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tube models, resonant frequencies can be calculated, which are the formant frequencies. Once the resonant frequencies are calculated, speech data are collected and analyzed to compare to theoretical calculations. This second stage is mainly experimental, where tokens of interest are usually recorded either in isolation, and/or embedded in a controlled carrier phrase, usually spoken by both several female/male native speakers of the language. The key to data collection is controlling for as many factors as possible so that the acoustic evidence of interest can be investigated with minimum amount of artifacts. The last stage in the investigation is to compare the data results with the theoretical predictions and to account for the differences that occur. Differences can sometimes be explained by the fact that tube models usually are simplified as to not account for loss due to softness of vocal walls (though resistors can be added to the theoretical model). Subglottal system might also affect the vocal tract productive system when the glottal opening is large (please see research on subglottal resonance on effects of speech). Theoretical model predictions can give general predictions about what one can expect to find in real speech, and evidence from real speech can also help refine the original model, and give better insight to the production of speech sounds.
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there can only be a finite set of sounds among languages. The reason that the set of speech sounds is finite is that while the movement of the articulators is continuous, only certain configurations tend to be articulatorily and/or acoustically stable, giving rise to fix frequencies for formants that form sounds that are relatively universal for all languages (i.e. vowels and consonants). Each acoustic sound can thus be described by a handful of defining features (usually binary). For example, lip-round (either on or off) is a feature. Tongue height (either high or low) is another feature. In addition to these defining features which serve as the essential description of the acoustic sounds, there are also enhancing features which help to make the sounds more recognizable. For each of these features, one can apply
Stevens' methodology to first use a tube model to model the articulators, and predict the resonant frequencies, then collect data to examine the acoustic properties of that feature, and finally to reconcile with the theoretical model and summarize the acoustic properties of that feature.
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formants for vowels. Additional refinement to the basic model is used by adding resistors and/or capacitors to the model to represent energy losses due to vocal tract walls. Acoustical coupling due to the subglottal system can also be modeled by adding additional tubes to the model of the original vocal tract, introducing pole/zero in the spectra that represent the effects of subglottal coupling. (The locations of these pole/zero pairs are the resonant frequencies of the subglottal system). Glottal characteristics such as vocal pitch (F0), open quotient (H1-H2), and degree of breathiness (H1-A3) can also be modeled and measured from the spectra. (Hanson & Stevens).
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frequencies calculated from the tube model are the formant frequencies. To produce the schwa vowel /ə/, the vocal tract is relatively open all the way from the glottis to the mouth, thus the tube model can be thought of as a relatively uniform open tube, making the resonant frequencies (or formants) evenly apart. The radiation at the mouth would cause these resonant frequencies to be about five percent lower. (Acoustics
Phonetics, pg 139) Female vocal tracts (average of 14.1 cm) are on average shorter than the male vocal tracts (average of 17.7 cm), thus making them having higher formant frequencies than males.
311:, with whom he formed a friendship and collaboration that would last more than half a century. Stevens focused on the study of vowels during his doctoral research; in 1950 he published a short paper arguing that the autocorrelation could be used to discriminate vowels, while his 1952 doctoral thesis reported perceptual results for vowels synthesized using a set of electronic resonators. Fant convinced Stevens that a transmission-line model of the vocal tract was more flexible than a resonator model and the two published this work together in 1953.
452:. It is essentially a fixed system, so does not change for each individual speaker. Research results have shown that during the open phase of the glottal cycle (when the glottis is open), coupling is introduced due to the subglottal system, manifesting acoustically as pole/zero pairs in the frequency domain. These pole/zero pairs introduced by the coupling serve are hypothesized to serve as prohibited or unstable regions in the spectra, serving as natural boundaries for
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Blumstein and
Stevens demonstrated what appeared to be an invariant relationship between the acoustic spectrum and the perceived sound: by adding energy to the burst spectrum of "pa" at a particular frequency, it is possible to turn it into "ta" or "ka" respectively, depending on the frequency. Presence of the extra energy causes perception of the lingual consonant; its absence causes perception of the labial.
569:, in 1995, colleagues wrote of Stevens' Speech Group that "during its existence of almost four decades" it "has been outstanding in the support that it has provided to women researchers, many of whom have gone on to populate the upper echelons of research labs throughout the world.". Stevens’ laboratory has been referred to by colleagues as a "national treasure"
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at the university, covering topics from the design of motorized machines through to basic physics, which was taught by the physics department. During summers he worked in the defense industry, including one summer at a company that was developing radar. He received both his S.B. and S.M. degrees in 1945.
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Stevens had been a teacher since his undergraduate years, when he lectured sections of home economics that involved some aspect of physics. After receiving his master's degree, he stayed at the
University of Toronto as an instructor, teaching courses to young men returning from the war, including his
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The quantal theory suggests that the phonological inventory of a language is defined primarily by the acoustic characteristics of each segment, with boundaries specified by the acoustic-articulatory mapping. The implication is that phonological segments must have some type of acoustic invariance.
