K Stefansson, "Human genetics as a foundation for innovative drug development,"

1681: 511: 4339: 4124:

deCODE discovers genetic markers that improve the power of PSA testing for detecting Prostate Cancer

3833:

H Stefansson et al., "Variant in the sequence of the LINGO1 gene confers risk of essential tremor,"

1850: 358:

concluded simply that "the Icelandic model is not a good precedent for similar research elsewhere."

4949: 3970:, "A loss-of-function variant in ALOX15 protects against nasal polyps and chronic rhinosinusitis," 3040:, "ASIP and TYR pigmentation variants associate with cutaneous melanoma and basal cell carcinoma," 2894:, "Nonsense mutation in the LGR4 gene is associated with several human diseases and other traits," 1912: 3510:, "A sequence variant in ZFHX3 on 16q22 associates with atrial fibrillation and ischemic stroke," 2757:

A Kong et al., "Selection against variants in the genome associated with educational attainment,"

4122:

An example of deCODE's polygenic risk tests and the others it offered in company press release, "

3340:., "A variant associated with nicotine dependence, lung cancer and peripheral arterial disease," 3323: 3103:, "Common variants on 9q22.33 and 14q13.3 predispose to thyroid cancer in European populations," 2742:, "A sequence variant associating with educational attainment also affects childhood cognition," 2542:

in Barcelona in 2000; it is also discussed in many publications. See for example S Gretarsdottir

1887: 735: 4822: 4084:, 16 November 2007; David P Hamilton, " 23andMe lets you search and share your genome — today," 3450: 3306:, "A variant associated with nicotine dependence, lung cancer and peripheral arterial disease," 5043: 809: 731: 515: 3797:, "Common Sequence Variants in the LOXL1 Gene Confer Susceptibility to Exfoliation Glaucoma," 3366:, "A rare missense mutation in CHRNA4 associates with smoking behavior and its consequences," 2676:, "Reproductive fitness and genetic risk of psychiatric disorders in the general population," 2565:, "A mutation in APP protects against Alzheimer's disease and age-related cognitive decline," 2389:, "mtDNA and the Origin of the Icelanders: Deciphering Signals of Recent Population History," 841: 3988:

The story recounted by Gina Kolata, "Rare mutation kills off gene responsible for diabetes,"

3703:., "Variant of transcription factor 7-like 2 (TCF7L2) gene confers risk of type 2 diabetes," 3662:, 18 May 2016; Ewen Callaway, "Protective gene offers hope for next blockbuster heart drug," 3473: 3406: 3227: 2788: 2725: 1441: 1313:

Gulcher, JR, Vartanian, T, and Stefansson K, "Is Multiple Sclerosis an automimmune disease?"

705: 433: 237: 221: 205: 90: 4203: 4135:

Amit V Khera et al, "Genetic Risk, Adherence to a Healthy Lifestyle, and Coronary Disease,"

2318:, "Characterizing mutagenic effects of recombination through a sequence-level genetic map," 1859: 306:

When Stefansson and Gulcher returned to Boston, their grant proposal was turned down by the

5038: 4410: 3298: 2929:, "Common sequence variants on 2p15 and Xp11.22 confer susceptibility to prostate cancer," 2798: 2571:, 488, pp 96–99, 11 June 2012; Michael Specter, "The good news about Alzheimer's Disease," 1782: 967: 763: 373: 286: 4471: 3920:

P Sulem et al., "Two newly identified genetic determinants of pigmentation in Europeans,"

3456: 3186: 2916:, "A common variant associated with prostate cancer in European and African populations," 2201:, "Fine-scale recombination rate differences between sexes, populations and individuals," 1157:"Ekki merkilegast við hana Sólveigu dóttur mína að hún sé eiginkona sonar George Harrison" 850: 8: 4771: 4080: 3559:, "Localization of a Gene for Peripheral Arterial Occlusive Disease to Chromosome 1p31," 3176: 3116:, "Discovery of common variants associated with low TSH levels and thyroid cancer risk," 3076: 2967: 2884:, "A germline variant in the TP53 polyadenylation signal confers cancer susceptibility," 1393: 780: 759: 697: 614: 590: 291: 241: 5009: 4102: 3781:, "Common variants near CAV1 and CAV2 are associated with primary open-angle glaucoma," 2391: 2381: 2100:

A list of all of deCODE's major publications since 1997 are on the company's website at

1665:

Books and major research articles by bioethicists on these themes include: Mike Fortun,

1586: 1558: 971: 1919:, and extending back to before the arrival of the first inhabitants in the 9th century. 1792: 1045: 1012: 821: 754:

Stefansson has received high honors in biomedical research and genetics, including the

651: 377: 265: 253: 197: 4729: 4394:, "The impact of a BRCA2 mutation on mortality from screen-detected prostate cancer," 4137: 3799: 3480: 3074:, "Germline sequence variants in TGM3 and RGS22 confer risk of basal cell carcinoma," 2598: 2410: 2113: 1448:, among others. A complete list of early investors is in the Icelandic business paper 1377: 1301: 1090: 366: 4709: 4159: 3953: 2977: 2714:, "Polygenic risk scores for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder predict creativity," 1854:

Vol. 15, No. 5, pp. 14-18, 5 October 1999. A 2009 report by genetics ethics watchdog

1107: 1050: 1032: 993: 985: 4144: 3972: 3426: 2577:, 11 July 2012; Ewen Callaway, "Gene mutation defends against Alzheimer's Disease," 2490: 2276: 1499: 4026:

experiment: How a tiny island nation captured the lead in the genomic revolution,"

3161:, "A sequence variant at 4p16.3 confers susceptibility to urinary bladder cancer," 2466:

P Sulem et al., " Identification of a large set of rare complete human knockouts,"

1994: 1975: 1962: 1437: 1040: 1024: 975: 727: 519: 324: 2870:, "Sequence variants at the TERT-CLPTM1L locus associate with many cancer types," 2695:, "CNVs conferring risk of autism or schizophrenia affect cognition in controls," 2360:, "Sequences from first settlers reveal rapid evolution in Icelandic mtDNA pool," 2056:, "Detection of sharing by descent, long-range phasing and haplotype imputation," 1300:

Adam Piore, "Bring us your genes: A Viking scientist's quest to conquer disease,"

4374: 3951:, "Genome-wide analysis yields new loci associating with aortic valve stenosis," 3734:, "A variant in CDKAL1 influences insulin response and risk of type 2 diabetes," 3637: 2379:, "Estimating Scandinavian and Gaelic ancestry in the male settlers of Iceland," 2120: 1895: 1723: 875: 846: 742:(partly led by Mark Daly), Regeneron/Geisinger, and Genomics Medicine Ireland. 709: 622: 475: 444: 217: 213: 168: 3578:, "A rare variant in MYH6 is associated with high risk of sick sinus syndrome," 3129:, "A genome-wide association study yields five novel thyroid cancer risk loci," 1404: 1361: 853:, Stefansson (who is 6'5" and with gray hair) plays himself, adding a moment of 746:

and healthcare data from Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Estonia.

