565:, the pronephros and mesonephros are usually intermediate stages in the formation of metanephros during embryonic development, and metanephros is the final kidney. Genes that are involved in the formation of one form of kidney are reused in the formation of the next one. Metanephros differs from pronephros and mesonephros in development, position in the body, shape, number of nephrons, organization and drainage. Unlike mesonephros, after the end of its development process, metanephros has no longer the ability to add new nephrons through
879:, which are the most efficient way to reabsorb water and produce concentrated urine to conserve water in the body. The mammalian kidneys combine both nephrons with a short and nephrons with a long loop of Henle. The medulla is divided into outer and inner regions. The outer region consists of short loops of Henle and collecting ducts, and the inner region consists of long loops of Henle and collecting ducts. After passing through the loop of Henle, the fluid becomes
942:, and mammalian-type nephrons, with the loop of Henle. Most nephrons are reptilian-type. The loop of Henle of birds is similar to that of mammals, the main difference is that the nephron of birds has only a short loop of Henle. Like mammals, although to a lesser extent, birds are able to produce concentrated urine, thus conserving water in the body.
401:
Pronephros functions in amphibians in the larval stage, in the adults of some bony fishes, and in the adults of some other fish species. The pronephros is a vital organ in animals that go through the aquatic larval stage. If in larvae the pronephros becomes non-functional, then they rapidly die from
295:
The evolution of the kidneys, along with the evolution of the lungs, allowed vertebrates called amniotes to live and reproduce in terrestrial environment. Metanephros, the permanent kidney of amniotes, has the unique ability to efficiently retain water in the body. In addition to water conservation,
914:
The structure of the avian kidneys differs from the structure of the mammalian kidneys. The avian kidney is lobulated and usually consists of three lobes. The lobes are divided into lobules, each of which has a cortex and a medulla. The medulla of the each lobule is shaped like a cone, and, unlike
284:. Excretion of excess water from the body is the main characteristic of the pronephros in the case of species in which it develops into a functional excretory organ. In some species, the pronephros is functional during the embryonic stage of development, representing the first stage of
215:. In some vertebrate species, the pronephros and mesonephros are functional organs, while in others they are only intermediate stages in the development of the final kidney, and each next kidney replaces the previous one. The pronephros is a functioning kidney of the embryo in
188:, are slightly more complex than those of the pronephros. The main difference between the pronephros and the mesonephros is that the pronephros consists of non-integrated nephrons with external glomeruli. The most complex nephrons are found in the metanephros of
950:, which is a white paste that is poorly soluble in water, which also helps to reduce water loss. Additional water reabsorption occurs in the cloaca and distal intestine. Altogether, this allows birds to excrete their wastes without significant loss of water.
833:. Most animals have a single renal papilla. In some animals, such as horses, the apices of the renal pyramids fuse with each other to form a common renal papilla, called the renal crest. The renal crest usually appears in animals larger than
659:
Compared with the metanephros of birds and mammals, the metanephros of reptiles is simpler in structure. Unlike mammals, the kidneys of reptiles do not have a clear distinction between cortex and medulla. The kidneys lack the
304:
is similar between marine fish and all subsequent species. Therefore, it can be said that the kidneys made it possible to preserve approximately the same composition of extracellular fluid in vertebrates as it was in the
296:
terrestrial life also required maintenance of salt levels in the body along with the excretion of waste products. The first class of animals to become fully terrestrial without a larval stage were the
770:
that pass through the renal columns. The pyramids consist mainly of tubules that transport urine from the cortex, that produces it by blood filtration, to the tips of the pyramids, that form the
734:
In mammals, the kidneys are usually bean-shaped and located retroperitoneally on the dorsal (posterior) wall of the body. The outer layer of each kidney is made up of a fibrous sheath called the
288:, after which the mesonephros develops. The mesonephros probably appeared in the course of evolution in response to the increase in body mass of vertebrates, which also led to an increase in
82:, which consists of water and excess or unnecessary substances, the urine is then excreted from the body through other organs, which in vertebrates, depending on the species, may include the
640:. Reptile kidneys are commonly elongated with color ranging from light to dark brown. The shape of the kidneys varies between reptiles due to variations of their body form. The kidneys of
529:. Usually the mesonephros consists of 10–50 nephrons. The mesonephric tubules may have a connection to the coelom, however, the glomeruli of mesonephric nephrons still remain integrated.
2020:
Camarata, Troy; Howard, Alexis; Elsey, Ruth M.; Raza, Sarah; O'Connor, Alice; Beatty, Brian; Conrad, Jack; Solounias, Nikos; Chow, Priscilla; Mukta, Saima; Vasilyev, Aleksandr (2016).
234:
and bony fishes, the pronephros can remain functional in adults, including often simultaneously with the mesonephros. The mesonephros is the final kidney in amphibians and most fish.
3792:
Frazier, Kendall S.; Seely, John Curtis; Hard, Gordon C.; Betton, Graham; Burnett, Roger; Nakatsuji, Shunji; Nishikawa, Akiyoshi; Durchfeld-Meyer, Beate; Bube, Axel (Jun 2012).
809:. Small mammals have simple, unilobar kidneys with a compact structure and a single renal papilla, while large animals have more complex multilobar kidneys, such as those of
621:
in reptiles functions for some time after birth simultaneously with the metanephros, while later the metanephric kidneys become permanent and the mesonephros degenerates.
164:, the kidneys can differ in the number of nephrons and in their organisation. According to the complexity of the organisation of the nephron, the kidneys are divided into
2452:"Comparative anatomy of neonates of the three major mammalian groups (monotremes, marsupials, placentals) and implications for the ancestral mammalian neonate morphotype"
915:
mammals, it is not subdivided into the inner and outer regions, while structurally it is similar to the outer medulla of the mammalian kidney. In the avian kidney, the
961:, nephrons without a loop of Henle stop filtering, while nephrons with a loop continue, but due to the presence of a loop, they can produce concentrated urine.
957:, but it does not deliver blood to the loops of Henle, blood is delivered only to the proximal and distal tubules of the nephrons. When birds are in a state of
176:. The nephron by itself is similar to pronephros as a whole organ. The simplest nephrons are found in the pronephros, which is the final functional organ in
746:. The medulla consists of one or more pyramids, the bases of which start from corticomedullary border. Medulla pyramid with overlying cortex comprises the
328:
It is believed that the ancient primitive form of the kidney was the archinephros, which had series of segmental tubules through the entire length of the
3012:
2088:
664:, have fewer nephrons (from about 3,000 to 30,000), and cannot produce hypertonic urine. Nitrogenous waste products excreted by the kidneys may include
300:, which were the first amniotes. The kidney takes a key role in maintenance of the constant internal environment. The relative ionic composition of the
4287:"The evolution of the urinary bladder as a storage organ: scent trails and selective pressure of the first land animals in a computational simulation"
436:
Because of its small size and simple structure, the pronephros of fish and amphibian larvae has become an important experimental model for studying
4450:
421:, in the more advanced pronephros they are filtered into the nephrocoel, which is a cavity adjacent to the coelom. The coelom is connected to the
3307:
3013:"A Morphological, Histological and Histochemical Study of the Sexual Segment of the Kidney of the Male Chamaeleo calyptratus (Veiled Chameleon)"
3558:
Sexual
Development: Genetics, Molecular Biology, Evolution, Endocrinology, Embryology, and Pathology of Sex Determination and Differentiation
1270:
2614:
Fedorova, Svetlana; Miyamoto, Rieko; Harada, Tomohiro; Isogai, Sumio; Hashimoto, Hisashi; Ozato, Kenjiro; Wakamatsu, Yuko (26 August 2008).
