1029:, a group of highly diverse, numerous, and widely distributed shelled cephalopods. The extinction of belemnites enabled surviving cephalopod clades to fill their niches. Ammonite genera became extinct at or near the K–Pg boundary; there was a smaller and slower extinction of ammonite genera prior to the boundary associated with a late Cretaceous marine regression, and a small, gradual reduction in ammonite diversity occurred throughout the very late Cretaceous. Researchers have pointed out that the reproductive strategy of the surviving nautiloids, which rely upon few and larger eggs, played a role in outsurviving their ammonoid counterparts through the extinction event. The ammonoids utilized a planktonic strategy of reproduction (numerous eggs and planktonic larvae), which would have been devastated by the K–Pg extinction event. Additional research has shown that subsequent to this elimination of ammonoids from the global biota, nautiloids began an evolutionary radiation into shell shapes and complexities theretofore known only from ammonoids.
2524:, Sierra Petersen and colleagues argue that there were two separate extinction events near the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, with one correlating to Deccan Trap volcanism and one correlated with the Chicxulub impact. The team analyzed combined extinction patterns using a new clumped isotope temperature record from a hiatus-free, expanded K–Pg boundary section. They documented a 7.8±3.3 °C warming synchronous with the onset of Deccan Traps volcanism and a second, smaller warming at the time of meteorite impact. They suggested that local warming had been amplified due to the simultaneous disappearance of continental or sea ice. Intra-shell variability indicates a possible reduction in seasonality after Deccan eruptions began, continuing through the meteorite event. Species extinction at Seymour Island occurred in two pulses that coincide with the two observed warming events, directly linking the end-Cretaceous extinction at this site to both volcanic and meteorite events via climate change.
2426:. While his assertion was not initially well-received, later intensive field studies of fossil beds lent weight to his claim. Eventually, most paleontologists began to accept the idea that the mass extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous were largely or at least partly due to a massive Earth impact. Even Walter Alvarez acknowledged that other major changes might have contributed to the extinctions. More recent arguments against the Deccan Traps as an extinction cause include that the timeline of Deccan Traps activity and pulses of climate change has been found by some studies to be asynchronous, that palynological changes do not coincide with intervals of volcanism, and that many sites show climatic stability during the latest Maastrichtian and no sign of major disruptions caused by volcanism. Multiple modelling studies conclude that an impact event, not volcanism, fits best with available evidence of extinction patterns.
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devastation and mass extinction of plants at the K–Pg boundary sections, although there were substantial megafloral changes before the boundary. In North
America, approximately 57% of plant species became extinct. In high southern hemisphere latitudes, such as New Zealand and Antarctica, the mass die-off of flora caused no significant turnover in species, but dramatic and short-term changes in the relative abundance of plant groups. European flora was also less affected, most likely due to its distance from the site of the Chicxulub impact. In northern Alaska and the Anadyr-Koryak region of Russia, the flora was minimally impacted. Another line of evidence of a major floral extinction is that the divergence rate of subviral pathogens of angiosperms sharply decreased, which indicates an enormous reduction in the number of flowering plants. However, phylogenetic evidence shows no mass angiosperm extinction.
1394:) helps to understand their full extinction in contrast with their close relatives, the crocodilians. Ectothermic ("cold-blooded") crocodiles have very limited needs for food (they can survive several months without eating), while endothermic ("warm-blooded") animals of similar size need much more food to sustain their faster metabolism. Thus, under the circumstances of food chain disruption previously mentioned, non-avian dinosaurs died out, while some crocodiles survived. In this context, the survival of other endothermic animals, such as some birds and mammals, could be due, among other reasons, to their smaller needs for food, related to their small size at the extinction epoch. Prolonged cold is unlikely to have been a reason for the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs given the adaptations of many dinosaurs to cold environments.
1545:, were wiped out. Only a small fraction of ground and water-dwelling Cretaceous bird species survived the impact, giving rise to today's birds. The only bird group known for certain to have survived the K–Pg boundary is the Aves. Avians may have been able to survive the extinction as a result of their abilities to dive, swim, or seek shelter in water and marshlands. Many species of avians can build burrows, or nest in tree holes, or termite nests, all of which provided shelter from the environmental effects at the K–Pg boundary. Long-term survival past the boundary was assured as a result of filling ecological niches left empty by extinction of non-avian dinosaurs. Based on molecular sequencing and fossil dating, many species of birds (the
2319:
85:
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1597:). In the Hell Creek beds of North America, at least half of the ten known multituberculate species and all eleven metatherians species are not found above the boundary. Multituberculates in Europe and North America survived relatively unscathed and quickly bounced back in the Paleocene, but Asian forms were devastated, never again to represent a significant component of mammalian fauna. A recent study indicates that metatherians suffered the heaviest losses at the K–Pg event, followed by multituberculates, while eutherians recovered the quickest. K–Pg boundary mammalian species were generally small, comparable in size to
56:
2284:-containing rock usually present in the shallow seabed of the region; it had been almost entirely removed, vaporized into the atmosphere. The impactor was large enough to create a 190-kilometer-wide (120 mi) peak ring, to melt, shock, and eject deep granite, to create colossal water movements, and to eject an immense quantity of vaporized rock and sulfates into the atmosphere, where they would have persisted for several years. This worldwide dispersal of dust and sulfates would have affected climate catastrophically, led to large temperature drops, and devastated the food chain.
1270:, a diverse group of large predatory marine reptiles, also became extinct. Fossil evidence indicates that squamates generally suffered very heavy losses in the K–Pg event, only recovering 10 million years after it. The extinction of Cretaceous lizards and snakes may have led to the evolution of modern groups such as iguanas, monitor lizards, and boas. The diversification of crown group snakes has been linked to the biotic recovery in the aftermath of the K-Pg extinction event. Pan-Gekkotans weathered the extinction event well, with multiple lineages likely surviving.
2419:
time of the extinction event. Not only did the climate temperature increase, but the water temperature decreased, causing a drastic decrease in marine diversity. Evidence from
Tunisia indicates that marine life was deleteriously affected by a major period of increased warmth and humidity linked to a pulse of intense Deccan Traps activity, and that marine extinctions there began before the impact event. Charophyte declines in the Songliao Basin, China before the asteroid impact have been concluded to be connected to climate changes caused by Deccan Traps activity.
872:
683:, because such communities rely less directly on food from living plants, and more on detritus washed in from the land, protecting them from extinction. Modern crocodilians can live as scavengers and survive for months without food, and their young are small, grow slowly, and feed largely on invertebrates and dead organisms for their first few years. These characteristics have been linked to crocodilian survival at the end of the Cretaceous. Similar, but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans. Extinction was more severe among animals living in the
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record is simply not good enough to permit researchers to distinguish between the options. There is no evidence that late
Maastrichtian non-avian dinosaurs could burrow, swim, or dive, which suggests they were unable to shelter themselves from the worst parts of any environmental stress that occurred at the K–Pg boundary. It is possible that small dinosaurs (other than birds) did survive, but they would have been deprived of food, as herbivorous dinosaurs would have found plant material scarce and carnivores would have quickly found prey in short supply.
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1140:, apparently precipitated by the K–Pg extinction event; the marine and freshwater environments of fishes mitigated the environmental effects of the extinction event. The result was Patterson's Gap, a period in the earliest part of the Cenozoic of decreased acanthomorph diversity, although acanthomorphs diversified rapidly after the extinction. Teleost fish diversified explosively after the mass extinction, filling the niches left vacant by the extinction. Groups appearing in the Paleocene and Eocene epochs include billfish, tunas, eels, and flatfish.
2138:
2083:
1374:
1315:, which lived in freshwater and marine locations. Approximately 50% of crocodyliform representatives survived across the K–Pg boundary, the only apparent trend being that no large crocodiles survived. Crocodyliform survivability across the boundary may have resulted from their aquatic niche and ability to burrow, which reduced susceptibility to negative environmental effects at the boundary. Jouve and colleagues suggested in 2008 that juvenile marine crocodyliforms lived in freshwater environments as do modern marine
515:
420:
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1990:, as the source of the K–Pg boundary clay. Identified in 1990 based on work by geophysicist Glen Penfield in 1978, the crater is oval, with an average diameter of roughly 180 km (110 mi), about the size calculated by the Alvarez team. In March 2010, an international panel of 41 scientists reviewed 20 years of scientific literature and endorsed the asteroid hypothesis, specifically the Chicxulub impact, as the cause of the extinction, ruling out other theories such as massive
2528:
65:
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Traps volcanism resulted in carbon dioxide emissions that increased the greenhouse effect when the dust and aerosols cleared from the atmosphere. Plant fossils record a 250 ppm increase in carbon dioxide concentrations across the K-Pg boundary likely attributable to Deccan Traps activity. The increased carbon dioxide emissions also caused acid rain, evidenced by increased mercury deposition due to increased solubility of mercury compounds in more acidic water.
1734:
16669:
2035:
793:. Major spatial differences existed in calcareous nannoplankton diversity patterns; in the Southern Hemisphere, the extinction was less severe and recovery occurred much faster than in the Northern Hemisphere. Following the extinction, survivor communities dominated for several hundred thousand years. The North Pacific acted as a diversity hotspot from which later nannoplankton communities radiated as they replaced survivor faunas across the globe.
76:
1418:), which both date from approximately 75 Ma, provides information on the changes in dinosaur populations over the last 10 million years of the Cretaceous. These fossil beds are geographically limited, covering only part of one continent. The middle–late Campanian formations show a greater diversity of dinosaurs than any other single group of rocks. The late Maastrichtian rocks contain the largest members of several major clades:
1890:
45:
975:), became extinct at the K–Pg boundary, with the gradual extinction of most inoceramid bivalves beginning well before the K–Pg boundary. Deposit feeders were the most common bivalves in the catastrophe's aftermath. Abundance was not a factor that affected whether a bivalve taxon went extinct, according to evidence from North America. Veneroid bivalves developed deeper burrowing habitats as the recovery from the crisis ensued.
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851:
indicates substantial extinction of these species at the K–Pg boundary, and those who think the evidence supports a gradual extinction through the boundary. There is strong evidence that local conditions heavily influenced diversity changes in planktonic foraminifera. Low and mid-latitude communities of planktonic foraminifera experienced high extinction rates, while high latitude faunas were relatively unaffected.
1867:
16679:
1168:; therefore, some amphibians do seem to have become extinct at the boundary. The relatively low levels of extinction seen among amphibians probably reflect the low extinction rates seen in freshwater animals. Following the mass extinction, frogs radiated substantially, with 88% of modern anuran diversity being traced back to three lineages of frogs that evolved after the cataclysm.
1601:; this small size would have helped them find shelter in protected environments. It is postulated that some early monotremes, marsupials, and placentals were semiaquatic or burrowing, as there are multiple mammalian lineages with such habits today. Any burrowing or semiaquatic mammal would have had additional protection from K–Pg boundary environmental stresses.
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groups, possibly due to direct competition, or they simply filled empty niches, but there is no correlation between pterosaur and avian diversities that are conclusive to a competition hypothesis, and small pterosaurs were present in the Late
Cretaceous. At least some niches previously held by birds were reclaimed by pterosaurs prior to the K–Pg event.
1654:, that do not require photosynthesis and use nutrients from decaying vegetation. The dominance of fungal species lasted only a few years while the atmosphere cleared and plenty of organic matter to feed on was present. Once the atmosphere cleared photosynthetic organisms returned – initially ferns and other ground-level plants.
915:, extinction patterns were highly heterogeneous and cannot be neatly attributed to any particular factor. Decapods that inhabited the Western Interior Seaway were especially hard-hit, while other regions of the world's oceans were refugia that increased chances of survival into the Palaeocene. Among retroplumid crabs, the genus
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1965:, but this was the first hard evidence, and since then, studies have continued to demonstrate elevated iridium levels in association with the K-Pg boundary. This hypothesis was viewed as radical when first proposed, but additional evidence soon emerged. The boundary clay was found to be full of minute
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Combining these theories, some geophysical models suggest that the impact contributed to the Deccan Traps. These models, combined with high-precision radiometric dating, suggest that the
Chicxulub impact could have triggered some of the largest Deccan eruptions, as well as eruptions at active volcano
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After the impact winter, the Earth entered a period of global warming as a result of the vapourisation of carbonates into carbon dioxide, whose long residence time in the atmosphere ensured significant warming would occur after more short-lived cooling gases dissipated. Carbon monoxide concentrations
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Scientists agree that all non-avian dinosaurs became extinct at the K–Pg boundary. The dinosaur fossil record has been interpreted to show both a decline in diversity and no decline in diversity during the last few million years of the
Cretaceous, and it may be that the quality of the dinosaur fossil
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The extinction event produced major changes in
Paleogene insect communities. Many groups of ants were present in the Cretaceous, but in the Eocene ants became dominant and diverse, with larger colonies. Butterflies diversified as well, perhaps to take the place of leaf-eating insects wiped out by the
4589:
Clyde, William C.; Wilf, Peter; Iglesias, Ari; Slingerland, Rudy L.; Barnum, Timothy; Bijl, Peter K.; Bralower, Timothy J.; Brinkhuis, Henk; Comer, Emily E.; Huber, Brian T.; Ibañez-Mejia, Mauricio; Jicha, Brian R.; Krause, J. Marcelo; Schueth, Jonathan D.; Singer, Bradley S.; Raigemborn, María Sol;
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around the
Chicxulub impact crater. The discoveries confirmed that the rock comprising the peak ring had been shocked by immense pressure and melted in just minutes from its usual state into its present form. Unlike sea-floor deposits, the peak ring was made of granite originating much deeper in the
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pollen grains, but the boundary layer contains little pollen and is dominated by fern spores. More usual pollen levels gradually resume above the boundary layer. This is reminiscent of areas blighted by modern volcanic eruptions, where the recovery is led by ferns, which are later replaced by larger
4304:
MacLeod, N.; Rawson, P.F.; Forey, P.L.; Banner, F.T.; Boudagher-Fadel, M.K.; Bown, P.R.; Burnett, J.A.; Chambers, P.; Culver, S.; Evans, S.E.; Jeffery, C.; Kaminski, M.A.; Lord, A.R.; Milner, A.C.; Milner, A.R.; Morris, N.; Owen, E.; Rosen, B.R.; Smith, A.B.; Taylor, P.D.; Urquhart, E.; Young, J.R.
2418:
Evidence for extinctions caused by the Deccan Traps includes the reduction in diversity of marine life when the climate near the K–Pg boundary increased in temperature. The temperature increased about three to four degrees very rapidly between 65.4 and 65.2 million years ago, which is very near the
1714:
While it appears that many fungi were wiped out at the K-Pg boundary, there is some evidence that some fungal species thrived in the years after the extinction event. Microfossils from that period indicate a great increase in fungal spores, long before the resumption of plentiful fern spores in the
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comprising lizards and snakes first diversified during the
Jurassic and continued to diversify throughout the Cretaceous. They are currently the most successful and diverse group of living reptiles, with more than 10,000 extant species. The only major group of terrestrial lizards to go extinct
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and are represented by living species. Analysis of turtle survivorship in the Hell Creek
Formation shows a minimum of 75% of turtle species survived. Following the extinction event, turtle diversity exceeded pre-extinction levels in the Danian of North America, although in South America it remained
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area, the most species-rich part of the sea, and therefore could have been enough to cause a marine mass extinction. This change would not have caused the extinction of the ammonites. The regression would also have caused climate changes, partly by disrupting winds and ocean currents and partly by
2222:
effect. If widespread fires occurred this would have exterminated the most vulnerable organisms that survived the period immediately after the impact. Experimental analysis suggests that any impact-induced wildfires were insufficient on their own to cause plant extinctions, and much of the thermal
2030:
matching those of the Chicxulub impact event. Some researchers question the interpretation of the findings at the site or are skeptical of the team leader, Robert DePalma, who had not yet received his Ph.D. in geology at the time of the discovery and whose commercial activities have been regarded
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bird relatives coexisted with non-avian dinosaurs. Large collections of bird fossils representing a range of different species provide definitive evidence for the persistence of archaic birds to within 300,000 years of the K–Pg boundary. The absence of these birds in the Paleogene is evidence
1462:
in Alberta, Canada, supports the gradual extinction of non-avian dinosaurs; during the last 10 million years of the Cretaceous layers there, the number of dinosaur species seems to have decreased from about 45 to approximately 12. Other scientists have made the same assessment following their
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and a basal toothed taxon of uncertain affinities, though they are represented by fragmentary remains that are difficult to assign to any given group. While this was occurring, modern birds were undergoing diversification; traditionally it was thought that they replaced archaic birds and pterosaur
1053:
from fourteen sites in North America was used as a proxy for insect diversity across the K–Pg boundary and analyzed to determine the rate of extinction. Researchers found that Cretaceous sites, prior to the extinction event, had rich plant and insect-feeding diversity. During the early Paleocene,
2414:
The Deccan Traps could have caused extinction through several mechanisms, including the release of dust and sulfuric aerosols into the air, which might have blocked sunlight and thereby reduced photosynthesis in plants. In addition, the latest Cretaceous saw a rise in global temperatures; Deccan
2190:
has been estimated at more than 100 m (330 ft) tall, as the asteroid fell into relatively shallow seas; in deep seas it would have been 4.6 km (2.9 mi) tall. Fossiliferous sedimentary rocks deposited during the K–Pg impact have been found in the Gulf of Mexico area, including
1821:
mammals occurred after approximately 185,000 years, and no more than 570,000 years, "indicating rapid rates of biotic extinction and initial recovery in the Denver Basin during this event." Analysis of the carbon cycle disruptions caused by the impact constrains them to an interval of just 5,000
1621:
orders diversified soon after the K–Pg boundary. However, morphological diversification rates among eutherians after the extinction event were thrice those of before it. Also significant, within the mammalian genera, new species were approximately 9.1% larger after the K–Pg boundary. After about
1604:
After the K–Pg extinction, mammals evolved to fill the niches left vacant by the dinosaurs. Some research indicates that mammals did not explosively diversify across the K–Pg boundary, despite the ecological niches made available by the extinction of dinosaurs. Several mammalian orders have been
863:
Phytoplankton recovery in the early Paleocene provided the food source to support large benthic foraminiferal assemblages, which are mainly detritus-feeding. Ultimate recovery of the benthic populations occurred over several stages lasting several hundred thousand years into the early Paleocene.
1124:
families and 13 batoid families thrived, of which 25 and 9, respectively, survived the K–T boundary event. Forty-seven of all neoselachian genera cross the K–T boundary, with 85% being sharks. Batoids display with 15%, a comparably low survival rate. Among elasmobranchs, those species that
850:
across the K–Pg boundary has been studied since the 1930s. Research spurred by the possibility of an impact event at the K–Pg boundary resulted in numerous publications detailing planktonic foraminiferal extinction at the boundary; there is ongoing debate between groups which think the evidence
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caused the extinction were usually linked to the view that the extinction was gradual, as the flood basalt events were thought to have started around 68 Mya and lasted more than 2 million years. The most recent evidence shows that the traps erupted over a period of only 800,000 years
1642:
Plant fossils illustrate the reduction in plant species across the K–Pg boundary. There is overwhelming evidence of global disruption of plant communities at the K–Pg boundary. Extinctions are seen both in studies of fossil pollen, and fossil leaves. In North America, the data suggests massive
2503:
Proponents of multiple causation view the suggested single causes as either too small to produce the vast scale of the extinction, or not likely to produce its observed taxonomic pattern. In a review article, J. David Archibald and David E. Fastovsky discussed a scenario combining three major
1977:
along the Gulf Coast and the Caribbean provided more evidence, and suggested that the impact might have occurred nearby, as did the discovery that the K–Pg boundary became thicker in the southern United States, with meter-thick beds of debris occurring in northern New Mexico. A K-Pg boundary
1281:
Ca values indicate that prior to the mass extinction, marine reptiles at the top of food webs were feeding on only one source of calcium, suggesting their populations exhibited heightened vulnerability to extinctions at the terminus of the Cretaceous. Along with the aforementioned mosasaurs,
862:
in the ocean is thought to have decreased. As the marine microbiota recovered, it is thought that increased speciation of benthic foraminifera resulted from the increase in food sources. In some areas, such as Texas, benthic foraminifera show no sign of any major extinction event, however.
9826:
Bertrand, Ornella C.; Shelley, Sarah L.; Williamson, Thomas E.; Wible, John R.; Chester, Stephen G. B.; Flynn, John J.; Holbrook, Luke T.; Lyson, Tyler R.; Meng, Jin; Miller, Ian M.; Püschel, Hans P.; Smith, Thierry; Spaulding, Michelle; Tseng, Z. Jack; Brusatte, Stephen L. (April 2022).
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biases and the sparsity of the continental fossil record. The results of this study, which were based on estimated real global biodiversity, showed that between 628 and 1,078 non-avian dinosaur species were alive at the end of the Cretaceous and underwent sudden extinction after the
12542:
Lawton, T. F.; Shipley, K. W.; Aschoff, J. L.; Giles, K. A.; Vega, F. J. (2005). "Basinward transport of Chicxulub ejecta by tsunami-induced backflow, La Popa basin, northeastern Mexico, and its implications for distribution of impact-related deposits flanking the Gulf of Mexico".
908:. Current research cannot ascertain whether the extinctions occurred prior to, or during, the boundary interval. Ostracods that were heavily sexually selected were more vulnerable to extinction, and ostracod sexual dimorphism was significantly rarer following the mass extinction.
1036:
that thrived in low-latitude, shallow-water environments during the late Cretaceous had the highest extinction rate. Mid-latitude, deep-water echinoderms were much less affected at the K–Pg boundary. The pattern of extinction points to habitat loss, specifically the drowning of
2508:, and extraterrestrial impact. In this scenario, terrestrial and marine communities were stressed by the changes in, and loss of, habitats. Dinosaurs, as the largest vertebrates, were the first affected by environmental changes, and their diversity declined. At the same time,
1397:
Whether the extinction occurred gradually or suddenly has been debated, as both views have support from the fossil record. A highly informative sequence of dinosaur-bearing rocks from the K–Pg boundary is found in western North America, particularly the late Maastrichtian-age
10795:
Depalma, Robert A.; Oleinik, Anton A.; Gurche, Loren P.; Burnham, David A.; Klingler, Jeremy J.; McKinney, Curtis J.; Cichocki, Frederick P.; Larson, Peter L.; Egerton, Victoria M.; Wogelius, Roy A.; Edwards, Nicholas P.; Bergmann, Uwe; Manning, Phillip L. (8 December 2021).
12693:
Smit, Jan; Montanari, Alessandro; Swinburne, Nicola H.; Alvarez, Walter; Hildebrand, Alan R.; Margolis, Stanley V.; Claeys, Philippe; Lowrie, William; Asaro, Frank (1992). "Tektite-bearing, deep-water clastic unit at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in northeastern Mexico".
4823:
804:
provide a fossil record, and not all dinoflagellate species have cyst-forming stages, which likely causes diversity to be underestimated. Recent studies indicate that there were no major shifts in dinoflagellates through the boundary layer. There were blooms of the taxa
2246:, which might have reduced sunlight reaching the Earth's surface by more than 50%. Fine silicate dust also contributed to the intense impact winter, as did soot from wildfires. The climatic forcing of this impact winter was about 100 times more potent than that of the
1680:
appears to have enhanced the ability of flowering plants to survive the extinction, probably because the additional copies of the genome such plants possessed allowed them to more readily adapt to the rapidly changing environmental conditions that followed the impact.
2332:
Other crater-like topographic features have also been proposed as impact craters formed in connection with Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction. This suggests the possibility of near-simultaneous multiple impacts, perhaps from a fragmented asteroidal object similar to the
1306:
Ten families of crocodilians or their close relatives are represented in the Maastrichtian fossil records, of which five died out prior to the K–Pg boundary. Five families have both Maastrichtian and Paleocene fossil representatives. All of the surviving families of
11809:
Kaskes, P.; Goderis, S.; Belza, J.; Tack, P.; DePalma, R. A.; Smit, J.; Vincze, Laszlo; Vabgaecje, F.; Claeys, P. (2019). "Caught in amber: Geochemistry and petrography of uniquely preserved Chicxulub microtektites from the Tanis K-Pg site from North Dakota (USA)".
945:, which collapsed due to the events surrounding the K–Pg boundary, but the use of data from coral fossils to support K–Pg extinction and subsequent Paleocene recovery, must be weighed against the changes that occurred in coral ecosystems through the K–Pg boundary.
2779:
Jones, Heather L.; Westerhold, Thomas; Birch, Heather; Hull, Pincelli; Negra, M. Hédi; Röhl, Ursula; Sepúlveda, Julio; Vellekoop, Johan; Whiteside, Jessica H.; Alegret, Laia; Henehan, Michael; Robinson, Libby; Van Dijk, Joep; Bralower, Timothy (18 January 2023).
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probably died out long after the most recent fossil that has been found. Scientists have also found very few continuous beds of fossil-bearing rock that cover a time range from several million years before the K–Pg extinction to several million years after it.
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of asteroids. This link has been doubted, though not disproved, in part because of a lack of observations of the asteroid and its family. It was reported in 2009 that 298 Baptistina does not share the chemical signature of the K–Pg impactor. Further, a 2011
2898:
Ferreira da Silva, Luiza Carine; Santos, Alessandra; Fauth, Gerson; Manríquez, Leslie Marcela Elizabeth; Kochhann, Karlos Guilherme Diemer; Do Monte Guerra, Rodrigo; Horodyski, Rodrigo Scalise; Villegas-Martín, Jorge; Ribeiro da Silva, Rafael (April 2023).
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survived; the exact reasons for this pattern are not known. Sebecids were large terrestrial predators, are known from the Eocene of Europe, and would survive in South America into the Miocene. Tethysuchians radiated explosively after the extinction event.
2181:
deposits and sediments around the area of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, from the colossal waves created by the impact. These deposits have been identified in the La Popa basin in northeastern Mexico, platform carbonates in northeastern Brazil, in
1792:
The extinction's rapidity is a controversial issue because some researchers think the extinction was the result of a sudden event, while others argue that it took place over a long period. The exact length of time is difficult to determine because of the
5251:
2322:
The river bed at the Moody Creek Mine, 7 Mile Creek / Waimatuku, Dunollie, New Zealand contains evidence of a devastating event on terrestrial plant communities at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, confirming the severity and global nature of the
8537:
Ocampo, A.; Vajda, V.; Buffetaut, E. (2006). "Unravelling the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–T) turnover, evidence from flora, fauna and geology in biological processes associated with impact events". In Cockell, C.; Gilmour, I.; Koeberl, C. (eds.).
5980:
5062:
Arenillas, I.; Arz, J. A.; Molina, E.; Dupuis, C. (2000). "An independent test of planktic foraminiferal turnover across the Cretaceous/Paleogene (K/P) boundary at El Kef, Tunisia: Catastrophic mass extinction and possible survivorship".
8763:
Ryan, M. J.; Russell, A. P.; Eberth, D. A.; Currie, P. J. (2001). "The taphonomy of a Centrosaurus (Ornithischia: Ceratopsidae) bone bed from the Dinosaur Park formation (Upper Campanian), Alberta, Canada, with comments on cranial ontogeny".
5338:
Galeotti, S.; Bellagamba, M.; Kaminski, M. A.; Montanari, A. (2002). "Deep-sea benthic foraminiferal recolonisation following a volcaniclastic event in the lower Campanian of the Scaglia Rossa Formation (Umbria-Marche Basin, central Italy)".
1554:, for example, rapidly diversified in the early Paleogene and are believed to have convergently developed flightlessness at least three to six times, often fulfilling the niche space for large herbivores once occupied by non-avian dinosaurs.
2258:
dropped as much as 7 °C (13 °F) for decades after the impact. It would take at least ten years for such aerosols to dissipate, and would account for the extinction of plants and phytoplankton, and subsequently herbivores and their
2287:
The release of large quantities of sulphur aerosols into the atmosphere as a consequence of the impact would also have caused acid rain. Oceans acidified as a result. This decrease in ocean pH would kill many organisms that grow shells of
12077:
Timms, Nicholas E.; Kirkland, Christopher L.; Cavosie, Aaron J.; Rae, Auriol S.P.; Rickard, William D.A.; Evans, Noreen J.; Erickson, Timmons M.; Wittmann, Axel; Ferrière, Ludovic; Collins, Gareth S.; Gulick, Sean P.S. (15 July 2020).
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Labandeira, C. C.; Johnson, K. R.; et al. (2002). "Preliminary assessment of insect herbivory across the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary: Major extinction and minimum rebound". In Hartman, J.H.; Johnson, K.R.; Nichols, D.J. (eds.).
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3435:"The nastiest feud in science: A Princeton geologist has endured decades of ridicule for arguing that the fifth extinction was caused not by an asteroid but by a series of colossal volcanic eruptions. But she's reopened that debate"
2512:
materials from volcanism cooled and dried areas of the globe. Then an impact event occurred, causing collapses in photosynthesis-based food chains, both in the already-stressed terrestrial food chains and in the marine food chains.
1085:
across the K–Pg boundary, which provide good evidence of extinction patterns of these classes of marine vertebrates. While the deep-sea realm was able to remain seemingly unaffected, there was an equal loss between the open marine
8344:
Butler, Richard J.; Barrett, Paul M.; Nowbath, Stephen; Upchurch, Paul (2009). "Estimating the effects of sampling biases on pterosaur diversity patterns: Implications for hypotheses of bird / pterosaur competitive replacement".
2174:. The Chicxulub impact caused a global catastrophe. Some of the phenomena were brief occurrences immediately following the impact, but there were also long-term geochemical and climatic disruptions that devastated the ecology.
2442:
rock layers from various parts of the world, the later layers are terrestrial; earlier layers represent shorelines and the earliest layers represent seabeds. These layers do not show the tilting and distortion associated with
1978:"cocktail" of microfossils, lithic fragments, and impact-derived material deposited by gigantic sediment gravity flows was discovered in the Caribbean that served to demarcate the impact. Further research identified the giant
8698:
Rieraa, V.; Marmib, J.; Omsa, O.; Gomez, B. (March 2010). "Orientated plant fragments revealing tidal palaeocurrents in the Fumanya mudflat (Maastrichtian, southern Pyrenees): Insights in palaeogeographic reconstructions".
547:
becoming extinct during any given time interval. It does not represent all marine species, just those that are readily fossilized. The labels of the traditional "Big Five" extinction events and the more recently recognised
2153:
of non-avian dinosaurs and many other species on Earth. The impact spewed hundreds of billions of tons of sulfur into the atmosphere, producing a worldwide blackout and freezing temperatures which persisted for at least a
6030:
Ward, P. D.; Kennedy, W. J.; MacLeod, K. G.; Mount, J. F. (1991). "Ammonite and inoceramid bivalve extinction patterns in Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary sections of the Biscay region (southwestern France, northern Spain)".