426: 4323: 4108: 3148:, "Sequence variant on 8q24 confers susceptibility to urinary bladder cancer," 2828:, "Sequence variant on 8q24 confers susceptibility to urinary bladder cancer," 1716: 1359:

FS Collins et al., " New Goals for the U.S. Human Genome Project: 1998 –2003,"

895: 857:

but losing the satirical irony of his namesake. He was also in the documentary

791: 716: 398: 249: 209: 22: 4837: 3904: 3885: 3536:, "Localization of a Susceptibility Gene for Common Forms of Stroke to 5q12," 3393: 3342: 3308: 3131: 2697: 2678: 2665: 2652: 2567: 2546:, "Localization of a susceptibility gene for common forms of stroke to 5q12," 2251: 2228: 1989: 1645: 1545:"Icelandic Genomics Company Identifies Location of Gene for Essential Tremor," 1517: 1330: 1315: 467:

mutations was published in 2017, and a subsequent paper demonstrated how

233: 5032: 4396: 4035: 3931: 3635:, "Variant ASGR1 Associated with a Reduced Risk of Coronary Artery Disease," 3424:, "Coding variants in RPL3L and MYZAP increase risk of atrial fibrillation," 3237: 3086: 2853: 1527: 1445: 1036: 989: 864: 566:

aneurysm. Among their noteworthy recent discoveries is a rare variant in the

4963:

Halldórsson, Jón Páll; Bjarnar, Jakob; Björnsdottir, Birta (12 April 2020).

4675: 4007:, " Loss-of-function mutations in SLC30A8 protect against type 2 diabetes," 3523:, "The gene encoding phosphodiesterase 4D confers risk of ischemic stroke," 2744: 1596: 1515:

Gulcher, J, Helgason A, Stefansson, K, "Genetic homogeneity of Icelanders,"

1266: 4277: 4151:, Volume 50, pp 1219–1224, 13 August 2018. Coverage of these papers in the 3368: 3353:, "Sequence variants at CHRNB3–CHRNA6 and CYP2A6 affect smoking behavior," 2606:, "Loss-of-function variants in ABCA7 confer risk of Alzheimer's disease," 2498: 2408:., "Ancient genomes from Iceland reveal the making of a human population," 1787: 1676: 1203: 1054: 997: 772: 626: 540: 486: 355: 4914: 4551: 4009: 3853: 3758: 3749: 3683: 3257: 3118: 3064:, "New common variants affecting susceptibility to basal cell carcinoma," 2954: 2840: 2759: 2716: 2608: 2468: 2339: 2298: 2071: 1737: 1028: 794:, one of the oldest and most prestigious medical institutions in Denmark. 463:

analysis of the different types and distribution of maternal and paternal

323:

for research; and most uniquely, comprehensive national genealogies.

185: 75: 4597: 3922: 3875: 3835: 3817: 3783: 3736: 3714: 3705: 3615: 3580: 3525: 3512: 3493: 3355: 3205: 3163: 3150: 3105: 3066: 3055: 3042: 3020: 3007: 2944: 2918: 2886: 2872: 2830: 2817: 2449: 2181: 2159: 2137: 2058: 1826: 1667:

Promising genomics: Iceland and deCODE genetics in a World of speculation

164: 3602: 3420:, Volume 70, Issue 17, pp 2157-2168, 24 October 2017; RB Thorolfsdottir 3391:, "Variants conferring risk of atrial fibrillation on chromosome 4q25," 2931: 1241: 533: 3656:, 18 May 2016; Antonio Regalado, "Amgen finds anti-heart attack gene," 2430:, "An association between the kinship and fertility of human couples," 2101: 2052:

A pioneering early methodology for phasing and imputation is in A Kong

1809: 1763: 1695: 899: 723: 618: 26: 4494:"Finnish Genomes Empowering Personalised and Predictive Health | FIMM" 4342:

on the opening of the website Arfgerd.is (Icelandic only), 15 May 2018

3873:, "Many sequence variants affecting diversity of adult human height," 3487:, Vol. 316, Issue 5830, pp 1491-1493, 8 June 2007; A Helgadottir 3414:, "A Missense Variant in PLEC Increases Risk of Atrial Fibrillation," 3235:, "A common variant at 8q24.21 is associated with renal cell cancer," 2851:, "A common variant at 8q24.21 is associated with renal cell cancer," 2596:, "Variant of TREM2 associated with the risk of Alzheimer's disease," 1631:

Gulcher and Stefansson, "Population genomics: laying the groundwork,"

1072: 591:

Public-private collaboration and the development of precision medicine

406:

single encrypted, minable dataset of more than 300,000 whole genomes.

4964: 3410:, Volume 38, Issue 1, Pages 27–34, 1 January 2017; RB Thorolfsdottir 1865:, 342:1830-1833, 15 June 2000; David Winickoff, "Genome and nation," 1219: 734:

as well as the Million Veteran Program), Australia, Canada, Dubai,

447:

to promote and generate its own diversity but within certain bounds.

397:

At each successive stage of technology for reading the genome – from

245: 4511: 3255:, "Loss-of-function variants in ATM confer risk of gastric cancer," 2501:

is the subject of a book by Icelandic anthropologist Gisli Palsson,

2488:, "Reconstructing an African haploid genome from the 18th century," 980: 955: 691: 4425: 3180:, Volume 20, Issue 21, ppages 4268–428, 11 November 2011; T Rafnar 2995:, "The BARD1 Cys557Ser Variant and Breast Cancer Risk in Iceland," 2089: 836: 485:

In 2018, deCODE used its capabilities to reconstruct the genome of

367:

The feasibility of population genetics and national genome projects

201: 4409:

M Daly, "2017 William Allan Award Introduction: Kári Stefansson,"

3302:, Volume 292(24), pp 2977-2983, 22 December 2004; TE Thorgeirsson 2650:, "Large recurrent microdeletions associated with schizophrenia," 1885:

Jocelyn Kaiser, "Population databases boom from Iceland to U.S.,"

1679:, "Iceland's plan for genomics research: Facts and implications," 870:

Contrary to popular belief, Kári Stefánsson was not the model for

4611: 4263: 3296:, "Familial Risk of Lung Carcinoma in the Icelandic Population," 2796:, "Familial risk of lung carcinoma in the Icelandic population," 2022:

Anna Azvolinsky, "Master Decoder: A Profile of Kári Stefánsson,"

1189: 903: 739: 635: 603: 189: 172: 167:

and founder and CEO of Reykjavík-based biopharmaceutical company

79: 30: 4538:"Hong Kong DNA project to sequence tens of thousands of genomes" 1753:

Henry T Greely, "Iceland's plan for genomics research," op. cit.

1463:

Announcement of deCODE starting operations on the front page of

1433: 831: 4453: 2296:, "The rate of meiotic gene conversion varies by sex and age," 2227:

mutations and the importance of father's age to disease risk,"

1993:, volume 9, page 1099, 1 September 2003; participation rate in 1580:, Volume 43, Issue 4, pp 301-308, August 1995, ; EM Petty 631: 261: 4962: 4903:' (unpublished MA thesis, University of Iceland, 2018), p. 67. 4866:"Icelandic pioneer in genetic research wins prestigious award" 4579: 3806:, Volume 317, Issue 5843, pp 1397-1400, 7 September 2007 1945:

Details of how the privacy protection system works in Gulcher

1726:

created by Dr Skúli Sigurðsson, a leading member of Mannvernd.

1715:, the Icelandic organization formed to oppose the IHD, and in 4626:"UNIST Partakes in the Launch of the "Genome Korea in Ulsan"" 4294: 2847:, Volume 44, pages 1326–1329, 28 October 2012; J Gudmundsson 2135:, "A high resolution recombination map of the human genome," 1915:, the world's first complete national census and now part of 1824:, "A high resolution recombination map of the human genome," 1603:, Volume 14, pp 90–94, 1 September 1996; Steinnun Thorlacius 1396:, "The future of genetic studies of complex human diseases," 871: 680: 676: 571: 527: 523: 496: 427:

The generation of human diversity and mechanisms of evolution

337: 328: 3883:, "Epigenetic and genetic components of height regulation," 3532:, Volume 35, pp 131–138, 21 September 2003; S Gretarsdottir 3080:, Volume 23, Issue 11, pp 3045–3053, 1 June 2014; SN Stacey 1654:

archived snapshot of Mannvernd's website from September 2003

4933: 4321:

Quoted in Asher Mullard, "An audience with...Sean Harper,"

4266:

prominently features many deCODE publications and projects.