211:. It is believed that the development of embryonic kidneys reflects the evolution of vertebrate kidneys from an early primitive kidney, the
417:
or glomus. The typical pronephric nephron is non-integrated, and the wastes are filtered through the glomerulus or glomus directly to the
117:
climate. Depending on the environment in which animals have evolved, the functions and structure of the kidneys may differ. Also, between
4913:
2729:
805:
Structurally, kidneys vary between mammals. Which structural type a particular species will have depends mainly on the body mass of the
249:
have led to pre-adaptation of the vertebrate kidneys to different environment conditions and to development of three kidney forms: the
4056:
953:
In birds, the arterial blood is supplied to the kidneys by the cranial, middle and caudal renal arteries. Like reptiles, birds have a
4908:
3552:
Fenelon, Jane C.; McElrea, Caleb; Shaw, Geoff; Evans, Alistair R.; Pyne, Michael; Johnston, Stephen D.; Renfree, Marilyn B. (2021).
750:. In multilobar kidneys, the pyramids are separated from each other by dipped into the kidney areas of cortical tissue known as the
3109:
1063:
Peng, Zhenzhen; Sander, Veronika; Davidson, Alan J. (2017-01-01), Orlando, Giuseppe; Remuzzi, Giuseppe; Williams, David F. (eds.),
853:
which are made of large amount of lobes called reniculi. Each renculus can be compared to a simple unipapillary kidney as a whole.
3917:
101:
All vertebrates have kidneys. The kidneys are the main organ that allows species to adapt to different environments, including
584:. Such branching in the metanephros is unique in relation to the pronephros and mesonephros. Depending on classes and species
4416:
4269:
4242:
4215:
4185:
4153:
3978:
3891:
3858:
3731:
3630:
3509:
3455:
3428:
3401:
3317:
3246:
3219:
3192:
3165:
3119:
3078:
2978:
2880:
2739:
2709:
2682:
2358:
2328:
2188:
2098:
1856:
1761:
1705:
1307:
1280:
1253:
1157:
1076:
1016:
989:
409:
The pronephros is a relatively large organ that has a primitive structure and usually consists of a single pair of bilateral
2764:"Model systems for the study of kidney development: use of the pronephros in the analysis of organ induction and patterning"
2269:
4443:
276:
received their kidneys after a previous adaptation of the kidneys to fresh water. As a result, early vertebrates developed
3417:
Withers, Philip Carew; Cooper, Christine E.; Maloney, Shane K.; Bozinovic, Francisco; Cruz-Neto, Ariovaldo P. (2016).
3135:
3094:
2994:
2896:
1872:
3874:
Breshears, Melanie A.; Confer, Anthony W. (2017-01-01), Zachary, James F. (ed.), "Chapter 11 - The
Urinary System",
4710:
703:, which can redirect blood to the kidneys during periods of water deprivation, bypassing the glomeruli, to prevent
691:
is decreased if water loss needs to be reduced. The glomeruli in reptiles have also decreased in size compared to
272:, their evolution probably took place in fresh or slightly saline water. There is a hypothesis according to which
4950:
4720:
4715:
4436:
2870:
2731:
Kidney
Transplantation, Bioengineering, and Regeneration: Kidney Transplantation in the Regenerative Medicine Era
2022:"Postembryonic Nephrogenesis and Persistence of Six2-Expressing Nephron Progenitor Cells in the Reptilian Kidney"
4877:
4802:
4682:
4578:
4085:""Avian-type" renal medullary tubule organization causes immaturity of urine-concentrating ability in neonates"
3776:
867:
in water. Each nephron is located in both the cortex and the medulla. The most proximal part of the nephron is
572:
Metanephros is the most complex form of kidney. Each metanephric kidney is characterized by a large number of
261:
are unique compared to other internal organs, since three different kidneys are sequentially developed during
4608:
596:
and then excreted into the cloaca, or collected in the urinary bladder and then excreted outside through the
517:
Unlike the pronephros, the mesonephros consists of a set of nephrons, the glomeruli of which are enclosed in
3663:
687:
Since the reptile kidneys are unable to produce concentrated urine due to the absence of the loop of Henle,
4662:
4568:
1791:
4920:
3966:
1064:
4700:
688:
1892:
378:, the pronephros is sometimes called the head kidney due to its anterior position behind the head. In
4988:
4895:
4872:
4779:
3760:
1940:"Molecular anatomy of the kidney: what have we learned from gene expression and functional genomics?"
521:, but in some marine fish glomeruli may be absent. In fish, mesonephric kidneys has no division into
4727:
1634:"EF-hand domain containing 2 (Efhc2) is crucial for distal segmentation of pronephros in zebrafish"
506:. In anamniotes, opisthonephros develops from a region of the nephric ridge, which is derived from
348:
which were located in opposite sides of the body. And the archinephric ducts were opened into the
4603:
4537:
3756:
Principles and methods for the assessment of nephrotoxicity associated with exposure to chemicals
4133:
458:
Mesonephros develops after the pronephros, replacing it. The mesonephros is the final kidney in
4828:
4732:
4515:
577:
4232:
4205:
4175:
3965:
Kriz, Wilhelm; Kaissling, Brigitte (2008-01-01), Alpern, ROBERT J.; Hebert, STEVEN C. (eds.),
3848:
3499:
3418:
3391:
3182:
3068:
2968:
2699:
2672:
2318:
2178:
1846:
1751:
1695:
1147:
1006:
394:
and non-functional. A functional pronephros develops in vertebrates that have a free-swimming
4930:
4583:
4406:
4259:
3721:
3445:
3236:
3209:
3155:
1297:
979:
507:
242:
204:
134:
2348:
1243:
4792:
3793:
2033:
4381:
624:
The kidneys in reptiles are located mainly in the caudal part (away from the head) of the
8:
4955:
4900:
4657:
4652:
4588:
4573:
4335:
4101:
4084:
954:
888:
868:
767:
700:
518:
495:
414:
301:
277:
130:
75:
3609:
Mate, K. E.; Harris, M. S.; Rodger, J. C. (2000), Tarín, Juan J.; Cano, Antonio (eds.),
2037:
1105:
4940:
4623:
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4038:
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3883:
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2451:
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2021:
1972:
1939:
1866:
1827:
1668:
1633:
1614:
1552:
1517:
1438:
1362:
502:
mesonephros is called opistonephros to distinguish it from the stage of development in
437:
332:
part of the body, and each body segment had a pair of tubules. All tubules were opened
285:
110:
4935:
4737:
4552:
4412:
4363:
4355:
4320:
4308:
4265:
4238:
4211:
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4022:
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3727:
3691:
3683:
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2735:
2705:
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2645:
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2539:
2531:
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2471:
2405:
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2354:
2324:
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2230:
2184:
2154:
2094:
2069:
2051:
1977:
1959:
1920:
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1852:
1831:
1819:
1811:
1757:
1701:
1673:
1655:
1606:
1598:
1557:
1539:
1487:
1412:
1404:
1366:
1354:
1346:
1303:
1276:
1249:
1221:
1213:
1153:
1125:
1072:
1012:
985:
856:
850:
541:. Mesonephros in fish has the ability to add new nephrons while body mass increases.
391:
375:
345:
227:
55:
4042:
3833:
3703:
3029:
2657:
2527:
1618:
1470:
Edward E. Ruppert (1 August 2015). "Evolutionary Origin of the
Vertebrate Nephron".
813:. Kidneys can also be with a single renal papilla (the unipapillary kidneys), as in
4849:
4672:
4618:
4347:
4298:
4141:
4096:
4012:
3929:
3897:
3879:
3805:
3764:
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3618:
3565:
3474:
3346:
3280:
3024:
2939:
2923:
2852:
2824:
2775:
2627:
2586:
2570:
2523:
2479:
2463:
2387:
2238:
2220:
2144:
2059:
2041:
1967:
1951:
1904:
1803:
1663:
1645:
1588:
1547:
1529:
1495:
1479:
1450:
1396:
1336:
1203:
1190:
de Bakker, B. S.; van den Hoff, M. J. B.; Vize, P. D.; Oostra, R. J. (2019-07-01).