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or segments) so similar to one another? On first learning a foreign language, one is struck by the remarkable differences that can exist between one language's sound system and that of any other. Stevens turned the student's perception on its head: rather than asking why languages are different,
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on a full scholarship. He lived at home throughout his undergraduate years. Though
Stevens himself could not fight in World War II because of his visual impairment, his brother was away for the entire war; his parents tuned in nightly to the BBC for updates. Stevens majored in engineering physics
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vibrate, puffs of air pushed through (filtered) by the vocal tract, producing sound. This sound source is modeled as a current source in a circuit modeling the production of sound. Changes in the vocal tract would cause change to the sound that is produced. The frequency of vibration for females
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Quantal theory aims to elegantly describe (using physics) and organize all the acoustic features of all possible sounds into a matrix. (See chapter five in
Acoustics Phonetics) The ultimate constraint on all speech sounds is the physical articulatory system itself, thus supporting the claim that
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Stevens' methodology in the investigation of speech sounds is organized into three steps. The first step is to use physics (mainly tube models) to model the shape of the articulators (e.g. the shapes of the front and back cavity, rounding or non-rounding of lips, etc). Based on the articulatory
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noticed that
Stevens had taken acoustics. Beranek contacted Stevens in Toronto, to ask if he would be a teaching assistant for Beranek's new acoustics course, and Stevens agreed. Shortly after that, Beranek contacted Stevens again to offer him a research position on a new speech project, which
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Ken
Stevens was born in Toronto on March 23, 1924. His older brother, Pete, was born in England; Ken was born four years later, shortly after the family emigrated to Canada. His childhood ambition was to become a doctor, because he admired an uncle who was a doctor. He attended high school at a
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For adult males, the resonant frequencies of their subglottal system have been measured (using invasive methods) to be 600, 1550, and 2200 Hz. (Acoustic
Phonetics, pg 197, Ishizaka et. al., Crane & Boves). The subglottal resonant frequencies of females are slightly higher due to their
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The vocal tract refers to the passage way that is above the glottis, all the way to opening of the lips. A two-tube model is usually used to model the vocal tract, one capturing the dimension (cross-sectional area and length) of the back cavity, the other modeling the front cavity. Resonant
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In fact, the spectral properties (formants, bandwidth of formants, other glottal characteristics) of all possible sound phonemes in all languages can theoretically be modeled and predicted using physics-based resonator models. Basic tube resonators can be used to give a general prediction of
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Other contributions to the study of speech production include a model by which one can predict the spectral shape of turbulent speech excitation (depending on the dimensions of the turbulent jet), and work related to the vocal fold configurations that lead to different modes of phonation.
346:) in Harvard Square. In the early 1950s, Beranek decided to retire from the MIT faculty in order to work full-time at BBN. He knew that Stevens loved to teach, so he encouraged Stevens to apply for a position on the MIT faculty. Stevens did so, and joined the faculty in 1954.
559:, in 1955. Flanagan started graduate school at MIT in the same year as Stevens, but without a prior master's degree; he earned his M.S. in 1950 under Beranek's supervision, then finished his doctoral thesis under Stevens' supervision in 1955.
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After returning to MIT, Stevens agreed to supervise the research of a dentistry student named Joseph S. Perkell. Perkell's knowledge of oral anatomy permitted him to trace
Stevens' X-ray films onto paper, and to publish the results.
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To get an introduction to the world of speech science, one can first read the book "The Speech Chain" by Denes P. and Pinson E., where one is given a broad overview of the production and transmission of speech. One is introduced to
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Research (Hanson, H.M. 1997) has shown there is a difference between how females and males vibrate their vocal folds; there is a greater spread for female glottis, which gives female voices a more breathy quality than male voices.
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Stevens joined MIT as an assistant professor in 1954. He became an associate professor in 1957, a full professor in 1963, and was appointed as the Clarence J. Lebel Chaired Professor in 1977. One of his long-time collaborators,
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joined the MIT Linguistics Department and moved to RLE in 1951. Stevens' collaborations with Halle began with acoustics, but grew to focus on the way in which acoustics and articulation organize the sound systems of language.
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since his time as a graduate student. He was a member of the executive council from 1963 to 1966, Vice President from 1971–2, and President of the Society from 1976–7. He is a Fellow of the ASA. In 1983 he received its
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while working in Stevens' lab), said that "As a leader, Ken is known for his devotion to students and his miraculous ability to run a busy laboratory while appearing to manage by a principle of benevolent anarchy."
220:(March 24, 1924 – August 19, 2013) was the Clarence J. LeBel Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, and professor of health sciences and technology at the research laboratory of electronics at
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During his master's research Stevens became interested in control theory, and took courses from the applied mathematics department, where one of his professors recommended that he should apply to
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When the velopharyngeal port opens during the production of certain sounds, such as /n/ and /m/, coupling is introduced due to the naval cavity, which gives the output a nasal quality.
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experiments being conducted by Sven Öhman. Stevens' cineradiographic films are among the most widely distributed; copies exist on laserdisc, and some are available online.
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464:(Henke) to record the acceleration of the skin during phonation. The vibration would capture the resonant frequencies below the glottis (of the subglottal system).
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1042:""Acoustic invariance in speech production: Evidence from measurements of the spectral characteristics of stop consonants," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 66(4):1001-1017"
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at MIT (building 20) was converted, after the war, into the Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE); among other labs, RLE hosted Beranek's new Acoustics Lab.