3902:, "Genetics of gene expression and its effect on disease," 3743:, Volume 39, pp 770–775, 26 April 2007; V Steinthorsdottir 3203:, "Mutations in BRIP1 confer high risk of ovarian cancer," 1911:

This database is overwhelmingly complete going back to the

577: 514:

gene was discovered in 2012 that protects carriers against

4693: 4565: 802:

Stefansson is the model for professor Lárus Jóhannsson in

730:

and the Scottish Genomes Partnership separately); the US (

147: 4989: 4063:

David P Hamilton, "Genetic genealogy hits the big time,"

3793:

Volume 42, pp 906–909, 12 September 2010; G Thorleifsson

3609:, Volume 40, pp 217–224, 6 January 2008; S Gretarsdottir 3190:, Volume 23, Issue 20, ppages 5545–5557, 15 October 2014. 2961:, Volume 44, pages 1326–1329, 28 October 2012; SN Stacey 1013:"National human genome projects: an update and an agenda" 3400:, Volume 448, pp 353–357, 19 July 2007; DF Gudbjartsson 3362:, volume 42, pp 448–453, 25 April 2010; TE Thorgeirsson 2659:, volume 455, pp 232-6, 11 September 2008; H Stefansson 4676:"Regeneron Genetics Center (RGC): Human DNA Sequencing" 4366:

Statistics in: Nordic Alliance for Clinical Genomics, "

3879:, Volume 40, pp 609–615, 6 April 2008; S Benonisdottir 3157:

volume 40, pp 1307–1312, 14 September 2008; L Kiemeney

2890:, 43(11):1098-103, 25 September 2011; U Styrkarsdottir 2540:

European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) conference

2006:

James Butcher, "Kari Stefansson, general of genetics,"

1934:

Kinship and Beyond: The Genealogical Model Reconsidered

5054:

Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences

3349:, vol 452, pp 638–6423, 3 April 2008; TE Thorgeirsson 3125:

volume 44, pp 319–322, 22 January 2012; J Gudmundsson

3112:

volume 41, pp 460–464, 6 February 2009; J Gudmundsson

2637:, Volume 83, Issues 3–4, pp 122-131, 30 September 2010 2625:, "Neuregulin 1 and susceptibility to schizophrenia," 1382:

Vol. 265, Issue 5181, pp. 2037–2048, 30 September 1994

786:

In 2019, he was elected a foreign associate of the US

4915:

Journal of Literary & Cultural Disability Studies

3519:

volume 41, pp 876–878, 13 July 2009; S Gretarsdottir

2179:, "A common inversion under selection in Europeans," 1949:, "Protection of privacy by third-party encryption," 1619:

Stephen D. Moore, "Biotech firm turns Iceland into,"

934: 534:

Schizophrenia, other psychiatric disorders, cognition

336:

Sardinia, Newfoundland, Finland and elsewhere, and a

313: 4552:"Initiative on Rare and Undiagnosed Diseases (IRUD)" 4078:

Nicholas Wade, "Company offers genome assessments,"

3060:

Volume 40, pp 1313–1318, 12 October 2008; SN Stacey

2439:, Vol. 319, Issue 5864, pp. 813-816, 8 February 2008 2337:, "The Y chromosome point mutation rate in humans," 1766:, "Biology reborn: A genetic science breakthrough," 4728:

American Society of Human Genetics press release, "

2834:, 40(11):1307-12, 14 September 2008; J Gudmundsson 2824:, Volume 39, pp 631–637, 1 April 2007; LA Kiemeney 2114:

https://hcr.clarivate.com/resources/archived-lists/

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http://timarit.is/view_page_init.jsp?pageId=1729310