11685:
Depalma, Robert A.; Smit, Jan; Burnham, David A.; Kuiper, Klaudia; Manning, Phillip L.; Oleinik, Anton; Larson, Peter; Maurrasse, Florentin J.; Vellekoop, Johan; Richards, Mark A.; Gurche, Loren; Alvarez, Walter (2019).
4592:"New age constraints for the Salamanca Formation and lower Río Chico Group in the western San Jorge Basin, Patagonia, Argentina: Implications for Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction recovery and land mammal age correlations"
9138:
Mitchell, K.J.; Llamas, B.; Soubrier, J.; Rawlence, N. J.; Worthy, T. H.; Wood, J.; Lee, M. S. Y.; Cooper, A. (2014). "Ancient DNA reveals elephant birds and kiwi are sister taxa and clarifies ratite bird evolution".
2226:
Aside from the hypothesized fire effects on reduction of insolation, the impact would have created a humongous dust cloud that blocked sunlight for up to a year, inhibiting photosynthesis. The asteroid hit an area of
10737:
During, Melanie A. D.; Smit, Jan; Voeten, Dennis F. A. E.; Berruyer, Camille; Tafforeau, Paul; Sanchez, Sophie; Stein, Koen H. W.; Verdegaal-Warmerdam, Suzan J. A.; Van Der Lubbe, Jeroen H. J. L. (23 February 2022).
5176:
MacLeod, N (1996). "Nature of the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K–T) planktonic foraminiferal record: Stratigraphic confidence intervals, Signor–Lipps effect, and patterns of survivorship". In MacLeod, N.; Keller, G. (eds.).
1125:
inhabited higher latitudes and lived pelagic lifestyles were more likely to survive, whereas epibenthic lifestyles and durophagy were strongly associated with the likelihood of perishing during the extinction event.
12171:
Majaess, D. J.; Higgins, D.; Molnar, L. A.; Haegert, M. J.; Lane, D. J.; Turner, D. G.; Nielsen, I. (February 2009). "New constraints on the asteroid 298 Baptistina, the alleged family member of the K/T impactor".
1562:
Mammalian species began diversifying approximately 30 million years prior to the K–Pg boundary. Diversification of mammals stalled across the boundary. All major Late Cretaceous mammalian lineages, including
4409:
Aberhan, M.; Weidemeyer, S.; Kieesling, W.; Scasso, R.A.; Medina, F.A. (2007). "Faunal evidence for reduced productivity and uncoordinated recovery in Southern Hemisphere Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary sections".
1152:
concluded that no species of amphibian became extinct. Yet there are several species of Maastrichtian amphibian, not included as part of this study, which are unknown from the Paleocene. These include the frog
13492:
13316:
12393:
11943:
11692:
10635:
10474:
9621:
6966:
6257:
5924:
4487:
García-Girón, Jorge; Chiarenza, Alfio Alessandro; Alahuhta, Janne; DeMar, David G.; Heino, Jani; Mannion, Philip D.; Williamson, Thomas E.; Wilson Mantilla, Gregory P.; Brusatte, Stephen L. (9 December 2022).
3729:
3663:
3587:
3338:
3198:
1549:
group in particular) appeared to radiate after the K–Pg boundary. The open niche space and relative scarcity of predators following the K-Pg extinction allowed for adaptive radiation of various avian groups.
2254:, the onset of global darkness would have reached its maximum in only a few weeks and likely lasted upwards of 2 years. Freezing temperatures probably lasted for at least three years. At Brazos section, the
1452:
of Europe in 2010 supports the view that dinosaurs there had great diversity until the asteroid impact, with more than 100 living species. More recent research indicates that this figure is obscured by
7816:"Polycotylidae (Sauropterygia, Plesiosauria) from the La Colonia Formation, Patagonia, Argentina: Phylogenetic affinities of Sulcusuchus erraini and the Late Cretaceous circum-pacific polycotylid diversity"
903:
that were prevalent in the upper Maastrichtian, left fossil deposits in a variety of locations. A review of these fossils shows that ostracod diversity was lower in the Paleocene than any other time in the
823:
times, and their mineral fossil skeletons can be tracked across the K–Pg boundary. There is no evidence of mass extinction of these organisms, and there is support for high productivity of these species in
9987:
Askin, R.A.; Jacobson, S.R. (1996). "Palynological change across the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary on Seymour Island, Antarctica: environmental and depositional factors". In Keller, G.; MacLeod, N. (eds.).
2494:
However, sea level fall as a cause of the extinction event is contradicted by other evidence, namely that sections which show no sign of marine regression still show evidence of a major drop in diversity.
407:. The surviving group of dinosaurs were avians, a few species of ground and water fowl, which radiated into all modern species of birds. Among other groups, teleost fish and perhaps lizards also radiated.
1622:
700,000 years, some mammals had reached 50 kilos (110 pounds), a 100-fold increase over the weight of those which survived the extinction. It is thought that body sizes of placental mammalian survivors
2186:
deep-sea sediments, and in the form of the thickest-known layer of graded sand deposits, around 100 m (330 ft), in the Chicxulub crater itself, directly above the shocked granite ejecta. The
9248:
Bininda-Emonds, O. R.; Cardillo M.; Jones, K. E., MacPhee, R. D.; Beck, R. M.; Grenyer, R.; Price, S. A.; Vos, R. A.; Gittleman, J. L.; Purvis, A. (2007). "The delayed rise of present-day mammals".
9354:
Goin, F. J.; Reguero, M. A.; Pascual, R.; von Koenigswald, W.; Woodburne, M. O.; Case, J. A.; Marenssi, S. A.; Vieytes, C.; Vizcaíno, S. F. (2006). "First gondwanatherian mammal from Antarctica".
5664:
Vescsei, A.; Moussavian, E. (1997). "Paleocene reefs on the Maiella Platform margin, Italy: An example of the effects of the cretaceous/tertiary boundary events on reefs and carbonate platforms".
15228:
2725:
568:
The K–Pg extinction event was severe, global, rapid, and selective, eliminating a vast number of species. Based on marine fossils, it is estimated that 75% or more of all species became extinct.
1994:. They had determined that a 10-to-15-kilometer (6 to 9 mi) asteroid hurtled into Earth at Chicxulub on Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula. Additional evidence for the impact event is found at the
1348:, were definitely present in the Maastrichtian, and they likely became extinct at the K–Pg boundary. Several other pterosaur lineages may have been present during the Maastrichtian, such as the
4914:
2117:. He further posits that the mass extinction occurred within 32,000 years of this date. The dating of hydrothermally altered structures around the crater is consistent with this timeline.
13759:"Direct measurements of chemical composition of shock-induced gases from calcite: an intense global warming after the Chicxulub impact due to the indirect greenhouse effect of carbon monoxide"
2403:
The Deccan Traps, which erupted close to the boundary between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, have been cited as an alternate explanation for the mass extinction. Before 2000, arguments that the
3060:
6831:
Alfaro, Michael E.; Faircloth, Brant C.; Harrington, Richard C.; Sorenson, Laurie; Friedman, Matt; Thacker, Christine E.; Oliveros, Carl H.; Černý, David; Near, Thomas J. (12 March 2018).
13255:
1670:
angiosperm plants. In North American terrestrial sequences, the extinction event is best represented by the marked discrepancy between the rich and relatively abundant late-Maastrichtian
6887:
Archibald, J. D.; Bryant, L. J. (1990). "Differential Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction of nonmarine vertebrates; evidence from northeastern Montana". In Sharpton, V.L.; Ward, P.D. (eds.).
2195:-type ecosystem, indicating that water in the Gulf of Mexico sloshed back and forth repeatedly after the impact; dead fish left in these shallow waters were not disturbed by scavengers.
929:
genera failed to cross the K–Pg boundary into the Paleocene. Further analysis of the coral extinctions shows that approximately 98% of colonial species, ones that inhabit warm, shallow
9962:
Johnson, K.R.; Hickey, L.J. (1991). "Megafloral change across the Cretaceous Tertiary boundary in the northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountains". In Sharpton, V.I.; Ward, P.D. (eds.).
14310:
Keller, G.; Adatte, T.; Gardin, S.; Bartolini, A.; Bajpai, S. (2008). "Main Deccan volcanism phase ends near the K–T boundary: Evidence from the Krishna-Godavari Basin, SE India".
9202:
Yonezawa, Takahiro; Segawa, Takahiro; Mori, Hiroshi; Campos, Paula F.; Hongoh, Yuichi; Endo, Hideki; Akiyoshi, Ayumi; Kohno, Naoki; Nishida, Shin; Wu, Jiaqi; Jin, Haofei (2017).
9563:
Shupinski, Alex B.; Wagner, Peter J.; Smith, Felisa A.; Lyons, S. Kathleen (3 July 2024). "Unique functional diversity during early Cenozoic mammal radiation of North America".
15662:
2575:
11174:
Renne, Paul R.; Deino, Alan L.; Hilgen, Frederik J.; Kuiper, Klaudia F.; Mark, Darren F.; Mitchell, William S.; Morgan, Leah E.; Mundil, Roland; Smit, Jan (8 February 2013).
2781:
13310:
Lyons, Shelby L.; Karp, Allison T.; Bralower, Timothy J.; Grice, Kliti; Schaefer, Bettina; Gulick, Sean P. S.; Morgan, Joanna V.; Freeman, Katherine H. (28 September 2020).
2129:(WISE) study of reflected light from the asteroids of the family estimated their break-up at 80 Ma, giving them insufficient time to shift orbits and impact Earth by 66 Ma.
2094:
Some critics of the impact theory have put forward that the impact precedes the mass extinction by about 300,000 years and thus was not its cause. However, in a 2013 paper,
2782:"Stratigraphy of the Cretaceous/Paleogene (K/Pg) boundary at the Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) in El Kef, Tunisia: New insights from the El Kef Coring Project"
12211:
Reddy, V.; Emery, J. P.; Gaffey, M. J.; Bottke, W. F.; Cramer, A.; Kelley, M. S. (December 2009). "Composition of 298 Baptistina: Implications for the K/T impactor link".
8736:
le Loeuff, J. (2012). "Paleobiogeography and biodiversity of Late Maastrichtian dinosaurs: How many dinosaur species became extinct at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary?".
2073:
1961:. Because of this, the Alvarez team suggested that an asteroid struck the Earth at the time of the K–Pg boundary. There were earlier speculations on the possibility of an
11002:"An asteroid killed dinosaurs in spring—which might explain why mammals survived – New study sheds light on why species extinction was so selective after the K-Pg impact"
13185:
Senel, Cem Berk; Kaskes, Pim; Temel, Orkun; Vellekoop, Johan; Goderis, Steven; DePalma, Robert; Prins, Maarten A.; Claeys, Philippe; Karatekin, Özgür (30 October 2023).
8167:
Company, J.; Ruiz-Omeñaca, J. I.; Pereda Suberbiola, X. (1999). "A long-necked pterosaur (Pterodactyloidea, Azhdarchidae) from the upper Cretaceous of Valencia, Spain".
1665:. Just two species of fern appear to have dominated the landscape for centuries after the event. In the sediments below the K–Pg boundary the dominant plant remains are
11637:
Stöffler, Dieter; Artemieva, Natalya A.; Ivanov, Boris A.; Hecht, Lutz; Kenkmann, Thomas; Schmitt, Ralf Thomas; Tagle, Roald Alberto; Wittmann, Axel (26 January 2010).
5426:
Brouwers, E. M.; de Deckker, P. (1993). "Late Maastrichtian and Danian Ostracode Faunas from Northern Alaska: Reconstructions of Environment and Paleogeography".
3298:"The dinosaur-killing asteroid acidified the ocean in a flash: the Chicxulub event was as damaging to life in the oceans as it was to creatures on land, a study shows"
12617:
Norris, R. D.; Firth, J.; Blusztajn, J. S. & Ravizza, G. (2000). "Mass failure of the North Atlantic margin triggered by the Cretaceous-Paleogene bolide impact".
8809:
Sloan, R. E.; Rigby, K.; van Valen, L. M.; Gabriel, Diane (1986). "Gradual dinosaur extinction and simultaneous ungulate radiation in the Hell Creek formation".
2479:
that ten million years before had been host to diverse communities such as are found in rocks of the Dinosaur Park Formation. Another consequence was an expansion of
5707:
Rosen, B. R.; Turnšek, D. (1989). Jell A; Pickett JW (eds.). "Extinction patterns and biogeography of scleractinian corals across the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary".
3444:
9429:
6665:
Cione, Alberto L.; Santillana, Sergio; Gouiric-Cavalli, Soledad; Acosta Hospitaleche, Carolina; Gelfo, Javier N.; López, Guillermo M.; Reguero, Marcelo (May 2018).
6620:
Zinsmeister, W. J. (1 May 1998). "Discovery of fish mortality horizon at the K–T boundary on Seymour Island: Re-evaluation of events at the end of the Cretaceous".
6071:
Harries, P. J.; Johnson, K. R.; Cobban, W. A.; Nichols, D.J. (2002). "Marine Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary section in southwestern South Dakota: Comment and reply".
3256:
Hildebrand, A. R.; Penfield, G. T.; et al. (1991). "Chicxulub crater: a possible Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary impact crater on the Yucatán peninsula, Mexico".
2057:
1493:(about 1 million years after the K–Pg extinction event). If their existence past the K–Pg boundary can be confirmed, these hadrosaurids would be considered a
297:. The fact that the extinctions occurred simultaneously provides strong evidence that they were caused by the asteroid. A 2016 drilling project into the Chicxulub
13580:
13757:
Kawaragi, Ko; Sekine, Yasuhito; Kadono, Toshihiko; Sugita, Seiji; Ohno, Sohsuke; Ishibashi, Ko; Kurosawa, Kosuke; Matsui, Takafumi; Ikeda, Susumu (30 May 2009).
12174:
12055:
10019:
9682:
9565:
5985:
1805:
The sedimentation rate and thickness of K–Pg clay from three sites suggest rapid extinction, perhaps over a period of less than 10,000 years. At one site in the
12314:
8392:"Does morphology reflect osteohistology-based ontogeny? A case study of Late Cretaceous pterosaur jaw symphyses from Hungary reveals hidden taxonomic diversity"
1776:
assumptions" for the June dating have since all been refuted. Another modern study opted for the spring–summer range. A study of fossilized fish bones found at
379:, which became extinct), and many species of plankton. It is estimated that 75% or more of all species on Earth vanished. However, the extinction also provided
102:
a few kilometers across colliding with the Earth. Such an impact can release the equivalent energy of several million nuclear weapons detonating simultaneously;
9909:
Vajda, Vivi; Raine, J. Ian; Hollis, Christopher J. (2001). "Indication of global deforestation at the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary by New Zealand fern spike".
6789:"The Cretaceous–Paleogene transition in spiny-rayed fishes: surveying "Patterson's Gap" in the acanthomorph skeletal record André Dumont medalist lecture 2018"
5401:
Coles, G. P.; Ayress, M. A.; Whatley, R. C. (1990). "A comparison of North Atlantic and 20 Pacific deep-sea Ostracoda". In Whatley, R. C.; Maybury, C. (eds.).
8015:"Phylogenetic structure of the extinction and biotic factors explaining differential survival of terrestrial notosuchians at the Cretaceous–Palaeogene crisis"
4591:
8871:. International Conference on Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions: Impacts and Beyond, 9–12 July 2000. Vol. 1053. Vienna, Austria. pp. 45–46.
2031:
with suspicion. Furthermore, indirect evidence of an asteroid impact as the cause of the mass extinction comes from patterns of turnover in marine plankton.
14614:
Sial, A. N.; Lacerda, L. D.; Ferreira, V. P.; Frei, R.; Marquillas, R. A.; Barbosa, J. A.; Gaucher, C.; Windmöller, C. C.; Pereira, N. S. (1 October 2013).
6729:
5129:
3123:
2438:
There is clear evidence that sea levels fell in the final stage of the Cretaceous by more than at any other time in the Mesozoic era. In some Maastrichtian
1323:
became extinct; freshwater environments were not so strongly affected by the K–Pg extinction event as marine environments were. Among the terrestrial clade
14347:
Callegaro, Sara; Baker, Don R.; Renne, Paul R.; Melluso, Leone; Geraki, Kalotina; Whitehouse, Martin J.; De Min, Angelo; Marzoli, Andrea (6 October 2023).
7710:
6165:
4351:
3307:
2022:. Tanis is an extraordinary and unique site because it appears to record the events from the first minutes until a few hours after the impact of the giant
14415:
7307:
Apesteguía, Sebastián; Novas, Fernando E. (2003). "Large Cretaceous sphenodontian from Patagonia provides insight into lepidosaur evolution in Gondwana".
4915:"Calcareous Nannofossils Across the Cretaceous–Tertiary Boundary at Brazos, Texas, U.S.A.: Extinction and Survivorship, Biostratigraphy, and Paleoecology"
2422:
In the years when the Deccan Traps hypothesis was linked to a slower extinction, Luis Alvarez (d. 1988) replied that paleontologists were being misled by
750:
during the Paleogene Period. After the K–Pg extinction event, biodiversity required substantial time to recover, despite the existence of abundant vacant
11780:
Tanis, a mixed marine-continental event deposit at the KPG Boundary in North Dakota caused by a seiche triggered by seismic waves of the Chicxulub Impact
7971:"The oldest African crocodylian: phylogeny, paleobiogeography, and differential survivorship of marine reptiles through the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary"
3787:
The Hell Creek formation and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in the northern Great Plains: An integrated continental record of the end of the Cretaceous
2202:, cooking exposed organisms. This is debated, with opponents arguing that local ferocious fires, probably limited to North America, fall short of global
15490:
11001:
4824:"The role of regional survivor incumbency in the evolutionary recovery of calcareous nannoplankton from the Cretaceous/Paleogene (K/Pg) mass extinction"
591:, but are unknown from the Cenozoic anywhere in the world. Similarly, fossil pollen shows devastation of the plant communities in areas as far apart as
387:—sudden and prolific divergence into new forms and species within the disrupted and emptied ecological niches. Mammals in particular diversified in the
16723:
15655:
11381:
Bohor, B. F.; Foord, E. E.; Modreski, P. J.; Triplehorn, D. M. (1984). "Mineralogic evidence for an impact event at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary".
10557:
Carvalho, Mónica R.; Jaramillo, Carlos; Parra, Felipe de la; Caballero-Rodríguez, Dayenari; Herrera, Fabiany; Wing, Scott; et al. (2 April 2021).
12671:
11639:"Origin and emplacement of the impact formations at Chicxulub, Mexico, as revealed by the ICDP deep drilling at Yaxcopoil-1 and by numerical modeling"
7021:
Evans, Susan E.; Klembara, Jozef (2005). "A choristoderan reptile (Reptilia: Diapsida) from the Lower Miocene of northwest Bohemia (Czech Republic)".
6189:"A 104-Ma record of deep-sea Atelostomata (Holasterioda, Spatangoida, irregular echinoids) – a story of persistence, food availability and a big bang"
14946:
14712:
14620:
14479:
14268:
13887:
12816:
8701:
8585:
6451:
6371:
5208:
4238:
Wilf, P.; Johnson, K.R. (2004). "Land plant extinction at the end of the Cretaceous: A quantitative analysis of the North Dakota megafloral record".
2845:
1587:
survived the K–Pg extinction event, although they suffered losses. In particular, metatherians largely disappeared from North America, and the Asian
1497:. The scientific consensus is that these fossils were eroded from their original locations and then re-buried in much later sediments (also known as
1054:
flora were relatively diverse with little predation from insects, even 1.7 million years after the extinction event. Studies of the size of the
11028:
Signor, Philip W. III; Lipps, Jere H. (1982). "Sampling bias, gradual extinction patterns, and catastrophes in the fossil record". In Silver, L.T.;
10446:
9301:
8286:
5711:. Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on Fossil Cnidaria including Archaeocyatha and Spongiomorphs (8). Brisbane, Queensland: 355–370.
4450:
Sheehan, Peter M.; Fastovsky, D. E. (1992). "Major extinctions of land-dwelling vertebrates at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, eastern Montana".
2547:
3052:
15379:
3903:
14793:
12859:
11811:
8218:
6109:
16596:
12118:
Bottke, W. F.; Vokrouhlický, D.; Nesvorný, D. (September 2007). "An asteroid breakup 160 Myr ago as the probable source of the K/T impactor".
8906:
6449:
Kriwet, Jürgen; Benton, Michael J. (2004). "Neoselachian (Chondrichthyes, Elasmobranchii) Diversity across the Cretaceous–Tertiary Boundary".
5471:
Martins, Maria João Fernandes; Hunt, Gene; Thompson, Carmi Milagros; Lockwood, Rowan; Swaddle, John P.; Puckett, T. Markham (26 August 2020).
1474:
up to 1.3 m (4 ft 3.2 in) above and 40,000 years later than the K–Pg boundary. Pollen samples recovered near a fossilized
15648:
14942:"Coastal ecosystem responses to late stage Deccan Trap volcanism: the post K–T boundary (Danian) palynofacies of Mumbai (Bombay), west India"
13969:
12779:
7151:
12934:"An experimental assessment of the ignition of forest fuels by the thermal pulse generated by the Cretaceous–Palaeogene impact at Chicxulub"
10910:
10015:"No post-Cretaceous ecosystem depression in European forests? Rich insect-feeding damage on diverse middle Palaeocene plants, Menat, France"
4918:
12752:
12274:
9065:
8064:
Martin, Jeremy E.; Pochat-Cottilloux, Yohan; Laurent, Yves; Perrier, Vincent; Robert, Emmanuel; Antoine, Pierre-Olivier (28 October 2022).
6312:
Wilf, P.; Labandeira, C. C.; Johnson, K. R.; Ellis, B. (2006). "Decoupled plant and insect diversity after the end-Cretaceous extinction".
4870:
Gedl, P. (2004). "Dinoflagellate cyst record of the deep-sea Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary at Uzgru, Carpathian Mountains, Czech Republic".
743:
13148:
Ohno, S.; et al. (2014). "Production of sulphate-rich vapour during the Chicxulub impact and implications for ocean acidification".
6962:"Phylogenomics reveals rapid, simultaneous diversification of three major clades of Gondwanan frogs at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary"
2650:
Shocked minerals have their internal structure deformed, and are created by intense pressures as in nuclear blasts and meteorite impacts.
2558:
8940:
Hou, L.; Martin, M.; Zhou, Z.; Feduccia, A. (1996). "Early Adaptive Radiation of Birds: Evidence from Fossils from Northeastern China".
1723:
would not need sunlight, allowing them to survive during a period when the atmosphere was likely clogged with dust and sulfur aerosols.
16708:
16653:
12991:
11491:
Bourgeois, J.; Hansen, T. A.; Wiberg, P. A.; Kauffman, E. G. (1988). "A tsunami deposit at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in Texas".
11057:
4731:
2695:
2451:, a drop in sea level. There is no direct evidence for the cause of the regression, but the currently accepted explanation is that the
1148:
There is limited evidence for extinction of amphibians at the K–Pg boundary. A study of fossil vertebrates across the K–Pg boundary in
785:
deposits for which the Cretaceous is named. The turnover in this group is clearly marked at the species level. Statistical analysis of
261:
10 to 15 km (6 to 9 mi) wide, 66 million years ago, which devastated the global environment, mainly through a lingering
11893:"Benthic foraminiferal turnover across the Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary at Agost (southeastern Spain): paleoenvironmental inferences"
8880:
7653:
Martin, Jeremy E.; Vincent, Peggy; Tacail, Théo; Khaldoune, Fatima; Jourani, Essaid; Bardet, Nathalie; Balter, Vincent (5 June 2017).
2149:. The aftermath of this immense asteroid collision, which occurred approximately 66 million years ago, is believed to have caused the
234:, which can be found throughout the world in marine and terrestrial rocks. The boundary clay shows unusually high levels of the metal
15181:"Extended Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary extinctions and delayed population change in planktonic foraminifera from Brazos River, Texas"
13928:
11998:
Keller, Gerta; Adatte, Thierry; Stinnesbeck, Wolfgang; STüBEN, Doris; Berner, Zsolt; Kramar, Utz; Harting, Markus (26 January 2010).
7554:
Klein, Catherine G.; Pisani, Davide; Field, Daniel J.; Lakin, Rebecca; Wills, Matthew A.; Longrich, Nicholas R. (14 September 2021).
5817:
Marshall, C. R.; Ward, P. D. (1996). "Sudden and Gradual Molluscan Extinctions in the Latest Cretaceous of Western European Tethys".
5473:"Shifts in sexual dimorphism across a mass extinction in ostracods: implications for sexual selection as a factor in extinction risk"
4152:
Weishampel, D. B.; Barrett, P. M. (2004). "Dinosaur distribution". In Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; Osmólska, Halszka (eds.).
2839:
Irizarry, Kayla M.; Witts, James T.; Garb, Matthew P.; Rashkova, Anastasia; Landman, Neil H.; Patzkowsky, Mark E. (15 January 2023).
2171:
1486:
789:
losses at this time suggests that the decrease in diversity was caused more by a sharp increase in extinctions than by a decrease in
10362:
Field, Daniel J.; Bercovici, Antoine; Berv, Jacob S.; Dunn, Regan; Fastovsky, David E.; Lyson, Tyler R.; et al. (24 May 2018).
6960:
Feng, Yan-Jie; Blackburn, David C.; Liang, Dan; Hillis, David M.; Wake, David B.; Cannatella, David C.; Zhang, Peng (18 July 2017).
5767:
MacLeod, K. G. (1994). "Extinction of Inoceramid Bivalves in Maastrichtian Strata of the Bay of Biscay Region of France and Spain".
16478:
15810:
13811:
13371:
Kaiho, Kunio; Oshima, Naga; Adachi, Kouji; Adachi, Yukimasa; Mizukami, Takuya; Fujibayashi, Megumu; Saito, Ryosuke (14 July 2016).
4656:
Pospichal, J. J. (1996). "Calcareous nannofossils and clastic sediments at the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary, northeastern Mexico".
2638:
2304:
and methane concentrations. The impact's injection of water vapour into the atmosphere also produced major climatic perturbations.
1041:, the shallow-water reefs in existence at that time, by the extinction event. Atelostomatans were affected by the Lilliput effect.
14475:"Integrated Paleocene calcareous plankton magnetobiochronology and stable isotope stratigraphy: DSDP Site 384 (NW Atlantic Ocean)"
3396:(2012). "The Cretaceous–Tertiary mass extinction, Chicxulub impact, and Deccan volcanism. Earth and life". In Talent, John (ed.).
3093:
2901:"High-latitude Cretaceous–Paleogene transition: New paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic insights from Seymour Island, Antarctica"
16728:
16440:
10126:
10078:
9798:
7115:
5872:"The first 2 million years after the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in east Texas: rate and paleoecology of the molluscan recovery"
11133:"Direct high-precision U–Pb geochronology of the end-Cretaceous extinction and calibration of Paleocene astronomical timescales"
10629:
Visscher, H.; Brinkhuis, H.; Dilcher, D. L.; Elsik, W. C.; Eshet, Y.; Looy, C. V.; Rampino, M. R.; Traverse, A. (5 March 1996).
1185:(a group of semi-aquatic diapsids of uncertain position) survived across the K–Pg boundary subsequently becoming extinct in the
332:, and sea level change. However, in January 2020, scientists reported that climate-modeling of the extinction event favored the
16580:
16425:
15872:
15091:
12932:
Belcher, Claire M.; Hadden, Rory M.; Rein, Guillermo; Morgan, Joanna V.; Artemieva, Natalia; Goldin, Tamara (22 January 2015).
12452:
9316:
6737:
5300:"The Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–P) boundary at Brazos, Texas: Sequence stratigraphy, depositional events and the Chicxulub impact"
5134:
4596:
4199:
2786:
2581:
478:
14214:
Courtillot, Vincent; Besse, Jean; Vandamme, Didier; Montigny, Raymond; Jaeger, Jean-Jacques; Cappetta, Henri (November 1986).
6939:
Gardner, J. D. (2000). "Albanerpetontid amphibians from the upper Cretaceous (Campanian and Maastrichtian) of North America".
5626:"Costacopluma (Decapoda: Brachyura: Retroplumidae) from the Maastrichtian and Paleocene of Senegal: A survivor of K/Pg events"
2841:"Faunal and stratigraphic analysis of the basal Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary event deposits, Brazos River, Texas, USA"
1210:
species passed through the K–Pg boundary. All six turtle families in existence at the end of the Cretaceous survived into the
16538:
16420:
15860:
15586:
15461:
15185:
14865:
14027:
13870:
13044:
12814:
Kring, David A. (2007). "The Chicxulub impact event and its environmental consequences at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary".
12665:
12519:
11043:
9997:
9971:
9406:
8682:
8563:
8518:
7367:
7163:
6904:
6495:
6430:
6187:
Wiese, Frank; Schlüter, Nils; Zirkel, Jessica; Herrle, Jens O.; Friedrich, Oliver (9 August 2023). Carnevale, Giorgio (ed.).
5410:
5186:
5006:
4169:
3794:
3417:
2760:
2735:
2679:
2569:
1727:
634:-eaters survived the extinction event, perhaps because of the increased availability of their food sources. Neither strictly
485:
14881:
Sprain, Courtney J.; Renne, Paul R.; Vanderkluysen, Loÿc; Pande, Kanchan; Self, Stephen; Mittal, Tushar (22 February 2019).
14756:"Extinction, survivorship and evolution of planktic foraminifera across the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary at El Kef, Tunisia"
9678:"Eutherians experienced elevated evolutionary rates in the immediate aftermath of the Cretaceous–Palaeogene mass extinction"
2411:
spanning the K–Pg boundary, and therefore may be responsible for the extinction and the delayed biotic recovery thereafter.
1938:
746:. The elimination of dominant Cretaceous groups allowed other organisms to take their place, causing a remarkable amount of
16703:
16178:
11546:"The Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary cocktail: Chicxulub impact triggers margin collapse and extensive sediment gravity flows"
5871:
7865:"Extinction of fish-shaped marine reptiles associated with reduced evolutionary rates and global environmental volatility"
4103:"Explosive morphological diversification of spiny-finned teleost fishes in the aftermath of the end-Cretaceous extinction"
3434:
1933:
many times greater than normal (30, 160, and 20 times in three sections originally studied). Iridium is extremely rare in
16738:
16611:
16360:
14423:
14312:
14220:
14049:
13763:
13707:
13659:
13611:
11137:
9423:
8444:"Late Maastrichtian pterosaurs from North Africa and mass extinction of Pterosauria at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary"
5252:"Comparative biogeographic analysis of planktic foraminiferal survivorship across the Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary"
3470:
2126:
10413:
933:
waters, became extinct. The solitary corals, which generally do not form reefs and inhabit colder and deeper (below the
16753:
16533:
15750:
14792:
Zhang, Laiming; Wang, Chengshan; Wignall, Paul B.; Kluge, Tobias; Wan, Xiaoqiao; Wang, Qian; Gao, Yuan (1 March 2018).