789:"Gunnar Fant, "Phonetics and Phonology in the Last 50 Years," Presented at "From Sound to Sense: 50+ Years of Discoveries in Speech Communication," June, 2004"
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own older brother. He was a fellow of the Ontario Foundation from 1945 to 1946, then worked as an instructor at the University of Toronto until 1948.
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846:"Stevens, K. N., Kasowski, S. and Fant, G. (1953) An electrical analog of the vocal tract, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 25, 734–742"
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371:. Stevens' most well-known book, Acoustic Phonetics, is organized according to the distinctive features of Stevens' phonological system.
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Stevens is perhaps best known for his proposal of a theory that answers the question: Why are the sounds of the world's languages (their
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Stevens' recent work has re-structured the theory of acoustic invariance into a shallow hierarchical perceptual model, the model of
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1061:""Perceptual invariance and onset spectra for stop consonants in different vowel environments," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 67(2):648–662"
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Ken credits Fant with the association between the Linguistics Department and the Research Laboratory for Electronics at MIT.
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883:"Remarks on analysis by synthesis and distinctive features." Models for the perception of speech and visual form, pp. 88–102
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he asked, if the sound system of each language is completely arbitrary, why are languages so similar? His answer is the
597:, where he held the rank of IEEE Life Fellow. In 2004, Ken Stevens and Gunnar Fant were the joint first winners of the
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Since the vocal tract walls are soft, energy is lost in the vocal tract, which increases the bandwidth of the formants.
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Physiology of Speech Production: Results and Implications of a Quantitative Cineradiographic Study (Research Monograph)
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K.N. Stevens; S.J. Keyser (1989). ""Primary Features and their Enhancement in Consonants," Language 65(1):81–106".
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937:"Some reflections on the theoretical bases of phonetics." Frontiers of speech communication research, pp. 335–349
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smaller dimensions. One non-invasive way of measuring these peaks is to use an accelerometer placed above the
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The subglottal system refers to the system that is below the glottis in the human body. It includes the
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vocal folds tend to be higher than that of males, giving female voices higher pitch than male voices.
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In November 1949, the office next to Ken's was given to a visiting doctoral student from Sweden named
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806:"K.N. Stevens, "Autocorrelation analysis of speech sounds," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 22:769–771, 1950"
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388:. Quantal theory is supported by a theory of language change, developed in collaboration with
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756:"D. Halber, "RLE Professor Kenneth Stevens wins National Medal of Science," January 1, 2000"
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Stevens defended his doctoral thesis in 1952; his doctoral committee included his adviser
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342:. After receiving his doctorate, Stevens went to work at Bolt, Beranek and Newman (now
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Stevens estimated in 2001 that he had supervised approximately forty Ph.D. candidates.
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866:"Analysis by synthesis." Proc. Seminar on Speech Compression and Processing. Vol. 2
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according to naturalization papers and what he said, he was born March 23, 1924.
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The first doctoral thesis Stevens signed at MIT was that of his fellow student,
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K.N. Stevens, "The perception of sounds shaped by resonant circuits," 1952
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686:"Acoustical Society of America Gold Medal Award, 1995: Kenneth N. Stevens"
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frequencies, which are the main acoustic description of sound segments.
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Vocal Fold Physiology, 1980, Minoru Hirano and Kenneth N. Stevens, eds
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The quantal nature of speech: evidence from articulatory-acoustic data
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Shortly after Stevens was admitted to MIT, a new professor named
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Stevens is best known for his contributions to the fields of
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Stevens attended college in the school of engineering at the
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Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
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in Sweden in 1962, Stevens volunteered as a participant in
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Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
661:"Kenneth Stevens, professor emeritus in EECS, dies at 89"
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IEEE James L. Flanagan Speech and Audio Processing Award
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IEEE James L. Flanagan Speech and Audio Processing Award
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school attached to the department of education at the
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Deaths from Alzheimer's disease in the United States
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Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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Stevens, Kenneth N.; 平野実; Foundation, Voice (1981).
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775:"Sensimetrics Consulting Resume, Kenneth N. Stevens"
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726:"AIP Oral History Transcript — Dr. Kenneth Stevens"
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1210:"IEEE Global History Network, Kenneth N. Stevens"
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3601:Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences
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1238:"Alberts Issues Challenge to New NAS Members"
967:. Current Studies in Linguistics. MIT Press.
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907:Halle, Morris; Kenneth N. Stevens (2002) .
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934:Halle, Morris; Kenneth N. Stevens (1979).
880:Stevens, Kenneth N.; Morris Halle (1967).
863:Halle, Morris; Kenneth N. Stevens (1959).
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910:"A note on laryngeal features," pp. 45–61
19:For the Scout Association executive, see
3010:
435:
5495:Canadian emigrants to the United States
1580:
1302:United States National Medal of Science
572:
16:American computer scientist (1924–2013)
5402:
5059:Acoustic Society of America Gold Medal
565:On the occasion of his receipt of the
537:
322:, had an office at MIT by 1957, while
246:He died in 2013 from complications of
5480:Neurological disease deaths in Oregon
5031:
4130:
4129:
3599:
3009:
2523:
1579:
1315:
1274:
1224:"NAE Members: Dr. Kenneth N. Stevens"
1168:"IEEE Oral-History:James L. Flanagan"
1059:S.E. Blumstein; K.N. Stevens (1980).