874:in Vargold, a series of graphic novels inspired by 863:where he engaged in controversial debate with late 4965:"Óðinn alvitri og Kári Stefáns renna saman í eitt" 3889:, Volume 7, Article number 13490, 16 November 2016 3474:Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology 3299:Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) 3084:, "New basal cell carcinoma susceptibility loci," 2948:, 41(10):1122-6, 20 September 2009; J Gudmundsson 2799:Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) 2729:, volume 23, issue 1, pp 485-492, 25 February 2017 2417:, Vol. 360, Issue 6392, pp. 1028-1032, 1 June 2018 779:He has also received Iceland's highest honor, the 4947: 4293:The best known example of this the inhibitors of 4231:Emily Singer, "DeCODE ditches drug development," 3242:volume 4, Article number: 2776, 13 November 2013. 3170:, volume 42, pp 415–419, 28 March 2010; T Rafnar 2324:, Vol. 363, Issue 6425, eaau1043, 25 January 2019 1590:, 54(6): 1060–1066, June 1994; Melanie M Mahtani 1131:"Sólveig Káradóttir að skilja við Dhani Harrison" 906:; in Iceland he is referred to by the given name 692:The Iceland population approach as a global model 670: 292:the inherited component of any phenotype or trait 256:and division chief of neuropathology at Boston's 5030: 3135:volume 8, article number 14517, 14 February 2017 3070:, Volume 41, pp 909–914, 5 July 2009; SN Stacey 3049:, Volume 40, pp 886–891, 18 May 2008; SN Stacey 3014:, volume 39, pp 865–869, 27 May 2007; SN Stacey 2385:, 67(3): 697–717, 7 August 2000; and A Helgason 2157:, "Reproduction rate and reproductive success," 1672:Innovations: Technology Governance Globalization 790:, and received the International KFJ Award from 2938:, 40(3):281-3, 10 February 2008; J Gudmundsson 2857:, Vol 4, Article number: 2776, 13 November 2013 2760:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1556:Quoted in Michael Specter, "Decoding Iceland," 910:, but internationally he may be referred to as 409: 33:; this person is referred to by the given name 4854:. National Academy of Sciences. 30 April 2019. 3283:, Volume 164, Issue 1, pp 1-91, 1 January 2006 2682:, Volume 8, Article number 15833, 13 June 2017 2602:, 368(2):107-16, 10 January 2013; S Steinberg 1976:deCODE's 2003 annual report filed with the SEC 1186:"What if You Knew When You Were Going to Die?" 604:Personal genomics and disease risk diagnostics 471:mutations in parents can be passed on. 240:to work under Barry Arnason (coincidentally a 4784:Bob Langreth, "Medical marvels: The E-gang," 4743:"Icelander receives the William Allan Award," 3417:Journal of the American College of Cardiology 2971:, 25(5):1008-18, 1 March 2016; J Gudmundsson 1936:(New York: Berghahn Books, 2009), pp. 84–110. 1263:"2019 Human Genome Meeting speaker biography" 530:genes that increase risk of AD. 4594:"Public Portal - Saudi Human Genome Program" 4400:, Volume 111, pp 1238–1240, 9 September 2014 3957:, Volume 9, Article number 987, 7 March 2018 3565:, Volume 70, Issue 3, pp 586-592, March 2002 3542:, Volume 70, Issue 3, pp 593-603, March 2002 3090:volume 6, Article number 6825, 9 April 2015. 2982:Vol 9, Article number: 4568, 8 November 2018 2782:, 1(3):e65, 28 December 2004; T Gudmundsson 2552:, Volume 70, Issue 3, pp 593-603, March 2002 2305:, volume 48, pp 1377–1384, 19 September 2016 776: and the World Economic Forum. 327:, who had used family pedigrees to identify 2257:, volume 549, pp 519–522, 28 September 2017 2210:, volume 467, pp 1099–1103, 28 October 2010 2188:, volume 37, pages 129–137, 16 January 2005 2112:Recent lists of highly cited scientists at 1987:Helen Pearson, "Profile: Kari Stefansson," 361: 272: 4415:, Volume 102, Issue 3, p 350, 1 March 2018 3938:, Volume 39, pp 1443–1452, 12 October 2007 2925:, 38(6):652-8, 27 May 2006; J Gudmundsson 2880:, 41(2):221-7, 18 January 2009; SN Stacey 2457:, Volume 37, pages 90–95, 19 December 2004 2283:, Volume 50, pp 1674-1680, 5 November 2018 1482:Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine 820:, in which he creates a female version of 539:early 2000s mapped the involvement of the 497:The genetics of common diseases and traits 50: 3431:Volume 1, Article number 68, 12 June 2018 3212:, volume 43, pp 1104–1107, 2 October 2011 2497:, volume 50, pp199–205, 15 January 2018. 2475:, Volume 47, pages 448–452, 25 March 2015 2166:, volume 36, pp 1203–1206, 3 October 2004 1071:. Imperial College London. Archived from 1044: 979: 941:Short biographies of Icelandic physicians 560: 3979:, Volume 51, pp 267–276, 14 January 2019 3860:, Volume 48, pp 318–322, 1 February 2016 3842:, Volume 41, pp 277–279, 1 February 2009 3497:, Volume 36, pp 233–239, 8 February 2004 3264:, volume 47, pages 906–910, 22 June 2015 2792:, 100(4):476-9, 13 June 2002; S Jonsson 2701:, volume 505, pp 361-6, 18 December 2013 2250:mutations in 1,548 trios from Iceland," 2246:, "Parental influence on human germline 2233:, volume 488, pp 471–475, 23 August 2012 1820:JL Weber, "The Iceland Map," and A Kong 1365:, Vol. 282, pp. 682-689, 23 October 1998 1331:American Journal of Diseases of Children 756:Anders Jahres Award for Medical Research 613:put Icelanders' genealogies online, the 578:Diabetes and other traits and conditions 4929:"Bobby Fischer Against the World, IMDB" 4658:"TÜRKİYE SAĞLIK ENSTİTÜLERİ BAŞKANLIĞI" 3911:, Volume 452, pp 423–428, 27 March 2008 3721:, Volume 39, pp 218–225, 7 January 2007 3641:, Volume 374, pp 2131-2141, 2 June 2016 3327:, Volume 130, pp 742-752, February 2002 3027:, Volume 40, pp 703–706, 27 April 2008. 1744:, volume 8, pp. 739–742, 3 October 2000 1547:25 August 1997, on the company website. 5031: 4741:Press release, University of Iceland, 4714:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 3312:, volume 452, pp 638–642, 3 April 2008 2347:, volume 47, pp 453–457, 25 March 2015 505: 4612:"Genome Institute of Singapore (GIS)" 4016:, Volume 46, pp 357–363, 2 March 2014 3622:, Volume 42, pp 692–697, 11 July 2010 3587:, Volume 43, pp 316–320, 6 March 2011 2144:, Volume 31, pp 241–247, 10 June 2002 474:A third source of genomic diversity, 294:, even using low-resolution markers. 244:). There he completed residencies in 124: 3824:, Volume 41, pp 734–738, 17 May 2009 3690:volume 48, pages 634–639, 2 May 2016 2763:, 114 (5) E727-E732, 17 January 2017 2102:https://www.decode.com/publications/ 1810:https://www.decode.com/publications/ 1696:http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/iceland/ 1085:Obituary notice for Stefán Jónsson, 953: 749: 184:Kari Stefansson was born in 1949 in 163:(born 6 April 1949) is an Icelandic 4388:National Cancer Institute estimates 4284:, Vol 31, pp 975–978, November 2013 4113:Volume 12, pp 839-43, December 2010 2802:, 292(24):2977-83, 22 December 2004 1242:"Staff page, University of Iceland" 935:Gunnlaugur Haraldsson, ed. (2000). 