1117:
904:
795:
723:
625:
522:
306:
265:, replacing each other and reflecting the evolution of the kidneys in vertebrates.
35:
3668:
American
Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology
3554:"The Unique Penile Morphology of the Short-Beaked Echidna, Tachyglossus aculeatus"
2293:
1897:
American
Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology
774:. Urine is excreted through the renal papillae into the calyces and then into the
4993:
4867:
4838:
4644:
4532:
3553:
2812:
2574:
2426:
2046:
1995:
928:
783:
649:
593:
422:
329:
118:
87:
31:
4428:
4145:
4000:
3794:"Proliferative and nonproliferative lesions of the rat and mouse urinary system"
3622:
3351:
3335:"The struggle to equilibrate outer and inner milieus: Renal evolution revisited"
3334:
2927:
2376:"Overview: Nonmammalian Organisms for Studies of Kidney Development and Disease"
2375:
1341:
1325:"The struggle to equilibrate outer and inner milieus: Renal evolution revisited"
1324:
153:, are functionally identical to the ancestral primitive kidneys of vertebrates.
4967:
4960:
4945:
4859:
4742:
4510:
4460:
4083:
Liu, W.; Morimoto, T.; Kondo, Y.; Iinuma, K.; Uchida, S.; Imai, M. (Aug 2001).
3754:
1938:
Rumballe, Bree; Georgas, Kylie; Wilkinson, Lorine; Little, Melissa (Jun 2010).
1908:
1807:
771:
453:
289:
185:
177:
67:
47:
4303:
4286:
3615:
Fertilization in
Protozoa and Metazoan Animals: Cellular and Molecular Aspects
3610:
2762:
Vize, P. D.; Seufert, D. W.; Carroll, T. J.; Wallingford, J. B. (1997-08-15).
2136:
1955:
1650:
341:
125:, they are usually bean-shaped. Evolutionarily, the kidneys first appeared in
4982:
4854:
4754:
4749:
4705:
4505:
4488:
4359:
4312:
4110:
4026:
3943:
3817:
3809:
3687:
3579:
3360:
3292:
3181:
Doneley, Bob; Monks, Deborah; Johnson, Robert; Carmel, Brendan (2018-02-05).
3038:
2935:
2836:
2789:
2641:
2582:
2535:
2475:
2401:
2234:
2225:
2055:
1963:
1916:
1815:
1726:
1659:
1602:
1543:
1491:
1408:
1350:
1217:
939:
876:
838:
822:
743:
735:
711:
661:
633:
566:
526:
471:
379:
262:
197:
146:
3934:
3284:
2149:
1499:
1384:
1039:
333:
4787:
4769:
4692:
4613:
4563:
4498:
4493:
4483:
4351:
4118:
4034:
4017:
3951:
3825:
3695:
3587:
3368:
2953:
2844:
2780:
2763:
2649:
2600:
2511:
2493:
2409:
2392:
2252:
2158:
2073:
1981:
1924:
1823:
1677:
1610:
1561:
1483:
1455:
1416:
1358:
1225:
1129:
916:
884:
763:
759:
751:
739:
696:
382:
it is usually a transitional structure and is subsequently replaced by the
323:
212:
138:
106:
20:
4367:
4001:"Urea and renal function in the 21st century: insights from knockout mice"
3268:
2797:
2543:
2512:"Allometry of the kidney: implications for the ontogeny of osmoregulation"
4764:
4759:
4522:
1534:
1400:
1208:
1191:
1121:
958:
943:
859:
products are excreted by the kidneys of mammals primarily in the form of
618:
530:
487:
475:
449:
426:
383:
273:
254:
246:
173:
169:
102:
71:
43:
3662:
Casotti, Giovanni; Lindberg, Kimberly K.; Braun, Eldon J. (2000-11-01).
1518:"Nephron Patterning: Lessons from Xenopus, Zebrafish, and Mouse Studies"
4598:
4527:
3768:
2728:
Orlando, Giuseppe; Remuzzi, Giuseppe; Williams, David F. (2017-06-08).
2701:
Zoology for Degree
Students (For B.Sc. Hons. 4rd Semester, As per CBCS)
2632:
2615:
880:
864:
747:
629:
510:, from which both the mesonephros and metanephros are developed in the
499:
369:
360:, and is also found in the embryos of some more developed vertebrates.
250:
181:
165:
142:
39:
3570:
2828:
2467:
1593:
1576:
617:
that had no larval stage and that were fully terrestrial animals. The
4797:
4677:
2347:
Vize, Peter D.; Woolf, Adrian S.; Bard, Jonathan B. L. (2003-03-14).
947:
938:
Avian kidneys combine so called reptilian-type nephrons, without the
791:
692:
681:
665:
483:
459:
357:
220:
216:
4057:"Excretion - General features of excretory structures and functions"
3501:
Jubb, Kennedy & Palmer's
Pathology of Domestic Animals: Volume 2
3273:
Bulletin of the
Association of Reptilian and Amphibian Veterinarians
762:, which in the multilobar kidney then branches in the region of the
268:
At the very beginning of vertebrates, when they evolved from marine
121:
of animals, the kidneys differ in shape and anatomical location. In
4667:
3211:
Infectious Diseases and Pathology of Reptiles: Color Atlas and Text
3157:
Infectious Diseases and Pathology of Reptiles: Color Atlas and Text
2177:
Foreman, R. E.; Gorbman, A.; Dodd, J. M.; Olsson, R. (2013-03-09).
707:
704:
569:, although many reptiles show ongoing nephron formation in adults.
352:. As an organ, the archnephros is still preserved in the larvae of
269:
231:
4408:
Avian Medicine and Surgery in Practice: Companion and Aviary Birds
903:, the kidneys are typically elongated and located dorsally in the
336:(closer to the midline of the body) into the body cavity known as
4887:
4635:
4542:
2209:"Frontiers in Renal and Epithelial Physiology – Grand Challenges"
924:
872:
810:
806:
787:
673:
597:
573:
554:
550:
503:
486:, it remains functional for some time after birth along with the
479:
467:
410:
353:
297:
258:
157:
137:, which eventually united into a single functional unit. In some
95:
59:
931:; urine is excreted from the kidneys through the ureters to the
837:. The kidneys of bovines are multilobar with external lobation.
802:, and urine is excreted into the cloaca instead of the urethra.
180:. The nephrons of the mesonephros, the functional organ in most
156:
The main structural and functional element of the kidney is the
145:
are analogous to the kidneys but nephridia are not kidneys. The
78:
in the body. When the blood is being filtered, the kidneys form
4820:
4468:
3333:
Keogh, Laura; Kilroy, David; Bhattacharjee, Sourav (Jan 2021).
2450:
Ferner, Kirsten; Schultz, Julia A.; Zeller, Ulrich (Dec 2017).
1796:
The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Exotic Animal Practice
1323:
Keogh, Laura; Kilroy, David; Bhattacharjee, Sourav (Jan 2021).
1189:
932:
920:
908:
834:
799:
779:
775:
729:
653:
645:
637:
614:
589:
581:
562:
538:
511:
491:
430:
418:
387:
349:
337:
280:
capable of filtering blood and perhaps tubules that reabsorbed
208:
193:
161:
150:
122:
114:
91:
83:
3967:"CHAPTER 20 - Structural Organization of the Mammalian Kidney"
3011:
Al-shehri, Mohammed Ali; Al-Doaiss, Amin Abdullah (Aug 2021).