1040:S.E. Blumstein; K.N. Stevens (1979).
606:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
584:Silver Medal in Speech Communication
5420:National Medal of Science laureates
1079:"Ken Stevens x-ray film on youtube"
482:
290:
13:
510:Contributions to speech production
494:Contributions to speech perception
467:
456:features such as +front or +back.
258:
14:
5506:
5490:MIT School of Engineering faculty
1252:
1166:Frederik Nebeker (8 April 1997).
1091:from the original on 2021-12-14.
647:"MIT Speech Communication Group"
1230:
1216:
1202:
1188:
1174:
1159:
1120:
1095:
1071:
1052:
1033:
981:
954:
927:
900:
873:
856:
838:
816:
610:National Academy of Engineering
593:Stevens was also active in the
798:
781:
653:
639:
630:
586:, and in 1995 he received the
415:
350:Research, teaching and service
1:
5455:Speech processing researchers
5445:American electrical engineers
2524:
1317:Behavioral and social science
1131:. University of Tokyo Press.
623:
579:Acoustical Society of America
5450:American computer scientists
1259:Stevens biography at RLE/MIT
614:National Academy of Sciences
604:Stevens was a Fellow of the
300:Stevens also accepted. The
253:
172:Other academic advisors
7:
10:
5511:
4205:Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
1102:Joseph S. Perkell (1969).
577:Stevens was active in the
375:Contributions to phonology
18:
5475:ASA Gold Medal recipients
5065:
4967:
4816:
4665:
4486:
4292:
4140:
4136:
4125:
4059:
3961:
3850:
3761:
3682:
3610:
3606:
3595:
3552:
3461:
3353:
3244:
3180:William Hayward Pickering
3125:
3020:
3016:
3005:
2931:
2823:
2677:
2553:
2534:
2530:
2519:
2430:
2239:
2053:
1871:
1727:
1590:
1586:
1575:
1532:
1473:
1385:
1345:
1326:
1322:
1311:
618:National Medal of Science
233:National Medal of Science
211:
185:
171:
159:
149:
135:
128:
122:National Medal of Science
117:
103:
95:
87:
69:
44:
35:
28:
5322:Katherine Safford Harris
4629:Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.
4075:S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan
1706:Burrhus Frederic Skinner
386:quantal theory of speech
355:Scientific contributions
3940:Cathleen Synge Morawetz
1858:George Ledyard Stebbins
1779:James Augustine Shannon
514:While on sabbatical at
5425:Engineers from Toronto
5142:Raymond W. B. Stephens
4397:Joseph O. Hirschfelder
4384:Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer
3340:Harry George Drickamer
3286:Hans Wolfgang Liepmann
2960:M. Frederick Hawthorne
2834:John D. Baldeschwieler
2074:Daniel E. Koshland Jr.
1756:Earl W. Sutherland Jr.
287:for doctoral studies.
140:Electrical engineering
5268:Henning E. von Gierke
5118:Frederick Vinton Hunt
4988:Sylvester James Gates
4374:William Alfred Fowler
4356:Robert Rathbun Wilson
4169:Robert Burns Woodward
2981:Geraldine L. Richmond
2729:Howard E. Simmons Jr.
2012:Rosalyn Sussman Yalow
1941:Vernon B. Mountcastle
1797:Sterling B. Hendricks
1614:Marshall W. Nirenberg
1609:Theodosius Dobzhansky
1457:William Julius Wilson
988:K.N. Stevens (1968).
961:K.N. Stevens (2000).
913:. Mouton de Gruyter.