13: 4412:American Journal of Human Genetics 3562:American Journal of Human Genetics 3539:American Journal of Human Genetics 2628:American Journal of Human Genetics 2549:American Journal of Human Genetics 2395:, 66(3):999-1016, 23 February 2000 2392:American Journal of Human Genetics 2382:American Journal of Human Genetics 1917:UNESCO's registered world heritage 1738:European Journal of Human Genetics 1587:American Journal of Human Genetics 1347:American Journal of Human Genetics 1010: 797: 702:American Society of Human Genetics 314:deCODE and the population approach 297: 227: 14: 5075: 5049:20th-century Icelandic scientists 4983: 4948:Phil Dyess-Nugent (6 June 2011). 4918:, Volume 6, Number 2, pp. 193-208 4769:"Einsteins of the 21st century," 4754:"The Time 100: Kari Stefansson," 4368:NACG 6th Clinical workshop report 2903:, Vol 497, pp 517–520, 5 May 2013 1334:, 147(11):1145-52 (November 1993) 1220:"Company website management page" 1089:, 18 September 1990, accessed at 1011:An, Joon Yong (16 October 2017). 645: 16:Icelandic neurologist (born 1949) 5002: 4956: 4941: 4921: 4906: 4893: 4884: 4858: 4844: 4829: 4814: 4793: 4778: 4763: 4748: 4735: 4722: 4682: 4668: 4650: 4632: 4618: 4604: 4586: 4572: 4558: 4544: 4530: 4504: 4486: 4460: 4446: 4432: 4418: 4403: 4380: 4360: 4345: 4333: 4330:, Vol 17, pp 10-11, January 2018 4315: 4300: 4287: 4269: 4256: 4240: 4225: 4210: 4194: 4178: 4129: 4116: 4093: 4072: 4057: 4042: 4019: 3997: 3982: 3960: 3941: 3914: 3892: 3863: 3845: 3827: 3809: 3771: 3724: 3693: 3671: 3644: 3625: 3590: 3568: 3545: 3500: 3467:, 1 September 2015; E Bjornsson 3434: 3280:Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics 2748:, volume 6, article number 36189 2090:https://www.decode.com/20-years/ 1995:deCODE's annual report from 2002 1163:. 23 August 2015. Archived from 1137:(in Icelandic). 22 November 2016 1111:(in Icelandic). 12 November 2021 232:Following his internship at the 4580:"Home | Qatar Genome Programme" 4426:"Million Veteran Program (MVP)" 4138:New England Journal of Medicine 3638:New England Journal of Medicine 3381: 3330: 3315: 3286: 3267: 3245: 3228:International Journal of Cancer 3215: 3193: 3138: 3093: 3030: 2985: 2906: 2860: 2805: 2789:International Journal of Cancer 2766: 2751: 2732: 2704: 2685: 2640: 2615: 2599:New England Journal of Medicine 2586: 2555: 2532: 2478: 2460: 2442: 2420: 2398: 2369: 2350: 2327: 2308: 2286: 2260: 2236: 2213: 2191: 2169: 2147: 2125: 2106: 2094: 2081: 2046: 2031: 2016: 2000: 1981: 1968: 1955: 1939: 1922: 1905: 1879: 1860:New England Journal of Medicine 1842: 1814: 1802: 1775: 1756: 1747: 1729: 1700: 1659: 1637: 1625: 1613: 1568: 1550: 1537: 1509: 1491: 1472: 1457: 1426: 1411: 1408:21, pages 56–60, 1 January 1999 1385: 1368: 1353: 1337: 1322: 1307: 1294: 1281: 1255: 1234: 1212: 1195: 1179: 1103:"Andlát: Valgerður Ólafsdóttir" 954:Marx, Vivien (27 August 2015). 860:Bobby Fischer Against the World 818:Jón Ásgeir & afmælisveislan 696:Introducing Stefansson for the 120: 3231:, 13 June 2002; J Gudmundsson 2078:, 47, pp. 435–444, 25 May 2015 1717:a highly detailed bibliography 1149: 1123: 1095: 1079: 1069:"Biographies of Delegates S-Y" 1061: 1004: 947: 928: 888: 671:Public health: BRCA2 screening 123: 1970; died 1: 4324:Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 4204:Chemical and Engineering News 2270:, "Multiple transmissions of 1691:Social Science & Medicine 1675:1(2):80-105, February 2006"; 1607:, "A single BRCA2 mutation," 943:]. Þjóðsaga. p. 963. 921: 812:and the principal villain of 347:Act on Health Sector Database 242:Canadian of Icelandic descent 5064:University of Iceland alumni 2612:, 47(5):445-7, 25 March 2015 1350:, 56:835-844, 5 January 1995 788:National Academy of Sciences 410:Discoveries and publications 234:National Hospital of Iceland 179: 7: 4566:"Genome of The Netherlands" 1963:deCODE's 2002 annual report 1928:Usage numbers cited on the 675:In 2018, deCODE launched a 10: 5080: 3001:, 20 June 2006; SN Stacey 1799:, both on 15 February 2001 1488:36(8):523-7, 1 August 1998 708:, then co-director of the 20: 4397:British Journal of Cancer 2745:Nature Scientific Reports 2503:The Man Who Stole Himself 1997:filed with the SEC, p. 8. 547: 142: 134: 104: 96: 86: 58: 49: 42: 4990:deCODE Genetics Web Site 4899:Einar Kári Jóhannsson, ' 4820:See archived edition of 4805:, 12 June 2000, also at 4377:," 21 November 2018, p.9 3457:Human Molecular Genetics 3187:Human Molecular Genetics 3177:Human Molecular Genetics 3077:Human Molecular Genetics 2968:Human Molecular Genetics 2274:mutations in families," 1913:Icelandic census of 1703 1454:from 1 March 1998, p. 37 1438:Polaris Venture Partners 881: 362:Scientific contributions 273:From biology to genetics 194:Reykjavik Junior College 4328:(subscription required) 4282:(subscription required) 4149:(subscription required) 4014:(subscription required) 3977:(subscription required) 3936:(subscription required) 3927:(subscription required) 3909:(subscription required) 3858:(subscription required) 3840:(subscription required) 3822:(subscription required) 3804:(subscription required) 3788:(subscription required) 3763:(subscription required) 3754:(subscription required) 3741:(subscription required) 3719:(subscription required) 3710:(subscription required) 3688:(subscription required) 3620:(subscription required) 3607:(subscription required) 3585:(subscription required) 3530:(subscription required) 3517:(subscription required) 3485:(subscription required) 3398:(subscription required) 3360:(subscription required) 3347:(subscription required) 3262:(subscription required) 3210:(subscription required) 3168:(subscription required) 3155:(subscription required) 3123:(subscription required) 3110:(subscription required) 3047:(subscription required) 3025:(subscription required) 3012:(subscription required) 2959:(subscription required) 2936:(subscription required) 2923:(subscription required) 2901:(subscription required) 2878:(subscription required) 2845:(subscription required) 2822:(subscription required) 2721:(subscription required) 2670:(subscription required) 2657:(subscription required) 2634:Brain Research Bulletin 2495:(subscription required) 2473:(subscription required) 2455:(subscription required) 2437:(subscription