2912:"Returning to kidney development to deliver synthetic kidneys"
1937:
3611:"Fertilization in Monotreme, Marsupial and Eutherian Mammals"
3416:
2761:
846:
830:
814:
755:
641:
585:
403:
395:
223:
79:
63:
51:
2674:
Ebook: Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution
2613:
2090:
Ebook: Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution
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Barrodia, Praveen; Patra, Chinmoy; Swain, Rajeeb K. (2018).
1383:
Schulte, Kevin; Kunter, Uta; Moeller, Marcus J. (May 2015).
1104:
Schulte, Kevin; Kunter, Uta; Moeller, Marcus J. (May 2015).
900:
860:
842:
677:
669:
558:
534:
463:
189:
126:
4078:
4076:
390:
embryogenesis, the pronephros is usually considered to be
3180:
2350:
The Kidney: From Normal Development to Congenital Disease
1385:"The evolution of blood pressure and the rise of mankind"
1106:"The evolution of blood pressure and the rise of mankind"
984:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 53–54.
826:
818:
281:
3332:
2616:"Renal glomerulogenesis in medaka fish, Oryzias latipes"
2176:
1893:"Aquaporins in avian kidneys: function and perspectives"
1322:
919:
is absent, and each lobule has a separate branch to the
4073:
3551:
2019:
1069:
Kidney Transplantation, Bioengineering and Regeneration
4134:"The loop of Henle, distal tubule and collecting duct"
4082:
3876:
Pathologic Basis of Veterinary Disease (Sixth Edition)
3853:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 286.
3846:
3791:
2727:
1700:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 240.
196:. The kidneys of birds and mammals have nephrons with
4234:
Biology and Comparative Physiology of Birds: Volume I
3847:
Nickel, R.; Schummer, A.; Seiferle, E. (2013-11-11).
3067:
Divers, Stephen J.; Mader, Douglas R. (13 Dec 2005).
2559:"Induction and patterning of the metanephric nephron"
533:
are typically absent in the embryonic mesonephros of
4174:
Akers, R. Michael; Denbow, D. Michael (2013-07-03).
3661:
3306:
Divers, Stephen J.; Mader, Douglas R. (2005-12-13).
3235:
Mader, Douglas R.; Divers, Stephen J. (2013-12-12).
1792:"Anatomy and Physiology of the Reptile Renal System"
1382:
1103:
4140:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 70–85,
3664:"Functional morphology of the avian medullary cone"
2449:
1516:Desgrange, Audrey; Cereghini, Silvia (2015-09-11).
738:. The peripheral layer of the kidney is called the
588:from the ureters can be excreted directly into the
494:, its remains are involved in the formation of the
3617:, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 223–275,
3420:Ecological and Environmental Physiology of Mammals
3010:
2556:
1631:
1515:
1062:
946:waste products are excreted mainly in the form of
203:All three types of kidneys are developed from the
4458:
3971:Seldin and Giebisch's The Kidney (Fourth Edition)
3390:Eurell, Jo Ann; Frappier, Brian L. (2013-03-19).
3184:Reptile Medicine and Surgery in Clinical Practice
2557:O'Brien, Lori L.; McMahon, Andrew P. (Dec 2014).
1469:
1065:"Chapter 71 - Nephron Repair in Mammals and Fish"
443:
149:, together with the vascular filtration site and
4980:
4284:
4204:Farner, Donald S.; King, James R. (2013-09-17).
3999:Fenton, Robert A.; Knepper, Mark A. (Mar 2007).
3608:
798:, which is connected to the urinary bladder and
129:as a result of the independent evolution of the
4285:McCarthy, Maxine; McCarthy, Liam (2019-11-29).
4261:Comparative Physiology of the Vertebrate Kidney
3973:, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 479–563,
3873:
3723:Comparative Physiology of the Vertebrate Kidney
3238:Current Therapy in Reptile Medicine and Surgery
2143:, Cambridge (MA): Harvard Stem Cell Institute,
1750:Webster, Douglas; Webster, Molly (2013-10-22).
1439:"Evolutionary Origin of the Vertebrate Nephron"
1245:Comparative Physiology of the Vertebrate Kidney
70:. In healthy vertebrates, the kidneys maintain
3389:
3312:. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 185–186.
3269:"The Reptilian Renal Portal System - A Review"
2967:Prasad, S. N.; Kashyap, Vasantika (Jun 1989).
2869:Prasad, S. N.; Kashyap, Vasantika (Jun 1989).
2270:"Evolution of the vertebrate excretory system"
1749:
4444:
4336:"Some histological features of avian kidneys"
4333:
4005:Journal of the American Society of Nephrology
3998:
3964:
3759:. Environmental Health Criteria 119. Geneva:
2966:
2868:
2380:Journal of the American Society of Nephrology
2346:
1890:
1511:
1509:
226:, but in mammals it is most often considered
2563:Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology
2509:
1891:Nishimura, Hiroko; Yang, Yimu (2013-12-01).
1574:
4173:
3393:Dellmann's Textbook of Veterinary Histology
3305:
3234:
3111:Common Diseases of Companion Animals E-Book
3066:
2973:. New Age International. pp. 472–473.
1851:. Discovery Publishing House. p. 294.
1844:
4451:
4437:
4334:Johnson, O. W.; Mugaas, J. N. (Apr 1970).
4203:
4177:Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Animals
1506:
786:. Then it is excreted outside through the
656:but snakes and crocodiles do not have it.
644:are elongated, cylindrical and lobulated.
42:, which maintain the balance of water and
4302:
4100:
4016:
3933:
3901:
3569:
3504:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 379.
3350:
3114:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 400.
3028:
2943:
2779:
2704:. S. Chand Publishing. pp. 297–299.
2631:
2590:
2510:Beuchat, C. A.; Braun, E. J. (Nov 1988).
2483:
2391:
2316:
2242:
2224:
2183:. Springer Science & Business Media.
2148:
2063:
2045:
1971:
1667:
1649:
1592:
1551:
1533:
1454:
1340:
1207:
977:
676:. Aquatic reptiles excrete predominantly
58:, and, in many vertebrates, also produce
4257:
4230:
3719:
3241:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 84.
3207:
3153:
2810:
2373:
2180:Evolutionary Biology of Primitive Fishes
2134:
1845:Khanna, D. R.; Yadav, P. R. (Dec 2005).
1575:Chan, Techuan; Asashima, Makoto (2006).
1241:
1008:Deuterostomians, Cyclostomes, and Fishes
4404:
4132:Lote, Chris (2000), Lote, Chris (ed.),
3107:
2670:
2130:
2086:
1436:
1004:
684:, which allows them to conserve water.
490:. When mesonephros degenerates in male
4981:
4199:
4197:
4180:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 432.
3749:
3747:
3745:
3743:
3715:
3713:
3657:
3655:
3653:
3651:
3649:
3647:
3547:
3545:
3469:
3467:
3443:
3396:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 566.
3262:
3260:
3258:
3187:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 152.
3149:
3147:
3145:
3006:
3004:
2909:
2864:
2862:
2757:
2755:
2753:
2751:
2723:
2721:
2505:
2503:
2202:
2200:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2114:
2112:
2110:
1944:Pediatric Nephrology (Berlin, Germany)
1886:
1884:
1882:
1785:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1777:
1775:
1773:
1378:
1376:
1295:
871:, which is located in the cortex. The
603:
4432:
3915:
3497:
3309:Reptile Medicine and Surgery - E-Book
3070:Reptile Medicine and Surgery - E-Book
3062:
3060:
3058:
3056:
2421:
2419:
2342:
2340:
2264:
2262:
2206:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1693:
1689:
1687:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1389:Nephrology, Dialysis, Transplantation
1272:Vertebrates: Structures and Functions
1268:
1237:
1235:
1192:"The Pronephros; a Fresh Perspective"
1149:Vertebrates: Structures and Functions
1145:
1071:, Academic Press, pp. 997–1003,
1034:
1032:
1030:
1028:
680:, while terrestrial reptiles excrete
4131:
4102:10.1046/j.1523-1755.2001.060002680.x
3266:
2734:. Academic Press. pp. 973–974.