436:the subglottal system
273:University of Toronto
266:University of Toronto
218:Kenneth Noble Stevens
112:University of Toronto
30:Kenneth Noble Stevens
5220:Manfred R. Schroeder
5100:Robert Bruce Lindsay
4959:Warren M. Washington
4923:Fay Ajzenberg-Selove
4832:Jeremiah P. Ostriker
4777:Martin Schwarzschild
4558:Solomon J. Buchsbaum
4550:J. Robert Schrieffer
4520:E. Margaret Burbidge
4364:Nicolaas Bloembergen
4341:Arie Jan Haagen-Smit
4220:Vladimir K. Zworykin
3972:John Griggs Thompson
3895:Martin David Kruskal
3735:Kurt Otto Friedrichs
3208:Erwin Wilhelm Müller
3162:Ralph Brazelton Peck
3117:Jack St. Clair Kilby
3044:John Robinson Pierce
3011:Engineering sciences
2942:Jacqueline K. Barton
2797:George M. Whitesides
2716:Dudley R. Herschbach
2654:Richard B. Bernstein
2623:Walter H. Stockmayer
2171:Elizabeth F. Neufeld
2102:G. Evelyn Hutchinson
1992:Stanley Norman Cohen
1979:Rita Levi-Montalcini
1815:Keith Roberts Porter
1678:Alfred H. Sturtevant
1673:Michael Heidelberger
1645:Fritz Albert Lipmann
573:Professional service
340:Walter A. Rosenblith
302:Radiation Laboratory
180:Walter A. Rosenblith
5460:Fellows of the IEEE
5382:William M. Hartmann
5304:Chester M. McKinney
5292:Tony F. W. Embleton
5232:David T. Blackstock
5178:Laurence Batchelder
5112:Vern Oliver Knudsen
5009:Shirley Ann Jackson
4928:Charles P. Slichter
4772:Marshall Rosenbluth
4764:Wallace S. Broecker
4717:Eugene M. Shoemaker
4478:Victor F. Weisskopf
4425:Herbert S. Gutowsky
4407:Edgar Bright Wilson
4248:George Kistiakowsky
3866:Stephen Cole Kleene
3377:George H. Heilmeier
3364:Mildred Dresselhaus
3255:Edward H. Heinemann
3185:Frederick E. Terman
3149:Richard T. Whitcomb
3070:Clarence L. Johnson
3031:Theodore von Kármán
2918:Stephen J. Benkovic
2897:Mostafa A. El-Sayed
2884:Marvin H. Caruthers
2839:Ralph F. Hirschmann
2779:Darleane C. Hoffman
2669:Harden M. McConnell
2610:Frank H. Westheimer
2422:Stanley B. Prusiner
2386:Robert J. Lefkowitz
2145:Howard Martin Temin
2002:Maurice R. Hilleman
1997:Joseph L. Goldstein
1936:Donald A. Henderson
1853:Earl Reece Stadtman
1838:Elizabeth C. Crosby
1802:Orville Alvin Vogel
1632:Donald D. Van Slyke
1581:Biological sciences
538:Stevens as a mentor
318:, a phonologist at
248:Alzheimer's disease
231:He was awarded the
198:Lawrence R. Rabiner
5370:Gerhard M. Sessler
5244:Kenneth N. Stevens
5076:Floyd A. Firestone
4881:G. Brent Dalrymple
4699:Arthur L. Schawlow
4606:James A. Van Allen
4497:Philip W. Anderson
4453:Richard P. Feynman
4379:Linus Carl Pauling
4014:Dennis P. Sullivan
3571:John B. Goodenough
3504:Edwin N. Lightfoot
3472:Yuan-Cheng B. Fung
3453:Kenneth N. Stevens
3221:Raymond D. Mindlin
3144:Harold E. Edgerton
2989:A. Paul Alivisatos
2868:Stephen J. Lippard
2847:Ernest R. Davidson
2784:Harold S. Johnston
2618:William S. Johnson
2582:George C. Pimentel
2417:Susan L. Lindquist
2399:Francis S. Collins
2293:Victor A. McKusick
2268:Francisco J. Ayala
2250:Nancy C. Andreasen
2200:Robert A. Weinberg
1974:Har Gobind Khorana
1959:Michael E. DeBakey
1946:George Emil Palade
1918:Wendell L. Roelofs
1908:Howard L. Bachrach
1738:Barbara McClintock
1640:Edward F. Knipling
1264:2013-07-30 at the
1212:. 2 February 2016.
964:Acoustic Phonetics
940:. Academic Press.
612:, a member of the
608:, a member of the
590:from the society.
336:J. C. R. Licklider
226:acoustic phonetics
176:J. C. R. Licklider
144:Acoustic phonetics
21:Kenneth H. Stevens
5397:
5396:
5334:Thomas D. Rossing
5214:Eugen J. Skudrzyk
5184:James L. Flanagan
5070:Wallace Waterfall
5025:
5024:
5021:
5020:
5017:
5016:
4954:Esther M. Conwell
4894:Robert N. Clayton
4886:Riccardo Giacconi
4850:Raymond Davis Jr.
4738:Albert Overhauser
4681:Edwin M. McMillan
4642:Arnold O. Beckman
4619:Paul Ching-Wu Chu
4596:Paul C. Lauterbur
4573:Robert Hofstadter
4525:Maurice Goldhaber
4512:Charles H. Townes
4463:Edward M. Purcell
4430:Frederick Rossini
4284:Wolfgang Panofsky
4215:John H. Van Vleck
4131:Physical sciences
4121:
4120:
4117:
4116:
4083:Solomon W. Golomb
4043:Andrew J. Viterbi
4038:Leonard Kleinrock
3985:Calyampudi R. Rao
3953:Ronald R. Coifman
3861:George F. Carrier
3842:Donald C. Spencer
3837:Saunders Mac Lane
3772:Marshall H. Stone
3722:Shiing-Shen Chern
3629:Solomon Lefschetz
3591:
3590:
3587:
3586:
3528:David J. Wineland
3496:John M. Prausnitz
3437:C. Kumar N. Patel
3432:James L. Flanagan
3400:John Roy Whinnery
3387:H. Guyford Stever
3369:Nick Holonyak Jr.