required) 2415:(subscription required) 2345:(subscription required) 2303:(subscription required) 2281:(subscription required) 2255:(subscription required) 2208:(subscription required) 2186:(subscription required) 2164:(subscription required) 2142:(subscription required) 2076:(subscription required) 2063:(subscription required) 1892:(subscription required) 1863:(subscription required) 1831:(subscription required) 1785:draft was published in 1742:(subscription required) 1686:(subscription required) 1650:(subscription required) 1601:(subscription required) 1563:(subscription required) 1532:(subscription required) 1522:(subscription required) 1504:(subscription required) 1486:(subscription required) 1201:Executive Profile from 1017:Epidemiology and Health 816:'s satirical 2007 book 5059:Icelandic neurologists 4870:Rigshospitalet website 4826:, 26 January 2000, p 2 3451:European Heart Journal 3440:See notes 101 and 102 3427:Communications Biology 3407:European Heart Journal 561:Cardiovascular disease 4890:Reykjavík: JPV, 2016. 4340:Company press release 4234:MIT Technology Review 4172:MIT Technology Review 3954:Nature Communications 3886:Nature Communications 3659:MIT Technology Review 3238:Nature Communications 3132:Nature Communications 3087:Nature Communications 2978:Nature Communications 2854:Nature Communications 2679:Nature Communications 2119:20 April 2019 at the 1442:ARCH Venture Partners 1434:Alta Venture Partners 1316:Clinical Neuroscience 1029:10.4178/epih.e2017045 956:"The DNA of a nation" 598:Vigdis Finnbogadottir 238:University of Chicago 222:Isaac Bashevis Singer 206:University of Iceland 110:Valgerður Ólafsdóttir 91:University of Iceland 4278:Nature Biotechnology 4262:The science page of 4109:Genetics in Medicine 4103:Genetics in Medicine 3369:Molecular Psychiatry 1783:Human Genome Project 1646:Nature Biotechnology 1319:2(3-4):246-52 (1994) 1167:on 23 September 2019 834:. In his 2002 novel 700:lecture at the 2017 374:Human Genome Project 287:Human Genome Project 258:Beth Israel Hospital 4950:"AV/TV Club Review" 4852:"2019 NAS Election" 4799:"Stars of Europe," 4373:10 May 2019 at the 4126:," 15 December 2010 3730:V Steinthorsdottir 3444:and: A Helgadottir 2717:Nature Neuroscience 2404:SS Ebenesersdottir 1965:filed with the SEC. 1500:Wall Street Journal 1394:Kathleen Merikangas 1075:on 21 October 2004. 972:2015Natur.524..503M 898:. The last name is 842:Arnaldur Indriðason 805:Dauðans óvissi tími 781:Order of the Falcon 760:William Allan Award 704:annual conference, 698:William Allan Award 617:and companies like 615:Genographic Project 516:Alzheimer's disease 506:Alzheimer's disease 100:Population genetics 25:. The last name is 4540:. 16 January 2019. 4442:. 30 October 2018. 4253:, 10 December 2012 4090:, 17 November 2007 1851:Anthropology Today 1722:7 May 2019 at the 814:Óttar M. Norðfjörð 652:precision medicine 332:modern medicine." 266:multiple sclerosis 254:Harvard University 212:, son of the late 4872:. 8 November 2019 4790:, 9 February 2002 4454:"Genome Canada |" 4237:, 22 January 2010 4207:, 8 December 2003 4191:, 4 February 2013 4069:, 17 October 2007 2726:Addiction Biology 2366:, 16 January 2009 1772:, 9 October 2007. 1565:, 18 January 1999 1222:. 6 February 2013 966:(7566): 503–505. 851:Baltasar Kormákur 847:2006 film version 810:Þráinn Bertelsson 750:Awards and honors 510:A variant in the 236:, he went to the 204:in 1986 from the 196:and received his 158: 157: 5071: 5006: 5005: 4977: 4976: 4974: 4972: 4960: 4954: 4953: 4945: 4939: 4938: 4925: 4919: 4910: 4904: 4897: 4891: 4888: 4882: 4881: 4879: 4877: 4862: 4856: 4855: 4848: 4842: 4841:, 3 January 2002 4833: 4827: 4818: 4812: 4797: 4791: 4782: 4776: 4775:, 9 October 2007 4767: 4761: 4752: 4746: 4739: 4733: 4732:," 12 July 2017. 4726: 4720: 4719: 4713: 4705: 4703: 4701: 4692:. Archived from 4686: 4680: 4679: 4672: 4666: 4665: 4660:. Archived from 4654: 4648: 4647: 4642:. Archived from 4636: 4630: 4629: 4622: 4616: 4615: 4608: 4602: 4601: 4596:. Archived from 4590: 4584: 4583: 4576: 4570: 4569: 4562: 4556: 4555: 4548: 4542: 4541: 4534: 4528: 4527: 4525: 4523: 4516:France Génomique 4508: 4502: 4501: 4496:. Archived from 4490: 4484: 4483: 4481: 4479: 4470:. Archived from 4468:"Dubai Genomics" 4464: 4458: 4457: 4450: 4444: 4443: 4436: 4430: 4429: 4428:. 29 April 2022. 4422: 4416: 4407: 4401: 4384: 4378: 4364: 4358: 4349: 4343: 4337: 4331: 4329: 4319: 4313: 4304: 4298: 4291: 4285: 4283: 4273: 4267: 4260: 4254: 4244: 4238: 4229: 4223: 4214: 4208: 4201:drug response," 4198: 4192: 4182: 4176: 4150: 4133: 4127: 4120: 4114: 4097: 4091: 4076: 4070: 4061: 4055: 4046: 4040: 4023: 4017: 4015: 4001: 3995: 3986: 3980: 3978: 3966:RP Kristjansson 3964: 3958: 3945: 3939: 3937: 3928: 3918: 3912: 3910: 3896: 3890: 3869:DF Gudbjartsson 3867: 3861: 3859: 3849: 3843: 3841: 3831: 3825: 3823: 3813: 3807: 3805: 3789: 3775: 3769: 3764: 3755: 3742: 3728: 3722: 3720: 3711: 3697: 3691: 3689: 3675: 3669: 3648: 3642: 3629: 3623: 3621: 3608: 3594: 3588: 3586: 3572: 3566: 3555:; G Gudmundsson 3549: 3543: 3531: 3518: 3506:DF Gudbjartsson 3504: 3498: 3486: 3438: 3432: 3399: 3387:DF Gudbjartsson 3385: 3379: 3361: 3348: 3336:TE Thorgeirsson 3334: 3328: 3319: 3313: 3290: 3284: 3273:JT Bergthorsson 3271: 3265: 3263: 3249: 3243: 3219: 3213: 3211: 3197: 3191: 3169: 3156: 3142: 3136: 3124: 3111: 3097: 3091: 3048: 3036:DF Gudbjartsson 3034: 3028: 3026: 3013: 2989: 2983: 2960: 2937: 2924: 2912:LT Amundadottir 2910: 2904: 2902: 2879: 2864: 2858: 2846: 2823: 2809: 2803: 2772:LT Amundadottir 2770: 2764: 2755: 2749: 2736: 2730: 2722: 2708: 2702: 2689: 2683: 2671: 2658: 2644: 2638: 2619: 2613: 2590: 2584: 2559: 2553: 2536: 2530: 2496: 2482: 2476: 2474: 2464: 2458: 2456: 2446: 2440: 2438: 2424: 2418: 2416: 2402: 2396: 2373: 2367: 2354: 2348: 2346: 2331: 2325: 2312: 2306: 2304: 2290: 2284: 2282: 2264: 2258: 2256: 2240: 2234: 2217: 2211: 2209: 2195: 2189: 2187: 2173: 2167: 2165: 2151: 2145: 2143: 2129: 2123: 2110: 2104: 2098: 2092: 2085: 2079: 2077: 2064: 2050: 2044: 2043:, 30 August 2018 2035: 2029: 2020: 2014: 2004: 1998: 1985: 1979: 1972: 1966: 1959: 1953: 1943: 1937: 1926: 1920: 1909: 1903: 1902:, 9 October 2007 1893: 1883: 1877: 1864: 1846: 1840: 1832: 1818: 1812: 1806: 1800: 1779: 1773: 1760: 1754: 1751: 1745: 1743: 1733: 1727: 1704: 1698: 1687: 1663: 1657: 1651: 1641: 1635: 1629: 1623: 1617: 1611: 1602: 1577:Human Immunology 1572: 1566: 1564: 1554: 1548: 1541: 1535: 1533: 1523: 1513: 1507: 1505: 1495: 1489: 1487: 1476: 1470: 1461: 1455: 1430: 1424: 1415: 1409: 1389: 1383: 1372: 