13570:
12453:"Baby, it's cold outside: Climate model simulations of the effects of the asteroid impact at the end of the Cretaceous"
12213:
12004:
11643:
8865:
Compelling new evidence for Paleocene dinosaurs in the Ojo Alamo Sandstone San Juan Basin, New Mexico and Colorado, USA
7978:
7023:
6511:
Noubhani, Abdelmajid (2010). "The Selachians' faunas of the Moroccan phosphate deposits and the K-T mass extinctions".
4107:
610:
Despite the event's severity, there was significant variability in the rate of extinction between and within different
14794:"Deccan volcanism caused coupled pCO2 and terrestrial temperature rises, and pre-impact extinctions in northern China"
12047:
7202:"Tracing the patterns of non-marine turtle richness from the Triassic to the Palaeogene: from origin to global spread"
5981:"The K/T event and infaunality: morphological and ecological patterns of extinction and recovery in veneroid bivalves"
5530:"Temporal shifts in ostracode sexual dimorphism from the Late Cretaceous to the late Eocene of the U.S. Coastal Plain"
5130:"How complete are Cretaceous /Tertiary boundary sections? A chronostratigraphic estimate based on graphic correlation"
2235:
rock containing a large amount of combustible hydrocarbons and sulfur, much of which was vaporized, thereby injecting
1529:. Several analyses of bird fossils show divergence of species prior to the K–Pg boundary, and that duck, chicken, and
16498:
15774:
15248:
14616:"Mercury as a proxy for volcanic activity during extreme environmental turnover: The Cretaceous–Paleogene transition"
13863:
The Ends of the World: Volcanic Apocalypses, Lethal Oceans, and Our Quest to Understand Earth's Past Mass Extinctions
13547:
Hand, Eric (17 November 2016). "Updated: Drilling of dinosaur-killing impact crater explains buried circular hills".
12938:
12302:
11288:
Smit, J.; Klaver, J. (1981). "Sanidine spherules at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary indicate a large impact event".
8066:"Anatomy and phylogeny of an exceptionally large sebecid (Crocodylomorpha) from the middle Eocene of southern France"
6166:"Variation in echinoid biodiversity during the Cenomanian-early Turonian transgressive episode in Charentes (France)"
6108:
Iba, Yasuhiro; Mutterlose, Jörg; Tanabe, Kazushige; Sano, Shin-ichi; Misaki, Akihiro; Terabe, Kazunobu (1 May 2011).
4936:
4307:
1878:
1848:
1662:
1448:, which suggests food was plentiful immediately prior to the extinction. A study of 29 fossil sites in Catalan
231:
11797:
Life after impact: A remarkable mammal burrow from the Chicxulub aftermath in the Hell Creek Formation, North Dakota
7795:
O'Keefe, F. R. (2001). "A cladistic analysis and taxonomic revision of the Plesiosauria (Reptilia: Sauropterygia)".
7615:"An early Eocene pan-gekkotan from France could represent an extra squamate group that survived the K-Pg extinction"
7200:
Cleary, Terri J.; Benson, Roger B. J.; Holroyd, Patricia A.; Barrett, Paul M. (10 May 2020). Mannion, Philip (ed.).
858:
foraminifera became extinct during the event, presumably because they depend on organic debris for nutrients, while
522:
427:
16632:
16601:
15798:
15786:
5374:
Kuhnt, W.; Collins, E. S. (1996). "8. Cretaceous to Paleogene benthic foraminifers from the Iberia abyssal plain".
5204:"The Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary stratotype section at El Kef, Tunisia: how catastrophic was the mass extinction?"
1231:, had begun to decline by the mid-Cretaceous, although they remained successful in the Late Cretaceous of southern
549:
492:
329:
11131:
Clyde, William C.; Ramezani, Jahandar; Johnson, Kirk R.; Bowring, Samuel A.; Jones, Matthew M. (15 October 2016).
9786:
1817:
lasted approximately 1,000 years, and no more than 71,000 years; at the same location, the earliest appearance of
1752:
the extinction-associated freezing to early June. A later study shifted the dating to spring season, based on the
16410:
16307:
15836:
15312:"End-Cretaceous extinction in Antarctica linked to both Deccan volcanism and meteorite impact via climate change"
13607:"The impact of the Cretaceous/Tertiary bolide on evaporite terrane and generation of major sulfuric acid aerosol"
12887:
12345:
12084:
9425:
The Extinction of the Multituberculates Outside North America: a Global Approach to Testing the Competition Model
8309:
8249:
7705:
7507:"A new polyglyphanodontian lizard with a complete lower temporal bar from the Upper Cretaceous of southern China"
7250:"Surviving the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction event: A terrestrial stem turtle in the Cenozoic of Laurasia"
6770:
6667:"Before and after the K/Pg extinction in West Antarctica: New marine fish records from Marambio (Seymour) Island"
5920:"Abundance not linked to survival across the end-Cretaceous mass extinction: Patterns in North American bivalves"
4774:
Jiang, Shijun; Bralower, Timothy J.; Patzkowsky, Mark E.; Kump, Lee R.; Schueth, Jonathan D. (28 February 2010).
3172:
2563:
2247:
2223:
radiation generated by the impact would have been absorbed by the atmosphere and ejecta in the lower atmosphere.
1458:
Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Alternatively, interpretation based on the fossil-bearing rocks along the
506:
309:, the usual sulfate-containing sea floor rock in the region: the gypsum would have vaporized and dispersed as an
15157:
12717:
11937:
Keller, G.; Adatte, T.; Stinnesbeck, W.; Rebolledo-Vieyra, _; Fucugauchi, J. U.; Kramar, U.; Stüben, D. (2004).
11615:
11563:
11352:
10348:
8787:
7156:
Through the End of the Cretaceous in the Type Locality of the Hell Creek Formation in Montana and Adjacent Areas
7036:
6094:
6054:
5998:
5147:
4752:
4679:
4567:
4473:
4392:
4253:
4212:
3297:
3279:
893:
across the K–Pg boundary. The apparent rate is influenced by a lack of fossil records, rather than extinctions.
16713:
16287:
15233:
Global Catastrophes in Earth History; An Interdisciplinary Conference on Impacts, Volcanism, and Mass Mortality
14566:
Milligan, Joseph N.; Royer, Dana L.; Franks, Peter J.; Upchurch, Garland R.; McKee, Melissa L. (7 March 2019).
12640:
12310:
11333:
Olsson, Richard K.; Miller, Kenneth G.; Browning, James V.; Habib, Daniel; Sugarman, Peter J. (1 August 1997).
10470:"Plants with double genomes might have had a better chance to survive the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event"
10170:"Divergence rates of subviral pathogens of angiosperms abruptly decreased at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary"
10074:"Flora development in Northeastern Asia and Northern Alaska during the Cretaceous-Paleogene transitional epoch"
9964:
Global Catastrophes in Earth History: An interdisciplinary conference on impacts, volcanism, and mass mortality
8391:
6889:
Global Catastrophes in Earth History: an Interdisciplinary Conference on Impacts, Volcanism, and Mass Mortality
4194:
2318:
1657:
In some regions, the Paleocene recovery of plants began with recolonizations by fern species, represented as a
687:
than among animals living on or in the sea floor. Animals in the water column are almost entirely dependent on
14448:
9321:(Mammalia, Dryolestida) from the early Paleocene of Patagonia, a survival from a Mesozoic Gondwanan radiation"
7991:
5528:
Samuels-Fair, Maya; Martins, Maria João Fernandes; Lockwood, Rowan; Swaddle, John P.; Hunt, Gene (June 2022).
4380:
293:
in the early 1990s, which provided conclusive evidence that the K–Pg boundary clay represented debris from an
16733:
16637:
15494:
15482:
14436:
13997:
13954:
13913:
12748:
11592:
Pope, K. O.; Ocampo, A. C.; Kinsland, G. L.; Smith, R. (1996). "Surface expression of the Chicxulub crater".
11335:"Ejecta layer at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, Bass River, New Jersey (Ocean Drilling Program Leg 174AX)"
10122:"Albian-Paleocene flora of the north pacific: Systematic composition, palaeofloristics and phytostratigraphy"
9865:
7619:
6837:
5582:
5304:
3536:
3334:"Rapid ocean acidification and protracted Earth system recovery followed the end-Cretaceous Chicxulub impact"
2207:
2099:
559:
514:
419:
14349:"Recurring volcanic winters during the latest Cretaceous: Sulfur and fluorine budgets of Deccan Traps lavas"
10364:"Early evolution of modern birds structured by global forest collapse at the end-Cretaceous mass extinction"
16468:
15559:
15514:
14572:
12460:
9502:
Springer, Mark S.; Foley, Nicole M.; Brady, Peggy L.; Gatesy, John; Murphy, William J. (29 November 2019).
6110:"Belemnite extinction and the origin of modern cephalopods 35 m.y. prior to the Cretaceous−Paleogene event"
1730:, the largest known mass extinction in Earth's history, with up to 96% of all species suffering extinction.
526:
431:
14615:
10414:"Online guide to the continental Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary in the Raton basin, Colorado and New Mexico"
6558:"Global impact and selectivity of the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction among sharks, skates, and rays"
5577:
3577:
Chiarenza, Alfio Alessandro; Farnsworth, Alexander; Mannion, Philip D.; Lunt, Daniel J.; Valdes, Paul J.;
2900:
2840:
2311:
definitively known to be associated with an impact, and other large extraterrestrial impacts, such as the
1061:, produced by either cicada nymphs or beetle larvae, over the course of the K-Pg transition show that the
16748:
16718:
16682:
16553:
14671:
12996:
11999:
11638:
11038:. Vol. Special Publication 190. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America. pp. 291–296.
10440:
8121:"Biotic and abiotic factors and the phylogenetic structure of extinction in the evolution of Tethysuchia"
7863:
Fischer, Valentin; Bardet, Nathalie; Benson, Roger B. J.; Arkhangelsky, Maxim S.; Friedman, Matt (2016).
7613:Čerňanský, Andrej; Daza, Juan; Tabuce, Rodolphe; Saxton, Elizabeth; Vidalenc, Dominique (December 2023).
7152:"Temporal changes within the latest Cretaceous and early Paleogene turtle faunas of northeastern Montana"
6365:
Wiest, Logan A.; Lukens, William E.; Peppe, Daniel J.; Driese, Steven G.; Tubbs, Jack (1 February 2018).
5203:
2300:
also increased and caused particularly devastating global warming because of the consequent increases in
1244:
758:
suggests that biotic recovery was more rapid in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere.
519:
424:
8013:
Aubier, Paul; Jouve, Stéphane; Schnyder, Johann; Cubo, Jorge (20 February 2023). Mannion, Philip (ed.).
4693:
Bown, P. (2005). "Selective calcareous nannoplankton survivorship at the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary".
1623:
985:
bivalves from the Late Cretaceous of the Omani Mountains, United Arab Emirates. Scale bar is 10 mm.
956:
of marine invertebrates, survived the K–Pg extinction event and diversified during the early Paleocene.
727:
included these shell builders, became extinct or suffered heavy losses. For example, it is thought that
527:
432:
343:
A wide range of terrestrial species perished in the K–Pg extinction, the best-known being the non-avian
16201:
11545:
11334:
10013:
Wappler, Torsten; Currano, Ellen D.; Wilf, Peter; Rust, Jes; Labandeira, Conrad C. (22 December 2009).
9247:
3883:
3056:
2334:
1823:
1784:
suggests that the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction happened during the Northern Hemisphere spring.
1198:
palatal teeth suggest that there were dietary changes among the various species across the K–Pg event.
15180:
15083:
13088:"Site of asteroid impact changed the history of life on Earth: The low probability of mass extinction"
10325:
Schultz, P.; d'Hondt, S. (1996). "Cretaceous–Tertiary (Chicxulub) impact angle and its consequences".
10218:"No phylogenetic evidence for angiosperm mass extinction at the Cretaceous–Palaeogene (K-Pg) boundary"
10072:
Herman, A. B.; Akhmetiev, M. A.; Kodrul, T. M.; Moiseeva, M. G.; Iakovleva, A. I. (24 February 2009).
8621:"The Hell Creek Formation and its contribution to the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction: A short primer"
6366:
5024:"Sedimentology and extinction patterns across the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary interval in east Texas"
4539:"Mosasaur predation on upper Cretaceous nautiloids and ammonites from the United States Pacific Coast"
3400:
Earth and Life: Global Biodiversity, Extinction Intervals and Biogeographic Perturbations Through Time
2267:
would have a reasonable chance of survival. In 2016, a scientific drilling project obtained deep rock-
1684:
Beyond extinction impacts, the event also caused more general changes of flora such as giving rise to
963:
genera exhibited significant diminution after the K–Pg boundary. Entire groups of bivalves, including
16543:
15896:
15762:
15579:
13703:"Impact winter and the Cretaceous/Tertiary extinctions: Results of a Chicxulub asteroid impact model"
13251:"On transient climate change at the Cretaceous−Paleogene boundary due to atmospheric soot injections"
12851:
11081:"A Short Duration of the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary Event: Evidence from Extraterrestrial Helium-3"
10631:"The terminal Paleozoic fungal event: evidence of terrestrial ecosystem destabilization and collapse"
8065:
1950:
1266:, a diverse group of mainly herbivorous lizards known predominantly from the Northern Hemisphere The
525:
524:
430:
429:
14264:"Deccan volcanism at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary: past climatic crises as a key to the future?"
13807:"Hydrocode simulation of the Chicxulub impact event and the production of climatically active gases"
12235:
9204:"Phylogenomics and Morphology of Extinct Paleognaths Reveal the Origin and Evolution of the Ratites"
8203:
1946:
622:
reaching the ground. This plant extinction caused a major reshuffling of the dominant plant groups.
521:
426:
16575:
16567:
16463:
16415:
16171:
15848:
15702:
14567:
12580:"A possible tsunami deposit at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in Pernambuco, northeastern Brazil"
8918:
2552:
2039:
1021:
class Cephalopoda became extinct at the K–Pg boundary. These included the ecologically significant
520:
518:
499:
425:
423:
321:
and produced long-lasting effects on the climate, detailing the mechanisms of the mass extinction.
17:
15033:"State shift in Deccan volcanism at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, possibly induced by impact"
7655:"Calcium Isotopic Evidence for Vulnerable Marine Ecosystem Structure Prior to the K/Pg Extinction"
6920:
Estes, R. (1964). "Fossil vertebrates from the late Cretaceous Lance formation, eastern Wyoming".
4490:"Shifts in food webs and niche stability shaped survivorship and extinction at the end-Cretaceous"
2198:
The re-entry of ejecta into Earth's atmosphere included a brief (hours-long) but intense pulse of
528:
523:
433:
428:
16513:
15726:
15478:
15266:"Calcareous Nannofossil Succession across the Cretaceous/Tertiary Boundary in East-Central Texas"
14941:
14707:
14474:
13758:
12266:
12079:
11892:
11747:
11261:
9061:
8019:
7815:
7206:
6666:
6622:
5769:
5625:
5529:
5299:
4822:
Schueth, Jonathan D.; Bralower, Timothy J.; Jiang, Shijun; Patzkowsky, Mark E. (September 2015).
2472:
2423:
2255:
1794:
1411:
1391:
1298:
had disappeared from fossil record tens of millions of years prior to the K-Pg extinction event.
14755:
14473:
Berggren, W.A; Aubry, M.-P; van Fossen, M; Kent, D.V; Norris, R.D; Quillévéré, F (1 June 2000).
14263:
14215:
14150:
Courtillot, V.; Féraud, G.; Maluski, H.; Vandamme, D.; Moreau, M. G.; Besse, J. (30 June 1988).
14044:
13806:
13702:
13654:
13606:
12739:
12504:
11799:
Paper No. 113–16, presented 23 October 2017 at the GSA Annual Meeting, Seattle, Washington, USA.
11796:
11782:
Paper No. 113–15, presented 23 October 2017 at the GSA Annual Meeting, Seattle, Washington, USA.
11779:
11080:
8674:
8580:
8343:
7752:
Chatterjee, S.; Small, B. J. (1989). "New plesiosaurs from the Upper Cretaceous of Antarctica".
5092:"The Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary transition in the Antarctic Ocean and its global implications"
5091:
5023:
2296:
rain through the production of nitrogen oxides and their subsequent reaction with water vapour.
1719:
are almost exclusive microfossils for a short span during and after the iridium boundary. These
450:
84:
16380:
16332:
14990:"Stable climate in India during Deccan volcanism suggests limited influence on K–Pg extinction"
13436:
13373:"Global climate change driven by soot at the K-Pg boundary as the cause of the mass extinction"
12883:"Energy, volatile production, and climatic effects of the Chicxulub Cretaceous/Tertiary impact"
12777:
Smit, Jan (1999). "The global stratigraphy of the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary impact ejecta".
12230:
10277:
8547:
8399:
8347:
8302:"The rise of birds and mammals: Are microevolutionary processes sufficient for macroevolution?"
8125:
7111:"100 million years of land vertebrate evolution: The Cretaceous-early Tertiary transition"
5876:
5624:
Hyžný, Matúš; Perrier, Vincent; Robin, Ninon; Martin, Jeremy E.; Sarr, Raphaël (January 2016).
5256:
5022:
Hansen, T.; Farrand, R.B.; Montgomery, H.A.; Billman, H.G.; Blechschmidt, G. (September 1987).
4828:
4739:
4240:
4161:
3996:"The fossil record of North American Mammals: evidence for a Palaeocene evolutionary radiation"
3899:"Ecomorphological selectivity among marine teleost fishes during the end-Cretaceous extinction"
3409:
2214:
suggested that, based on the amount of soot in the global debris layer, the entire terrestrial
2114:
1720:
1647:
1407:
937:) areas of the ocean were less impacted by the K–Pg boundary. Colonial coral species rely upon
14857:
13488:"Rapid short-term cooling following the Chicxulub impact at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary"
12655:
11436:"Shocked quartz in the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary clays: Evidence for a global distribution"
7186:
6367:"Terrestrial evidence for the Lilliput effect across the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary"
3194:"Rapid short-term cooling following the Chicxulub impact at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary"
1646:
Due to the wholesale destruction of plants at the K–Pg boundary, there was a proliferation of
607:. Nevertheless, high latitudes appear to have been less strongly affected than low latitudes.
16743:
16503:
16458:
16337:
16226:
16216:
15822:
15375:
15316:
15134:
Li, Liangquan; Keller, Gerta (1998). "Abrupt deep-sea warming at the end of the Cretaceous".
14015:
13991:
13974:
13948:
13907:
12267:"NASA's WISE raises doubt about asteroid family believed responsible for dinosaur extinction"
11234:
9508:
9295:
8280:
7869:
7723:
7560:
5722:
Raup, D. M.; Jablonski, D. (1993). "Geography of end-Cretaceous marine bivalve extinctions".
4996:
2312:
840:
to the Upper Paleocene, a significant turnover in species but not a catastrophic extinction.
14708:"Late Cretaceous to early Paleocene climate and sea-level fluctuations: the Tunisian record"
14684:
14325:
14233:
13776:
13720:
13672:
13624:
13249:
Bardeen, Charles G.; Garcia, Rolando R.; Toon, Owen B.; Conley, Andrew J. (21 August 2017).
12226:
11150:
11033:
8539:
8243:
Slack, K, E; Jones, C M; Ando, T; Harrison, G L; Fordyce, R E; Arnason, U; Penny, D (2006).
4153:
3961:
Jablonski, D.; Chaloner, W. G. (1994). "Extinctions in the fossil record (and discussion)".
3397:
2699:
2141:
Artistic impression of the asteroid slamming into tropical, shallow seas of the sulfur-rich
198:
weighing more than 25 kilograms (55 pounds) also became extinct, with the exception of some
16606:
16375:
16365:
16322:
15572:
15407:
15325:
15145:
15100:
15046:
15003:
14955:
14896:
14807:
14721:
14680:
14629:
14532:
14488:
14362:
14321:
14277:
14229:
14165:
14101:
13820:
13772:
13716:
13668:
13620:
13501:
13431:
13200:
13159:
13099:
12896:
12825:
12788:
12705:
12628:
12591:
12552:
12469:
12402:
12354:
12222:
12193:
12129:
11952:
11904:
11849:
11701:
11603:
11502:
11449:
11392:
11299:
11146:
11097:
10953:
10866:
10853:
During, Melanie A. D.; Smit, Jan; Voeten, Dennis F. A. E.; et al. (23 February 2022).
10809:
10751:
10703:
10644:
10572:
10483:
10336:
9920:
9844:
9753:
9630:
9363:
9259:
9150:
9011:
8951:
8872:
8863:
8820:
8775:
8710:
8634:
8408:
8356:
8077:
8028:
7878:
7829:
7761:
7569:
7518:
7453:
7316:
6746:
6631:
6571:
6522:
6460:
6380:
6323:
6266:
6123:
6082:
6042:
5828:
5778:
5733:
5673:
5437:
5348:
4961:
4879:
4776:"Geographic controls on nannoplankton extinction across the Cretaceous/Palaeogene boundary"
4704:
4667:
4605:
4555:
4461:
4421:
4368:
4316:
4056:
3912:
3825:
3738:
3672:
3596:
3515:
3439:
3405:
3347:
3267:
3207:
3140:
2982:
2912:
2854:
2795:
2468:
2439:
2251:
2007:
1831:
1749:
1737:
1471:
1399:
1247:. Outside of New Zealand, one rhynchocephalian is known to have crossed the K-Pg boundary,
890:
12933:
9504:"Evolutionary Models for the Diversification of Placental Mammals Across the KPg Boundary"
7154:. In Wilson, Gregory P.; Clemens, William A.; Horner, John R.; Hartman, Joseph H. (eds.).
6557:
2483:
environments, since continental runoff now had longer distances to travel before reaching
2142:
1987:
1973:
and other minerals were also identified in the K–Pg boundary. The identification of giant
290:
190:
approximately 66 million years ago. The event caused the extinction of all non-avian
8:
16672:
16435:
16317:
16312:
16302:
16221:
16164:
14883:"The eruptive tempo of Deccan volcanism in relation to the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary"
14568:"No Evidence for a Large Atmospheric CO 2 Spike Across the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary"
14523:
13038:
Morgan, Joanna V.; Bralower, Timothy J.; Brugger, Julia; Wünnemann, Kai (12 April 2022).
12389:"Meteorite impact and the mass extinction of species at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary"
10692:"Palaeobotanical evidence for a June 'impact winter' at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary"
9614:
8625:
8503:
7926:
7820:
7201:
6671:
5630:
5028:
2555: – One of the five most severe extinction events in the history of the Earth's biota
2146:
1995:
1906:
1870:
1777:
1482:
1467:
882:
755:
462:
318:
250:
15564:
15549:
15411:
15329:
15149:
15104:
15050:
15007:
14959:
14900:
14811:
14725:
14633:
14536:
14492:
14391:
14366:
14348:
14281:
14169:
14105:
13824:
13701:
Pope, Kevin O.; Baines, Kevin H.; Ocampo, Adriana C.; Ivanov, Boris A. (December 1994).
13505:
13204:
13163:
13103:
12900:
12829:
12792:
12709:
12632:
12595:
12556:
12473:
12406:
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11956:
11908:
11853:
11705:
11607:
11506:
11453:
11396:
11380:
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10957:
10870:
10813:
10755:
10707:
10648:
10576:
10529:
10487:
10340:
10250:
10217:
9924:
9848:
9757:
9634:
9367:
9263:
9154:
9015:
8955:
8876:
8824:
8779:
8714:
8638:
8412:
8360:
8081:
8032:
7969:
Jouve, S.; Bardet, N.; Jalil, N.-E.; Suberbiola, X. P.; Bouya, B.; Amaghzaz, M. (2008).
7882:
7833:
7765:
7614:
7573:
7522:
7457:
7320:
6750:
6635:
6575:
6526:
6464:
6384:
6327:
6270:
6225:
6188:
6127:
6086:
6046:
5832:
5782:
5737:
5677:
5441:
5352:
4965:
4883:
4708:
4671:
4609:
4559:
4465:
4425:
4372:
4320:
4060:
3916:
3829:
3812:"First evidence for a massive extinction event affecting bees close to the K-T boundary"
3742:
3676:
3600:
3519:
3351:
3271:
3211:
3144:
3083:
2986:
2966:"The Chicxulub Asteroid Impact and Mass Extinction at the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary"
2916:
2858:
2799:
1661:
in the geologic record; this same pattern of fern recolonization was observed after the
16758:
15604:
15534:
15430:
15395:
15346:
15311:
15285:
15161:
15116:
14189:
14125:
13655:"Bolide impacts, acid rain, and biospheric traumas at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary"
13575:
13524:
13487:
13407:
13377:
13372:
13348:
13311:
13287:
13250:
13224:
13120:
13087:
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12248:
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12183:
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12017:
11873:
11724:
11687:
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10997:
10979:
10887:
10854:
10830:
10797:
10772:
10739:
10719:
10604:
10506:
10469:
10395:
10307:
10191:
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10014:
9944:
9886:
9712:
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9540:
9503:
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9115:
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3333:
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3230:
3193:
3164:
3006:
2965:
2928:
2870:
2811:
2301:
2272:
2137:
2010:, a group of rocks spanning four states in North America renowned for many significant
1852:
1726:
The proliferation of fungi has occurred after several extinction events, including the
1614:
1605:
interpreted as diversifying immediately after the K–Pg boundary, including Chiroptera (
1432:
1349:
1263:
1227:
which were a globally distributed and diverse group of lepidosaurians during the early
1215:
diminished. European turtles likewise recovered rapidly following the mass extinction.
1038:
1002:
747:
688:
658:
384:
278:
258:
137:
than the upper and lower layers. Picture taken at the San Diego Natural History Museum;
14733:
14692:
14663:
14544:
14500:
11975:
11938:
11916:
11748:"National Natural Landmarks – National Natural Landmarks (U.S. National Park Service)"
11490:
11175:
10186:
9829:
9737:"Cope's rule and the dynamics of body mass evolution in North American fossil mammals"
9736:
9653:
9616:
8994:
8301:
8201:
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5956:
5919:
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6426:
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6314:
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6212:
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6073:
6033:
6002:
5961:
5943:
5893:
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5819:
5798:
5749:
5724:
5693:
5599:
5510:
5492:
5406:
5387:
5273:
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5221:
5182:
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5041:
5002:
4981:
4932:
4899:
4845:
4797:
4780:
4695:
4658:
4635:
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4519:
4452:
4412:
4359:
4336:
4175:
4165:
4154:
4134:
4072:
4047:
4019:
3940:
3853:
3790:
3766:
3700:
3632:
3614:
3553:
3541:
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3413:
3398:
3375:
3258:
3235:
3156:
3131:
3121:
2998:
2973:
2932:
2874:
2815:
2756:
2731:
2675:
2505:
2459:
2289:
2218:
might have burned, implying a global soot-cloud blocking out the sun and creating an
2121:
1685:
1160:
1032:
Approximately 35% of echinoderm genera became extinct at the K–Pg boundary, although
859:
767:
700:
618:
declined or became extinct as atmospheric particles blocked sunlight and reduced the
257:, it is now generally thought that the K–Pg extinction was caused by the impact of a
117:
12489:
12252:
12170:
11877:
11477:
11420:
10399:
10311:
9948:
9337:
8979:
8848:
8428:
8376:
8188:
7999:
7731:
7044:
6832:
6766:
6351:
4760:
4388:
4261:
4084:
3168:
2389:
would since have been obscured by the northward tectonic drift of Africa and India.
1498:
123:
Complex Cretaceous–Paleogene clay layer (gray) in the Geulhemmergroeve tunnels near
16647:
16395:
16370:
16327:
16297:
16246:
16241:
15671:
15629:
15618:
15425:
15415:
15341:
15333:
15277:
15236:
15229:"The Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary impact hypothesis and the paleontological record"
15194:
15153:
15120:
15108:
15054:
15011:
14963:
14904:
14815:
14767:
14729:
14688:
14637:
14581:
14540:
14496:
14432:
14386:
14370:
14353:
14329:
14285:
14237:
14193:
14173:
14156:
14129:
14109:
14092:
14058:
13828:
13780:
13724:
13676:
13628:
13552:
13519:
13509:
13445:
13432:"Chicxulub and Climate: Radiative Perturbations of Impact-Produced S-Bearing Gases"
13402:
13386:
13343:
13325:
13282:
13264:
13208:
13167:
13115:
13107:
13053:
13005:
12955:
12947:
12904:
12833:
12796:
12713:
12636:
12599:
12560:
12477:
12420:
12410:
12362:
12240:
12157:
12137:
12120:
12093:
12013:
11970:
11960:
11912:
11857:
11719:
11709:
11652:
11611:
11559:
11530:
11510:
11457:
11400:
11348:
11319:
11307:
11290:
11189:
11154:
11105:
11029:
10961:
10944:
10882:
10874:
10825:
10817:
10767:
10759:
10723:
10711:
10662:
10652:
10580:
10559:"Extinction at the end-Cretaceous and the origin of modern Neotropical rainforests"
10501:
10491:
10377:
10344:
10291:
10245:
10229:
10181:
10135:
10087:
10044:
10028:
9928:
9860:
9852:
9761:
9707:
9691:
9648:
9638:
9590:
9574:
9535:
9517:
9474:
9466:
9451:
Pires, Mathias M.; Rankin, Brian D.; Silvestro, Daniele; Quental, Tiago B. (2018).
9371:
9287:
9267:
9250:
9217:
9166:
9158:
9110:
9102:
9047:
9027:
9019:
9002:
8993:
Clarke, J.A.; Tambussi, C.P.; Noriega, J.I.; Erickson, G.M.; Ketcham, R.A. (2005).