2323:. S. Chand Publishing. p. 909.
1789:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1141:
1139:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1093:
429:, which drain coelom fluid into the
245:and the need to regulate body fluid
16:Paired internal organ in vertebrates
4258:Dantzler, William H. (2016-07-05).
4194:
3922:The Journal of Experimental Biology
3850:The Viscera of the Domestic Mammals
3740:
3720:Dantzler, William H. (2016-07-05).
3710:
3644:
3542:
3464:
3255:
3208:Jacobson, Elliott R. (2007-04-11).
3154:Jacobson, Elliott R. (2007-04-11).
3142:
3017:International Journal of Morphology
3001:
2859:
2748:
2718:
2697:
2500:
2197:
2107:
1879:
1770:
1373:
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1196:Integrative and Comparative Biology
1110:Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation
717:
699:blood supply, reptiles also have a
13:
3918:"Osmoregulation in marine mammals"
3884:10.1016/B978-0-323-35775-3.00011-4
3053:
2516:The American Journal of Physiology
2416:
2337:
2259:
1714:
1684:
1423:
1232:
1025:
14:
5005:
1753:Comparative Vertebrate Morphology
1166:
1136:
1090:
742:and the inner part is called the
628:or retroperitoneally (behind the
613:Reptiles were the first class of
608:
3680:10.1152/ajpregu.2000.279.5.R1722
3108:Summers, Alleice (26 Apr 2019).
2970:A Textbook of Vertebrate Zoology
2872:A Textbook of Vertebrate Zoology
825:, or with a large number, as in
576:and a highly branched system of
466:. In more advanced vertebrates (
257:and metanephros. The kidneys of
4398:
4374:
4340:The American Journal of Anatomy
4327:
4278:
4251:
4237:. Academic Press. p. 470.
4224:
4167:
4125:
4049:
3992:
3958:
3909:
3867:
3840:
3785:
3602:
3518:
3491:
3437:
3410:
3383:
3326:
3299:
3228:
3201:
3174:
3101:
3030:10.4067/S0717-95022021000401200
2960:
2910:Little, Melissa H. (Jun 2021).
2903:
2817:Nephron Experimental Nephrology
2804:
2691:
2671:Kardong, Kenneth (2014-10-16).
2664:
2607:
2550:
2528:10.1152/ajpregu.1988.255.5.R760
2443:
2367:
2310:
2286:
2170:
2087:Kardong, Kenneth (2014-10-16).
2080:
2013:
1988:
1931:
1838:
1756:. Academic Press. p. 494.
1743:
1625:
1581:Nephron Experimental Nephrology
1568:
1463:
1437:Ruppert, Edward E. (Aug 2015).
1316:
1289:
894:
470:), mesonephros develops during
317:
312:
4803:Extraglomerular mesangial cell
4683:Intraglomerular mesangial cell
4231:Marshall, A. J. (2013-10-22).
4210:. Elsevier. pp. 528–529.
4138:Principles of Renal Physiology
3878:, Mosby, pp. 617–681.e1,
3498:Maxie, M. Grant (2015-08-14).
2374:Igarashi, Peter (2005-02-01).
1262:
1056:
1005:Florkin, Marcel (2014-04-24).
998:
971:
875:of the mammalian kidneys have
758:enters the kidney through the
544:
444:Mesonephros and opisthonephros
1:
3267:Holz, Peter H. (1999-01-01).
3134:: CS1 maint: date and year (
3093:: CS1 maint: date and year (
2993:: CS1 maint: date and year (
2895:: CS1 maint: date and year (
2813:"Kidney regeneration in fish"
1871:: CS1 maint: date and year (
964:
363:
4663:Glomerular basement membrane
3444:Moffat, D. B. (1975-06-12).
3073:. Elsevier Health Sciences.
2677:. McGraw Hill. p. 549.
2575:10.1016/j.semcdb.2014.08.014
2093:. McGraw Hill. p. 562.
2047:10.1371/journal.pone.0153422
1577:"Growing kidney in the frog"
1296:Moffat, D. B. (1975-06-12).
978:Skadhauge, E. (2012-12-06).
794:, the ureters open into the
578:collecting tubules and ducts
474:and is then replaced by the
398:stage in their development.
237:
230:and not functional. In some
7:
4405:Doneley, Bob (2010-10-30).
4146:10.1007/978-94-011-4086-7_6
3623:10.1007/978-3-642-58301-8_6
3450:. CUP Archive. p. 18.
3423:. Oxford University Press.
3352:10.1016/j.aanat.2020.151610
2928:10.1016/j.ydbio.2020.12.009
1790:Holz, Peter H. (Jan 2020).
1694:Grunz, Horst (2013-03-09).
1342:10.1016/j.aanat.2020.151610
1302:. CUP Archive. p. 13.
1269:Kisia, S. M. (2016-04-19).
1146:Kisia, S. M. (2016-04-19).
923:. No birds, except for the
10:
5010:
4701:Proximal convoluted tubule
2811:Davidson, Alan J. (2014).
2137:"Mouse kidney development"
2135:Davidson, Alan J. (2008),
1909:10.1152/ajpregu.00177.2013
1808:10.1016/j.cvex.2019.08.005
1275:. CRC Press. p. 436.
1152:. CRC Press. p. 434.
727:
721:
689:glomerular filtration rate
447:
367:
321:
18:
4896:Internal urethral orifice
4886:
4873:Median umbilical ligament
4837:
4819:
4780:Juxtaglomerular apparatus
4778:
4691:
4643:
4634:
4551:
4476:
4467:
4411:. CRC Press. p. 20.
4382:"Why Is Bird Poop White?"
4304:10.1007/s42452-019-1692-9
3916:Ortiz, R. M. (Jun 2001).
3761:World Health Organization
3160:. CRC Press. p. 14.
2875:. New Age International.
1956:10.1007/s00467-009-1392-6
1651:10.1186/s13578-018-0253-z
1011:. Elsevier. p. 575.
4728:Distal convoluted tubule
4264:. Springer. p. 19.
4207:Avian Biology: Volume II
3810:10.1177/0192623312438736
3726:. Springer. p. 20.
2226:10.3389/fphys.2012.00002
1697:The Vertebrate Organizer
386:in most vertebrates. In
56:metabolic waste products
19:Not to be confused with
4604:Peritubular capillaries
3935:10.1242/jeb.204.11.1831
3285:10.5818/1076-3139.9.1.4
2353:. Elsevier. p. 2.
2213:Frontiers in Physiology
2207:Eaton, Douglas (2012).
2150:10.3824/stembook.1.34.1
1731:Encyclopedia Britannica
981:Osmoregulation in Birds
4829:Ureteropelvic junction
4733:Collecting duct system
4516:medullary interstitium
4352:10.1002/aja.1001270407
4018:10.1681/ASN.2006101108
2781:10.1006/dbio.1997.8629
2620:Developmental Dynamics
2393:10.1681/ASN.2004110951
911:skeletal depressions.
891:is absent in mammals.
821:, with several, as in
648:and some lizards have
592:, or collected in the
4793:Juxtaglomerular cells
3798:Toxicologic Pathology
3526:"Excretion - Mammals"
2916:Developmental Biology
2768:Developmental Biology
2698:V.K, Agarwal (2022).
1638:Cell & Bioscience
695:. In addition to the
580:, that open into the
508:intermediate mesoderm
425:through the ciliated
243:Evolutionary pressure
205:intermediate mesoderm
4089:Kidney International
3928:(Pt 11): 1831–1844.