1366: 1357: 1351: 1341: 1335: 1326: 1320: 1311: 1305: 1298: 1292: 1285: 1279: 1278: 1276: 1274: 1265:. Archived from 1259: 1253: 1252: 1250: 1248: 1238: 1232: 1231: 1229: 1227: 1216: 1210: 1199: 1193: 1183: 1177: 1176: 1174: 1172: 1153: 1147: 1146: 1144: 1142: 1127: 1121: 1120: 1118: 1116: 1099: 1093: 1083: 1077: 1076: 1065: 1059: 1058: 1048: 1008: 1002: 1001: 983: 951: 945: 944: 937:Læknar á Íslandi 932: 915: 892: 764:Hans Krebs Medal 728:Genomics England 476:gene conversions 387:Friðrik Skúlason 200:in 1976 and his 154: 151: 149: 128: 126: 122: 72: 68: 66: 54: 40: 39: 5079: 5078: 5074: 5073: 5072: 5070: 5069: 5068: 5029: 5028: 5027: 5026: 5025: 5020:Kári Stefánsson 5007: 5003: 4986: 4981: 4980: 4970: 4968: 4961: 4957: 4946: 4942: 4927: 4926: 4922: 4911: 4907: 4898: 4894: 4889: 4885: 4875: 4873: 4864: 4863: 4859: 4850: 4849: 4845: 4834: 4830: 4819: 4815: 4798: 4794: 4783: 4779: 4768: 4764: 4753: 4749: 4740: 4736: 4727: 4723: 4707: 4706: 4699: 4697: 4690:"Archived copy" 4688: 4687: 4683: 4674: 4673: 4669: 4664:on 10 May 2019. 4656: 4655: 4651: 4646:on 10 May 2019. 4638: 4637: 4633: 4624: 4623: 4619: 4610: 4609: 4605: 4600:on 10 May 2019. 4592: 4591: 4587: 4578: 4577: 4573: 4564: 4563: 4559: 4550: 4549: 4545: 4536: 4535: 4531: 4521: 4519: 4510: 4509: 4505: 4500:on 2 June 2016. 4492: 4491: 4487: 4477: 4475: 4466: 4465: 4461: 4452: 4451: 4447: 4438: 4437: 4433: 4424: 4423: 4419: 4408: 4404: 4385: 4381: 4375:Wayback Machine 4365: 4361: 4357:, 25 March 2015 4350: 4346: 4338: 4334: 4327: 4320: 4316: 4305: 4301: 4292: 4288: 4281: 4274: 4270: 4264:Amgen's website 4261: 4257: 4245: 4241: 4230: 4226: 4222:, May/June 1998 4215: 4211: 4199: 4195: 4183: 4179: 4148: 4145:Nature Genetics 4134: 4130: 4121: 4117: 4098: 4094: 4077: 4073: 4062: 4058: 4047: 4043: 4039:, 19 June 2014. 4024: 4020: 4013: 4010:Nature Genetics 4002: 3998: 3987: 3983: 3976: 3973:Nature Genetics 3965: 3961: 3946: 3942: 3935: 3932:Nature Genetics 3926: 3923:Nature Genetics 3919: 3915: 3908: 3897: 3893: 3876:Nature Genetics 3868: 3864: 3857: 3854:Nature Genetics 3850: 3846: 3839: 3836:Nature Genetics 3832: 3828: 3821: 3818:Nature Genetics 3814: 3810: 3803: 3787: 3784:Nature Genetics 3777:G Thorleifsson 3776: 3772: 3762: 3759:Nature Genetics 3753: 3750:Nature Genetics 3740: 3737:Nature Genetics 3729: 3725: 3718: 3715:Nature Genetics 3709: 3706:Nature Genetics 3698: 3694: 3687: 3684:Nature Genetics 3676: 3672: 3649: 3645: 3630: 3626: 3619: 3616:Nature Genetics 3606: 3603:Nature Genetics 3595: 3591: 3584: 3581:Nature Genetics 3573: 3569: 3550: 3546: 3529: 3526:Nature Genetics 3516: 3513:Nature Genetics 3505: 3501: 3494:Nature Genetics 3484: 3439: 3435: 3397: 3386: 3382: 3378:, 26 April 2010 3359: 3356:Nature Genetics 3346: 3335: 3331: 3320: 3316: 3291: 3287: 3272: 3268: 3261: 3258:Nature Genetics 3250: 3246: 3221:T Gudbjartsson 3220: 3216: 3209: 3206:Nature Genetics 3198: 3194: 3167: 3164:Nature Genetics 3154: 3151:Nature Genetics 3143: 3139: 3122: 3119:Nature Genetics 3109: 3106:Nature Genetics 3098: 3094: 3067:Nature Genetics 3056:Nature Genetics 3046: 3043:Nature Genetics 3035: 3031: 3024: 3021:Nature Genetics 3011: 3008:Nature Genetics 2990: 2986: 2958: 2955:Nature Genetics 2945:Nature Genetics 2935: 2932:Nature Genetics 2922: 2919:Nature Genetics 2911: 2907: 2900: 2887:Nature Genetics 2877: 2873:Nature Genetics 2865: 2861: 2844: 2841:Nature Genetics 2831:Nature Genetics 2821: 2818:Nature Genetics 2810: 2806: 2771: 2767: 2756: 2752: 2737: 2733: 2720: 2709: 2705: 2690: 2686: 2669: 2656: 2645: 2641: 2620: 2616: 2609:Nature Genetics 2591: 2587: 2560: 2556: 2537: 2533: 2494: 2491:Nature Genetics 2483: 2479: 2472: 2469:Nature Genetics 2465: 2461: 2454: 2451:Nature Genetics 2447: 2443: 2436: 2425: 2421: 2414: 2403: 2399: 2374: 2370: 2355: 2351: 2344: 2340:Nature Genetics 2332: 2328: 2314:BV Halldorsson 2313: 2309: 2302: 2299:Nature Genetics 2292:BV Halldorsson 2291: 2287: 2280: 2277:Nature Genetics 2265: 2261: 2254: 2241: 2237: 2218: 2214: 2207: 2196: 2192: 2185: 2182:Nature Genetics 2174: 2170: 2163: 2160:Nature Genetics 2152: 2148: 2141: 2138:Nature Genetics 2130: 2126: 2121:Wayback Machine 2111: 2107: 2099: 2095: 2086: 2082: 2075: 2072:Nature Genetics 2062: 2059:Nature Genetics 2051: 2047: 2036: 2032: 2021: 2017: 2013:27 January 2007 2005: 2001: 1990:Nature Medicine 1986: 1982: 1973: 1969: 1960: 1956: 1944: 1940: 1927: 1923: 1910: 1906: 1896:Broad Institute 1891: 1884: 1880: 1876:, 18 June 2002. 1862: 1847: 1843: 1839:, 11 June 2002. 1830: 1827:Nature Genetics 1819: 1815: 1807: 1803: 1780: 1776: 1761: 1757: 1752: 1748: 1741: 1734: 1730: 1724:Wayback Machine 1705: 1701: 1685: 1677:Henry T. Greely 1664: 1660: 1649: 1642: 1638: 1630: 1626: 1618: 1614: 1600: 1597:Nature Genetics 1573: 1569: 1562: 1555: 1551: 1542: 1538: 1531: 1528:Nature Genetics 1521: 1518:Nature Genetics 1514: 1510: 1503: 1496: 1492: 1485: 1477: 1473: 1462: 1458: 1431: 1427: 1416: 1412: 1405:Nature Genetics 1392:Neil Risch and 1390: 1386: 1373: 1369: 1358: 1354: 1342: 1338: 1327: 1323: 1312: 1308: 1299: 1295: 1286: 1282: 1272: 1270: 1261: 1260: 1256: 1246: 1244: 1240: 1239: 1235: 1225: 1223: 1218: 1217: 1213: 1200: 1196: 1184: 1180: 1170: 1168: 1155: 1154: 1150: 1140: 1138: 1129: 1128: 1124: 1114: 1112: 1101: 1100: 1096: 1084: 1080: 1067: 1066: 1062: 1009: 1005: 981:10.1038/524503a 952: 948: 933: 929: 924: 919: 918: 893: 889: 884: 876:Norse mythology 800: 798:Popular culture 752: 712:, said: 710:Broad Institute 694: 673: 648: 606: 593: 580: 563: 550: 536: 508: 499: 445:gene conversion 429: 417:Nature Genetics 412: 369: 364: 325:Mary Clare King 316: 300: 298:Back to Iceland 275: 230: 228:Academic career 218:Olivia Harrison 214:George Harrison 182: 169:deCODE genetics 161:Kári Stefánsson 146: 130: 118: 114: 111: 87:Alma mater 82: 73: 70: 64: 62: 45: 44:Kári Stefánsson 38: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5077: 5067: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5008: 5001: 5000: 4999: 4998: 4997: 4992: 4985: 4984:External links 4982: 4979: 4978: 4955: 4940: 4920: 4905: 4892: 4883: 4857: 4843: 4828: 4813: 4792: 4777: 4762: 4747: 4734: 4721: 4696:on 10 May 2019 4681: 4667: 4649: 4631: 4628:. 23 May 2023. 4617: 4603: 4585: 4571: 4557: 4543: 4529: 4503: 4485: 4474:on 10 May 2019 4459: 4445: 4431: 4417: 4402: 4379: 4359: 4344: 4332: 4314: 4312:, 6 April 2017 4299: 4286: 4268: 4255: 4239: 4224: 4209: 4193: 4177: 4154:New York Times 4128: 4115: 4092: 4081:New York Times 4071: 4056: 4041: 4018: 3996: 3994:, 2 March 2014 3991:New York Times 3981: 3959: 3947:A Helgadottir 3940: 3913: 3891: 3862: 3844: 3826: 3808: 3770: 3723: 3692: 3677:A Helgadottir 3670: 3668:, 19 May 2016. 