8959:
8828:
8808:
8783:
8762:
8745:
8718:
8642:
8594:
8551:
8465:
8455:
8416:
8364:
8318:
8258:
8176:
8166:
8134:
8085:
8036:
7987:
7935:
7896:
7886:
7837:
7769:
7719:
7668:
7628:
7585:
7577:
7556:"Evolution and dispersal of snakes across the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction"
7526:
7477:
7461:
7412:
7396:
7344:
7324:
7279:
7263:
7215:
7124:
7081:
7073:
7032:
6993:
6975:
6892:
6846:
6796:
6754:
6688:
6680:
6639:
6579:
6530:
6468:
6388:
6331:
6284:
6274:
6220:
6202:
6131:
6090:
6050:
6029:
5994:
5951:
5933:
5885:
5856:
5836:
5786:
5741:
5681:
5639:
5591:
5549:
5545:
5541:
5500:
5484:
5445:
5383:
5356:
5313:
5265:
5217:
5143:
5103:
5037:
4969:
4924:
4887:
4837:
4789:
4748:
4712:
4675:
4621:
4613:
4563:
4509:
4501:
4469:
4429:
4376:
4324:
4249:
4208:
4124:
4116:
4064:
4009:
3970:
3930:
3920:
3843:
3833:
3756:
3746:
3690:
3680:
3622:
3604:
3531:
3523:
3365:
3355:
3275:
3225:
3215:
3148:
3010:
2990:
2924:
2920:
2862:
2803:
2467:
and increasing global temperatures. Marine regression also resulted in the loss of
2362:
2342:
2308:
2150:
2087:
2023:
2015:
1983:
1979:
1922:
1856:
1827:
1568:
1361:
1113:(skates and rays) lost nearly all the identifiable species, while more than 90% of
825:
751:
716:
553:
282:
243:
172:
31:
12800:
11109:
9375:
8963:
8647:
8620:
8089:
7841:
7773:
7531:
7506:
6833:"Explosive diversification of marine fishes at the Cretaceous–Palaeogene boundary"
6684:
5840:
5643:
5578:"Selective extinction at the end-Cretaceous and appearance of the modern Decapoda"
4973:
4891:
4408:
3152:
1470:. Evidence of this existence is based on the discovery of dinosaur remains in the
127:, The Netherlands (finger is just below the actual Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary);
16355:
16292:
15510:
15451:
14967:
14641:
12837:
12616:
11514:
11461:
11404:
10368:
9765:
9457:
9208:
9093:
8832:
8722:
8598:
8460:
7659:
7385:"The youngest South American rhynchocephalian, a survivor of the K/Pg extinction"
7110:
6891:. Special Paper. Vol. 247. Geological Society of America. pp. 549–562.
6787:
Friedman, Matt; V. Andrews, James; Saad, Hadeel; El-Sayed, Sanaa (16 June 2023).
6727:
6664:
6472:
6392:
6207:
5317:
4068:
3838:
3088:
2866:
2452:
2292:. The heating of the atmosphere during the impact itself may have also generated
1974:
1934:
1514:
1494:
1353:
1308:
1224:
1062:
1050:
889:
There is significant variation in the fossil record as to the extinction rate of
333:
294:
223:
14088:"Rapid eruption of the Deccan flood basalts at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary"
11861:
11591:
11235:"Darkness caused by dino-killing asteroid snuffed out life on Earth in 9 months"
9089:"Diversification of Neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and fossils"
8749:
7968:
7924:
Brochu, C. A. (2004). "Calibration age and quartet divergence date estimation".
7706:"Consequences of the Cretaceous/Paleogene Mass Extinction for Marine Ecosystems"
6311:
6250:
5298:
Schulte, Peter; Speijer, Robert; Mai, Hartmut; Kontny, Agnes (1 February 2006).
2669:
55:
16508:
16483:
15613:
15519:
15447:
15396:"A seismically induced onshore surge deposit at the KPg boundary, North Dakota"
14333:
13784:
13493:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
13449:
13317:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
13212:
13111:
13057:
12880:
12394:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
12210:
11944:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
11693:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
11688:"A seismically induced onshore surge deposit at the KPG boundary, North Dakota"
11159:
11132:
10966:
10939:
10878:
10821:
10763:
10636:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
10475:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
9622:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
8368:
8322:
7581:
7383:
Apesteguía, Sebastián; Gómez, Raúl O.; Rougier, Guillermo W. (7 October 2014).
7267:
6967:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6258:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5925:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3730:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3664:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3588:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3583:"Asteroid impact, not volcanism, caused the end-Cretaceous dinosaur extinction"
3339:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3199:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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2517:
2346:
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The scientific consensus is that the asteroid impact at the K–Pg boundary left
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1970:
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layers found all over the world at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary contain a
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in Colorado, indicate that the animal lived during the Cenozoic, approximately
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286:
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14664:"The end-cretaceous mass extinction in the marine realm: Year 2000 assessment"
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Barras, Colin (5 April 2019). "Does fossil site record dino-killing impact?".
11053:
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10363:
10139:
10091:
9830:"Brawn before brains in placental mammals after the end-Cretaceous extinction"
9453:"Diversification dynamics of mammalian clades during the K–Pg mass extinction"
9222:
9203:
8245:"Early Penguin Fossils, Plus Mitochondrial Genomes, Calibrate Avian Evolution"
8180:
7673:
7654:
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Herrera-Flores, Jorge A.; Stubbs, Thomas L.; Benton, Michael J. (March 2021).
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The event appears to have affected all continents at the same time. Non-avian
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rock with an intermediate claystone layer that contains 1,000 times more
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13312:"Organic matter from the Chicxulub crater exacerbated the K–Pg impact winter"
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Geological implications of impacts of large asteroids and comets on the Earth
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Halliday, Thomas John Dixon; Upchurch, Paul; Goswami, Anjali (29 June 2016).
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8995:"Definitive fossil evidence for the extant avian radiation in the Cretaceous"
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3053:"Scientists reconstruct ancient impact that dwarfs dinosaur-extinction blast"
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2003:
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10911:"Springtime was the season the dinosaurs died, ancient fish fossils suggest"
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8263:
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of North America. The loss of these seas greatly altered habitats, removing
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of rock, crystallized from droplets of molten rock formed by the impact.
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in extreme detail. Amber from the site has been reported to contain
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147:, which are another hypothesized cause of the K–Pg extinction event.
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249:
As originally proposed in 1980 by a team of scientists led by
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In 2007, it was proposed that the impactor belonged to the
1942:
1609:) and Cetartiodactyla (a diverse group that today includes
650:
218:
era, while heralding the beginning of the current era, the
15525:
Robert A. de Palm has found strong evidence that the
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2050:, shows an abrupt change from dark- to light-colored rock.
1534:
that a mass extinction of archaic birds took place there.
1521:
became extinct, including then-flourishing groups such as
15594:
15303:
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13184:
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The collision would have released the same energy as 100
1606:
1598:
1254:
known from the earliest Paleocene (Danian) of Patagonia.
400:
15533:—were indeed wiped out 66 million years ago by the
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Fastovsky, David E.; Bercovici, Antoine (January 2016).
8299:
6959:
5721:
5576:
Schweitzer, Carrie E; Feldmann, Rodney M (1 June 2023).
5001:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 2.
4954:
Special Publications of the Geological Society of London
4872:
Special Publications of the Geological Society of London
2778:
15552:—University of California Museum of Paleontology (1995)
14705:
14613:
13370:
13248:
12931:
12175:
The Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada
12076:
11813:
Large Meteorite Impacts VI 2019 (LPI Contrib. No. 2136)
10467:
10438:
10020:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
9683:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
9675:
9566:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
9314:
8012:
7389:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
6107:
5706:
5623:
5477:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
5373:
5297:
3722:
3718:
3716:
3714:
13700:
13309:
12451:
Brugger, Julia; Feulner, Georg; Petri, Stefan (2016).
11808:
11173:
10361:
10266:
10012:
8673:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp.
8242:
7382:
6364:
6163:
5709:
Memoir of the Association of Australasian Paleontology
3246:
2600:
The abbreviation is derived from the juxtaposition of
1235:. They are represented today by a single species, the
15309:
14791:
13605:
Sigurdsson, H.; D'Hondt, S.; Carey, S. (April 1992).
12514:. Vol. 15: Tsunamis. Boston, MA: Harvard University.
12387:
Pope, K. O.; d'Hondt, S. L.; Marshall. C. R. (1998).
8911:
Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs
8441:
7553:
4305:(1997). "The Cretaceous–Tertiary biotic transition".
4237:
3960:
3873:
3871:
3869:
3867:
2566: – Extinction event around 444 million years ago
2433:
1822:
years. Models presented at the annual meeting of the
1109:, skates, and rays) disappeared after this event and
770:
represents one of the most dramatic turnovers in the
15227:
Keller, Gerta; Barrera, Enriqueta (1 January 1990).
13429:
11434:
Bohor, B. F.; Modreski, P. J.; Foord, E. E. (1987).
11258:
8532:
8530:
8442:
Longrich, N. R.; Martill, D. M.; Andres, B. (2018).
8204:"Pterosaur distribution in time and space: an atlas"
8118:
7711:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
7150:
Holroyd, Patricia A.; Hutchinson, J. Howard (2013).
4923:. Society of Sedimentary Geology. pp. 157–178.
4193:
Barrera, Enriqueta; Keller, Gerta (1 October 1994).
4096:
4094:
4037:
4035:
4033:
3711:
3656:
2455:
became less active and sank under their own weight.
14521:Courtillot, Vincent (1990). "A volcanic eruption".
14413:
13804:
11890:
11233:updated, Mindy Weisberger last (22 December 2021).
7058:Matsumoto, Ryoko; Evans, Susan E. (November 2015).
5869:
4233:
4231:
4229:
3789:. Geological Society of America. pp. 297–327.
3652:
3650:
3648:
3646:
3499:
3026:"The Asteroid and the Dinosaur (Nova S08E08, 1981)"
2750:
2458:A severe regression would have greatly reduced the
1813:, after the K–Pg boundary layer was deposited, the
14849:
11287:
10324:
9828:
9399:Classification of mammals: Above the species level
9243:
9241:
8666:
8618:
8542:Biological Processes Associated with Impact Events
7794:
6619:
6420:
5575:
5202:Keller, G.; Li, L.; MacLeod, N. (1 January 1996).
5128:Macleod, Norman; Keller, Gerta (1 November 1991).
4730:Bambach, R. K.; Knoll, A. H.; Wang, S. C. (2004).
3864:
3051:Sleep, Norman H.; Lowe, Donald R. (9 April 2014).
2584: – Mass extinction ending the Triassic period
2385:. Any other craters that might have formed in the
1591:became extinct (aside from the lineage leading to
1513:regard birds as the only surviving dinosaurs (see
1069:extinction. The advanced mound-building termites,
885:(Upper Cretaceous), Owl Creek, Ripley, Mississippi
15231:. In Sharpton, Virgil L.; Ward, Peter D. (eds.).
14947:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
14713:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
14621:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
14480:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
14269:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
12817:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
10276:Vajda, Vivi; McLoughlin, Stephen (5 March 2004).
9866:20.500.11820/d7fb8c6e-886e-4c1d-9977-0cd6406fda20
8702:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
8586:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
8527:
7149:
6452:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
6372:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
6246:
6244:
5209:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
4091:
4030:
3986:
3984:
3537:20.500.11820/483a2e77-318f-476a-8fec-33a45fbdc90b
2846:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
1101:, approximately 7 out of the 41 families of
828:as a result of cooling temperatures in the early
819:have left a geological record since at least the
742:The K–Pg extinction had a profound effect on the
16695:
15394:DePalma, Robert A.; et al. (1 April 2019).
14004:
13978:. Archived from the original on 11 December 2011
12303:"How an asteroid ended the age of the dinosaurs"
9908:
7745:
4655:
4226:
3956:
3954:
3809:
3643:
3327:
3325:
2487:. While this change was favorable to freshwater
1715:recovery after the impact. Monoporisporites and
1617:), although recent research concludes that only
355:. In the oceans, the K–Pg extinction killed off
27:Mass extinction event about 66 million years ago
15380:University of California Museum of Paleontology
10275:
9238:
8904:
6555:
5201:
3904:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
3464:
3462:
3291:
3289:
2341:. In addition to the 180 km (110 mi)
800:is not so well understood, mainly because only
517:
422:
232:K–Pg boundary, Fatkito boundary or K–T boundary
16597:International Union for Conservation of Nature
10416:. U.S. Geological Survey. 2004. Archived from
10318:
8501:
8293:
7108:
7057:
6938:
6241:
5766:
5250:MacLeod, Norman; Keller, Gerta (Spring 1994).
3981:
3495:
3493:
3084:"Dinosaur asteroid hit 'worst possible place'"
2170:)—more than a billion times the energy of the
226:, the K–Pg event is marked by a thin layer of
16172:
15656:
15580:
15226:
13961:
13143:
13141:
13139:
12780:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
12502:
12296:
12294:
12292:
9986:
9904:
9902:
9900:
8735:
7923:
7020:
6730:"Survival in the first hours of the Cenozoic"
5378:. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program.
5249:
5127:
4349:
4343:
4192:
3951:
3322:
2674:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
2210:". A paper in 2013 by a prominent modeler of
1901:In 1980, a team of researchers consisting of
1466:Several researchers support the existence of
15263:
13935:. Archived from the original on 6 April 2012
13894:. Archived from the original on 25 June 2012
13653:Prinn, Ronald G.; Fegley, Bruce (May 1987).
12164:
11785:
11078:
10990:
10461:
10439:Smathers, G.A.; Mueller-Dombois, D. (1974).
9610:
9608:
9390:
9300:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
8390:Prondvai, E.; Bodor, E. R.; Ösi, A. (2014).
8285:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
7813:
7504:
7247:
6723:
6721:
6719:
6717:
6715:
6713:
6711:
6448:
4917:. In Keller, Gerta; Adatte, Thierry (eds.).
4536:
4100:
3896:
3459:
3286:
3044:
2964:Schulte, Peter; et al. (5 March 2010).
2959:
2957:
2955:
2953:
2951:
2949:
2572: – Earth's most severe extinction event
2548:Climate across Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
2263:. Creatures whose food chains were based on
2191:tsunami wash deposits carrying remains of a
1044:
15493:. NASA Space Imagery Center. Archived from
15488:
14086:Duncan, R. A.; Pyle, D. G. (30 June 1988).
13652:
13085:
12578:Albertão, G. A.; P. P. Martins Jr. (1996).
12510:. In Robinson, A.R.; Bernard, E.N. (eds.).
12111:
11027:
8738:Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France
8502:David, Archibald; Fastovsky, David (2004).
7703:
6490:. Vol. 2. Springer. pp. 621–656.
6170:Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France
5812:
5810:
5808:
4951:
4350:Sheehan, Peter M.; Hansen, Thor A. (1986).
4299:
4297:
4295:
4293:
4291:
3490:
2559:List of possible impact structures on Earth
2447:, therefore the likeliest explanation is a
1073:, also appear to have risen in importance.
347:, along with many mammals, birds, lizards,
277:. The impact hypothesis, also known as the
16654:The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History
16179:
16165:
15663:
15649:
15587:
15573:
14520:
14261:
14085:
14010:
13967:
13926:
13885:
13136:
12289:
12204:
11768:
10855:"The Mesozoic terminated in boreal spring"
10740:"The Mesozoic terminated in boreal spring"
10689:
9897:
9415:
4994:
4289:
4287:
4285:
4283:
4281:
4279:
4277:
4275:
4273:
4271:
3117:
3115:
3113:
3111:
2629:The former designation includes the term '
1537:The most successful and dominant group of
1128:There is evidence of a mass extinction of
1049:Insect damage to the fossilized leaves of
16724:Events in the geological history of Earth
15429:
15419:
15373:
15345:
15058:
15015:
14908:
14390:
13523:
13513:
13485:
13406:
13347:
13329:
13286:
13268:
13119:
12959:
12908:
12424:
12414:
12366:
12300:
12234:
12187:
11974:
11964:
11723:
11713:
11158:
10996:
10965:
10886:
10829:
10771:
10666:
10656:
10505:
10495:
10381:
10249:
10185:
10048:
9864:
9734:
9711:
9652:
9642:
9605:
9539:
9521:
9478:
9221:
9170:
9114:
8898:
8646:
8578:
8469:
8459:
8262:
8040:
7962:
7900:
7890:
7672:
7589:
7530:
7481:
7416:
7283:
7085:
6997:
6979:
6880:
6800:
6708:
6692:
6485:
6288:
6278:
6224:
6206:
5955:
5937:
5553:
5504:
4625:
4513:
4128:
4013:
3934:
3924:
3847:
3837:
3803:
3760:
3750:
3694:
3684:
3626:
3608:
3535:
3369:
3359:
3229:
3219:
3050:
2946:
2696:"International Chronostratigraphic Chart"
2172:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
1674:record and the post-boundary fern spike.
1097:feeders on the continental shelf. Within
836:species survived the transition from the
15133:
15081:
13812:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets
12382:
12380:
12378:
9062:"Primitive birds shared dinosaurs' fate"
8855:
8497:
8495:
8493:
8491:
8489:
7724:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105715
7102:
6510:
5978:
5917:
5805:
5405:. Chapman & Hall. pp. 287–305.
5169:
4869:
4692:
4530:
4445:
4443:
4041:
2639:International Commission on Stratigraphy
2526:
2327:
2317:
2136:
2081:
2033:
1888:
1865:
1732:
1700:during ~6 million years of recovery
1372:
977:
870:
15509:
15393:
14856:. Princeton University Press. pp.
14847:
14081:
14079:
14042:
13860:
11930:
11232:
10127:Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation
10079:Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation
8669:The Horned Dinosaurs: A Natural History
8655:
7116:Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden
5175:
4912:
4268:
3878:Nichols, D. J.; Johnson, K. R. (2008).
3332:Henehan, Michael J. (21 October 2019).
3331:
3108:
3023:
2345:, there is the 24 km (15 mi)
2006:. Tanis is part of the heavily studied
1294:, became extinct during the event. The
866:
301:confirmed that the peak ring comprised
14:
16696:
15446:
15178:
15092:Geological Society of America Bulletin
14753:
14661:
14020:30th International Geological Congress
13600:
13598:
13571:"Chicxulub crater dinosaur extinction"
13045:Nature Reviews Earth & Environment
12653:
12277:from the original on 23 September 2011
11837:
11678:
11228:
11226:
10937:
10167:
10119:
9068:from the original on 24 September 2011
8802:
8661:
7248:Pérez-García, Adán (30 January 2020).
6738:Geological Society of America Bulletin
5135:Geological Society of America Bulletin
5089:
4913:Tantawy, Abdel Aziz (1 January 2011).
4597:Geological Society of America Bulletin
4200:Geological Society of America Bulletin
3432:
3392:
3187:
3185:
2787:Geological Society of America Bulletin
2744:
2720:
1861:
1368:
1262:at the end of the Cretaceous were the
1189:. The gharial-like choristodere genus
699:always or sometimes feed on detritus.
476:
469:
460:
455:
410:
16160:
15670:
15644:
15596:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
15568:
15186:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
15082:Richards, M. A.; et al. (2015).
15030:
12989:
12813:
12674:from the original on 1 September 2019
12375:
10406:
8486:
6919:
6444:
6442:
6066:
6064:
6025:
6023:
4440:
3990:
3572:
3570:
3447:from the original on 21 February 2019
2714:
2307:The end-Cretaceous event is the only
2208:Cretaceous–Paleogene firestorm debate
1953:. Instead, iridium is more common in
1637:
922:Approximately 60% of late-Cretaceous
739:that became extinct at the boundary.
504:
497:
490:
483:
16678:
14781:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
14076:
13583:from the original on 9 November 2017
13546:
13147:
12776:
12107:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
12058:from the original on 8 February 2013
9421:
9397:McKenna, M. C.; Bell, S. K. (1997).
9064:. Science Daily. 20 September 2011.
8608:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
8579:Buffetaut, Eric (18 November 2004).
7376:
7357:
7014:
6704:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
5653:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
5565:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
5327:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
5239:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
5117:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
5051:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
3581:; Allison, Peter A. (21 July 2020).
3468:
3310:from the original on 24 October 2019
3295:
3081:
2893:
2891:
2834:
2832:
2774:
2772:
2616:, which is the abbreviation for the
2588:
2531:Speculative artist's rendering of a
2132:
2077:Location of Chicxulub crater, Mexico
1579:(which includes modern placentals),
1575:(which includes modern marsupials),
1517:). It is thought that all non-avian
540:(not the absolute number) of marine
448:
440:
143:'s Citadel, an eroded hill from the
16612:Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
16361:Extinction risk from climate change
14424:Geological Society of America Today
14313:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
14221:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
14050:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
13764:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
13708:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
13660:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
13612:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
13595:
13486:Vellekoop, J.; et al. (2013).
13086:Kaiho, Kunio; Oshima, Naga (2017).
12758:from the original on 21 August 2019
12214:Meteoritics & Planetary Science
12048:"Dinosaur extinction battle flares"
12045:
12005:Meteoritics & Planetary Science
11644:Meteoritics & Planetary Science
11223:
11138:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
11072:
9428:(M.S.). The Ohio State University.
8300:Penny, D.; Phillips, M. J. (2004).
7814:O'Gorman, José P. (December 2022).
7511:Journal of Systematic Palaeontology
3182:
3063:from the original on 1 January 2017
2127:Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer
1842:
1760:records of well-preserved bones of
1663:1980 Mount St. Helens eruption
442:Marine extinction intensity during
24:
15366:
15264:Jiang, M. J.; Gartner, S. (1986).
15031:Renne, P. R.; et al. (2015).
13888:"Debating the Dinosaur Extinction"
13579:. New York, NY. 18 November 2016.
12317:from the original on 26 April 2022
12245:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2009.tb02001.x
12018:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2004.tb01133.x
11657:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2004.tb01128.x
10938:Barras, Colin (23 February 2022).
10120:Herman, A. B. (10 December 2013).
9315:Gelfo, J. N.; Pascual, R. (2001).
8224:from the original on 6 August 2017
8070:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
7979:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
7704:D'Hondt, Steven (17 August 2005).
7024:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
6439:
6061:
6020:
4108:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
3567:
3096:from the original on 18 March 2018
2604:, the common abbreviation for the
2582:Triassic–Jurassic extinction event
2498:
2434:Maastrichtian sea-level regression
1764:fishes. The study noted that "the
1273:
1120:In the Maastrichtian age, 28
575:, for example, are known from the
536:The blue graph shows the apparent
513:
418:
25:
16770:
15543:
15235:. Geological Society of America.
14545:10.1038/scientificamerican1090-85
12939:Journal of the Geological Society
12862:from the original on 26 July 2019
12035:– via Wiley Online Library.
11951:(11). Washington, DC: 3753–3758.
11674:– via Wiley Online Library.
10449:from the original on 3 April 2014
10187:10.3897/rethinkingecology.4.33014
9966:. Geological Society of America.
9432:from the original on 8 April 2015
7237:– via Wiley Online Library.
4308:Journal of the Geological Society
3911:(13). Washington, DC: 5218–5223.
3433:Bosker, Bianca (September 2018).
2888:
2829:
2769:
2570:Permian–Triassic extinction event
1728:Permian–Triassic extinction event
1301:
993:(represented by the modern order
16677:
16668:
16667:
16633:Decline in amphibian populations
16602:IUCN Species Survival Commission
16255:
16145:Millions of years before present
15257:
15220:
15172:
15127:
15075:
15024:
14981:
14933:
14874:
14841:
14785:
14747:
14699:
14655:
14607:
14559:
14514:
14466:
14407:
14340:
14303:
14262:Courtillot, V. (December 1990).
14255:
14207:
14143:
14043:Kaneoka, Ichiro (January 1980).
14036:
14022:. Vol. 26. pp. 31–54.
13920:
13879:
13854:
13798:
13750:
13694:
13646:
13563:
13540:
13479:
13423:
13364:
13303:
13242:
13178:
13079:
13031:
12990:Adair, Robert K. (1 June 2010).
12983:
12925:
12874:
12844:
12807:
12770:
12732:
12686:
12647:
12610:
12571:
12535:
12496:
12259:
12070:
12039:
11991:
11884:
11831:
11802:
11740:
11630:
11585:
11537:
11484:
11427:
11374:
11326:
11281:
11252:
11167:
11124:
11021:
10931:
10903:
10846:
10788:
10730:
10683:
10622:
10522:
10432:
10355:
10209:
10161:
10113:
10065:
10006:
9980:
9955:
9819:
9791:
9780:
9728:
9669:
9556:
9495:
9444:
9347:
9308:
9195:
9131:
9080:
9054:
8986:
8933:
8886:from the original on 5 June 2011
8756:
8729:
8691:
8612:
8572:
8435:
8383:
8337:
8236:
8195:
8160:
8112:
8057:
8006:
7917:
7856:
7807:
7788:
7697:
7646:
7606:
7547:
7498:
7433:
7351:
7300:
7241:
7193:
7143:
7051:
5918:Lockwood, Rowan (4 March 2003).
5388:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.149.254.1996
5181:. W.W. Norton. pp. 85–138.
2644:
2063:
2056:
1176:
661:(dead plant and animal matter).
550:Capitanian mass extinction event
116:, where erosion has exposed the
83:
74:
63:
54:
43:
16308:Human impact on the environment
15556:The Great Chicxulub Debate 2004
13865:. Harper Collins. p. 336.
12888:Journal of Geophysical Research
12346:Journal of Geophysical Research
12085:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
11060:from the original on 5 May 2016
8310:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
8250:Molecular Biology and Evolution
6953:
6932:
6913:
6824:
6780:
6658:
6613:
6549:
6504:
6479:
6414:
6358:
6305:
6180:
6157:
6101:
5972:
5911:
5863:
5760:
5715:
5700:
5657:
5617:
5569:
5521:
5464:
5419:
5394:
5367:
5331:
5291:
5243:
5195:
5121:
5083:
5055:
5015:
4988:
4945:
4906:
4863:
4815:
4767:
4723:
4686:
4649:
4582:
4480:
4402:
4186:
4145:
3890:
3777:
3469:Joel, Lucas (16 January 2020).
3426:
3386:
3296:Joel, Lucas (21 October 2019).
3075:
3024:Alvarez, Luis (10 March 1981).
2564:Late Ordovician mass extinction
2392:
2361:), the 20 km (12 mi)
2248:1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo
1218:
1117:(bony fish) families survived.
16729:Events that forced the climate
16288:Climate variability and change
16186:
15529:—and nearly all other life on
14754:Keller, Gerta (October 1988).
13968:Mullen, L. (3 November 2004).
13927:Mullen, L. (20 October 2004).
13886:Mullen, L. (13 October 2004).
12657:Tsunami: The Underrated Hazard
6838:Nature Ecology & Evolution
5546:10.1016/j.marmicro.2020.101959
3082:Amos, Jonathan (15 May 2017).
2925:10.1016/j.marmicro.2023.102214
2688:
2663:
2623:
2594:
2504:postulated causes: volcanism,
2038:The K–Pg boundary exposure in
1748:A 1991 study of fossil leaves
1286:, represented by the families
328:and other volcanic eruptions,
13:
1:
16709:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
16638:Decline in insect populations
16581:IUCN Red List extinct species
15483:Geological Society of America
14852:T. rex and the Crater of Doom
14734:10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00395-9
14693:10.1016/S0032-0633(01)00032-0
14501:10.1016/S0031-0182(00)00031-6
12801:10.1146/annurev.earth.27.1.75
12749:Lunar and Planetary Institute
11917:10.1016/S0377-8398(03)00022-7
11110:10.1126/science.291.5510.1952
10168:Bajdek, Piotr (10 May 2019).
9401:. Columbia University Press.
9376:10.1144/GSL.SP.2006.258.01.10
8964:10.1126/science.274.5290.1164
8648:10.1016/j.cretres.2015.07.007
8090:10.1080/02724634.2023.2193828
7842:10.1016/j.cretres.2022.105339
7774:10.1144/GSL.SP.1989.047.01.15
7620:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
7532:10.1080/14772019.2023.2281494
6685:10.1016/j.cretres.2018.01.004
5979:Lockwood, Rowan (Fall 2004).
5841:10.1126/science.274.5291.1360
5644:10.1016/j.cretres.2015.08.010
5583:Journal of Crustacean Biology
5361:10.1016/s0377-8398(01)00037-8
4974:10.1144/GSL.SP.1998.140.01.16
4892:10.1144/GSL.SP.2004.230.01.13
3153:10.1126/science.208.4448.1095
2730:. Vintage. pp. 238–260.
2250:. According to models of the
2100:Berkeley Geochronology Center
1941:which mostly sank along with
1849:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
1468:Paleocene non-avian dinosaurs
1335:
1143:
761:
723:), and those organisms whose
391:, evolving new forms such as
15560:Geological Society of London
15515:"The Day the Dinosaurs Died"
14968:10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.11.007
14772:10.1016/0377-8398(88)90005-9
14642:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.07.019
14573:Geophysical Research Letters
14290:10.1016/0031-0182(90)90070-N
14242:10.1016/0012-821X(86)90118-4
14063:10.1016/0012-821X(80)90009-6
13970:"Shiva: Another K–T impact?"
13729:10.1016/0012-821X(94)90186-4
13681:10.1016/0012-821X(87)90046-X
13633:10.1016/0012-821X(92)90113-A
12838:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.02.037
12654:Bryant, Edward (June 2014).
12604:10.1016/0037-0738(95)00128-X
12461:Geophysical Research Letters
11581:– via GeoScienceWorld.
11515:10.1126/science.241.4865.567
11462:10.1126/science.236.4802.705
11405:10.1126/science.224.4651.867
11370:– via GeoScienceWorld.
11079:Mukhopadhyay, Sujoy (2001).
9766:10.1126/science.280.5364.731
8833:10.1126/science.232.4750.629
8723:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.01.037
8599:10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.02.050
8461:10.1371/journal.pbio.2001663
7754:Geological Society of London
6473:10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.02.049
6393:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.12.005
6208:10.1371/journal.pone.0288046
5318:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2005.09.021
5222:10.1016/0031-0182(95)00009-7
5165:– via GeoScienceWorld.
5108:10.1016/0377-8398(93)90010-U
5090:Keller, Gerta (April 1993).
5042:10.1016/0195-6671(87)90023-1
4222:– via GeoScienceWorld.
4069:10.1126/science.267.5198.637
3839:10.1371/journal.pone.0076683
2867:10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.111334
2656:
2537:shortly after the K-Pg event
1893:Late Cretaceous global map (
1830:would have persisted in the
1406:. Comparison with the older
1340:Two families of pterosaurs,
1206:More than 80% of Cretaceous
1081:There are fossil records of
796:The K–Pg boundary record of
7:
16704:Late Cretaceous extinctions
15456:. New York: Vintage Books.
15179:Keller, Gerta (June 1989).
14672:Planetary and Space Science
14662:Keller, Gerta (July 2001).
13098:(1). Article number 14855.
12997:American Journal of Physics
11862:10.1126/science.364.6435.10
9191:– via Web of Science.
8750:10.2113/gssgfbull.183.6.547
8156:– via Cambridge Core.