3804:(4 Suppl): 14S–86S.
3763:. 1991. p. 49.
3447:The Mammalian Kidney
2522:(5 Pt 2): R760–767.
1535:10.3390/cells4030483
1484:10.1093/ICB/34.4.542
1456:10.1093/icb/34.4.542
1299:The Mammalian Kidney
652:that opens into the
344:into the two common
4956:Lacunae of Morgagni
4901:Urethral sphincters
4291:SN Applied Sciences
2038:2016PLoSO..1153422C
1903:(11): R1201–R1214.
955:renal portal system
889:renal portal system
768:interlobar arteries
701:renal portal system
604:Metanephric kidneys
496:reproductive system
302:extracellular fluid
76:extracellular fluid
3674:(5): R1722–R1730.
2633:10.1002/dvdy.21687
2456:Journal of Anatomy
2317:P.S.Verma (2013).
1848:Biology of Mammals
1472:American Zoologist
1443:American Zoologist
1401:10.1093/ndt/gfu275
1209:10.1093/icb/icz001
1122:10.1093/ndt/gfu275
863:, which is highly
851:reniculate kidneys
438:kidney development
346:archinephric ducts
286:kidney development
4976:
4975:
4815:
4814:
4811:
4810:
4738:Connecting tubule
4418:978-1-84076-592-2
4271:978-1-4939-3734-9
4244:978-1-4832-6379-3
4217:978-1-4832-6942-9
4187:978-1-118-70111-9
4155:978-94-011-4086-7
3980:978-0-12-088488-9
3893:978-0-323-35775-3
3860:978-1-4757-6814-5
3733:978-1-4939-3734-9
3632:978-3-642-58301-8
3571:10.1159/000515145
3511:978-0-7020-6837-9
3457:978-0-521-20599-3
3430:978-0-19-964271-7
3403:978-1-118-68582-2
3339:Annals of Anatomy
3319:978-1-4160-6477-0
3248:978-0-323-24293-6
3221:978-1-4200-0403-8
3194:978-1-118-97767-5
3167:978-1-4200-0403-8
3121:978-0-323-59801-9
3080:978-1-4160-6477-0
2980:978-0-85226-928-2
2882:978-0-85226-928-2
2829:10.1159/000360660
2741:978-0-12-801836-1
2711:978-93-5253-410-4
2684:978-0-07-717192-6
2468:10.1111/joa.12689
2360:978-0-08-052154-1
2330:978-81-219-1639-4
2190:978-1-4615-9453-6
2100:978-0-07-717192-6
1858:978-81-7141-934-0
1763:978-1-4832-7259-7
1707:978-3-662-10416-3
1594:10.1159/000092192
1329:Annals of Anatomy
1309:978-0-521-20599-3
1282:978-1-4398-4052-8
1255:978-1-4939-3734-9
1159:978-1-4398-4052-8
1078:978-0-12-801734-0
1018:978-0-323-16334-7
991:978-3-642-81585-0
857:Nitrogenous waste
519:Bowman's capsules
413:with an external
376:lower vertebrates
5001:
4989:Endocrine system
4850:Vesical arteries
4673:Filtration slits
4658:Bowman's capsule
4641:
4640:
4474:
4473:
4453:
4446:
4439:
4430:
4429:
4423:
4422:
4402:
4396:
4395:
4393:
4392:
4378:
4372:
4371:
4331:
4325:
4324:
4306:
4282:
4276:
4275:
4255:
4249:
4248:
4228:
4222:
4221:
4201:
4192:
4191:
4171:
4165:
4164:
4163:
4162:
4129:
4123:
4122:
4104:
4080:
4071:
4070:
4068:
4067:
4053:
4047:
4046:
4020:
3996:
3990:
3989:
3988:
3987:
3962:
3956:
3955:
3937:
3913:
3907:
3906:
3905:
3871:
3865:
3864:
3844:
3838:
3837:
3789:
3783:
3782:
3751:
3738:
3737:
3717:
3708:
3707:
3659:
3642:
3641:
3640:
3639:
3606:
3600:
3599:
3573:
3549:
3540:
3539:
3537:
3536:
3522:
3516:
3515:
3495:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3485:
3471:
3462:
3461:
3441:
3435:
3434:
3414:
3408:
3407:
3387:
3381:
3380:
3354:
3330:
3324:
3323:
3303:
3297:
3296:
3264:
3253:
3252:
3232:
3226:
3225:
3205:
3199:
3198:
3178:
3172:
3171:
3151:
3140:
3139:
3133:
3125:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3092:
3084:
3064:
3051:
3050:
3032:
3023:(4): 1200–1211.
3008:
2999:
2998:
2992:
2984:
2964:
2958:
2957:
2947:
2907:
2901:
2900:
2894:
2886:
2866:
2857:
2856:
2808:
2802:
2801:
2783:
2759:
2746:
2745:
2725:
2716:
2715:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2635:
2626:(9): 2342–2352.
2611:
2605:
2604:
2594:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2507:
2498:
2497:
2487:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2437:
2423:
2414:
2413:
2395:
2371:
2365:
2364:
2344:
2335:
2334:
2320:Chordate Zoology
2314:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2280:
2266:
2257:
2256:
2246:
2228:
2204:
2195:
2194:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2166:
2165:
2152:
2132:
2105:
2104:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2067:
2049:
2017:
2011:
2010:
2008:
2007:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1975:
1950:(6): 1005–1016.
1935:
1929:
1928:
1888:
1877:
1876:
1870:
1862:
1842:
1836:
1835:
1787:
1768:
1767:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1738:
1737:
1723:
1712:
1711:
1691:
1682:
1681:
1671:
1653:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1596:
1572:
1566:
1565:
1555:
1537:
1513:
1504:
1503:
1467:
1461:
1460:
1458:
1434:
1421:
1420:
1380:
1371:
1370:
1344:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1293:
1287:
1286:
1266:
1260:
1259:
1239:
1230:
1229:
1211:
1187:
1164:
1163:
1143:
1134:
1133:
1101:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1085:
1060:
1054:
1053:
1051:
1050:
1036:
1023:
1022:
1002:
996:
995:
975:
905:abdominal cavity
883:relative to the
796:urogenital sinus
724:Mammalian kidney
718:Mammalian kidney
626:abdominal cavity
553:, which include
498:. Sometimes the
307:primordial ocean
62:(in particular,
36:excretory system
5009:
5008:
5004:
5003:
5002:
5000:
4999:
4998:
4979:
4978:
4977:
4972:
4951:navicular fossa
4882:
4868:Detrusor muscle
4833:
4807:
4774:
4721:Thick ascending
4687:
4645:Renal corpuscle
4630:
4547:
4533:Cortical lobule
4463:
4459:Anatomy of the
4457:
4427:
4426:
4419:
4403:
4399:
4390:
4388:
4380:
4379:
4375:
4332:
4328:
4283:
4279:
4272:
4256:
4252:
4245:
4229:
4225:
4218:
4202:
4195:
4188:
4172:
4168:
4160:
4158:
4156:
4130:
4126:
4081:
4074:
4065:
4063:
4055:
4054:
4050:
3997:
3993:
3985:
3983:
3981:
3963:
3959:
3914:
3910:
3894:
3872:
3868:
3861:
3845:
3841:
3790:
3786:
3779:
3753:
3752:
3741:
3734:
3718:
3711:
3660:
3645:
3637:
3635:
3633:
3607:
3603:
3550:
3543:
3534:
3532:
3524:
3523:
3519:
3512:
3496:
3492:
3483:
3481:
3475:"Renal pyramid"
3473:
3472:
3465:
3458:
3442:
3438:
3431:
3415:
3411:
3404:
3388:
3384:
3331:
3327:
3320:
3304:
3300:
3265:
3256:
3249:
3233:
3229:
3222:
3206:
3202:
3195:
3179:
3175:
3168:
3152:
3143:
3127:
3126:
3122:
3106:
3102:
3086:
3085:
3081:
3065:
3054:
3009:
3002:
2986:
2985:
2981:
2965:
2961:
2908:
2904:
2888:
2887:
2883:
2867:
2860:
2809:
2805:
2760:
2749:
2742:
2726:
2719:
2712:
2696:
2692:
2685:
2669:
2665:
2612:
2608:
2555:
2551:
2508:
2501:
2448:
2444:
2435:
2433:
2425:
2424:
2417:
2372:
2368:
2361:
2345:
2338:
2331:
2315:
2311:
2302:
2300:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2278:
2276:
2268:
2267:
2260:
2205:
2198:
2191:
2175:
2171:
2163:
2161:
2133:
2108:
2101:
2085:
2081:
2032:(5): e0153422.