3332:George W. Housner
3327:Willis M. Hawkins
3322:Daniel C. Drucker
3304:Robert Byron Bird
3296:Bernard M. Oliver
3203:Peter C. Goldmark
3190:Wernher von Braun
3136:George E. Mueller
3109:Nathan M. Newmark
3104:J. Presper Eckert
3083:Claude E. Shannon
3052:Charles S. Draper
3001:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2968:Judith P. Klinman
2852:Gábor A. Somorjai
2763:Isabella L. Karle
2750:George S. Hammond
2711:Gertrude B. Elion
2664:Rudolph A. Marcus
2515:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2441:Ralph L. Brinster
2360:Torsten N. Wiesel
2337:Norman E. Borlaug
2324:Solomon H. Snyder
2319:J. Michael Bishop
2278:Mario R. Capecchi
2158:Salome G. Waelsch
2089:E. Donnall Thomas
1964:Theodor O. Diener
1863:Paul Alfred Weiss
1691:Bernard B. Brodie
1627:George G. Simpson
1571:
1570:
1567:
1566:
1516:Michael I. Posner
1417:Eleanor J. Gibson
1369:George J. Stigler
1337:Neal Elgar Miller
667:. 23 August 2013.
557:James L. Flanagan
390:Samuel Jay Keyser
369:speech production
365:speech perception
239:in 1999, and the
215:
214:
194:Carol Espy-Wilson
190:James L. Flanagan
186:Doctoral students
130:Scientific career
81:Clackamas, Oregon
5502:
5364:Brian C.J. Moore
5358:Lawrence A. Crum
5352:William Kuperman
5328:Patricia K. Kuhl
5274:Murray Strasberg
5208:Lothar W. Cremer
5196:Arthur H. Benade
5166:Martin Greenspan
5094:Georg von Békésy
5052:
5045:
5038:
5029:
5028:
4837:Gilbert F. White
4782:George Wetherill
4676:Allan M. Cormack
4634:Jack Steinberger
4614:D. Allan Bromley
4563:H. Richard Crane
4540:Frederick Reines
4530:Helmut Landsberg
4445:George Uhlenbeck
4346:Vladimir Haensel
4308:Allan R. Sandage
4279:Herbert C. Brown
4261:Herbert Friedman
4187:Leon M. Lederman
4159:Julian Schwinger
4138:
4137:
4127:
4126:
4096:Alexandre Chorin
4070:Richard A. Tapia
4051:David B. Mumford
3879:Alberto Calderón
3824:Joseph B. Keller
3811:Michael Freedman
3780:Herman Goldstine
3634:H. Marston Morse
3608:
3607:
3597:
3596:
3536:Rudolf E. Kálmán
3520:Robert S. Langer
3512:Jan D. Achenbach
3345:Herbert E. Grier
3096:Igor I. Sikorsky
3057:Othmar H. Ammann
3018:
3017:
3007:
3006:
2973:Jerrold Meinwald
2742:Norman Hackerman
2721:Glenn T. Seaborg
2636:William O. Baker
2564:F. Albert Cotton
2532:
2531:
2521:
2520:
2498:Mary-Claire King
2391:Bert W. O'Malley
2347:Thomas E. Starzl
2342:Phillip A. Sharp
2329:Charles Yanofsky
2311:Evelyn M. Witkin
2306:James E. Darnell
2132:Paul C. Zamecnik
2097:Mary Ellen Avery
2069:Herbert W. Boyer
2064:Baruj Benacerraf
2035:Joshua Lederberg
2025:Viktor Hamburger
1987:Michael S. Brown
1833:Robert H. Burris
1588:
1587:
1577:
1576:
1524:Mortimer Mishkin
1449:William K. Estes
1433:Roger N. Shepard
1425:Robert K. Merton
1409:George A. Miller
1356:Herbert A. Simon
1324:
1323:
1313:
1312:
1295:
1288:
1281:
1272:
1271:
1246:
1245:
1234:
1228:
1227:
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1213:
1206:
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1192:
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1178:
1172:
1171:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1149:
1143:
1142:
1124:
1118:
1117:
1099:
1093:
1092:
1075:
1069:
1068:
1063:. Archived from
1056:
1050:
1049:
1044:. Archived from
1037:
1031:
1030:
1002:
996:
995:
985:
979:
978:
958:
952:
951:
931:
925:
924:
904:
898:
897:
886:. M.I.T. Press.