6421:Grimaldi, David A. (2007).
6016:– via Cambridge Core.
5907:– via Cambridge Core.
5403:Ostracoda and Global Events
5287:– via Cambridge Core.
4859:– via Cambridge Core.
3880:Plants and the K–T Boundary
2541:
1787:
1171:
1017:) all other species of the
971:(giant relatives of modern
731:were the principal food of
614:. Species that depended on
210:. It marked the end of the
10:
16775:
16739:Hypothetical impact events
16202:Background extinction rate
15550:What killed the dinosaurs?
15453:Earth: An Intimate History
14334:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.01.015
13785:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.02.037
13450:10.1089/153110703321632453
13213:10.1038/s41561-023-01290-4
13112:10.1038/s41598-017-14199-x
13058:10.1038/s43017-022-00283-y
11160:10.1016/j.epsl.2016.07.041
10967:10.1038/d41586-022-00511-x
10879:10.1038/s41586-022-04446-1
10822:10.1038/s41598-021-03232-9
10764:10.1038/s41586-022-04446-1
10157:– via Springer Link.
10109:– via Springer Link.
9356:Geological Society, London
8369:10.1666/0094-8373-35.3.432
8323:10.1016/j.tree.2004.07.015
7582:10.1038/s41467-021-25136-y
7452:(3): rsos.201961, 201961.
7446:Royal Society Open Science
7268:10.1038/s41598-020-58511-8
3884:Cambridge University Press
3057:American Geophysical Union
2672:A geologic time scale 2004
2396:
1846:
1824:American Geophysical Union
1702:to former levels of plant
1557:
1201:
967:(reef-building clams) and
744:evolution of life on Earth
735:, a group of giant marine
238:, which is more common in
29:
16754:Meteorological hypotheses
16663:
16620:
16589:
16566:
16524:End-Jurassic or Tithonian
16451:
16403:
16394:
16346:
16280:
16264:
16253:
16194:
16064:
15678:
15602:
13996:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
13953:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
13912:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
12660:. Springer. p. 178.
12301:Osterloff, Emily (2018).
12098:10.1016/j.gca.2020.04.031
10383:10.1016/j.cub.2018.04.062
10140:10.1134/S0869593813070034
10092:10.1134/S0869593809010079
9336:: 369–379. Archived from
9319:Peligrotherium tropicalis
9223:10.1016/j.cub.2016.10.029
8546:. SpringerLink. pp.
7674:10.1016/j.cub.2017.04.043
6851:10.1038/s41559-018-0494-6
6644:10.1017/S0022336000024331
6535:10.1080/08912961003707349
6425:. Cambridge Univ Pr (E).
5890:10.1017/S0094837300015906
5791:10.1017/S0022336000026652
5270:10.1017/S0094837300012653
2578: – Research timeline
2430:sites anywhere on Earth.
1951:planetary differentiation
1837:
1743:
1250:Kawasphenodon peligrensis
1045:Terrestrial invertebrates
811:Braarudosphaera bigelowii
807:Thoracosphaera operculata
552:are clickable links; see
175:of three-quarters of the
98:Artist's rendering of an
16576:Lists of extinct species
15017:10.1016/j.gr.2020.04.007
14760:Marine Micropaleontology
12852:"Chicxulub impact event"
12416:10.1073/pnas.95.19.11028
11897:Marine Micropaleontology
9523:10.3389/fgene.2019.01241
9422:Wood, D. Joseph (2010).
9358:. Special Publications.
8905:Sullivan, R. M. (2003).
7756:. Special Publications.
7360:Tuatara: A living fossil
6423:Evolution of the Insects
5746:10.1126/science.11537491
5534:Marine Micropaleontology
5341:Marine Micropaleontology
5096:Marine Micropaleontology
4329:10.1144/gsjgs.154.2.0265
2905:Marine Micropaleontology
2553:Late Devonian extinction
2040:Trinidad Lake State Park
1709:
1630:increasing later in the
1504:
919:was a notable survivor.
214:period, and with it the
15421:10.1073/pnas.1817407116
15199:10.1029/PA004i003p00287
15060:10.1126/science.aac7549
14910:10.1126/science.aav1446
14685:2001P&SS...49..817K
14326:2008E&PSL.268..293K
14234:1986E&PSL..80..361C
13861:Brannen, Peter (2017).
13777:2009E&PSL.282...56K
13721:1994E&PSL.128..719P
13673:1987E&PSL..83....1P
13625:1992E&PSL.109..543S
13557:10.1126/science.aaf5684
13515:10.1073/pnas.1319253111
13331:10.1073/pnas.2004596117
13270:10.1073/pnas.1708980114
12227:2009M&PS...44.1917R
11966:10.1073/pnas.0400396101
11715:10.1073/pnas.1817407116
11262:Journal of Paleontology
11194:10.1126/science.1230492
11151:2016E&PSL.452..272C
10585:10.1126/science.abf1969
10497:10.1073/pnas.0900906106
10296:10.1126/science.1093807
9933:10.1126/science.1064706
9857:10.1126/science.abl5584
9644:10.1073/pnas.0334222100
9163:10.1126/science.1251981
8917:(5): 15. Archived from
8556:10.1007/3-540-25736-5_9
8181:10.1023/A:1003851316054
7109:Novacek, M. J. (1999).
6981:10.1073/pnas.1704632114
6623:Journal of Paleontology
6584:10.1126/science.abn2080
6336:10.1126/science.1129569
5939:10.1073/pnas.0535132100
5770:Journal of Paleontology
4015:10.1080/106351599260472
3926:10.1073/pnas.0808468106
3752:10.1073/pnas.1211526110
3686:10.1073/pnas.1110395108
3610:10.1073/pnas.2006087117
3528:10.1126/science.aay5055
3361:10.1073/pnas.1905989116
3221:10.1073/pnas.1319253111
2995:10.1126/science.1177265
2473:Western Interior Seaway
2256:sea surface temperature
1412:Dinosaur Park Formation
1076:
832:. Approximately 46% of
826:southern high latitudes
748:species diversification
695:, while animals on the
657:, which in turn fed on
94:Clockwise from the top:
16381:Latent extinction risk
14375:10.1126/sciadv.adg8284
12503:Bourgeois, J. (2009).
12311:Natural History Museum
10658:10.1073/pnas.93.5.2155
10234:10.1098/rsbl.2023.0314
10033:10.1098/rspb.2009.1255
9735:Alroy, J. (May 1998).
9696:10.1098/rspb.2015.3026
9579:10.1098/rspb.2024.0778
9471:10.1098/rsbl.2018.0458
9107:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0523
7797:Acta Zoologica Fennica
7633:10.4202/app.01083.2023
7401:10.1098/rspb.2014.0811
6280:10.1073/pnas.042492999
5596:10.1093/jcbiol/ruad018
5489:10.1098/rspb.2020.0730
4995:Courtillot, V (1999).
4929:10.2110/sepmsp.100.157
4506:10.1126/sciadv.add5040
4121:10.1098/rspb.2009.2177
3975:10.1098/rstb.1994.0045
3882:. Cambridge, England:
2538:
2324:
2155:
2091:
2051:
1898:
1886:
1740:
1567:(egg-laying mammals),
1408:Judith River Formation
1383:
1165:Albanerpeton galaktion
986:
886:
531:
436:
351:, plants, and all the
16714:Paleogene extinctions
16338:Paradox of enrichment
16227:Functional extinction
16217:Ecological extinction
15317:Nature Communications
13975:Astrobiology Magazine
13933:Astrobiology Magazine
13892:Astrobiology Magazine
12273:. 20 September 2011.
11763:Year designated: 1966
9509:Frontiers in Genetics
8504:"Dinosaur extinction"
8264:10.1093/molbev/msj124
7870:Nature Communications
7561:Nature Communications
4537:Kauffman, E. (2004).
4101:Friedman, M. (2010).
3897:Friedman, M. (2009).
2530:
2463:reducing the Earth's
2377:) possibly formed by
2328:Multiple impact event
2321:
2313:Manicouagan Reservoir
2140:
2085:
2037:
2014:discoveries from the
1909:, his son, geologist
1892:
1869:
1736:
1376:
981:
874:
587:, South America, and
560:source and image info
530:
457:Millions of years ago
435:
16734:Evolution of mammals
16607:Extinction Rebellion
16549:Pliocene–Pleistocene
16431:Cretaceous–Paleogene
16376:Hypothetical species
16366:Extinction threshold
16323:Overabundant species
15885:Cretaceous–Paleogene
15489:Kring, D.A. (2005).
15376:"The K–T extinction"
15099:(11–12): 1507–1520.
14586:10.1029/2018GL081215
13819:(E12): 28607–28625.
12482:10.1002/2016GL072241
11000:(23 February 2022).
10420:on 25 September 2006
10376:(11): 1825–1831.e2.
9343:on 12 February 2012.
8169:Geologie en Mijnbouw
7667:(11): 1641–1644.e2.
6802:10.20341/gb.2023.002
4398:on 27 February 2019.
3440:The Atlantic Monthly
2516:Based on studies at
2252:Hell Creek Formation
2113:years ago, based on
2102:dated the impact at
2074:class=notpageimage|
2008:Hell Creek Formation
1873:, left, and his son
1832:Hell Creek Formation
1738:Hell Creek Formation
1472:Hell Creek Formation
1400:Hell Creek Formation
1264:polyglyphanodontians
1156:Theatonius lancensis
941:with photosynthetic
891:marine invertebrates
867:Marine invertebrates
854:Numerous species of
754:. Evidence from the
319:acidified the oceans
167:, also known as the
157:Cretaceous–Paleogene
16534:Cenomanian-Turonian
16479:Cambrian–Ordovician
16411:Ordovician–Silurian
16318:Mutational meltdown
16303:Habitat destruction
16222:Extinct in the wild
15837:Ordovician-Silurian
15811:Cambrian-Ordovician
15751:Cenomanian-Turonian
15412:2019PNAS..116.8190D
15338:10.1038/ncomms12079
15330:2016NatCo...712079P
15241:10.1130/SPE247-p563
15150:1998Geo....26..995L
15105:2015GSAB..127.1507R
15051:2015Sci...350...76R
15008:2020GondR..85...19D
14960:2005PPP...216..303C
14901:2019Sci...363..866S
14848:Alvarez, W (1997).
14812:2018Geo....46..271Z
14726:2002PPP...178..165A
14634:2013PPP...387..153S
14537:1990SciAm.263d..85C
14524:Scientific American
14493:2000PPP...159....1B
14367:2023SciA....9G8284C
14282:1990PPP....89..291C
14170:1988Natur.333..843C
14106:1988Natur.333..841D
13825:1998JGR...10328607P
13506:2014PNAS..111.7537V
13324:(41): 25327–25334.
13263:(36): E7415–E7424.
13205:2023NatGe..16.1033S
13164:2014NatGe...7..279O
13104:2017NatSR...714855K
12952:10.1144/jgs2014-082
12901:1997JGR...10221645P
12895:(E9): 21645–21664.
12830:2007PPP...255....4K
12793:1999AREPS..27...75S
12710:1992Geo....20...99S
12633:2000Geo....28.1119N
12596:1996SedG..104..189A
12557:2005Geo....33...81L
12474:2017GeoRL..44..419B
12407:1998PNAS...9511028P
12401:(19): 11028–11029.
12359:2013JGRG..118..329R
12198:2009JRASC.103....7M
12142:10.1038/nature06070
12134:2007Natur.449...48B
11957:2004PNAS..101.3753K
11909:2003MarMP..48..251A
11854:2019Sci...364...10B
11706:2019PNAS..116.8190D
11608:1996Geo....24..527P
11507:1988Sci...241..567B
11454:1987Sci...236..705B
11397:1984Sci...224..867B
11304:1981Natur.292...47S
11102:2001Sci...291.1952M
11096:(5510): 1952–1955.
10998:Ouellette, Jennifer
10958:2022Natur.603...17B
10871:2022Natur.603...91D
10814:2021NatSR..1123704D
10756:2022Natur.603...91D
10708:1991Natur.352..420W
10690:Jack Wolfe (1991).
10649:1996PNAS...93.2155V
10577:2021Sci...372...63C
10488:2009PNAS..106.5737F
10341:1996Geo....24..963S
10027:(1677): 4271–4277.
9925:2001Sci...294.1700V
9919:(5547): 1700–1702.
9849:2022Sci...376...80B
9758:1998Sci...280..731A
9635:2003PNAS..100.1056S
9368:2006GSLSP.258..135G
9272:10.1038/nature05634
9264:2007Natur.446..507B
9155:2014Sci...344..898M
9024:10.1038/nature03150
9016:2005Natur.433..305C
8956:1996Sci...274.1164H
8950:(5290): 1164–1167.
8877:2001caev.conf.3139F
8825:1986Sci...232..629S
8780:2001Palai..16..482R
8715:2010PPP...288...82R
8639:2016CrRes..57..368F
8626:Cretaceous Research
8413:2014Pbio...40..288P
8361:2009Pbio...35..432B
8082:2022JVPal..42E3828M
8033:2023Palgy..6612638A
7892:10.1038/ncomms10825
7883:2016NatCo...710825F
7834:2022CrRes.14005339O
7821:Cretaceous Research
7766:1989GSLSP..47..197C
7574:2021NatCo..12.5335K
7523:2023JSPal..2181494X
7466:10.1098/rsos.201961
7458:2021RSOS....801961H
7329:10.1038/nature01995
7321:2003Natur.425..609A
6974:(29): E5864–E5870.
6897:10.1130/spe247-p549
6751:2004GSAB..116..760R
6672:Cretaceous Research
6636:1998JPal...72..556Z
6576:2023Sci...379..802G
6527:2010HBio...22...71N
6465:2004PPP...214..181K
6385:2018PPP...491..161W
6328:2006Sci...313.1112W
6322:(5790): 1112–1115.
6271:2002PNAS...99.2061L
6128:2011Geo....39..483I
6087:2002Geo....30..954H
6047:1991Geo....19.1181W
5833:1996Sci...274.1360M
5827:(5291): 1360–1363.
5783:1994JPal...68.1048M
5738:1993Sci...260..971R
5678:1997Faci...36..123V
5631:Cretaceous Research
5442:1993Palai...8..140B
5353:2002MarMP..44...57G
5305:Sedimentary Geology
5029:Cretaceous Research
4966:1998GSLSP.140..217M
4884:2004GSLSP.230..257G
4842:10.1017/pab.2015.28
4709:2005Geo....33..653B
4672:1996Geo....24..255P
4610:2014GSAB..126..289C
4560:2004Palai..19...96K
4466:1992Geo....20..556S
4426:2007Geo....35..227A
4373:1986Geo....14..868S
4321:1997JGSoc.154..265M
4115:(1688): 1675–1683.
4061:1995Sci...267..637F
3917:2009PNAS..106.5218F
3830:2013PLoSO...876683R
3743:2012PNAS..10921396L
3677:2011PNAS..10815253L
3671:(37): 15253–15257.
3601:2020PNAS..11717084C
3595:(29): 17084–17093.
3520:2020Sci...367..266H
3352:2019PNAS..11622500H
3346:(45): 22500–22504.
3272:1991Geo....19..867H
3212:2014PNAS..111.7537V
3145:1980Sci...208.1095A
3139:(4448): 1095–1108.
2987:2010Sci...327.1214S
2981:(5970): 1214–1218.
2917:2023MarMP.180j2214F
2859:2023PPP...61011334I
2800:2023GSAB..135.2451J
1939:siderophile element
1905:-winning physicist
1862:Evidence for impact
1795:Signor–Lipps effect
1650:organisms, such as
1615:even-toed ungulates
1611:whales and dolphins
1483:Ojo Alamo Sandstone
1392:dinosaur physiology
1369:Non-avian dinosaurs
1241:Sphenodon punctatus
1039:carbonate platforms
1001:(which had already
899:, a class of small
883:Owl Creek Formation
876:Discoscaphites iris
756:Salamanca Formation
411:Extinction patterns
16749:Mesozoic volcanism
16719:Cenozoic volcanism
15775:Rainforest collaps
15605:Alvarez hypothesis
15535:Chicxulub asteroid
15523:. pp. 52–65.
15374:Cowen, R. (2000).
15299:– via JSTOR.
14012:Chatterjee, Sankar
13929:"Multiple impacts"
13576:The New York Times
13378:Scientific Reports
13092:Scientific Reports
12368:10.1002/jgrg.20018
10919:. 23 February 2022
10174:Rethinking Ecology
9690:(1833): 20153026.
8139:10.1017/pab.2024.5
8042:10.1111/pala.12638
7395:(1792): 20140811.
7255:Scientific Reports
7220:10.1111/pala.12486
7065:Journal of Anatomy
6514:Historical Biology
5686:10.1007/BF02536880
4001:Systematic Biology
3476:The New York Times
3303:The New York Times
3178:on 24 August 2019.
2633:' (abbreviated as
2539:
2325:
2302:tropospheric ozone
2200:infrared radiation
2156:
2115:argon–argon dating
2092:
2052:
2024:Chicxulub asteroid
1899:
1887:
1853:Alvarez hypothesis
1741:
1638:Terrestrial plants
1527:hesperornithiforms
1495:dead clade walking
1433:Pachycephalosaurus
1384:
1327:, only the family
1099:cartilaginous fish
1059:Naktodemasis bowni
987:
887:
843:The occurrence of
689:primary production
579:of North America,
556:for more details.
532:
437:
385:adaptive radiation
279:Alvarez hypothesis
16691:
16690:
16643:Extinction symbol
16562:
16561:
16426:Triassic–Jurassic
16396:Extinction events
16272:Extinction vortex
16232:Genetic pollution
16154:
16153:
15873:Triassic–Jurassic
15799:Smithian-Spathian
15727:Toarcian turnover
15672:Extinction events
15638:
15637:
15463:978-0-375-70620-2
15406:(17): 8190–8199.
15270:Micropaleontology
14995:Gondwana Research
14895:(6429): 866–870.
14867:978-0-691-01630-6
14454:on 6 October 2022
14164:(6176): 843–846.
14100:(6176): 841–843.
14029:978-90-6764-254-5
13872:978-0-06-236480-7
13833:10.1029/98JE02496
13500:(21): 7537–7541.
13391:10.1038/srep28427
13199:(11): 1033–1040.
13192:Nature Geoscience
13151:Nature Geoscience
13010:10.1119/1.3192770
12910:10.1029/97JE01743
12667:978-3-319-06133-7
12627:(12): 1119–1122.
12521:978-0-674-03173-9
12221:(12): 1917–1927.
11700:(17): 8190–8199.
11501:(4865): 567–570.
11448:(4802): 705–709.
11188:(6120): 684–687.
11045:978-0-8137-2190-3
11030:Schultz, Peter H.
10482:(14): 5737–5742.
9999:978-0-393-96657-2
9973:978-0-8137-2247-4
9408:978-0-231-11012-9
9258:(7135): 507–512.
9149:(6186): 989–900.
9010:(7023): 305–308.
8819:(4750): 629–633.
8684:978-0-691-05900-6
8565:978-3-540-25735-6
8520:978-0-520-24209-8
7369:978-0-931625-43-5
7358:Lutz, D. (2005).
7315:(6958): 609–612.
7165:978-0-8137-2503-1
7078:10.1111/joa.12414
6906:978-0-8137-2247-4
6793:Geologica Belgica
6570:(6634): 802–806.
6497:978-0-412-39380-8
6488:The Fossil Record
6432:978-0-511-12388-7
6041:(12): 1181–1184.
5732:(5110): 971–973.
5412:978-0-442-31167-4
5188:978-0-393-96657-2
5065:Micropaleontology
5008:978-0-521-58392-3
4781:Nature Geoscience
4434:10.1130/G23197A.1
4207:(10): 1254–1266.
4171:978-0-520-24209-8
4055:(5198): 637–638.
3796:978-0-8137-2361-7
3737:(52): 21396–401.
3579:Morgan, Joanna V.
3514:(6475): 266–272.
3419:978-90-481-3427-4
2762:978-1-55868-522-2
2737:978-0-375-70261-7
2681:978-0-521-78142-8
2589:Explanatory notes
2506:marine regression
2460:continental shelf
2445:mountain building
2290:calcium carbonate
2160:teratonnes of TNT
2145:in what is today
2143:Yucatán Peninsula
2133:Effects of impact
2122:Baptistina family
1569:multituberculates
1481:recovered in the
1225:rhynchocephalians
1025:, as well as the
813:at the boundary.
752:ecological niches
717:freshwater snails
701:Coccolithophorids
465:
291:Yucatán Peninsula
16:(Redirected from
16766:
16681:
16680:
16671:
16670:
16648:Human extinction
16539:Eocene–Oligocene
16421:Permian–Triassic
16401:
16400:
16371:Field of Bullets
16328:Overexploitation
16313:Muller's ratchet
16298:Invasive species
16259:
16247:Pseudoextinction
16242:Local extinction
16181:
16174:
16167:
16158:
16157:
15911:
15906:
15899:
15894:
15887:
15882:
15875:
15870:
15863:
15858:
15851:
15846:
15839:
15834:
15825:
15820:
15813:
15808:
15801:
15796:
15789:
15784:
15777:
15772:
15765:
15760:
15753:
15748:
15741:
15736:
15729:
15724:
15717:
15712:
15705:
15700:
15693:
15688:
15665:
15658:
15651:
15642:
15641:
15630:Silverpit crater
15619:Chicxulub crater
15589:
15582:
15575:
15566:
15565:
15538:
15513:(8 April 2019).
15511:Preston, Douglas
15506:
15504:
15502:
15475:
15443:
15433:
15423:
15390:
15388:
15386:
15360:
15359:
15349:
15307:
15301:
15300:
15298:
15296:
15261:
15255:
15254:
15224:
15218:
15217:
15215:
15213:
15176:
15170:
15169:
15131:
15125:
15124:
15113:10.1130/B31167.1
15088:
15079:
15073:
15072:
15062:
15028:
15022:
15021:
15019:
14985:
14979:
14978:
14976:
14974:
14954:(3–4): 303–332.
14937:
14931:
14930:
14912:
14878:
14872:
14871:
14855:
14845:
14839:
14838:
14836:
14834:
14820:10.1130/G39992.1
14789:
14783:
14782:
14780:
14778:
14751:
14745:
14744:
14742:
14740:
14720:(3–4): 165–196.
14703:
14697:
14696:
14668:
14659:
14653:
14652:
14650:
14648:
14611:
14605:
14604:
14602:
14600:
14580:(6): 3462–3472.
14563:
14557:
14556:
14518:
14512:
14511:
14509:
14507:
14470:
14464:
14463:
14461:
14459:
14453:
14447:. Archived from
14420:
14411:
14405:
14404:
14394:
14361:(40): eadg8284.
14354:Science Advances
14344:
14338:
14337:
14320:(3–4): 293–311.
14307:
14301:
14300:
14298:
14296:
14259:
14253:
14252:
14250:
14248:
14228:(3–4): 361–374.
14211:
14205:
14204:
14202:
14200:
14178:10.1038/333843a0
14147:
14141:
14140:
14138:
14136:
14114:10.1038/333841a0
14083:
14074:
14073:
14071:
14069:
14040:
14034:
14033:
14008:
14002:
14001:
13995:
13987:
13985:
13983:
13965:
13959:
13958:
13952:
13944:
13942:
13940:
13924:
13918:
13917:
13911:
13903:
13901:
13899:
13883:
13877:
13876:
13858:
13852:
13851:
13849:
13847:
13802:
13796:
13795:
13793:
13791:
13754:
13748:
13747:
13745:
13743:
13715:(3–4): 719–725.
13698:
13692:
13691:
13689:
13687:
13650:
13644:
13643:
13641:
13639:
13619:(3–4): 543–559.
13602:
13593:
13592:
13590:
13588:
13567:
13561:
13560:
13544:
13538:
13537:
13527:
13517:
13483:
13477:
13476:
13474:
13472:
13427:
13421:
13420:
13410:
13368:
13362:
13361:
13351:
13333:
13307:
13301:
13300:
13290:
13272:
13246:
13240:
13239:
13237:
13235:
13182:
13176:
13175:
13172:10.1038/ngeo2095
13145:
13134:
13133:
13123:
13083:
13077:
13076:
13074:
13072:
13035:
13029:
13028:
13026:
13024:
12987:
12981:
12980:
12978:
12976:
12963:
12929:
12923:
12922:
12912:
12878:
12872:
12871:
12869:
12867:
12856:www.lpi.usra.edu
12848:
12842:
12841:
12811:
12805:
12804:
12774:
12768:
12767:
12765:
12763:
12757:
12746:
12736:
12730:
12729:
12690:
12684:
12683:
12681:
12679:
12651:
12645:
12644:
12614:
12608:
12607:
12590:(1–4): 189–201.
12575:
12569:
12568:
12565:10.1130/G21057.1
12539:
12533:
12532:
12530:
12528:
12509:
12500:
12494:
12493:
12457:
12448:
12439:
12438:
12428:
12418:
12384:
12373:
12372:
12370:
12336:
12327:
12326:
12324:
12322:
12298:
12287:
12286:
12284:
12282:
12263:
12257:
12256:
12238:
12208:
12202:
12201:
12191:
12168:
12162:
12161:
12115:
12109:
12108:
12106:
12104:
12074:
12068:
12067:
12065:
12063:
12046:Perlman, David.
12043:
12037:
12036:
12034:
12032:
12012:(7): 1127–1144.
11995:
11989:
11988:
11978:
11968:
11934:
11928:
11927:
11925:
11923:
11903:(3–4): 251–279.
11888:
11882:
11881:
11835:
11829:
11828:
11826:
11824:
11818:
11806:
11800:
11789:
11783:
11772:
11766:
11765:
11760:
11758:
11744:
11738:
11737:
11727:
11717:
11682:
11676:
11675:
11673:
11671:
11651:(7): 1035–1067.
11634:
11628:
11627:
11589:
11583:
11582:
11580:
11578:
11541:
11535:
11534:
11488:
11482:
11481:
11431:
11425:
11424:
11378:
11372:
11371:
11369:
11367:
11330:
11324:
11323:
11312:10.1038/292047a0
11285:
11279:
11278:
11256:
11250:
11249:
11247:
11245:
11230:
11221:
11220:
11218:
11216:
11171:
11165:
11164:
11162:
11128:
11122:
11121:
11085:
11076:
11070:
11069:
11067:
11065:
11025:
11019:
11018:
11016:
11014:
10994:
10988:
10987:
10969:
10935:
10929:
10928:
10926:
10924:
10907:
10901:
10900:
10890:
10850:
10844:
10843:
10833:
10792:
10786:
10785:
10775:
10734:
10728:
10727:
10716:10.1038/352420a0
10687:
10681:
10680:
10670:
10660:
10643:(5): 2155–2158.
10626:
10620:
10619:
10617:
10615:
10554:
10548:
10547:
10545:
10543:
10526:
10520:
10519:
10509:
10499:
10465:
10459:
10458:
10456:
10454:
10436:
10430:
10429:
10427:
10425:
10410:
10404:
10403:
10385:
10359:
10353:
10352:
10322:
10316:
10315:
10273:
10264:
10263:
10253:
10213:
10207:
10206:
10204:
10202:
10189:
10165:
10159:
10158:
10156:
10154:
10117:
10111:
10110:
10108:
10106:
10069:
10063:
10062:
10052:
10010:
10004:
10003:
9984:
9978:
9977:
9959:
9953:
9952:
9906:
9895:
9894:
9868:
9832:
9823:
9817:
9816:
9814:
9812:
9795:
9789:
9784:
9778:
9777:
9741:
9732:
9726:
9725:
9715:
9673:
9667:
9666:
9656:
9646:
9629:(3): 1056–1061.
9612:
9603:
9602:
9593: 11286128.
9560:
9554:
9553:
9543:
9525:
9499:
9493:
9492:
9482:
9448:
9442:
9441:
9439:
9437:
9419:
9413:
9412:
9394:
9388:
9387:
9351:
9345:
9344:
9342:
9325:
9312:
9306:
9305:
9299:
9291:
9245:
9236:
9235:
9225:
9199:
9193:
9192:
9174:
9135:
9129:
9128:
9118:
9084:
9078:
9077:
9075:
9073:
9058:
9052:
9051:
8999:
8990:
8984:
8983:
8937:
8931:
8930:
8928:
8926:
8902:
8896:
8895:
8893:
8891:
8885:
8870:
8859:
8853:
8852:
8806:
8800:
8799:
8760:
8754:
8753:
8733:
8727:
8726:
8695:
8689:
8688:
8672:
8659:
8653:
8652:
8650:
8616:
8610:
8609:
8607:
8605:
8576:
8570:
8569:
8545:
8534:
8525:
8524:
8508:
8499:
8484:
8483:
8473:
8463:
8439:
8433:
8432:
8396:
8387:
8381:
8380:
8341:
8335:
8334:
8306:
8297:
8291:
8290:
8284:
8276:
8266:
8257:(6): 1144–1155.
8240:
8234:
8233:
8231:
8229:
8223:
8208:
8199:
8193:
8192:
8164:
8158:
8157:
8155:
8153:
8116:
8110:
8109:
8061:
8055:
8054:
8044:
8010:
8004:
8003:
7975:
7966:
7960:
7959:
7934:(6): 1375–1382.
7921:
7915:
7914:
7904:
7894:
7860:
7854:
7853:
7811:
7805:
7804:
7792:
7786:
7785:
7749:
7743:
7742:
7740:
7738:
7701:
7695:
7694:
7676:
7650:
7644:
7643:
7641:
7639:
7610:
7604:
7603:
7593:
7551:
7545:
7544:
7534:
7502:
7496:
7495:
7485:
7437:
7431:
7430:
7420:
7380:
7374:
7373:
7355:
7349:
7348:
7304:
7298:
7297:
7287:
7245:
7239:
7238:
7236:
7234:
7197:
7191:
7190:
7184:
7179:
7177:
7169:
7147:
7141:
7140:
7106:
7100:
7099:
7089:
7055:
7049:
7048:
7018:
7012:
7011:
7001:
6983:
6957:
6951:
6950:
6936:
6930:
6929:
6917:
6911:
6910:
6884:
6878:
6877:
6875:
6873:
6828:
6822:
6821:
6819:
6817:
6804:
6784:
6778:
6777:
6775:
6769:. Archived from
6759:10.1130/B25402.1
6745:(5–6): 760–768.
6734:
6725:
6706:
6705:
6703:
6701:
6696:
6662:
6656:
6655:
6617:
6611:
6610:
6608:
6606:
6553:
6547:
6546:
6508:
6502:
6501:
6483:
6477:
6476:
6446:
6437:
6436:
6418:
6412:
6411:
6409:
6407:
6362:
6356:
6355:
6309:
6303:
6302:
6292:
6282:
6265:(4): 2061–2066.