2018:
2014:
2005:
2003:
1994:
1993:
1989:
1936:
1932:
1889:
1880:
1864:
1863:
1859:
1843:
1839:
1788:
1771:
1764:
1748:
1744:
1735:
1733:
1725:
1724:
1715:
1708:
1692:
1685:
1630:
1626:
1573:
1569:
1514:
1507:
1468:
1464:
1435:
1424:
1381:
1374:
1321:
1317:
1310:
1294:
1290:
1283:
1267:
1263:
1256:
1240:
1233:
1188:
1167:
1160:
1144:
1137:
1102:
1091:
1083:
1081:
1079:
1061:
1057:
1048:
1046:
1038:
1037:
1026:
1019:
1003:
999:
992:
976:
972:
967:
897:
732:
726:
720:
650:urinary bladder
636:in the case of
611:
606:
594:urinary bladder
547:
456:
448:Main articles:
446:
423:pronephric duct
372:
366:
326:
320:
315:
278:renal glomeruli
240:
131:renal glomeruli
88:urinary bladder
66:) and maintain
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5007:
4997:
4996:
4991:
4974:
4973:
4971:
4970:
4968:Urinary meatus
4965:
4964:
4963:
4961:urethral gland
4958:
4953:
4948:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4925:
4924:
4923:
4918:
4917:
4916:
4911:
4898:
4892:
4890:
4884:
4883:
4881:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4864:
4863:
4860:Vaginal artery
4857:
4852:
4843:
4841:
4835:
4834:
4832:
4831:
4825:
4823:
4817:
4816:
4813:
4812:
4809:
4808:
4806:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4790:
4784:
4782:
4776:
4775:
4773:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4747:
4746:
4745:
4743:Papillary duct
4740:
4730:
4725:
4724:
4723:
4718:
4716:Thin ascending
4713:
4703:
4697:
4695:
4689:
4688:
4686:
4685:
4680:
4675:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4649:
4647:
4638:
4632:
4631:
4629:
4628:
4627:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4593:
4592:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4557:
4555:
4549:
4548:
4546:
4545:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4519:
4518:
4513:
4503:
4502:
4501:
4491:
4486:
4480:
4478:
4471:
4465:
4464:
4461:urinary system
4456:
4455:
4448:
4441:
4433:
4425:
4424:
4417:
4397:
4373:
4346:(4): 423–436.
4326:
4277:
4270:
4250:
4243:
4223:
4216:
4193:
4186:
4166:
4154:
4124:
4095:(2): 680–693.
4072:
4048:
4011:(3): 679–688.
3991:
3979:
3957:
3908:
3892:
3866:
3859:
3839:
3784:
3777:
3739:
3732:
3709:
3643:
3631:
3601:
3564:(4): 262–271.
3541:
3517:
3510:
3490:
3463:
3456:
3436:
3429:
3409:
3402:
3382:
3325:
3318:
3298:
3254:
3247:
3227:
3220:
3200:
3193:
3173:
3166:
3141:
3120:
3100:
3079:
3052:
3000:
2979:
2959:
2902:
2881:
2858:
2803:
2774:(2): 189–204.
2747:
2740:
2717:
2710:
2690:
2683:
2663:
2606:
2549:
2499:
2462:(6): 798–822.
2442:
2415:
2386:(2): 296–298.
2366:
2359:
2336:
2329:
2309:
2294:"Archinephros"
2285:
2258:
2196:
2189:
2169:
2106:
2099:
2079:
2012:
1987:
1930:
1878:
1857:
1837:
1802:(1): 103–114.
1769:
1762:
1742:
1713:
1706:
1683:
1624:
1567:
1528:(3): 483–499.
1505:
1478:(4): 542–553.
1462:
1449:(4): 542–553.
1422:
1395:(5): 713–723.
1372:
1315:
1308:
1288:
1281:
1261:
1254:
1231:
1165:
1158:
1135:
1116:(5): 713–723.
1089:
1077:
1055:
1024:
1017:
997:
990:
969:
968:
966:
963:
896:
893:
877:loops of Henle
839:Marine mammals
823:spider monkeys
772:renal papillae
722:Main article:
719:
716:
610:
609:Reptile kidney
607:
605:
602:
546:
543:
454:Opisthonephros
445:
442:
368:Main article:
365:
362:
322:Main article:
319:
316:
314:
311:
290:blood pressure
239:
236:
186:opisthonephros
178:primitive fish
68:blood pressure
50:), filter the
48:osmoregulation
30:are a pair of
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5006:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4986:
4984:
4969:
4966:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4944:
4942:
4939:
4937:
4934:
4932:
4931:pre-prostatic
4929:
4928:
4927:Male urethra
4926:
4922:
4919:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4906:
4904:
4903:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4893:
4891:
4889:
4885:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4855:Vesical veins
4853:
4851:
4848:
4847:
4845:
4844:
4842:
4840:
4836:
4830:
4827:
4826:
4824:
4822:
4818:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4785:
4783:
4781:
4777:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4755:Renal papilla
4753:
4751:
4750:Tubular fluid
4748:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4735:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4714:
4712:
4709:
4708:
4707:
4706:Loop of Henle
4704:
4702:
4699:
4698:
4696:
4694:
4690:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4650:
4648:
4646:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4633:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4596:
4594:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4561:
4559:
4558:
4556:
4554:
4550:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4538:Medullary ray
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4508:
4507:
4504:
4500:
4497:
4496:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4481:
4479:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4454:
4449:
4447:
4442:
4440:
4435:
4434:
4431:
4420:
4414:
4410:
4409:
4401:
4387:
4383:
4377:
4369:
4365:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4330:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4281:
4273:
4267:
4263:
4262:
4254:
4246:
4240:
4236:
4235:
4227:
4219:
4213:
4209:
4208:
4200:
4198:
4189:
4183:
4179:
4178:
4170:
4157:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4128:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4079:
4077:
4062:
4058:
4052:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3995:
3982:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3961:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3912:
3904:
3899:
3895:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3870:
3862:
3856:
3852:
3851:
3843:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3788:
3780:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3757:
3750:
3748:
3746:
3744:
3735:
3729:
3725:
3724:
3716:
3714:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3658:
3656:
3654:
3652:
3650:
3648:
3634:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3605:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3548:
3546:
3531:
3527:
3521:
3513:
3507:
3503:
3502:
3494:
3480:
3476:
3470:
3468:
3459:
3453:
3449:
3448:
3440:
3432:
3426:
3422:
3421:
3413:
3405:
3399:
3395:
3394:
3386:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3329:
3321:
3315:
3311:
3310:
3302:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3263:
3261:
3259:
3250:
3244:
3240:
3239:
3231:
3223:
3217:
3214:. CRC Press.