877:
871:
870:
860:
854:
853:
848:. Archived from
842:
836:
835:
820:
814:
813:
808:. Archived from
802:
796:
795:
793:
785:
779:
778:
771:
760:
759:
752:
741:
740:
738:
737:
728:. Archived from
722:
701:
700:
698:
697:
688:. Archived from
682:
669:
668:
657:
651:
650:
643:
637:
634:
344:BBN Technologies
291:Doctoral studies
161:Doctoral advisor
76:
54:
52:
40:
26:
25:
5510:
5509:
5505:
5504:
5503:
5501:
5500:
5499:
5400:
5399:
5398:
5393:
5388:William A. Yost
5310:Allan D. Pierce
5298:Richard H. Lyon
5286:Robert E. Apfel
5202:Richard K. Cook
5190:Cyril M. Harris
5172:Robert T. Beyer
5160:Isadore Rudnick
5130:Philip M. Morse
5124:Warren P. Mason
5106:Hallowell Davis
5088:Edward C. Wente
5082:Harvey Fletcher
5061:
5056:
5026:
5013:
5001:Sean C. Solomon
4963:
4915:Daniel Kleppner
4907:Lonnie Thompson
4902:Ralph A. Alpher
4868:W. Jason Morgan
4855:Charles Keeling
4845:Marvin L. Cohen
4812:
4795:John N. Bahcall
4790:Don L. Anderson
4756:Peter Goldreich
4709:Steven Weinberg
4661:
4591:Walter Elsasser
4568:Herman Feshbach
4482:
4420:Samuel Goudsmit
4412:Chien-Shiung Wu
4351:Frederick Seitz
4318:John A. Wheeler
4303:Robert H. Dicke
4288:
4151:Luis W. Alvarez
4132:
4113:
4101:David Blackwell
4055:
4006:Carl R. de Boor
3977:Karen Uhlenbeck
3957:
3911:Louis Nirenberg
3846:
3819:Ralph E. Gomory
3757:
3753:Donald E. Knuth
3740:Hassler Whitney
3678:
3602:
3583:
3548:
3480:Andreas Acrivos
3457:
3445:Eli Ruckenstein
3424:Hermann A. Haus
3395:Calvin F. Quate
3382:Luna B. Leopold
3349:
3240:
3226:Robert N. Noyce
3216:Emmett N. Leith
3175:Manson Benedict
3157:Rudolf Kompfner
3121:
3075:Warren K. Lewis
3012:
2993:
2927:
2889:Peter B. Dervan
2860:John I. Brauman
2819:
2771:Norman Davidson
2698:John D. Roberts
2673:
2641:Konrad E. Bloch
2587:Richard N. Zare
2549:
2526:
2507:
2464:Sallie Chisholm
2446:Rudolf Jaenisch
2426:
2409:J. Craig Venter
2368:Rita R. Colwell
2235:
2221:David Baltimore
2112:Robert W. Kates
2084:David G. Nathan
2079:Edward B. Lewis
2049:
2045:Harland G. Wood
2040:Roger W. Sperry
1895:Glenn W. Burton
1867:
1843:Arthur Kornberg
1810:Roger Guillemin
1787:Hallowell Davis
1751:Daniel I. Arnon
1743:Albert B. Sabin
1723:
1696:Detlev W. Bronk
1668:Harry F. Harlow
1663:Kenneth S. Cole
1650:William C. Rose
1622:Francis P. Rous
1582:
1563:
1528:
1508:Gordon H. Bower
1469:
1465:Robert M. Solow
1381:
1377:Milton Friedman
1341:
1318:
1307:
1299:
1266:Wayback Machine
1255:
1250:
1249:
1244:. June 8, 1998.
1236:
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791:
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758:. January 2000.
754:
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259:Early education
256:
235:from President
204:
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104:Alma mater
83:
78:
74:
73:August 19, 2013
65:
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50:
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5307:
5301:
5295:
5289:
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5277:
5271:
5265:
5259:
5253:
5247:
5241:
5238:David M. Green
5235:
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5223:
5217:
5211:
5205:
5199:
5193:
5187:
5181:
5175:
5169:
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5157:
5154:Harry F. Olson
5151:
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5127:
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4996:Burton Richter
4993:
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4949:Yakir Aharonov
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4545:Bruno B. Rossi
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4502:Yoichiro Nambu
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1253:External links
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1138:978-0860082811
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1067:on 2013-07-02.
1051:
1048:on 2013-07-02.
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2140:Maxine Singer
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1686:Horace Barker
1684:
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1655:Sewall Wright
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1543:Anne Treisman
1541:
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1525:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
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1501:
1500:Kenneth Arrow
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1367:
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1364:Anne Anastasi
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1284:
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1277:
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1260:
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1256:
1243:
1242:The Scientist
1239:
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1225:
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1211:
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1183:
1177:
1169:
1162:
1154:
1148:
1140:
1134:
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1123:
1115:
1109:
1106:. MIT Press.
1105:
1098:
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1080:
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1062:
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1036:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1013:(1): 81–106.