6248:
6239:
6238:
6228:
6210:
6184:
6178:
6177:
6161:
6155:
6154:
6152:
6150:
6136:10.1130/G31724.1
6105:
6099:
6098:
6068:
6059:
6058:
6027:
6018:
6017:
6015:
6013:
5976:
5970:
5969:
5959:
5941:
5932:(5): 2478–2482.
5915:
5909:
5908:
5906:
5904:
5867:
5861:
5860:
5814:
5803:
5802:
5777:(5): 1048–1066.
5764:
5758:
5757:
5719:
5713:
5712:
5704:
5698:
5697:
5661:
5655:
5654:
5652:
5650:
5621:
5615:
5614:
5612:
5610:
5573:
5567:
5566:
5564:
5562:
5557:
5525:
5519:
5518:
5508:
5468:
5462:
5461:
5423:
5417:
5416:
5398:
5392:
5391:
5371:
5365:
5364:
5335:
5329:
5328:
5326:
5324:
5295:
5289:
5288:
5286:
5284:
5247:
5241:
5240:
5238:
5236:
5199:
5193:
5192:
5173:
5167:
5166:
5164:
5162:
5125:
5119:
5118:
5116:
5114:
5087:
5081:
5080:
5059:
5053:
5052:
5050:
5048:
5019:
5013:
5012:
4992:
4986:
4985:
4949:
4943:
4942:
4910:
4904:
4903:
4867:
4861:
4860:
4858:
4856:
4819:
4813:
4812:
4810:
4808:
4771:
4765:
4764:
4736:
4727:
4721:
4720:
4717:10.1130/G21566.1
4690:
4684:
4683:
4653:
4647:
4646:
4644:
4642:
4629:
4618:10.1130/B30915.1
4604:(3–4): 289–306.
4586:
4580:
4579:
4543:
4534:
4528:
4527:
4517:
4500:(49): eadd5040.
4494:Science Advances
4484:
4478:
4477:
4447:
4438:
4437:
4406:
4400:
4399:
4397:
4391:. Archived from
4356:
4347:
4341:
4340:
4301:
4266:
4265:
4235:
4224:
4223:
4221:
4219:
4190:
4184:
4183:
4159:
4149:
4143:
4142:
4132:
4098:
4089:
4088:
4039:
4028:
4027:
4017:
3988:
3979:
3978:
3958:
3949:
3948:
3938:
3928:
3894:
3888:
3887:
3875:
3862:
3861:
3851:
3841:
3807:
3801:
3800:
3781:
3775:
3774:
3764:
3754:
3720:
3709:
3708:
3698:
3688:
3654:
3641:
3640:
3630:
3612:
3574:
3565:
3564:
3562:
3560:
3539:
3497:
3488:
3487:
3485:
3483:
3466:
3457:
3456:
3454:
3452:
3430:
3424:
3423:
3403:
3390:
3384:
3383:
3373:
3363:
3329:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3315:
3293:
3284:
3283:
3253:
3244:
3243:
3233:
3223:
3189:
3180:
3179:
3177:
3171:. Archived from
3128:
3119:
3106:
3105:
3103:
3101:
3079:
3073:
3072:
3070:
3068:
3048:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3037:
3021:
3015:
3014:
2970:
2961:
2944:
2943:
2941:
2939:
2895:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2881:
2836:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2822:
2808:10.1130/B36487.1
2776:
2767:
2766:
2748:
2742:
2741:
2718:
2712:
2711:
2709:
2707:
2692:
2686:
2685:
2667:
2651:
2648:
2642:
2627:
2621:
2598:
2453:mid-ocean ridges
2376:
2374:
2363:Silverpit crater
2360:
2358:
2343:Chicxulub crater
2335:Shoemaker–Levy 9
2165:
2147:Southeast Mexico
2112:
2110:
2108:
2088:Chicxulub crater
2067:
2066:
2060:
2016:Upper Cretaceous
1998:in southwestern
1986:on the coast of
1980:Chicxulub crater
1937:because it is a
1921:discovered that
1877:, right, at the
1857:Chicxulub crater
1843:Chicxulub impact
1834:nearly 2 years.
1828:Chicxulub impact
1581:meridiolestidans
1523:enantiornithines
1499:reworked fossils
1492:
1197:
1051:flowering plants
948:Most species of
781:that formed the
554:Extinction event
509:
502:
495:
488:
481:
474:
467:
463:
458:
453:
452:
446:
283:Chicxulub crater
259:massive asteroid
202:species such as
165:extinction event
87:
78:
67:
58:
47:
32:Extinction event
21:
16774:
16773:
16769:
16768:
16767:
16765:
16764:
16763:
16694:
16693:
16692:
16687:
16659:
16616:
16585:
16568:Extinct species
16558:
16514:Carnian Pluvial
16459:Great Oxidation
16447:
16390:
16356:Extinction debt
16348:
16342:
16293:Genetic erosion
16276:
16260:
16251:
16190:
16185:
16155:
16150:
16149:
16148:
16147:
16146:
16143:
16142:
16141:
16136:
16135:
16130:
16129:
16124:
16123:
16118:
16117:
16112:
16111:
16106:
16105:
16100:
16099:
16094:
16093:
16088:
16087:
16082:
16081:
16076:
16075:
16070:
16069:
16063:
16062:
16061:
16060:
16055:
16054:
16053:
16048:
16047:
16046:
16041:
16040:
16039:
16033:
16032:
16031:
16030:
16023:
16022:
16021:
16014:
16013:
16012:
16005:
16004:
16003:
15996:
15995:
15994:
15987:
15986:
15985:
15978:
15977:
15976:
15969:
15968:
15967:
15960:
15959:
15958:
15951:
15950:
15949:
15942:
15941:
15940:
15933:
15932:
15931:
15924:
15923:
15922:
15914:
15913:
15912:
15907:
15904:
15901:
15900:
15895:
15892:
15889:
15888:
15883:
15880:
15877:
15876:
15871:
15868:
15865:
15864:
15859:
15856:
15853:
15852:
15847:
15844:
15841:
15840:
15835:
15832:
15828:
15827:
15826:
15821:
15818:
15815:
15814:
15809:
15806:
15803:
15802:
15797:
15794:
15791:
15790:
15785:
15782:
15779:
15778:
15773:
15770:
15767:
15766:
15761:
15758:
15755:
15754:
15749:
15746:
15743:
15742:
15737:
15734:
15731:
15730:
15725:
15722:
15719:
15718:
15713:
15710:
15707:
15706:
15701:
15698:
15695:
15694:
15689:
15686:
15674:
15669:
15639:
15634:
15598:
15593:
15546:
15541:
15500:
15498:
15497:on 29 June 2007
15464:
15448:Fortey, Richard
15384:
15382:
15369:
15367:Further reading
15364:
15363:
15308:
15304:
15294:
15292:
15282:10.2307/1485619
15262:
15258:
15251:
15225:
15221:
15211:
15209:
15177:
15173:
15144:(11): 995–998.
15132:
15128:
15086:
15080:
15076:
15045:(6256): 76–78.
15029:
15025:
14986:
14982:
14972:
14970:
14938:
14934:
14879:
14875:
14868:
14846:
14842:
14832:
14830:
14790:
14786:
14776:
14774:
14752:
14748:
14738:
14736:
14704:
14700:
14666:
14660:
14656:
14646:
14644:
14612:
14608:
14598:
14596:
14564:
14560:
14519:
14515:
14505:
14503:
14471:
14467:
14457:
14455:
14451:
14418:
14412:
14408:
14345:
14341:
14308:
14304:
14294:
14292:
14260:
14256:
14246:
14244:
14212:
14208:
14198:
14196:
14148:
14144:
14134:
14132:
14084:
14077:
14067:
14065:
14041:
14037:
14030:
14014:(August 1997).
14009:
14005:
13989:
13988:
13981:
13979:
13966:
13962:
13946:
13945:
13938:
13936:
13925:
13921:
13905:
13904:
13897:
13895:
13884:
13880:
13873:
13859:
13855:
13845:
13843:
13803:
13799:
13789:
13787:
13755:
13751:
13741:
13739:
13699:
13695:
13685:
13683:
13651:
13647:
13637:
13635:
13603:
13596:
13586:
13584:
13569:
13568:
13564:
13545:
13541:
13484:
13480:
13470:
13468:
13428:
13424:
13369:
13365:
13308:
13304:
13247:
13243:
13233:
13231:
13183:
13179:
13146:
13137:
13084:
13080:
13070:
13068:
13036:
13032:
13022:
13020:
12988:
12984:
12974:
12972:
12930:
12926:
12879:
12875:
12865:
12863:
12850:
12849:
12845:
12812:
12808:
12775:
12771:
12761:
12759:
12755:
12744:
12738:
12737:
12733:
12691:
12687:
12677:
12675:
12668:
12652:
12648:
12615:
12611:
12576:
12572:
12540:
12536:
12526:
12524:
12522:
12507:
12501:
12497:
12455:
12449:
12442:
12385:
12376:
12337:
12330:
12320:
12318:
12299:
12290:
12280:
12278:
12265:
12264:
12260:
12236:10.1.1.712.8165
12209:
12205:
12169:
12165:
12128:(7158): 48–53.
12116:
12112:
12102:
12100:
12075:
12071:
12061:
12059:
12044:
12040:
12030:
12028:
11996:
11992:
11935:
11931:
11921:
11919:
11889:
11885:
11848:(6435): 10–11.
11836:
11832:
11822:
11820:
11816:
11807:
11803:
11790:
11786:
11773:
11769:
11756:
11754:
11746:
11745:
11741:
11683:
11679:
11669:
11667:
11635:
11631:
11590:
11586:
11576:
11574:
11542:
11538:
11489:
11485:
11432:
11428:
11391:(4651): 867–9.
11379:
11375:
11365:
11363:
11331:
11327:
11298:(5818): 47–49.
11286:
11282:
11257:
11253:
11243:
11241:
11239:livescience.com
11231:
11224:
11214:
11212:
11172:
11168:
11129:
11125:
11083:
11077:
11073:
11063:
11061:
11046:
11026:
11022:
11012:
11010:
10995:
10991:
10936:
10932:
10922:
10920:
10909:
10908:
10904:
10865:(7899): 91–94.
10851:
10847:
10793:
10789:
10750:(7899): 91–94.
10735:
10731:
10688:
10684:
10627:
10623:
10613:
10611:
10571:(6537): 63–68.
10555:
10551:
10541:
10539:
10528:
10527:
10523:
10466:
10462:
10452:
10450:
10437:
10433:
10423:
10421:
10412:
10411:
10407:
10369:Current Biology
10360:
10356:
10335:(11): 963–967.
10323:
10319:
10274:
10267:
10222:Biology Letters
10214:
10210:
10200:
10198:
10166:
10162:
10152:
10150:
10118:
10114:
10104:
10102:
10070:
10066:
10011:
10007:
10000:
9985:
9981:
9974:
9960:
9956:
9907:
9898:
9843:(6588): 80–85.
9824:
9820:
9810:
9808:
9807:. 31 March 2022
9797:
9796:
9792:
9785:
9781:
9752:(5364): 731–4.
9739:
9733:
9729:
9674:
9670:
9613:
9606:
9561:
9557:
9500:
9496:
9465:(9): 20180458.
9458:Biology Letters
9449:
9445:
9435:
9433:
9420:
9416:
9409:
9395:
9391:
9352:
9348:
9340:
9323:
9313:
9309:
9293:
9292:
9246:
9239:
9209:Current Biology
9200:
9196:
9136:
9132:
9094:Biology Letters
9085:
9081:
9071:
9069:
9060:
9059:
9055:
8997:
8991:
8987:
8938:
8934:
8924:
8922:
8921:on 8 April 2011
8903:
8899:
8889:
8887:
8883:
8868:
8860:
8856:
8807:
8803:
8761:
8757:
8734:
8730:
8696:
8692:
8685:
8660:
8656:
8617:
8613:
8603:
8601:
8577:
8573:
8566:
8535:
8528:
8521:
8506:
8500:
8487:
8454:(3): e2001663.
8440:
8436:
8394:
8388:
8384:
8342:
8338:
8317:(10): 516–522.
8304:
8298:
8294:
8278:
8277:
8241:
8237:
8227:
8225:
8221:
8206:
8200:
8196:
8165:
8161:
8151:
8149:
8117:
8113:
8062:
8058:
8011:
8007:
7973:
7967:
7963:
7922:
7918:
7861:
7857:
7812:
7808:
7793:
7789:
7750:
7746:
7736:
7734:
7702:
7698:
7660:Current Biology
7651:
7647:
7637:
7635:
7611:
7607:
7552:
7548:
7503:
7499:
7438:
7434:
7381:
7377:
7370:
7356:
7352:
7305:
7301:
7246:
7242:
7232:
7230:
7198:
7194:
7182:
7180:
7171:
7170:
7166:
7148:
7144:
7129:10.2307/2666178
7107:
7103:
7056:
7052:
7019:
7015:
6958:
6954:
6937:
6933:
6918:
6914:
6907:
6885:
6881:
6871:
6869:
6829:
6825:
6815:
6813:
6785:
6781:
6773:
6732:
6726:
6709:
6699:
6697:
6663:
6659:
6618:
6614:
6604:
6602:
6554:
6550:
6509:
6505:
6498:
6484:
6480:
6447:
6440:
6433:
6419:
6415:
6405:
6403:
6363:
6359:
6310:
6306:
6249:
6242:
6201:(8): e0288046.
6185:
6181:
6162:
6158:
6148:
6146:
6106:
6102:
6081:(10): 954–955.
6069:
6062:
6028:
6021:
6011:
6009:
5977:
5973:
5916:
5912:
5902:
5900:
5868:
5864:
5815:
5806:
5765:
5761:
5720:
5716:
5705:
5701:
5662:
5658:
5648:
5646:
5622:
5618:
5608:
5606:
5574:
5570:
5560:
5558:
5526:
5522:
5469:
5465:
5450:10.2307/3515168
5424:
5420:
5413:
5399:
5395:
5372:
5368:
5336:
5332:
5322:
5320:
5312:(1–2): 77–109.
5296:
5292:
5282:
5280:
5248:
5244:
5234:
5232:
5200:
5196:
5189:
5174:
5170:
5160:
5158:
5126:
5122:
5112:
5110:
5088:
5084:
5060:
5056:
5046:
5044:
5020:
5016:
5009:
4993:
4989:
4950:
4946:
4939:
4911:
4907:
4868:
4864:
4854:
4852:
4820:
4816:
4806:
4804:
4794:10.1038/ngeo775
4772:
4768:
4734:
4728:
4724:
4691:
4687:
4654:
4650:
4640:
4638:
4587:
4583:
4541:
4535:
4531:
4485:
4481:
4448:
4441:
4407:
4403:
4395:
4367:(10): 868–870.
4354:
4348:
4344:
4302:
4269:
4236:
4227:
4217:
4215:
4191:
4187:
4172:
4150:
4146:
4099:
4092:
4040:
4031:
3989:
3982:
3969:(1307): 11–17.
3959:
3952:
3895:
3891:
3876:
3865:
3808:
3804:
3797:
3782:
3778:
3721:
3712:
3655:
3644:
3575:
3568:
3558:
3556:
3498:
3491:
3481:
3479:
3467:
3460:
3450:
3448:
3431:
3427:
3420:
3391:
3387:
3330:
3323:
3313:
3311:
3294:
3287:
3254:
3247:
3206:(21): 7537–41.
3190:
3183:
3175:
3126:
3120:
3109:
3099:
3097:
3089:BBC News Online
3080:
3076:
3066:
3064:
3049:
3045:
3035:
3033:
3032:. PBS-WGBH/Nova
3022:
3018:
2968:
2962:
2947:
2937:
2935:
2896:
2889:
2879:
2877:
2837:
2830:
2820:
2818:
2777:
2770:
2763:
2749:
2745:
2738:
2722:Fortey, Richard
2719:
2715:
2705:
2703:
2694:
2693:
2689:
2682:
2668:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2645:
2628:
2624:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2544:
2501:
2499:Multiple causes
2436:
2401:
2395:
2372:
2370:
2356:
2354:
2330:
2309:mass extinction
2206:. This is the "
2163:
2151:mass extinction
2135:
2106:
2104:
2103:
2080:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2068:
1982:, buried under
1913:, and chemists
1864:
1859:
1847:Main articles:
1845:
1840:
1790:
1772:inferences and
1766:palaeobotanical
1746:
1712:
1640:
1589:deltatheroidans
1560:
1515:Origin of birds
1511:paleontologists
1507:
1490:
1371:
1350:ornithocheirids
1338:
1321:marine reptiles
1304:
1276:
1274:Marine reptiles
1221:
1204:
1195:
1179:
1174:
1161:albanerpetontid
1146:
1079:
1063:Lilliput effect
1047:
869:
802:microbial cysts
798:dinoflagellates
764:
673:lake ecosystems
566:
565:
564:
534:
533:
529:
511:
510:
505:
503:
498:
496:
491:
489:
484:
482:
477:
475:
470:
468:
461:
459:
456:
454:
449:
447:
441:
438:
434:
413:
363:and devastated
334:asteroid impact
295:asteroid impact
224:geologic record
173:mass extinction
153:
152:
151:
150:
90:
89:
88:
80:
79:
70:
69:
68:
60:
59:
50:
49:
48:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
16772:
16762:
16761:
16756:
16751:
16746:
16741:
16736:
16731:
16726:
16721:
16716:
16711:
16706:
16689:
16688:
16686:
16685:
16675:
16664:
16661:
16660:
16658:
16657:
16650:
16645:
16640:
16635:
16630:
16624:
16622:
16618:
16617:
16615:
16614:
16609:
16604:
16599:
16593:
16591:
16587:
16586:
16584:
16583:
16578:
16572:
16570:
16564:
16563:
16560:
16559:
16557:
16556:
16551:
16546:
16544:Middle Miocene
16541:
16536:
16531:
16526:
16521:
16516:
16511:
16509:End-Capitanian
16506:
16501:
16496:
16491:
16486:
16481:
16476:
16471:
16466:
16461:
16455:
16453:
16449:
16448:
16446:
16445:
16444:
16443:
16433:
16428:
16423:
16418:
16413:
16407:
16405:
16398:
16392:
16391:
16389:
16388:
16383:
16378:
16373:
16368:
16363:
16358:
16352:
16350:
16344:
16343:
16341:
16340:
16335:
16330:
16325:
16320:
16315:
16310:
16305:
16300:
16295:
16290:
16284:
16282:
16278:
16277:
16275:
16274:
16268:
16266:
16262:
16261:
16254:
16252:
16250:
16249:
16244:
16239:
16234:
16229:
16224:
16219:
16214:
16209:
16204:
16198:
16196:
16192:
16191:
16184:
16183:
16176:
16169:
16161:
16152:
16151:
16144:
16139:
16137:
16133:
16131:
16127:
16125:
16121:
16119:
16115:
16113:
16109:
16107:
16103:
16101:
16097:
16095:
16091:
16089:
16085:
16083:
16079:
16077:
16073:
16071:
16067:
16065:
16058:
16057:
16056:
16051:
16050:
16049:
16044:
16043:
16042:
16038:Neoproterozoic
16037:
16036:
16035:
16034:
16026:
16025:
16024:
16017:
16016:
16015:
16008:
16007:
16006:
15999:
15998:
15997:
15990:
15989:
15988:
15981:
15980:
15979:
15972:
15971:
15970:
15963:
15962:
15961:
15954:
15953:
15952:
15945:
15944:
15943:
15936:
15935:
15934:
15927:
15926:
15925:
15918:
15917:
15916:
15915:
15903:
15902:
15891:
15890:
15879:
15878:
15867:
15866:
15861:Permo-Triassic
15855:
15854:
15843:
15842:
15831:
15830:
15829:
15817:
15816:
15805:
15804:
15793:
15792:
15781:
15780:
15769:
15768:
15763:Middle Miocene
15757:
15756:
15745:
15744:
15733:
15732:
15721:
15720:
15709:
15708:
15703:End-Ediacaran?
15697:
15696:
15685:
15684:
15683:
15682:
15681:
15680:
15679:
15676:
15675:
15668:
15667:
15660:
15653:
15645:
15636:
15635:
15633:
15632:
15627:
15622:
15616:
15614:Boltysh crater
15610:
15608:
15600:
15599:
15592:
15591:
15584:
15577:
15569:
15563:
15562:
15553:
15545:
15544:External links
15542:
15540:
15539:
15520:The New Yorker
15507:
15486:
15476:
15462:
15444:
15391:
15370:
15368:
15365:
15362:
15361:
15302:
15256:
15249:
15219:
15193:(3): 287–332.
15171:
15126:
15074:
15023:
14980:
14932:
14873:
14866:
14840:
14806:(3): 271–274.
14784:
14766:(3): 239–263.
14746:
14698:
14679:(8): 817–830.
14654:
14606:
14558:
14513:
14465:
14406:
14339:
14302:
14276:(3): 291–299.
14254:
14206:
14142:
14075:
14057:(2): 233–243.
14035:
14028:
14003:
13960:
13919:
13878:
13871:
13853:
13797:
13771:(1–4): 56–64.
13749:
13693:
13645:
13594:
13562:
13539:
13478:
13422:
13363:
13302:
13241:
13177:
13158:(4): 279–282.
13135:
13078:
13052:(5): 338–354.
13030:
13004:(6): 567–573.
12982:
12946:(2): 175–185.
12924:
12873:
12843:
12806:
12769:
12731:
12685:
12666:
12646:
12609:
12570:
12534:
12520:
12495:
12468:(1): 419–427.
12440:
12374:
12353:(1): 329–336.
12328:
12288:
12258:
12203:
12163:
12110:
12069:
12038:
11990:
11929:
11883:
11830:
11801:
11784:
11767:
11739:
11677:
11629:
11602:(6): 527–530.
11584:
11536:
11483:
11426:
11373:
11325:
11280:
11269:(1): 207–218.
11251:
11222:
11166:
11123:
11071:
11044:
11020:
10989:
10930:
10902:
10845:
10787:
10729:
10682:
10621:
10549:
10538:. 2 April 2021
10521:
10460:
10431:
10405:
10354:
10317:
10290:(5663): 1489.
10265:
10208:
10160:
10134:(7): 689–747.
10112:
10064:
10005:
9998:
9992:. W W Norton.
9979:
9972:
9954:
9896:
9818:
9790:
9779:
9727:
9668:
9604:
9555:
9494:
9443:
9414:
9407:
9389:
9362:(1): 135–144.
9346:
9307:
9237:
9194:
9130:
9079:
9053:
8985:
8932:
8897:
8854:
8801:
8774:(5): 482–506.
8755:
8744:(6): 547–559.
8728:
8709:(1–4): 82–92.
8690:
8683:
8654:
8611:
8593:(3): 225–231.
8571:
8564:
8526:
8519:
8511:The Dinosauria
8485:
8434:
8407:(2): 288–321.
8382:
8355:(3): 432–446.
8336:
8292:
8235:
8194:
8175:(3): 319–333.
8159:
8133:(2): 285–307.
8111:
8056:
8005:
7986:(2): 409–421.
7961:
7940:10.1554/03-509
7916:
7855:
7806:
7787:
7760:(1): 197–215.
7744:
7696:
7645:
7605:
7546:
7497:
7432:
7375:
7368:
7362:. DIMI Press.
7350:
7299:
7240:
7214:(5): 753–774.
7192:
7183:|author2=
7164:
7142:
7123:(2): 230–258.
7101:
7072:(3): 414–429.
7050:
7031:(1): 171–184.
7013:
6952:
6931:
6912:
6905:
6879:
6845:(4): 688–696.
6823:
6779:
6776:on 7 May 2019.
6707:
6657:
6630:(3): 556–571.
6612:
6548:
6521:(1–3): 71–77.
6503:
6496:
6478:
6459:(3): 181–194.
6438:
6431:
6413:
6357:
6304:
6240:
6179:
6156:
6122:(5): 483–486.
6100:
6060:
6019:
5993:(4): 507–521.
5971:
5910:
5884:(2): 251–265.
5862:
5804:
5759:
5714:
5699:
5672:(1): 123–139.
5656:
5616:
5568:
5520:
5463:
5436:(2): 140–154.
5418:
5411:
5393:
5366:
5347:(1–2): 57–76.
5330:
5290:
5264:(2): 143–177.
5242:
5216:(3): 221–254.
5194:
5187:
5168:
5120:
5082:
5054:
5036:(3): 229–252.
5014:
5007:
4987:
4960:(1): 217–246.
4944:
4937:
4905:
4878:(1): 257–273.
4862:
4836:(4): 661–679.
4814:
4788:(4): 280–285.
4766:
4747:(4): 522–542.
4722:
4703:(8): 653–656.
4685:
4666:(3): 255–258.
4648:
4581:
4529:
4479:
4460:(6): 556–560.
4439:
4420:(3): 227–230.
4401:
4342:
4315:(2): 265–292.
4267:
4248:(3): 347–368.
4225:
4185:
4170:
4156:The Dinosauria
4144:
4090:
4043:Feduccia, Alan
4029:
4008:(1): 107–118.
3980:
3950:
3889:
3863:
3824:(10): e76683.
3802:
3795:
3776:
3710:
3642:
3566:
3489:
3458:
3425:
3418:
3385:
3321:
3285:
3266:(9): 867–871.
3245:
3181:
3107:
3074:
3043:
3016:
2945:
2887:
2828:
2794:(9–10): 2451.
2768:
2761:
2743:
2736:
2713:
2702:on 30 May 2014
2687:
2680:
2661:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2652:
2643:
2622:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2579:
2573:
2567:
2561:
2556:
2550:
2543:
2540:
2534:Thescelosaurus
2518:Seymour Island
2500:
2497:
2477:coastal plains
2471:, such as the
2435:
2432:
2397:Main article:
2394:
2391:
2347:Boltysh crater
2329:
2326:
2212:nuclear winter
2134:
2131:
2072:
2071:
2062:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2053:
1971:Shocked quartz
1911:Walter Alvarez
1875:Walter Alvarez
1863:
1860:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1789:
1786:
1762:acipenseriform
1758:stable isotope
1745:
1742:
1711:
1708:
1639:
1636:
1624:evolutionarily
1585:gondwanatheres
1559:
1556:
1543:enantiornithes
1506:
1503:
1487:San Juan River
1460:Red Deer River
1410:(Montana) and
1370:
1367:
1362:thalassodromid
1354:pteranodontids
1337:
1334:
1309:crocodyliforms
1303:
1302:Crocodyliforms
1300:
1288:Elasmosauridae
1275:
1272:
1220:
1217:
1203:
1200:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1145:
1142:
1134:Seymour Island
1088:apex predators
1078:
1075:
1046:
1043:
868:
865:
763:
760:
677:crocodyliforms
616:photosynthesis
535:
512:
439:
417:
416:
415:
414:
412:
409:
330:climate change
287:Gulf of Mexico
267:photosynthesis
169:Pulse of Akito
149:
148:
138:
128:
121:
103:
92:
91:
82:
81:
73:
72:
71:
62:
61:
53:
52:
51:
42:
41:
40:
39:
38:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
16771:
16760:
16757:
16755:
16752:
16750:
16747:
16745:
16742:
16740:
16737:
16735:
16732:
16730:
16727:
16725:
16722:
16720:
16717:
16715:
16712:
16710:
16707:
16705:
16702:
16701:
16699:
16684:
16676:
16674:
16666:
16665:
16662:
16656:
16655:
16651:
16649:
16646:
16644:
16641:
16639:
16636:
16634:
16631:
16629:
16626:
16625:
16623:
16619:
16613:
16610:
16608:
16605:
16603:
16600:
16598:
16595:
16594:
16592:
16590:Organizations
16588:
16582:
16579:
16577:
16574:
16573:
16571:
16569:
16565:
16555:
16552:
16550:
16547:
16545:
16542:
16540:
16537:
16535:
16532:
16530:
16527:
16525:
16522:
16520:
16517:
16515:
16512:
16510:
16507:
16505:
16502:
16500:
16499:Carboniferous
16497:
16495:
16492:
16490:
16487:
16485:
16482:
16480:
16477:
16475:
16472:
16470:
16467:
16465:
16464:End-Ediacaran
16462:
16460:
16457:
16456:
16454:
16450:
16442:
16439:
16438:
16437:
16434:
16432:
16429:
16427:
16424:
16422:
16419:
16417:
16416:Late Devonian
16414:
16412:
16409:
16408:
16406:
16402:
16399:
16397:
16393:
16387:
16386:Living fossil
16384:
16382:
16379:
16377:
16374:
16372:
16369:
16367:
16364:
16362:
16359:
16357:
16354:
16353:
16351:
16345:
16339:
16336:
16334:
16331:
16329:
16326:
16324:
16321:
16319:
16316:
16314:
16311:
16309:
16306:
16304:
16301:
16299:
16296:
16294:
16291:
16289:
16286:
16285:
16283:
16279:
16273:
16270:
16269:
16267:
16263:
16258:
16248:
16245:
16243:
16240:
16238:
16237:Lazarus taxon
16235:
16233:
16230:
16228:
16225:
16223:
16220:
16218:
16215:
16213:
16212:De-extinction
16210:
16208:
16205:
16203:
16200:
16199:
16197:
16193:
16189:
16182:
16177:
16175:
16170:
16168:
16163:
16162:
16159:
16029:
16020:
16011:
16002:
15993:
15984:
15975:
15966:
15965:Carboniferous
15957:
15948:
15939:
15930:
15921:
15910:
15898:
15886:
15874:
15862:
15850:
15849:Late Devonian
15838:
15824:
15812:
15800:
15788:
15776:
15764:
15752:
15740:
15728:
15716:
15704:
15692:
15677:
15673:
15666:
15661:
15659:
15654:
15652:
15647:
15646:
15643:
15631:
15628:
15626:
15623:
15620:
15617:
15615:
15612:
15611:
15609:
15606:
15601:
15597:
15590:
15585:
15583:
15578:
15576:
15571:
15570:
15567:
15561:
15557:
15554:
15551:
15548:
15547:
15537:
15536:
15532:
15528:
15522:
15521:
15516:
15512:
15508:
15496:
15492:
15487:
15484:
15480:
15477:
15473:
15469:
15465:
15459:
15455:
15454:
15449:
15445:
15441:
15437:
15432:
15427:
15422:
15417:
15413:
15409:
15405:
15401:
15397:
15392:
15381:
15377:
15372:
15371:
15357:
15353:
15348:
15343:
15339:
15335:
15331:
15327:
15323:
15319:
15318:
15313:
15306:
15291:
15287:
15283:
15279:
15275:
15271:
15267:
15260:
15252:
15250:9780813722474
15246:
15242:
15238:
15234:
15230:
15223:
15208:
15204:
15200:
15196:
15192:
15188:
15187:
15182:
15175:
15167:
15163:
15159:
15155:
15151:
15147:
15143:
15139:
15138:
15130:
15122:
15118:
15114:
15110:
15106:
15102:
15098:
15094:
15093:
15085:
15078:
15070:
15066:
15061:
15056:
15052:
15048:
15044:
15040:
15039:
15034:
15027:
15018:
15013:
15009:
15005:
15001:
14997:
14996:
14991:
14984:
14969:
14965:
14961:
14957:
14953:
14949:
14948:
14943:
14936:
14928:
14924:
14920:
14916:
14911:
14906:
14902:
14898:
14894:
14890:
14889:
14884:
14877:
14869:
14863:
14859:
14854:
14853:
14844:
14829:
14825:
14821:
14817:
14813:
14809:
14805:
14801:
14800:
14795:
14788:
14773:
14769:
14765:
14761:
14757:
14750:
14735:
14731:
14727:
14723:
14719:
14715:
14714:
14709:
14702:
14694:
14690:
14686:
14682:
14678:
14674:
14673:
14665:
14658:
14643:
14639:
14635:
14631:
14627:
14623:
14622:
14617:
14610:
14595:
14591:
14587:
14583:
14579:
14575:
14574:
14569:
14562:
14554:
14550:
14546:
14542:
14538:
14534:
14530:
14526:
14525:
14517:
14502:
14498:
14494:
14490:
14487:(1–2): 1–51.