3643: 3624: 3596:A Helgadottir 3589: 3567: 3544: 3499: 3433: 3380: 3329: 3314: 3285: 3266: 3244: 3214: 3192: 3137: 3099:J Gudmundsson 3092: 3029: 2984: 2905: 2859: 2811:J Gudmundsson 2804: 2765: 2750: 2731: 2703: 2684: 2639: 2614: 2585: 2583:, 11 July 2012 2574:The New Yorker 2554: 2531: 2529:and elsewhere. 2508:New York Times 2477: 2459: 2441: 2419: 2397: 2368: 2349: 2326: 2307: 2285: 2259: 2235: 2212: 2190: 2168: 2146: 2124: 2105: 2093: 2080: 2045: 2040:Clinical Omics 2030: 2028:, 1 March 2019 2015: 1999: 1980: 1967: 1954: 1938: 1921: 1904: 1878: 1873:New York Times 1841: 1836:New York Times 1813: 1801: 1774: 1755: 1746: 1728: 1699: 1658: 1636: 1624: 1612: 1567: 1559:The New Yorker 1549: 1536: 1508: 1490: 1471: 1456: 1451:Frjals Verslun 1425: 1423:, 18 June 2002 1420:New York Times 1410: 1384: 1367: 1352: 1336: 1321: 1306: 1293: 1289:Google Scholar 1280: 1254: 1233: 1211: 1194: 1178: 1148: 1122: 1094: 1078: 1060: 1003: 946: 926: 925: 923: 920: 917: 916: 896:Icelandic name 886: 885: 883: 880: 799: 796: 792:Rigshospitalet 751: 748: 717:Peter Donnelly 693: 690: 672: 669: 647: 646:Drug discovery 644: 605: 602: 592: 589: 579: 576: 562: 559: 549: 546: 535: 532: 507: 504: 498: 495: 428: 425: 411: 408: 399:microsatellite 368: 365: 363: 360: 315: 312: 299: 296: 274: 271: 250:neuropathology 229: 226: 216:and his wife, 210:Dhani Harrison 181: 178: 156: 155: 144: 140: 139: 136: 132: 131: 116: 112: 109: 108: 106: 102: 101: 98: 97:Known for 94: 93: 88: 84: 83: 74: 60: 56: 55: 47: 46: 43: 23:Icelandic name 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5076: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5044:Living people 5042: 5040: 5037: 5036: 5034: 5023: 5022: 5021: 5015: 5011: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4987: 4966: 4959: 4951: 4944: 4936: 4935: 4930: 4924: 4917: 4916: 4909: 4902: 4896: 4887: 4871: 4867: 4861: 4853: 4847: 4840: 4839: 4832: 4825: 4824: 4817: 4811:, 6 June 2000 4810: 4809: 4804: 4803: 4796: 4789: 4788: 4781: 4774: 4773: 4766: 4759: 4758: 4751: 4745:9 August 2016 4744: 4738: 4731: 4725: 4717: 4711: 4695: 4691: 4685: 4677: 4671: 4663: 4659: 4653: 4645: 4641: 4635: 4627: 4621: 4613: 4607: 4599: 4595: 4589: 4581: 4575: 4567: 4561: 4553: 4547: 4539: 4533: 4517: 4513: 4507: 4499: 4495: 4489: 4473: 4469: 4463: 4455: 4449: 4441: 4435: 4427: 4421: 4414: 4413: 4406: 4399: 4398: 4393: 4389: 4383: 4376: 4372: 4369: 4363: 4356: 4355: 4354:New Scientist 4348: 4341: 4336: 4326: 4325: 4318: 4311: 4310: 4303: 4296: 4290: 4280: 4279: 4272: 4265: 4259: 4252: 4251: 4243: 4236: 4235: 4228: 4221: 4220: 4213: 4206: 4205: 4197: 4190: 4189: 4181: 4174: 4173: 4168: 4167: 4162: 4161: 4156: 4155: 4147: 4146: 4141: 4139: 4132: 4125: 4119: 4112: 4110: 4105: 4104: 4096: 4089: 4088: 4083: 4082: 4075: 4068: 4067: 4060: 4054:, 1 June 2017 4053: 4052: 4051:The Scientist 4045: 4038: 4037: 4032: 4030: 4022: 4012: 4011: 4006: 4000: 3993: 3992: 3985: 3975: 3974: 3969: 3963: 3956: 3955: 3950: 3944: 3934: 3933: 3925: 3924: 3917: 3907: 3906: 3901: 3895: 3888: 3887: 3882: 3878: 3877: 3872: 3866: 3856: 3855: 3848: 3838: 3837: 3830: 3820: 3819: 3812: 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3078: 3073: 3069: 3068: 3063: 3059: 3057: 3052: 3045: 3044: 3039: 3033: 3023: 3022: 3017: 3010: 3009: 3004: 3000: 2999: 2998:PLoS Medicine 2994: 2988: 2981: 2979: 2974: 2970: 2969: 2964: 2957: 2956: 2951: 2947: 2946: 2941: 2934: 2933: 2928: 2921: 2920: 2915: 2909: 2899: 2898: 2893: 2889: 2888: 2883: 2876: 2874: 2869: 2863: 2856: 2855: 2850: 2843: 2842: 2837: 2833: 2832: 2827: 2820: 2819: 2814: 2808: 2801: 2800: 2795: 2791: 2790: 2785: 2781: 2780: 2779:PLoS Medicine 2775: 2769: 2762: 2761: 2754: 2747: 2746: 2741: 2738:B Gunnarsson 2735: 2728: 2727: 2719: 2718: 2713: 2707: 2700: 2699: 2694: 2691:H Stefansson 2688: 2681: 2680: 2675: 2668: 2667: 2662: 2655: 2654: 2649: 2646:H Stefansson 2643: 2636: 2635: 2630: 2629: 2624: 2621:H Stefansson 2618: 2611: 2610: 2605: 2601: 2600: 2595: 2589: 2582: 2581: 2576: 2575: 2570: 2569: 2564: 2558: 2551: 2550: 2545: 2541: 2535: 2528: 2527: 2522: 2521: 2516: 2515: 2510: 2509: 2504: 2500: 2493: 2492: 2487: 2484:A Jagadeesan 2481: 2471: 2470: 2463: 2453: 2452: 2445: 2435: 2434: 2429: 2423: 2413: 2412: 2407: 2401: 2394: 2393: 2388: 2384: 2383: 2378: 2372: 2365: 2364: 2363:PLoS Genetics 2359: 2353: 2343: 2341: 2336: 2330: 2323: 2322: 2317: 2311: 2301: 2300: 2295: 2289: 2279: 2278: 2273: 2269: 2263: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2239: 2232: 2231: 2226: 2222: 2216: 2206: 2205: 2200: 2194: 2184: 2183: 2178: 2175:H Stefansson 2172: 2162: 2161: 2156: 2150: 2140: 2139: 2134: 2128: 2122: 2118: 2115: 2109: 2103: 2097: 2091: 2084: 2074: 2073: 2068: 2061: 2060: 2055: 2049: 2042: 2041: 2034: 2027: 2026: 2025:The Scientist 2019: 2012: 2010: 2003: 1996: 1992: 1991: 1984: 1977: 1971: 1964: 1958: 1952: 1948: 1942: 1935: 1931: 1930:Íslendingabok 1925: 1918: 1914: 1908: 1901: 1897: 1890: 1889: 1882: 1875: 1874: 1868: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1852: 1845: 1838: 1837: 1829: 1828: 1823: 1817: 1811: 1805: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1789: 1784: 1778: 1771: 1770: 1765: 1759: 1750: 1740: 1739: 1732: 1725: 1721: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1703: 1697: 1693: 1692: 1684: 1683: 1678: 1674: 1673: 1668: 1662: 1655: 1648: 1647: 1640: 1634: 1628: 1622: 1616: 1610: 1606: 1599: 1598: 1593: 1589: 1588: 1583: 1579: 1578: 1571: 1561: 1560: 1553: 1546: 1540: 1530: 1529: 1520: 1519: 1512: 1506:, 3 July 1997 1502: 1501: 1494: 1484: 1483: 1475: 1469:, 31 May 1996 1468: 1467: 1460: 1453: 1452: 1447: 1446:Atlas Venture 1443: 1439: 1435: 1429: 1422: 1421: 1414: 1407: 1406: 1401: 1400: 1395: 1388: 1381: 1379: 1371: 1364: 1363: 1356: 1349: 1348: 1340: 1333: 1332: 1325: 1318: 1317: 1310: 1304:, 2 July 2015 1303: 1297: 1290: 1284: 1269:on 2 May 2019 1268: 1264: 1258: 1243: 1237: 1221: 1215: 1209: 1206: 1205: 1198: 1192: 1191: 1187: 1182: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1152: 1136: 1132: 1126: 1110: 1109: 1104: 1098: 1092: 1088: 1082: 1074: 1070: 1064: 1056: 1052: 1047: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1007: 999: 995: 991: 987: 982: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 950: 942: 938: 931: 927: 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 891: 887: 879: 877: 873: 868: 866: 865:Bobby Fischer 862: 861: 856: 852: 848: 843: 839: 838: 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