1012:
1008:
1001:
993:
992:
984:
976:
974:9780262194044
970:
966:
965:
957:
949:
947:9780124498501
943:
939:
938:
930:
922:
920:9783110171433
916:
912:
911:
903:
895:
893:9780262230261
889:
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876:
868:
867:
859:
851:
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829:
825:
819:
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801:
790:
784:
776:
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768:
766:
757:
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749:
747:
732:on 2013-08-28
731:
727:
721:
719:
717:
715:
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709:
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692:on 2007-06-27
691:
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531:
527:
523:
521:
517:
507:
505:
500:
491:
486:
480:
477:
471:
465:
463:
462:sternal notch
457:
455:
451:
447:
443:
433:
429:
426:
419:
413:
411:
407:
401:
397:
393:
391:
387:
382:
372:
370:
366:
362:
347:
345:
341:
337:
334:, as well as
333:
328:
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305:
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298:
288:
286:
281:
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274:
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177:
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155:
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138:
134:
131:
127:
123:
120:
116:
113:
109:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
72:
68:
64:
60:
47:
43:
39:
34:
27:
22:
5430:Phoneticians
5243:
5148:Richard Bolt
4983:Sandra Faber
4978:Sidney Drell
4808:Leo Kadanoff
4803:James Cronin
4751:Hans Dehmelt
4686:Robert Pound
4652:Robert Sharp
4468:John Sinfelt
4435:Verner Suomi
4402:Lewis Sarett
4266:Lars Onsager
4210:Henry Eyring
4177:John Bardeen
3919:Richard Karp
3887:Allen Newell
3666:Jerzy Neyman
3452:
3291:Tung-Yen Lin
3268:Bill Hewlett
3198:Morris Cohen
2792:John W. Cahn
2693:Karl Folkers
2454:Lucy Shapiro
2404:Elaine Fuchs
2283:Ann Graybiel
2213:Janet Rowley
2195:James Watson
2187:Ruth Patrick
2030:Philip Leder
1900:Mildred Cohn
1848:Severo Ochoa
1825:E. O. Wilson
1241:
1232:
1218:
1204:
1190:
1176:
1161:
1147:
1128:
1122:
1103:
1097:
1082:
1073:
1065:the original
1054:
1046:the original
1035:
1010:
1006:
1000:
990:
983:
963:
956:
936:
929:
909:
902:
882:
875:
865:
858:
850:the original
840:
823:
818:
810:the original
800:
783:
734:. Retrieved
730:the original
694:. Retrieved
690:the original
664:
655:
641:
632:
603:
592:
576:
564:
561:
554:
545:Dennis Klatt
541:
532:
528:
524:
513:
501:
497:
489:
485:nasal cavity
478:
474:
458:
439:
430:
422:
406:spectrograms
402:
398:
394:
378:
358:
329:
324:Morris Halle
313:
306:
294:
282:
278:
270:
262:
245:
237:Bill Clinton
230:
217:
216:
150:Institutions
129:
75:(2013-08-19)
5415:2013 deaths
5410:1924 births
5136:Leo Beranek
4936:Berni Alder
4743:Frank Press
4624:Walter Kohn
4601:George Pake
4535:Walter Munk
4458:Herman Mark
4440:Henry Taube
4228:Jesse Beams
4182:Peter Debye
4164:Harold Urey
4088:Barry Mazur
3650:John Milnor
3544:Amnon Yariv
3488:Leo Beranek
3314:Ernst Weber
3167:Abel Wolman
2758:Thomas Cech
2688:Elkan Blout
2628:Max Tishler
2545:Roger Adams
2503:Simon Levin
1969:Harry Eagle
1792:Paul Gyorgy
1484:Gary Becker
547:(who wrote
470:vocal tract
425:vocal folds
332:Leo Beranek
309:Gunnar Fant
297:Leo Beranek
206:Abeer Alwan
166:Leo Beranek
96:Citizenship
88:Nationality
5404:Categories
5376:Whitlow Au
5340:Jiri Tichy
5316:James West
5262:Floyd Dunn
4730:Vera Rubin
4369:Paul Flory
4030:Hyman Bass
3903:John Cocke
3806:Raoul Bott
3709:Kurt Gödel
3701:John Tukey
3658:Paul Cohen
3273:George Low
3236:Simon Ramo
2459:Leroy Hood
2260:Carl Woese
2208:Bruce Ames
1719:Ernst Mayr
736:2013-07-02
696:2013-07-02
624:References
588:Gold Medal
448:, and the
202:Victor Zue
51:1924-03-24
5226:Ira Hirsh
4725:Val Fitch
3793:Peter Lax
3563:Shu Chien
2810:John Ross
2525:Chemistry
1913:Paul Berg
1305:laureates
361:phonology
254:Education
243:in 2004.
5250:Ira Dyer
4704:Ed Stone
1701:Jay Lush
1262:Archived
1089:Archived
1007:Language
832:15508683
381:phonemes
91:Canadian
1084:YouTube
665:mit.edu
549:DECtalk
446:bronchi
442:trachea
423:As the
418:glottis
410:formant
320:Harvard
63:Ontario
59:Toronto
5390:(2018)
5384:(2017)
5378:(2016)
5372:(2015)
5366:(2014)
5360:(2013)
5354:(2012)
5348:(2011)
5342:(2010)
5336:(2009)
5330:(2008)
5324:(2007)
5318:(2006)
5312:(2005)
5306:(2004)
5300:(2003)
5294:(2002)
5288:(2002)
5282:(2001)
5276:(2000)
5270:(1999)
5264:(1998)
5258:(1997)
5252:(1996)
5246:(1995)
5240:(1994)
5234:(1993)
5228:(1992)
5222:(1991)
5216:(1990)
5210:(1989)
5204:(1988)
5198:(1988)
5192:(1987)
5186:(1986)
5180:(1985)
5174:(1984)
5168:(1983)
5162:(1982)
5156:(1981)
5150:(1979)
5144:(1977)
5138:(1975)
5132:(1973)
5126:(1971)
5120:(1969)
5114:(1967)
5108:(1965)
5102:(1962)
5096:(1961)
5090:(1959)
5084:(1957)
5078:(1955)
5072:(1954)
1135:
1110:
1027:414843
1025:
971:
944:
917:
890:
830:
367:, and
136:Fields
124:(1999)
118:Awards
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1023:JSTOR
792:(PDF)
454:vowel
450:lungs
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2985:2014
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2489:2014
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1133:ISBN
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888:ISBN
828:OCLC
595:IEEE
483:the
468:the
416:the
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338:and
70:Died
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