14486:
14482:
14481:
14476:
14469:
14450:
14446:
14442:
14438:
14434:
14430:
14426:
14425:
14417:
14410:
14402:
14398:
14393:
14388:
14384:
14380:
14376:
14372:
14368:
14364:
14360:
14356:
14355:
14350:
14343:
14335:
14331:
14327:
14323:
14319:
14315:
14314:
14306:
14291:
14287:
14283:
14279:
14275:
14271:
14270:
14265:
14258:
14243:
14239:
14235:
14231:
14227:
14223:
14222:
14217:
14210:
14195:
14191:
14187:
14183:
14179:
14175:
14171:
14167:
14163:
14159:
14158:
14153:
14146:
14131:
14127:
14123:
14119:
14115:
14111:
14107:
14103:
14099:
14095:
14094:
14089:
14082:
14080:
14064:
14060:
14056:
14052:
14051:
14046:
14039:
14031:
14025:
14021:
14017:
14013:
14007:
13999:
13993:
13977:
13976:
13971:
13964:
13956:
13950:
13934:
13930:
13923:
13915:
13909:
13893:
13889:
13882:
13874:
13868:
13864:
13857:
13842:
13838:
13834:
13830:
13826:
13822:
13818:
13814:
13813:
13808:
13801:
13786:
13782:
13778:
13774:
13770:
13766:
13765:
13760:
13753:
13738:
13734:
13730:
13726:
13722:
13718:
13714:
13710:
13709:
13704:
13697:
13682:
13678:
13674:
13670:
13667:(1–4): 1–15.
13666:
13662:
13661:
13656:
13649:
13634:
13630:
13626:
13622:
13618:
13614:
13613:
13608:
13601:
13599:
13582:
13578:
13577:
13572:
13566:
13558:
13554:
13550:
13543:
13535:
13531:
13526:
13521:
13516:
13511:
13507:
13503:
13499:
13495:
13494:
13489:
13482:
13467:
13463:
13459:
13455:
13451:
13447:
13444:(1): 99–118.
13443:
13439:
13438:
13433:
13426:
13418:
13414:
13409:
13404:
13400:
13396:
13392:
13388:
13384:
13380:
13379:
13374:
13367:
13359:
13355:
13350:
13345:
13341:
13337:
13332:
13327:
13323:
13319:
13318:
13313:
13306:
13298:
13294:
13289:
13284:
13280:
13276:
13271:
13266:
13262:
13258:
13257:
13252:
13245:
13230:
13226:
13222:
13218:
13214:
13210:
13206:
13202:
13198:
13194:
13193:
13188:
13181:
13173:
13169:
13165:
13161:
13157:
13153:
13152:
13144:
13142:
13140:
13131:
13127:
13122:
13117:
13113:
13109:
13105:
13101:
13097:
13093:
13089:
13082:
13067:
13063:
13059:
13055:
13051:
13047:
13046:
13041:
13034:
13019:
13015:
13011:
13007:
13003:
12999:
12998:
12993:
12986:
12971:
12967:
12962:
12961:10044/1/18936
12957:
12953:
12949:
12945:
12941:
12940:
12935:
12928:
12920:
12916:
12911:
12906:
12902:
12898:
12894:
12890:
12889:
12884:
12877:
12861:
12857:
12853:
12847:
12839:
12835:
12831:
12827:
12824:(1–2): 4–21.
12823:
12819:
12818:
12810:
12802:
12798:
12794:
12790:
12786:
12782:
12781:
12773:
12754:
12750:
12743:
12742:
12735:
12727:
12723:
12719:
12715:
12711:
12707:
12704:(2): 99–103.
12703:
12699:
12698:
12689:
12673:
12669:
12663:
12659:
12658:
12650:
12642:
12638:
12634:
12630:
12626:
12622:
12621:
12613:
12605:
12601:
12597:
12593:
12589:
12585:
12581:
12574:
12566:
12562:
12558:
12554:
12550:
12546:
12538:
12523:
12517:
12513:
12506:
12499:
12491:
12487:
12483:
12479:
12475:
12471:
12467:
12463:
12462:
12454:
12447:
12445:
12436:
12432:
12427:
12422:
12417:
12412:
12408:
12404:
12400:
12396:
12395:
12390:
12383:
12381:
12379:
12369:
12364:
12360:
12356:
12352:
12348:
12347:
12342:
12335:
12333:
12316:
12312:
12308:
12304:
12297:
12295:
12293:
12276:
12272:
12268:
12262:
12254:
12250:
12246:
12242:
12237:
12232:
12228:
12224:
12220:
12216:
12215:
12207:
12199:
12195:
12190:
12185:
12181:
12177:
12176:
12167:
12159:
12155:
12151:
12147:
12143:
12139:
12135:
12131:
12127:
12123:
12122:
12114:
12099:
12095:
12091:
12087:
12086:
12081:
12073:
12057:
12053:
12049:
12042:
12027:
12023:
12019:
12015:
12011:
12007:
12006:
12001:
11994:
11986:
11982:
11977:
11972:
11967:
11962:
11958:
11954:
11950:
11946:
11945:
11940:
11933:
11918:
11914:
11910:
11906:
11902:
11898:
11894:
11887:
11879:
11875:
11871:
11867:
11863:
11859:
11855:
11851:
11847:
11843:
11842:
11834:
11815:
11814:
11805:
11798:
11794:
11788:
11781:
11777:
11771:
11764:
11753:
11749:
11743:
11735:
11731:
11726:
11721:
11716:
11711:
11707:
11703:
11699:
11695:
11694:
11689:
11681:
11666:
11662:
11658:
11654:
11650:
11646:
11645:
11640:
11633:
11625:
11621:
11617:
11613:
11609:
11605:
11601:
11597:
11596:
11588:
11573:
11569:
11565:
11561:
11557:
11553:
11552:
11547:
11540:
11532:
11528:
11524:
11520:
11516:
11512:
11508:
11504:
11500:
11496:
11495:
11487:
11479:
11475:
11471:
11467:
11463:
11459:
11455:
11451:
11447:
11443:
11442:
11437:
11430:
11422:
11418:
11414:
11410:
11406:
11402:
11398:
11394:
11390:
11386:
11385:
11377:
11362:
11358:
11354:
11350:
11346:
11342:
11341:
11336:
11329:
11321:
11317:
11313:
11309:
11305:
11301:
11297:
11293:
11292:
11284:
11276:
11272:
11268:
11264:
11263:
11255:
11240:
11236:
11229:
11227:
11211:
11207:
11203:
11199:
11195:
11191:
11187:
11183:
11182:
11177:
11170:
11161:
11156:
11152:
11148:
11144:
11140:
11139:
11134:
11127:
11119:
11115:
11111:
11107:
11103:
11099:
11095:
11091:
11090:
11082:
11075:
11059:
11055:
11051:
11047:
11041:
11037:
11036:
11031:
11024:
11009:
11008:
11003:
10999:
10993:
10985:
10981:
10977:
10973:
10968:
10963:
10959:
10955:
10951:
10947:
10946:
10941:
10934:
10918:
10917:
10912:
10906:
10898:
10894:
10889:
10884:
10880:
10876:
10872:
10868:
10864:
10860:
10856:
10849:
10841:
10837:
10832:
10827:
10823:
10819:
10815:
10811:
10807:
10803:
10799:
10791:
10783:
10779:
10774:
10769:
10765:
10761:
10757:
10753:
10749:
10745:
10741:
10733:
10725:
10721:
10717:
10713:
10709:
10705:
10702:(6334): 420.
10701:
10697:
10693:
10686:
10678:
10674:
10669:
10664:
10659:
10654:
10650:
10646:
10642:
10638:
10637:
10632:
10625:
10610:
10606:
10602:
10598:
10594:
10590:
10586:
10582:
10578:
10574:
10570:
10566:
10565:
10560:
10553:
10537:
10536:
10531:
10525:
10517:
10513:
10508:
10503:
10498:
10493:
10489:
10485:
10481:
10477:
10476:
10471:
10464:
10448:
10444:
10443:
10435:
10419:
10415:
10409:
10401:
10397:
10393:
10389:
10384:
10379:
10375:
10371:
10370:
10365:
10358:
10350:
10346:
10342:
10338:
10334:
10330:
10329:
10321:
10313:
10309:
10305:
10301:
10297:
10293:
10289:
10285:
10284:
10279:
10272:
10270:
10261:
10257:
10252:
10247:
10243:
10239:
10235:
10231:
10227:
10223:
10219:
10212:
10197:
10193:
10188:
10183:
10179:
10175:
10171:
10164:
10149:
10145:
10141:
10137:
10133:
10129:
10128:
10123:
10116:
10101:
10097:
10093:
10089:
10085:
10081:
10080:
10075:
10068:
10060:
10056:
10051:
10046:
10042:
10038:
10034:
10030:
10026:
10022:
10021:
10016:
10009:
10001:
9995:
9991:
9983:
9975:
9969:
9965:
9958:
9950:
9946:
9942:
9938:
9934:
9930:
9926:
9922:
9918:
9914:
9913:
9905:
9903:
9901:
9892:
9888:
9884:
9880:
9876:
9872:
9867:
9862:
9858:
9854:
9850:
9846:
9842:
9838:
9837:
9831:
9822:
9806:
9805:
9800:
9794:
9788:
9783:
9775:
9771:
9767:
9763:
9759:
9755:
9751:
9747:
9746:
9738:
9731:
9723:
9719:
9714:
9709:
9705:
9701:
9697:
9693:
9689:
9685:
9684:
9679:
9672:
9664:
9660:
9655:
9650:
9645:
9640:
9636:
9632:
9628:
9624:
9623:
9618:
9611:
9609:
9600:
9596:
9592:
9588:
9584:
9580:
9576:
9572:
9568:
9567:
9559:
9551:
9547:
9542:
9537:
9533:
9529:
9524:
9519:
9515:
9511:
9510:
9505:
9498:
9490:
9486:
9481:
9476:
9472:
9468:
9464:
9460:
9459:
9454:
9447:
9431:
9427:
9426:
9418:
9410:
9404:
9400:
9393:
9385:
9381:
9377:
9373:
9369:
9365:
9361:
9357:
9350:
9339:
9335:
9331:
9330:
9329:Geodiversitas
9322:
9320:
9311:
9303:
9297:
9289:
9285:
9281:
9277:
9273:
9269:
9265:
9261:
9257:
9253:
9252:
9244:
9242:
9233:
9229:
9224:
9219:
9215:
9211:
9210:
9205:
9198:
9190:
9186:
9182:
9178:
9173:
9168:
9164:
9160:
9156:
9152:
9148:
9144:
9143:
9134:
9126:
9122:
9117:
9112:
9108:
9104:
9100:
9096:
9095:
9090:
9083:
9067:
9063:
9057:
9049:
9045:
9041:
9037:
9033:
9029:
9025:
9021:
9017:
9013:
9009:
9005:
9004:
8996:
8989:
8981:
8977:
8973:
8969:
8965:
8961:
8957:
8953:
8949:
8945:
8944:
8936:
8920:
8916:
8912:
8908:
8901:
8882:
8878:
8874:
8867:
8866:
8858:
8850:
8846:
8842:
8838:
8834:
8830:
8826:
8822:
8818:
8814:
8813:
8805:
8797:
8793:
8789:
8785:
8781:
8777:
8773:
8769:
8768:
8759:
8751:
8747:
8743:
8739:
8732:
8724:
8720:
8716:
8712:
8708:
8704:
8703:
8694:
8686:
8680:
8676:
8671:
8670:
8664:
8663:Dodson, Peter
8658:
8649:
8644:
8640:
8636:
8632:
8628:
8627:
8622:
8615:
8600:
8596:
8592:
8588:
8587:
8582:
8575:
8567:
8561:
8557:
8553:
8549:
8544:
8543:
8533:
8531:
8522:
8516:
8512:
8505:
8498:
8496:
8494:
8492:
8490:
8481:
8477:
8472:
8467:
8462:
8457:
8453:
8449:
8445:
8438:
8430:
8426:
8422:
8421:10.1666/13030
8418:
8414:
8410:
8406:
8402:
8401:
8393:
8386:
8378:
8374:
8370:
8366:
8362:
8358:
8354:
8350:
8349:
8340:
8332:
8328:
8324:
8320:
8316:
8312:
8311:
8303:
8296:
8288:
8282:
8274:
8270:
8265:
8260:
8256:
8252:
8251:
8246:
8239:
8220:
8216:
8212:
8205:
8198:
8190:
8186:
8182:
8178:
8174:
8170:
8163:
8148:
8144:
8140:
8136:
8132:
8128:
8127:
8122:
8115:
8107:
8103:
8099:
8095:
8091:
8087:
8083:
8079:
8075:
8071:
8067:
8060:
8052:
8048:
8043:
8038:
8034:
8030:
8026:
8022:
8021:
8020:Palaeontology
8016:
8009:
8001:
7997:
7993:
7989:
7985:
7981:
7980:
7972:
7965:
7957:
7953:
7949:
7945:
7941:
7937:
7933:
7929:
7928:
7920:
7912:
7908:
7903:
7898:
7893:
7888:
7884:
7880:
7876:
7872:
7871:
7866:
7859:
7851:
7847:
7843:
7839:
7835:
7831:
7827:
7823:
7822:
7817:
7810:
7802:
7798:
7791:
7783:
7779:
7775:
7771:
7767:
7763:
7759:
7755:
7748:
7733:
7729:
7725:
7721:
7717:
7713:
7712:
7707:
7700:
7692:
7688:
7684:
7680:
7675:
7670:
7666:
7662:
7661:
7656:
7649:
7634:
7630:
7626:
7622:
7621:
7616:
7609:
7601:
7597:
7592:
7587:
7583:
7579:
7575:
7571:
7567:
7563:
7562:
7557:
7550:
7542:
7538:
7533:
7528:
7524:
7520:
7516:
7512:
7508:
7501:
7493:
7489:
7484:
7479:
7475:
7471:
7467:
7463:
7459:
7455:
7451:
7447:
7443:
7436:
7428:
7424:
7419:
7414:
7410:
7406:
7402:
7398:
7394:
7390:
7386:
7379:
7371:
7365:
7361:
7354:
7346:
7342:
7338:
7334:
7330:
7326:
7322:
7318:
7314:
7310:
7303:
7295:
7291:
7286:
7281:
7277:
7273:
7269:
7265:
7261:
7257:
7256:
7251:
7244:
7229:
7225:
7221:
7217:
7213:
7209:
7208:
7207:Palaeontology
7203:
7196:
7188:
7175:
7167:
7161:
7157:
7153:
7146:
7138:
7134:
7130:
7126:
7122:
7118:
7117:
7112:
7105:
7097:
7093:
7088:
7083:
7079:
7075:
7071:
7067:
7066:
7061:
7054:
7046:
7042:
7038:
7034:
7030:
7026:
7025:
7017:
7009:
7005:
7000:
6995:
6991:
6987:
6982:
6977:
6973:
6969:
6968:
6963:
6956:
6949:(3): 349–388.
6948:
6944:
6943:
6942:Geodiversitas
6935:
6927:
6923:
6916:
6908:
6902:
6898:
6894:
6890:
6883:
6868:
6864:
6860:
6856:
6852:
6848:
6844:
6840:
6839:
6834:
6827:
6812:
6808:
6803:
6798:
6794:
6790:
6783:
6772:
6768:
6764:
6760:
6756:
6752:
6748:
6744:
6740:
6739:
6731:
6724:
6722:
6720:
6718:
6716:
6714:
6712:
6695:
6690:
6686:
6682:
6678:
6674:
6673:
6668:
6661:
6653:
6649:
6645:
6641:
6637:
6633:
6629:
6625:
6624:
6616:
6601:
6597:
6593:
6589:
6585:
6581:
6577:
6573:
6569:
6565:
6564:
6559:
6552:
6544:
6540:
6536:
6532:
6528:
6524:
6520:
6516:
6515:
6507:
6499:
6493:
6489:
6482:
6474:
6470:
6466:
6462:
6458:
6454:
6453:
6445:
6443:
6434:
6428:
6424:
6417:
6402:
6398:
6394:
6390:
6386:
6382:
6378:
6374:
6373:
6368:
6361:
6353:
6349:
6345:
6341:
6337:
6333:
6329:
6325:
6321:
6317:
6316:
6308:
6300:
6296:
6291:
6286:
6281:
6276:
6272:
6268:
6264:
6260:
6259:
6254:
6247:
6245:
6236:
6232:
6227:
6222:
6218:
6214:
6209:
6204:
6200:
6196:
6195:
6190:
6183:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6160:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6129:
6125:
6121:
6117:
6116:
6111:
6104:
6096:
6092:
6088:
6084:
6080:
6076:
6075:
6067:
6065:
6056:
6052:
6048:
6044:
6040:
6036:
6035:
6026:
6024:
6008:
6004:
6000:
5996:
5992:
5988:
5987:
5982:
5975:
5967:
5963:
5958:
5953:
5949:
5945:
5940:
5935:
5931:
5927:
5926:
5921:
5914:
5899:
5895:
5891:
5887:
5883:
5879:
5878:
5873:
5866:
5858:
5854:
5850:
5846:
5842:
5838:
5834:
5830:
5826:
5822:
5821:
5813:
5811:
5809:
5800:
5796:
5792:
5788:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5772:
5771:
5763:
5755:
5751:
5747:
5743:
5739:
5735:
5731:
5727:
5726:
5718:
5710:
5703:
5695:
5691:
5687:
5683:
5679:
5675:
5671:
5667:
5660:
5645:
5641:
5637:
5633:
5632:
5627:
5620:
5605:
5601:
5597:
5593:
5589:
5585:
5584:
5579:
5572:
5556:
5555:10400.1/18610
5551:
5547:
5543:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5524:
5516:
5512:
5507:
5502:
5498:
5494:
5490:
5486:
5482:
5478:
5474:
5467:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5431:
5430:
5422:
5414:
5408:
5404:
5397:
5389:
5385:
5381:
5377:
5370:
5362:
5358:
5354:
5350:
5346:
5342:
5334:
5319:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5306:
5301:
5294:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5267:
5263:
5259:
5258:
5253:
5246:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5210:
5205:
5198:
5190:
5184:
5180:
5172:
5157:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5136:
5131:
5124:
5109:
5105:
5102:(1–3): 1–45.
5101:
5097:
5093:
5086:
5078:
5074:
5070:
5066:
5058:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5030:
5025:
5018:
5010:
5004:
5000:
4999:
4991:
4983:
4979:
4975:
4971:
4967:
4963:
4959:
4955:
4948:
4940:
4938:9781565763098
4934:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4921:
4916:
4909:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4877:
4873:
4866:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4831:
4830:
4825:
4818:
4803:
4799:
4795:
4791:
4787:
4783:
4782:
4777:
4770:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4741:
4733:
4726:
4718:
4714:
4710:
4706:
4702:
4698:
4697:
4689:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4660:
4652:
4637:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4599:
4598:
4593:
4585:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4554:(1): 96–100.
4553:
4549:
4548:
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3411:
3407:
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3401:
3395:
3394:Keller, Gerta
3389:
3381:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3353:
3349:
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3209:
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3195:
3188:
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3174:
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3138:
3134:
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3125:
3118:
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3112:
3095:
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3078:
3062:
3058:
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3027:
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3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
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2976:
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2967:
2960:
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2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2788:
2783:
2775:
2773:
2764:
2758:
2754:
2753:Primal Forces
2747:
2739:
2733:
2729:
2728:
2723:
2717:
2701:
2697:
2691:
2683:
2677:
2673:
2666:
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2647:
2640:
2636:
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2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2597:
2593:
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2577:
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2568:
2565:
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2557:
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2507:
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2466:
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2456:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2431:
2427:
2425:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2409:
2408:flood basalts
2406:
2400:
2390:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2368:
2364:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2320:
2316:
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2310:
2305:
2303:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2238:
2237:sulfuric acid
2234:
2230:
2224:
2221:
2220:impact winter
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2196:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2173:
2169:
2161:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2139:
2130:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2116:
2101:
2097:
2089:
2084:
2075:
2059:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2029:
2028:microtektites
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2004:United States
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1935:Earth's crust
1932:
1928:
1927:concentration
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1896:
1891:
1885:, Italy, 1981
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1803:
1800:
1796:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1774:stratigraphic
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1756:evidence and
1755:
1751:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1729:
1724:
1722:
1718:
1707:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1682:
1679:
1675:
1673:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1653:
1649:
1644:
1635:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1602:
1600:
1596:
1595:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1555:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1535:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1502:
1500:
1496:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1464:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1447:
1446:
1441:
1440:
1435:
1434:
1429:
1428:
1423:
1422:
1421:Tyrannosaurus
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1395:
1393:
1388:
1381:
1380:
1379:Tyrannosaurus
1375:
1366:
1363:
1360:, a possible
1359:
1356:, a possible
1355:
1351:
1347:
1346:Nyctosauridae
1343:
1333:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1299:
1297:
1293:
1292:Polycotylidae
1289:
1285:
1280:
1271:
1269:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1233:South America
1230:
1226:
1216:
1213:
1209:
1199:
1194:
1193:
1192:Champsosaurus
1188:
1184:
1183:choristoderes
1177:Choristoderes
1169:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1157:
1151:
1141:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1126:
1123:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1103:neoselachians
1100:
1096:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1074:
1072:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1057:
1052:
1042:
1040:
1035:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
984:
980:
976:
974:
970:
966:
962:
957:
955:
951:
946:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
925:
924:scleractinian
920:
918:
914:
909:
907:
902:
898:
894:
892:
884:
880:
877:
873:
864:
861:
857:
852:
849:
846:
841:
839:
835:
831:
827:
822:
818:
814:
812:
808:
803:
799:
794:
792:
788:
784:
780:
777:
773:
772:fossil record
769:
768:K–Pg boundary
759:
757:
753:
749:
745:
740:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
693:phytoplankton
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
667:
662:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
641:
638:nor strictly
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
608:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
577:Maastrichtian
574:
569:
563:
561:
555:
551:
546:
543:
539:
516:
508:
501:
494:
487:
480:
473:
466:
445:
421:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
341:
339:
335:
331:
327:
322:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
265:which halted
264:
263:impact winter
260:
256:
252:
247:
245:
244:Earth's crust
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
194:. Most other
193:
189:
185:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
146:
142:
139:
136:
132:
129:
126:
122:
119:
118:K–Pg boundary
115:
111:
107:
104:
101:
97:
96:
95:
86:
77:
66:
57:
46:
37:
33:
19:
16744:Megatsunamis
16652:
16628:Anthropocene
16469:End-Botomian
16430:
16349:and concepts
16207:Coextinction
15909:Major events
15908:
15884:
15691:Minor events
15690:
15625:Shiva crater
15595:
15524:
15518:
15499:. Retrieved
15495:the original
15452:
15403:
15399:
15383:. Retrieved
15321:
15315:
15305:
15293:. Retrieved
15273:
15269:
15259:
15232:
15222:
15210:. Retrieved
15190:
15184:
15174:
15141:
15135:
15129:
15096:
15090:
15077:
15042:
15036:
15026:
14999:
14993:
14983:
14971:. Retrieved
14951:
14945:
14935:
14892:
14886:
14876:
14851:
14843:
14831:. Retrieved
14803:
14797:
14787:
14775:. Retrieved
14763:
14759:
14749:
14737:. Retrieved
14717:
14711:
14701:
14676:
14670:
14657:
14645:. Retrieved
14625:
14619:
14609:
14597:. Retrieved
14577:
14571:
14561:
14531:(4): 85–92.
14528:
14522:
14516:
14504:. Retrieved
14484:
14478:
14468:
14456:. Retrieved
14449:the original
14428:
14422:
14409:
14358:
14352:
14342:
14317:
14311:
14305:
14293:. Retrieved
14273:
14267:
14257:
14245:. Retrieved
14225:
14219:
14209:
14197:. Retrieved
14161:
14155:
14145:
14133:. Retrieved
14097:
14091:
14066:. Retrieved
14054:
14048:
14038:
14019:
14006:
13992:cite journal
13980:. Retrieved
13973:
13963:
13949:cite journal
13937:. Retrieved
13932:
13922:
13908:cite journal
13896:. Retrieved
13891:
13881:
13862:
13856:
13844:. Retrieved
13816:
13810:
13800:
13788:. Retrieved
13768:
13762:
13752:
13740:. Retrieved
13712:
13706:
13696:
13684:. Retrieved
13664:
13658:
13648:
13636:. Retrieved
13616:
13610:
13585:. Retrieved
13574:
13565:
13548:
13542:
13497:
13491:
13481:
13469:. Retrieved
13441:
13437:Astrobiology
13435:
13425:
13385:(1): 28427.
13382:
13376:
13366:
13321:
13315:
13305:
13260:
13254:
13244:
13232:. Retrieved
13196:
13190:
13180:
13155:
13149:
13095:
13091:
13081:
13069:. Retrieved
13049:
13043:
13033:
13021:. Retrieved
13001:
12995:
12985:
12973:. Retrieved
12943:
12937:
12927:
12892:
12886:
12876:
12864:. Retrieved
12855:
12846:
12821:
12815:
12809:
12784:
12778:
12772:
12760:. Retrieved
12740:
12734:
12701:
12695:
12688:
12676:. Retrieved
12656:
12649:
12624:
12618:
12612:
12587:
12583:
12573:
12551:(2): 81–84.
12548:
12544:
12537:
12525:. Retrieved
12511:
12498:
12465:
12459:
12398:
12392:
12350:
12344:
12319:. Retrieved
12281:21 September
12279:. Retrieved
12271:ScienceDaily
12270:
12261:
12218:
12212:
12206:
12179:
12173:
12166:
12125:
12119:
12113:
12101:. Retrieved
12089:
12083:
12072:
12060:. Retrieved
12051:
12041:
12029:. Retrieved
12009:
12003:
11993:
11948:
11942:
11932:
11920:. Retrieved
11900:
11896:
11886:
11845:
11839:
11833:
11821:. Retrieved
11812:
11804:
11792:
11791:DePalma, R.
11787:
11775:
11770:
11762:
11755:. Retrieved
11751:
11742:
11697:
11691:
11680:
11668:. Retrieved
11648:
11642:
11632:
11599:
11593:
11587:
11575:. Retrieved
11555:
11549:
11539:
11498:
11492:
11486:
11445:
11439:
11429:
11388:
11382:
11376:
11364:. Retrieved
11344:
11338:
11328:
11295:
11289:
11283:
11266:
11260:
11254:
11242:. Retrieved
11238:
11213:. Retrieved
11185:
11179:
11169:
11142:
11136:
11126:
11093:
11087:
11074:
11062:. Retrieved
11034:
11023:
11011:. Retrieved
11007:Ars Technica
11005:
10992:
10952:(7899): 17.
10949:
10943:
10933:
10921:. Retrieved
10914:
10905:
10862:
10858:
10848:
10808:(1): 23704.
10805:
10801:
10790:
10747:
10743:
10732:
10699:
10695:
10685:
10640:
10634:
10624:
10612:. Retrieved
10568:
10562:
10552:
10540:. Retrieved
10533:
10524:
10479:
10473:
10463:
10451:. Retrieved
10441:
10434:
10422:. Retrieved
10418:the original
10408:
10373:
10367:
10357:
10332:
10326:
10320:
10287:
10281:
10225:
10221:
10211:
10199:. Retrieved
10177:
10173:
10163:
10151:. Retrieved
10131:
10125:
10115:
10103:. Retrieved
10086:(1): 79–97.
10083:
10077:
10067:
10024:
10018:
10008:
9989:
9982:
9963:
9957:
9916:
9910:
9840:
9834:
9821:
9809:. Retrieved
9804:Science News
9802:
9793:
9782:
9749:
9743:
9730:
9687:
9681:
9671:
9626:
9620:
9570:
9564:
9558:
9513:
9507:
9497:
9462:
9456:
9446:
9434:. Retrieved
9424:
9417:
9398:
9392:
9359:
9355:
9349:
9338:the original
9333:
9327:
9318:
9310:
9296:cite journal
9255:
9249:
9216:(1): 68–77.
9213:
9207:
9197:
9146:
9140:
9133:
9101:(4): 543–7.
9098:
9092:
9082:
9072:20 September
9070:. Retrieved
9056:
9007:
9001:
8988:
8947:
8941:
8935:
8923:. Retrieved
8919:the original
8914:
8910:
8900:
8888:. Retrieved
8864:
8857:
8816:
8810:
8804:
8771:
8765:
8758:
8741:
8737:
8731:
8706:
8700:
8693:
8668:
8657:
8630:
8624:
8614:
8602:. Retrieved
8590:
8584:
8574:
8541:
8510:
8451:
8448:PLOS Biology
8447:
8437:
8404:
8400:Paleobiology
8398:
8385:
8352:
8348:Paleobiology
8346:
8339:
8314:
8308:
8295:
8281:cite journal
8254:
8248:
8238:
8226:. Retrieved
8214:
8210:
8197:
8172:
8168:
8162:
8150:. Retrieved
8130:
8126:Paleobiology
8124:
8114:
8073:
8069:
8059:
8027:(1): 12638.
8024:
8018:
8008:
7983:
7977:
7964:
7931:
7925:
7919:
7877:(1): 10825.
7874:
7868:
7858:
7825:
7819:
7809:
7800:
7796:
7790:
7757:
7753:
7747:
7735:. Retrieved
7715:
7709:
7699:
7664:
7658:
7648:
7636:. Retrieved
7624:
7618:
7608:
7565:
7559:
7549:
7514:
7510:
7500:
7449:
7445:
7435:
7392:
7388:
7378:
7359:
7353:
7312:
7308:
7302:
7259:
7253:
7243:
7231:. Retrieved
7211:
7205:
7195:
7155:
7145:
7120:
7114:
7104:
7069:
7063:
7053:
7028:
7022:
7016:
6971:
6965:
6955:
6946:
6940:
6934:
6925:
6921:
6915:
6888:
6882:
6870:. Retrieved
6842:
6836:
6826:
6814:. Retrieved
6792:
6782:
6771:the original
6742:
6736:
6698:. Retrieved
6676:
6670:
6660:
6627:
6621:
6615:
6603:. Retrieved
6567:
6561:
6551:
6518:
6512:
6506:
6487:
6481:
6456:
6450:
6422:
6416:
6404:. Retrieved
6376:
6370:
6360:
6319:
6313:
6307:
6262:
6256:
6198:
6192:
6182:
6173:
6169:
6159:
6147:. Retrieved
6119:
6113:
6103:
6078:
6072:
6038:
6032:
6010:. Retrieved
5990:
5986:Paleobiology
5984:
5974:
5929:
5923:
5913:
5901:. Retrieved
5881:
5877:Paleobiology
5875:
5865:
5824:
5818:
5774:
5768:
5762:
5729:
5723:
5717:
5708:
5702:
5669:
5665:
5659:
5647:. Retrieved
5635:
5629:
5619:
5607:. Retrieved
5587:
5581:
5571:
5559:. Retrieved
5537:
5533:
5523:
5480:
5476:
5466:
5433:
5427:
5421:
5402:
5396:
5379:
5375:
5369:
5344:
5340:
5333:
5321:. Retrieved
5309:
5303:
5293:
5281:. Retrieved
5261:
5257:Paleobiology
5255:
5245:
5233:. Retrieved
5213:
5207:
5197:
5178:
5171:
5159:. Retrieved
5142:(11): 1439.
5139:
5133:
5123:
5111:. Retrieved
5099:
5095:
5085:
5071:(1): 31–49.
5068:
5064:
5057:
5045:. Retrieved
5033:
5027:
5017:
4997:
4990:
4957:
4953:
4947:
4919:
4908:
4875:
4871:
4865:
4853:. Retrieved
4833:
4829:Paleobiology
4827:
4817:
4805:. Retrieved
4785:
4779:
4769:
4744:
4740:Paleobiology
4738:
4725:
4700:
4694:
4688:
4663:
4657:
4651:
4639:. Retrieved
4601:
4595:
4584:
4551:
4545:
4532:
4497:
4493:
4482:
4457:
4451:
4417:
4411:
4404:
4393:the original
4364:
4358:
4345:
4312:
4306:
4245:
4241:Paleobiology
4239:
4216:. Retrieved
4204:
4198:
4188:
4155:
4147:
4112:
4106:
4052:
4046:
4005:
3999:
3966:
3962:
3908:
3902:
3892:
3879:
3821:
3815:
3805:
3786:
3779:
3734:
3728:
3668:
3662:
3592:
3586:
3557:. Retrieved
3511:
3505:
3480:. Retrieved
3474:
3449:. Retrieved
3438:
3428:
3399:
3388:
3343:
3337:
3312:. Retrieved
3301:
3263:
3257:
3203:
3197:
3173:the original
3136:
3130:
3098:. Retrieved
3087:
3077:
3065:. Retrieved
3046:
3034:. Retrieved
3029:
3019:
2978:
2972:
2936:. Retrieved
2908:
2904:
2878:. Retrieved
2850:
2844:
2819:. Retrieved
2791:
2785:
2752:
2746:
2726:
2716:
2704:. Retrieved
2700:the original
2690:
2671:
2665:
2646:
2634:
2625:
2613:
2609:
2601:
2596:
2532:
2515:
2502:
2493:
2469:epeiric seas
2457:
2448:
2437:
2428:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2405:Deccan Traps
2402:
2399:Deccan Traps
2393:Deccan Traps
2387:Tethys Ocean
2383:Shiva crater
2375:14.5 Ma
2359:0.64 Ma
2337:impact with
2331:
2306:
2298:
2286:
2269:core samples
2244:stratosphere
2225:
2197:
2176:
2157:
2119:
2093:
2000:North Dakota
1975:tsunami beds
1963:impact event
1947:Earth's core
1919:Helen Michel
1907:Luis Alvarez
1900:
1879:K-T boundary
1807:Denver Basin
1804:
1791:
1782:North Dakota
1768:identities,
1754:osteological
1747:
1725:
1713:
1683:
1676:
1656:
1648:saprotrophic
1645:
1641:
1603:
1594:Gurbanodelta
1592:
1573:metatherians
1561:
1536:
1508:
1491:64.5 Ma
1465:
1443:
1437:
1431:
1427:Ankylosaurus
1425:
1419:
1396:
1389:
1385:
1377:
1342:Azhdarchidae
1339:
1313:Dyrosauridae
1305:
1296:ichthyosaurs
1278:
1277:
1256:
1248:
1240:
1222:
1219:Lepidosauria
1205:
1190:
1180:
1163:
1154:
1147:
1127:
1119:
1115:teleost fish
1083:jawed fishes
1080:
1067:
1058:
1048:
1031:
1005:into modern
988:
959:The numbers
958:
947:
921:
917:Costacopluma
916:
910:
895:
888:
875:
853:
848:foraminifera
842:
815:
810:
806:
795:
779:nanoplankton
774:for various
765:
741:
691:from living
685:water column
681:champsosaurs
663:
628:insectivores
620:solar energy
609:
570:
567:
557:
537:
471:
381:evolutionary
375:(especially
342:
326:Deccan Traps
323:
253:and his son
251:Luis Alvarez
248:
242:than in the
208:crocodilians
168:
164:
160:
156:
154:
145:Deccan Traps
93:
36:
16474:Dresbachian
14973:18 November
14833:18 November
14739:18 November
14647:23 November
14628:: 153–164.
14506:18 November
14458:18 November
14295:18 November
14247:18 November
14199:18 November
14135:18 November
14068:18 November
13846:18 November
13790:18 November
13742:18 November
13686:18 November
13638:18 November
13471:18 November
13234:18 November
12182:(1): 7–10.
11922:18 November
11752:www.nps.gov
11244:17 November
11145:: 272–280.
11013:26 February
10923:24 February
9032:11336/80763
8633:: 368–390.
7737:21 December
7718:: 295–317.
7568:(1): 5335.
7262:(1): 1489.
6694:11336/99687
6679:: 250–265.
6406:18 November
6379:: 161–169.
6176:(1): 51–61.
6149:18 November
5638:: 142–156.
5609:18 November
5382:: 203–216.
4641:21 December
4627:11336/80135
3992:Alroy, John
3408:. pp.
3067:30 December
2510:particulate
2489:vertebrates
2424:sparse data
2294:nitric acid
2188:megatsunami
2179:megatsunami
2044:Raton Basin
1923:sedimentary
1915:Frank Asaro
1903:Nobel Prize
1721:saprophytes
1686:neotropical
1628:brain sizes
1439:Triceratops
1284:plesiosaurs
1245:New Zealand
1243:) found in
1130:bony fishes
1092:durophagous
989:Except for
969:inoceramids
950:brachiopods
935:photic zone
901:crustaceans
707:(including
697:ocean floor
669:communities
640:carnivorous
636:herbivorous
605:New Zealand
444:Phanerozoic
357:plesiosaurs
230:called the
204:sea turtles
200:ectothermic
141:Rajgad Fort
16698:Categories
16554:Quaternary
16188:Extinction
16028:Quaternary
16001:Cretaceous
15938:Ordovician
15787:Capitanian
15276:(3): 232.
13587:14 October
12787:: 75–113.
12062:8 February
12052:sfgate.com
11774:Smit, J.,
11558:(4): 331.
11347:(8): 759.
11064:25 October
11054:4434434112
10180:: 89–101.
9172:2328/35953
8217:: 61–107.
8211:Zitteliana
7828:: 105339.
5540:: 101959.
3559:17 January
3482:17 January
3451:30 January
3314:24 October
2911:: 102214.
2853:: 111334.
2606:Cretaceous
2522:Antarctica
2481:freshwater
2449:regression
2204:firestorms
2096:Paul Renne
2018:and lower
1996:Tanis site
1815:fern spike
1770:taphonomic
1689:rainforest
1678:Polyploidy
1667:angiosperm
1659:fern spike
1577:eutherians
1565:monotremes
1463:research.
1455:taphonomic
1445:Torosaurus
1336:Pterosaurs
1325:Notosuchia
1257:The order
1144:Amphibians
1138:Antarctica
1071:Termitidae
1056:ichnotaxon
1023:belemnoids
1015:cuttlefish
991:nautiloids
952:, a small
845:planktonic
838:Cretaceous
821:Ordovician
817:Radiolaria
791:speciation
776:calcareous
762:Microbiota
725:food chain
593:New Mexico
589:Antarctica
538:percentage
353:pterosaurs
315:food chain
212:Cretaceous
171:, was the
110:Drumheller
16759:Dinosaurs
16333:Overshoot
16195:Phenomena
16045:Palæozoic
16010:Paleogene
15920:Ediacaran
15715:Lau event
15621:(primary)
15603:Proposed
15527:dinosaurs
15324:: 12079.
15295:22 August
15212:22 August
15207:0883-8305
15166:115136793
15002:: 19–31.
14919:0036-8075
14828:0091-7613
14777:22 August
14599:22 August
14594:0094-8276
14445:1052-5173
14431:(12): 4.
14383:2375-2548
14186:0028-0836
14122:0028-0836
13841:0148-0227
13458:1531-1074
13399:2045-2322
13340:0027-8424
13279:0027-8424
13229:264805571
13221:1752-0894
13071:22 August
13066:2662-138X
13023:22 August
13018:0002-9505
12975:22 August
12970:0016-7649
12678:30 August
12584:Sed. Geol
12231:CiteSeerX
12189:0811.0171
12103:22 August
12092:: 12–30.
12031:22 August
12026:1086-9379
11670:22 August
11665:1086-9379
11577:22 August
11572:0091-7613
11366:22 August
11361:0091-7613
11215:22 August
11202:0036-8075
10984:247083600
10609:232484243
10593:0036-8075
10242:1744-957X
10196:196664424
10153:22 August
10148:0869-5938
10105:22 August
10100:0869-5938
10041:0962-8452
9891:247853831
9875:0036-8075
9704:0962-8452
9587:1471-2954
9532:1664-8021
9384:129493664
9189:206555952
8796:130116586
8604:22 August
8228:31 August
8152:22 August
8147:0094-8373
8106:258361595
8098:0272-4634
8051:0031-0239
7956:198156470
7927:Evolution
7850:251749728
7782:140639013
7683:0960-9822
7638:22 August
7541:1477-2019
7474:2054-5703
7409:0962-8452
7276:2045-2322
7233:22 August
7228:0031-0239
7174:cite book
6990:0027-8424
6872:22 August
6859:2397-334X
6816:22 August
6811:1374-8505
6700:22 August
6652:132206016
6600:257103123
6543:129579498
6401:0031-0182
6217:1932-6203
6144:1943-2682
6012:22 August
6007:0094-8373
5948:0027-8424
5903:22 August
5898:0094-8373
5799:132641572
5694:129296658
5649:22 August
5604:0278-0372
5561:22 August
5497:0962-8452
5323:22 August
5283:22 August
5278:0094-8373
5235:22 August
5230:0031-0182
5161:22 August
5156:0016-7606
5113:22 August
5047:22 August
4982:129875020
4900:128771186
4855:22 August
4850:0094-8373
4807:22 August
4802:1752-0908
4636:129962470
4576:130690035
4337:129654916
4218:22 August
4180:441742117
3619:0027-8424
3554:210698721
2933:256834649
2875:254345541
2816:256021543
2657:Citations
2618:Paleogene
2367:North Sea
2273:peak ring
2271:from the
2261:predators
2242:into the
2233:anhydrite
2216:biosphere
2042:, in the
2020:Paleocene
1992:volcanism
1984:Chicxulub
1967:spherules
1959:asteroids
1704:diversity
1694:like the
1619:marsupial
1519:theropods
1476:hadrosaur
1358:tapejarid
1329:Sebecidae
1317:crocodile
1268:mosasaurs
1212:Paleogene
1027:ammonoids
1019:molluscan
1007:octopodes
995:Nautilida
939:symbiosis
897:Ostracods
881:from the
830:Paleocene
733:mosasaurs
729:ammonites
709:ammonites
624:Omnivores
573:dinosaurs
389:Paleogene
377:ammonites
361:mosasaurs
345:dinosaurs
338:volcanism
299:peak ring
240:asteroids
222:. In the
196:tetrapods
192:dinosaurs
16673:Category
16621:See also
16519:Toarcian
16484:Ireviken
16441:Timeline
16436:Holocene
16347:Theories
16059:Cenozoic
16052:Mesozoic
15992:Jurassic
15983:Triassic
15956:Devonian
15947:Silurian
15929:Cambrian
15897:Holocene
15501:2 August
15472:54537112
15450:(2005).
15440:30936306
15385:2 August
15356:27377632
15069:26430116
14927:30792301
14553:11536474
14401:37792933
14392:10550224
13982:29 March
13939:29 March
13898:29 March
13737:11539442
13581:Archived
13534:24821785
13466:12804368
13417:27414998
13358:32989138
13297:28827324
13130:29123110
12919:11541145
12860:Archived
12753:Archived
12751:. 1994.
12726:11537752
12672:Archived
12527:29 March
12490:53631053
12315:Archived
12275:Archived
12253:39644763
12150:17805288
12056:Archived
11985:15004276
11878:96434764
11870:30948530
11823:11 April
11757:22 March
11734:30936306
11624:11539331
11523:17774578
11478:31383614
11470:17748309
11421:25887801
11413:17743194
11210:23393261
11118:11239153
11058:Archived
11032:(eds.).
10976:35197589
10897:35197634
10840:34880389
10782:35197634
10677:11607638
10601:33795451
10535:BBC News
10516:19325131
10447:Archived
10400:44075214
10392:29804807
10312:44720346
10304:15001770
10260:37700701
10251:10498348
10201:23 March
10059:19776074
9949:40364945
9941:11721051
9883:35357913
9722:27358361
9663:12552136
9599:38955231
9573:(2026).
9550:31850081
9516:: 1241.
9489:30258031
9430:Archived
9280:17392779
9232:27989673
9181:24855267
9125:17148284
9066:Archived
9040:15662422
8980:30639866
8881:Archived
8849:31638639
8841:17781415
8665:(1996).
8480:29534059
8429:85673254
8377:84324007
8331:16701316
8273:16533822
8219:Archived
8189:73638590
8000:86503283
7948:15266985
7911:26953824
7732:86073650
7691:28552352
7600:34521829
7492:33959350
7427:25143041
7337:14534584
7294:32001765
7181:Missing
7096:26573112
7045:84097919
7008:28673970
6928:: 1–180.
6867:29531346
6767:44010682
6605:23 March
6592:36821692
6352:52801127
6344:16931760
6299:11854501
6235:37556403
6226:10411753
6194:PLOS ONE
5966:12601147
5754:11537491
5515:32811315
5483:(1933).
4761:17279135
4524:36475805
4389:54860261
4262:33880578
4139:20133356
4085:42829066
4077:17745839
4024:12078635
3994:(1999).
3945:19276106
3858:24194843
3817:PLOS ONE
3771:23236177
3705:21914849
3637:32601204
3546:31949074
3445:Archived
3406:Springer
3380:31636204
3308:Archived
3240:24821785
3169:16017767
3161:17783054
3100:16 March
3094:Archived
3061:Archived
3003:20203042
2938:23 March
2880:23 March
2821:23 March
2724:(1999).
2706:29 April
2631:Tertiary
2542:See also
2265:detritus
2240:aerosols
2193:mangrove
2184:Atlantic
2048:Colorado
1895:Turonian
1819:Cenozoic
1811:Colorado
1788:Duration
1696:Amazonia
1539:avialans
1450:Pyrenees
1259:Squamata
1229:Mesozoic
1172:Reptiles
1159:and the
1105:(modern
1095:demersal
1090:and the
1003:diverged
999:coleoids
973:scallops
931:tropical
913:decapods
906:Cenozoic
879:ammonite
737:reptiles
705:mollusks
659:detritus
583:, Asia,
405:primates
373:mollusks
336:and not
275:plankton
228:sediment
220:Cenozoic
216:Mesozoic
106:Badlands
100:asteroid
18:KT event
16683:Commons
16504:Olson's
16019:Neogene
15974:Permian
15823:Olson's
15607:craters
15431:6486721
15408:Bibcode
15347:4935969
15326:Bibcode
15290:1485619
15146:Bibcode
15137:Geology
15121:3463018
15101:Bibcode
15047:Bibcode
15038:Science
15004:Bibcode
14956:Bibcode
14897:Bibcode
14888:Science
14808:Bibcode
14799:Geology
14722:Bibcode
14681:Bibcode
14630:Bibcode
14533:Bibcode
14489:Bibcode
14363:Bibcode
14322:Bibcode
14278:Bibcode
14230:Bibcode
14194:4326163
14166:Bibcode
14130:4351454
14102:Bibcode
13821:Bibcode
13773:Bibcode
13717:Bibcode
13669:Bibcode
13621:Bibcode
13549:Science
13525:4040585
13502:Bibcode
13408:4944614
13349:7568312
13288:5594694
13201:Bibcode
13160:Bibcode
13121:5680197
13100:Bibcode
12897:Bibcode
12866:25 June
12826:Bibcode
12789:Bibcode
12762:25 June
12706:Bibcode
12697:Geology
12629:Bibcode
12620:Geology
12592:Bibcode
12553:Bibcode
12545:Geology
12470:Bibcode
12435:9736679
12403:Bibcode
12355:Bibcode
12223:Bibcode
12194:Bibcode
12158:4322622
12130:Bibcode
11953:Bibcode
11905:Bibcode
11850:Bibcode
11841:Science
11795:(2017)
11778:(2017)
11725:6486721
11702:Bibcode
11604:Bibcode
11595:Geology
11551:Geology
11531:7447635
11503:Bibcode
11494:Science
11450:Bibcode
11441:Science
11393:Bibcode
11384:Science
11340:Geology
11320:4331801
11300:Bibcode
11275:1300393
11181:Science
11147:Bibcode
11098:Bibcode
11089:Science
10954:Bibcode
10916:Science
10888:8891016
10867:Bibcode
10831:8655067
10810:Bibcode
10773:8891016
10752:Bibcode
10724:4242454
10704:Bibcode
10645:Bibcode
10573:Bibcode
10564:Science
10507:2667025
10484:Bibcode
10337:Bibcode
10328:Geology
10283:Science
10050:2817104
9921:Bibcode
9912:Science
9845:Bibcode
9836:Science
9774:9563948
9754:Bibcode
9745:Science
9713:4936024
9631:Bibcode
9541:6896846
9480:6170748
9436:3 April
9364:Bibcode
9288:4314965
9260:Bibcode
9151:Bibcode
9142:Science
9116:1834003
9048:4354309
9012:Bibcode
8972:8895459
8952:Bibcode
8943:Science
8873:Bibcode
8821:Bibcode
8812:Science
8776:Bibcode
8767:PALAIOS
8711:Bibcode
8675:279–281
8635:Bibcode
8471:5849296
8409:Bibcode
8357:Bibcode
8078:Bibcode
8029:Bibcode
7902:4786747
7879:Bibcode
7830:Bibcode
7803:: 1–63.
7762:Bibcode
7591:8440539
7570:Bibcode
7519:Bibcode
7483:8074880
7454:Bibcode
7418:4150314
7345:4425130
7317:Bibcode
7285:6992736
7137:2666178
7087:5341546
6999:5530686
6747:Bibcode
6632:Bibcode
6572:Bibcode
6563:Science
6523:Bibcode
6461:Bibcode
6381:Bibcode
6324:Bibcode
6315:Science
6267:Bibcode
6124:Bibcode
6115:Geology
6083:Bibcode
6074:Geology
6043:Bibcode
6034:Geology
5857:1837900
5849:8910273
5829:Bibcode
5820:Science
5779:Bibcode
5734:Bibcode
5725:Science
5674:Bibcode
5506:7482269
5458:3515168
5438:Bibcode
5429:PALAIOS
5349:Bibcode
5077:1486024
4962:Bibcode
4880:Bibcode
4705:Bibcode
4696:Geology
4668:Bibcode
4659:Geology
4606:Bibcode
4556:Bibcode
4547:PALAIOS
4515:9728968
4462:Bibcode
4453:Geology
4422:Bibcode
4413:Geology
4369:Bibcode
4360:Geology
4317:Bibcode
4130:2871855
4057:Bibcode
4048:Science
3936:2664034
3913:Bibcode
3849:3806776
3826:Bibcode
3762:3535637
3739:Bibcode
3696:3174646
3673:Bibcode
3628:7382232
3597:Bibcode
3516:Bibcode
3507:Science
3371:6842625
3348:Bibcode
3268:Bibcode
3259:Geology
3231:4040585
3208:Bibcode
3141:Bibcode
3132:Science
3036:12 June
3011:2659741
2983:Bibcode
2974:Science
2913:Bibcode
2855:Bibcode
2796:Bibcode
2365:in the
2351:Ukraine
2339:Jupiter
2282:sulfate
2154:decade.
2111:million
2098:of the
1988:Yucatán
1949:during
1931:iridium
1799:species
1558:Mammals
1552:Ratites
1547:Neoaves
1485:at the
1416:Alberta
1404:Montana
1237:tuatara
1202:Turtles
1187:Miocene
1150:Montana
1111:batoids
965:rudists
961:bivalve
860:biomass
856:benthic
783:calcium
721:mussels
713:rudists
647:insects
643:mammals
632:carrion
365:teleost
349:insects
311:aerosol
303:granite
285:in the
236:iridium
184:species
135:iridium
131:Wyoming
125:Geulhem
114:Alberta
16529:Aptian
16281:Causes
16265:Models
15905:
15739:Aptian
15687:
15470:
15460:
15438:
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14157:Nature
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14093:Nature
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12321:18 May
12307:London
12251:
12233:
12156:
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12121:Nature
12024:
11983:
11976:374316
11973:
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11868:
11793:et al.
11776:et al.
11732:
11722:
11663:
11622:
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11529:
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11318:
11291:Nature
11273:
11208:
11200:
11116:
11052:
11042:
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10945:Nature
10895:
10885:
10859:Nature
10838:
10828:
10802:Nature
10780:
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10744:Nature
10722:
10696:Nature
10675:
10665:
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10453:9 July
10424:8 July
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8925:2 July
8890:18 May
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2612:, and
2610:Kreide
2485:oceans
2465:albedo
2379:bolide
2323:event.
2278:Gypsum
2229:gypsum
2168:joules
2105:66.043
2012:fossil
1955:comets
1883:Gubbio
1855:, and
1838:Causes
1744:Dating
1692:biomes
1672:pollen
1632:Eocene
1583:, and
1531:ratite
1442:, and
1208:turtle
1107:sharks
1013:, and
1011:squids
997:) and
983:Rudist
954:phylum
911:Among
834:diatom
787:marine
719:, and
666:stream
655:snails
653:, and
630:, and
612:clades
603:, and
597:Alaska
585:Africa
581:Europe
545:genera
542:animal
500:Late D
403:, and
397:whales
393:horses
369:sharks
367:fish,
307:gypsum
271:plants
255:Walter
181:animal
16489:Mulde
16452:Other
16404:Major
15531:Earth
15481:—The
15286:JSTOR
15162:S2CID
15117:S2CID
15087:(PDF)
14667:(PDF)
14452:(PDF)
14419:(PDF)
14190:S2CID
14126:S2CID
13225:S2CID
12756:(PDF)
12745:(PDF)
12508:(PDF)
12486:S2CID
12456:(PDF)
12426:33889
12249:S2CID
12184:arXiv
12154:S2CID
11874:S2CID
11817:(PDF)
11527:S2CID
11474:S2CID
11417:S2CID
11316:S2CID
11271:JSTOR
11084:(PDF)
10980:S2CID
10720:S2CID
10668:39926
10614:9 May
10605:S2CID
10542:9 May
10396:S2CID
10308:S2CID
10228:(9).
10192:S2CID
9945:S2CID
9887:S2CID
9740:(PDF)
9380:S2CID
9341:(PDF)
9324:(PDF)
9284:S2CID
9185:S2CID
9044:S2CID
8998:(PDF)
8976:S2CID
8884:(PDF)
8869:(PDF)
8845:S2CID
8792:S2CID
8507:(PDF)
8425:S2CID
8395:(PDF)
8373:S2CID
8305:(PDF)
8222:(PDF)
8207:(PDF)
8185:S2CID
8102:S2CID
8076:(4).
7996:S2CID
7974:(PDF)
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7728:S2CID
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7133:JSTOR
7041:S2CID
6774:(PDF)
6763:S2CID
6733:(PDF)
6648:S2CID
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6539:S2CID
6348:S2CID
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5690:S2CID
5590:(2).
5454:JSTOR
5073:JSTOR
4978:S2CID
4896:S2CID
4757:S2CID
4735:(PDF)
4632:S2CID
4572:S2CID
4542:(PDF)
4396:(PDF)
4385:S2CID
4355:(PDF)
4333:S2CID
4258:S2CID
4081:S2CID
3550:S2CID
3176:(PDF)
3165:S2CID
3127:(PDF)
3007:S2CID
2969:(PDF)
2929:S2CID
2871:S2CID
2812:S2CID
2440:stage
2355:65.17
2280:is a
2109:0.011
1945:into
1778:Tanis
1750:dated
1717:hypha
1710:Fungi
1652:fungi
1509:Most
1505:Birds
1479:femur
1196:'
1136:near
1122:shark
943:algae
927:coral
651:worms
601:China
188:Earth
177:plant
108:near
16128:−100
16122:−150
16116:−200
16110:−250
16104:−300
16098:−350
16092:−400
16086:−450
16080:−500
16074:−550
16068:−600
15503:2007
15468:OCLC
15458:ISBN
15436:PMID
15400:PNAS
15387:2007
15352:PMID
15297:2024
15245:ISBN
15214:2024
15203:ISSN
15065:PMID
14975:2023
14923:PMID
14915:ISSN
14862:ISBN
14835:2023
14824:ISSN
14779:2024
14741:2023
14649:2022
14601:2024
14590:ISSN
14549:PMID
14508:2023
14460:2023
14441:ISSN
14397:PMID
14379:ISSN
14297:2023
14249:2023
14201:2023
14182:ISSN
14137:2023
14118:ISSN
14070:2023
14024:ISBN
13998:link
13984:2012
13955:link
13941:2012
13914:link
13900:2012
13867:ISBN
13848:2023
13837:ISSN
13792:2023
13744:2023
13733:PMID
13688:2023
13640:2023
13589:2017
13530:PMID
13473:2023
13462:PMID
13454:ISSN
13413:PMID
13395:ISSN
13354:PMID
13336:ISSN
13293:PMID
13275:ISSN
13236:2023
13217:ISSN
13126:PMID
13073:2024
13062:ISSN
13025:2024
13014:ISSN
12977:2024
12966:ISSN
12915:PMID
12868:2019
12764:2019
12722:PMID
12680:2017
12662:ISBN
12529:2012
12516:ISBN
12431:PMID
12323:2022
12283:2011
12146:PMID
12105:2024
12064:2013
12033:2024
12022:ISSN
11981:PMID
11924:2023
11866:PMID
11825:2021
11759:2019
11730:PMID
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11579:2024
11568:ISSN
11519:PMID
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11368:2024
11357:ISSN
11246:2022
11217:2024
11206:PMID
11198:ISSN
11114:PMID
11066:2015
11050:OCLC
11040:ISBN
11015:2022
10972:PMID
10925:2022
10893:PMID
10836:PMID
10778:PMID
10673:PMID
10616:2021
10597:PMID
10589:ISSN
10544:2021
10512:PMID
10455:2007
10426:2007
10388:PMID
10300:PMID
10256:PMID
10238:ISSN
10203:2023
10155:2024
10144:ISSN
10107:2024
10096:ISSN
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9813:2022
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9595:PMID
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9528:ISSN
9485:PMID
9438:2015
9403:ISBN
9302:link
9276:PMID
9228:PMID
9177:PMID
9121:PMID
9074:2011
9036:PMID
8968:PMID
8927:2007
8892:2007
8837:PMID
8679:ISBN
8606:2024
8560:ISBN
8515:ISBN
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8287:link
8269:PMID
8230:2015
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7739:2022
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7423:PMID
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7272:ISSN
7235:2024
7224:ISSN
7187:help
7160:ISBN
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7004:PMID
6986:ISSN
6901:ISBN
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6818:2024
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6702:2024
6607:2023
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5152:ISSN
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5049:2024
5003:ISBN
4933:ISBN
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4846:ISSN
4809:2024
4798:ISSN
4643:2022
4520:PMID
4220:2024
4176:OCLC
4166:ISBN
4135:PMID
4073:PMID
4020:PMID
3941:PMID
3854:PMID
3791:ISBN
3767:PMID
3701:PMID
3633:PMID
3615:ISSN
3561:2020
3542:PMID
3484:2020
3453:2019
3414:ISBN
3376:PMID
3316:2019
3236:PMID
3157:PMID
3102:2018
3069:2016
3038:2020
3030:IMDB
2999:PMID
2940:2023
2882:2023
2823:2023
2757:ISBN
2732:ISBN
2708:2015
2676:ISBN
2371:59.5
2231:and
2162:(4.2
1957:and
1943:iron
1917:and
1871:Luis
1613:and
1607:bats
1599:rats
1525:and
1344:and
1290:and
1223:The
1181:The
1077:Fish
1034:taxa
809:and
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703:and
679:and
671:and
486:P–Tr
479:Tr–J
472:K–Pg
401:bats
359:and
273:and
206:and
179:and
161:K–Pg
155:The
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14964:doi
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13829:doi
13817:103
13781:doi
13769:282
13725:doi
13713:128
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13520:PMC
13510:doi
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13344:PMC
13326:doi
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13283:PMC
13265:doi
13261:114
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13116:PMC
13108:doi
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13006:doi
12956:hdl
12948:doi
12944:172
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12834:doi
12822:255
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12421:PMC
12411:doi
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