3213:
3212:
3204:
3196:
3190:
3186:
3185:
3177:
3169:
3163:
3159:
3158:
3150:
3148:
3146:
3137:
3131:
3123:
3117:
3113:
3112:
3104:
3096:
3090:
3082:
3076:
3072:
3071:
3063:
3061:
3059:
3057:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3007:
3005:
2996:
2990:
2982:
2976:
2972:
2971:
2963:
2955:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2906:
2898:
2892:
2884:
2878:
2874:
2873:
2865:
2863:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2807:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2758:
2756:
2754:
2752:
2743:
2737:
2733:
2732:
2724:
2722:
2713:
2707:
2703:
2702:
2694:
2686:
2680:
2676:
2675:
2667:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2610:
2602:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2553:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2506:
2504:
2495:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2446:
2432:
2428:
2427:"Mesonephros"
2422:
2420:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2370:
2362:
2356:
2352:
2351:
2343:
2341:
2332:
2326:
2322:
2321:
2313:
2299:
2295:
2289:
2275:
2271:
2265:
2263:
2254:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2203:
2201:
2192:
2186:
2182:
2181:
2173:
2160:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2111:
2102:
2096:
2092:
2091:
2083:
2075:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2016:
2001:
1997:
1996:"Mesonephros"
1991:
1983:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1934:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1874:
1868:
1860:
1854:
1850:
1849:
1841:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1765:
1759:
1755:
1754:
1746:
1732:
1728:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1709:
1703:
1699:
1698:
1690:
1688:
1679:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1628:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1587:(3): e81–85.
1586:
1582:
1578:
1571:
1563:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1512:
1510:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1466:
1457:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1433:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1379:
1377:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1319:
1311:
1305:
1301:
1300:
1292:
1284:
1278:
1274:
1273:
1265:
1257:
1251:
1247:
1246:
1238:
1236:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
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1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1161:
1155:
1151:
1150:
1142:
1140:
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1127:
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1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1080:
1074:
1070:
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1059:
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1035:
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1014:
1010:
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1001:
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987:
983:
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960:
956:
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945:
941:
940:loop of Henle
936:
934:
930:
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918:
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910:
906:
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890:
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761:
757:
753:
752:renal columns
749:
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741:
737:
736:renal capsule
731:
725:
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713:
712:tubular cells
709:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
685:
683:
679:
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671:
667:
663:
662:loop of Henle
657:
655:
651:
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643:
639:
635:
634:pelvic cavity
631:
627:
622:
620:
616:
601:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
570:
568:
567:nephrogenesis
564:
560:
556:
552:
542:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
515:
514:of amniotes.
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
472:embryogenesis
469:
465:
461:
455:
451:
441:
439:
434:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
407:
405:
399:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
380:embryogenesis
377:
371:
361:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
325:
310:
308:
303:
299:
293:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
266:
264:
263:embryogenesis
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
235:
233:
229:
225:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
201:
199:
198:loop of Henle
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
154:
152:
148:
147:metanephridia
144:
140:
139:invertebrates
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
99:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
46:in the body (
45:
41:
37:
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29:
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4941:intermediate
4846:Circulation
4788:Macula densa
4770:Renal pelvis
4693:Renal tubule
4584:interlobular
4564:Renal artery
4407:
4400:
4389:. Retrieved
4385:
4376:
4343:
4339:
4329:
4297:(12): 1727.
4294:
4290:
4280:
4260:
4253:
4233:
4226:
4206:
4176:
4169:
4159:, retrieved
4137:
4127:
4092:
4088:
4064:. Retrieved
4060:
4051:
4008:
4004:
3994:
3984:, retrieved
3970:
3960:
3925:
3921:
3911:
3875:
3869:
3849:
3842:
3801:
3797:
3787:
3755:
3722:
3671:
3667:
3636:, retrieved
3614:
3604:
3561:
3557:
3533:. Retrieved
3529:
3520:
3500:
3493:
3482:. Retrieved
3478:
3446:
3439:
3419:
3412:
3392:
3385:
3342:
3338:
3328:
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3183:
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3069:
3020:
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2969:
2962:
2919:
2915:
2905:
2871:
2823:(2): 45–49.
2820:
2816:
2806:
2771:
2767:
2730:
2700:
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2673:
2666:
2623:
2619:
2609:
2566:
2562:
2552:
2519:
2515:
2459:
2455:
2445:
2434:. Retrieved
2430:
2383:
2379:
2369:
2349:
2319:
2312:
2301:. Retrieved
2297:
2288:
2277:. Retrieved
2273:
2216:
2212:
2179:
2172:
2162:, retrieved
2140:
2089:
2082:
2029:
2025:
2015:
2004:. Retrieved
2002:. 2017-07-06
1999:
1990:
1947:
1943:
1933:
1900:
1896:
1847:
1840:
1799:
1795:
1752:
1745:
1734:. Retrieved
1730:
1696:
1641:
1637:
1627:
1584:
1580:
1570:
1525:
1521:
1475:
1471:
1465:
1446:
1442:
1392:
1388:
1332:
1328:
1318:
1298:
1291:
1271:
1264:
1248:. Springer.
1244:
1202:(1): 29–47.
1199:
1195:
1148:
1113:
1109:
1082:, retrieved
1068:
1058:
1047:. Retrieved
1043:
1007:
1000:
980:
973:
952:
937:
917:renal pelvis
913:
898:
895:Avian kidney
885:blood plasma
855:
804:
764:renal pelvis
760:renal artery
733:
697:renal artery
686:
658:
623:
612:
571:
548:
531:Nephrostomes
516:
457:
435:
427:nephrostomes
408:
400:
373:
327:
324:Archinephros
318:Archinephros
313:Kidney forms
294:
267:
241:
213:archinephros
202:
155:
100:
44:electrolytes
27:
25:
21:Human kidney
4765:Major calyx
4760:Minor calyx
4553:Circulation
3769:10665/38147
3279:(1): 4–14.
959:dehydration
944:Nitrogenous
766:into large
619:mesonephros
545:Metanephros
488:metanephros
476:metanephros
450:Mesonephros
392:rudimentary
384:mesonephros
340:and united
274:marine fish
255:mesonephros
247:homeostasis
228:rudimentary
174:metanephros
170:mesonephros
111:terrestrial
72:homeostasis
40:vertebrates
4983:Categories
4711:Descending
4653:Glomerulus
4619:interlobar
4609:Vasa recta
4599:Renal vein
4574:interlobar
4391:2022-05-28
4386:Britannica
4161:2022-06-04
4066:2022-06-04
4061:Britannica
3986:2022-06-04
3778:9241571195
3638:2022-07-25
3535:2022-06-03
3530:Britannica
3484:2022-06-03
3479:Britannica
3345:: 151610.
2436:2022-05-21
2431:Britannica
2303:2022-05-21
2298:Britannica
2279:2022-05-20
2274:Britannica
2164:2022-05-21
2006:2022-05-10
2000:Britannica
1736:2022-05-09
1500:Q126036840
1335:: 151610.
1084:2022-05-09
1049:2022-05-09
1044:Britannica
965:References
881:hypertonic
869:glomerulus
792:monotremes
748:renal lobe
728:See also:
693:amphibians
630:peritoneum
484:marsupials
460:amphibians
415:glomerulus
370:Pronephros
364:Pronephros
358:caecilians
251:pronephros
182:anamniotes
166:pronephros
160:. Between
107:salt water
4936:prostatic
4905:External
4798:Mesangium
4678:Mesangium
4569:segmental
4560:Arteries
4360:0002-9106
4321:209509765
4313:2523-3971
4111:0085-2538
4027:1046-6673
3944:0022-0949
3818:1533-1601
3688:0363-6119
3596:233457191
3580:1661-5433
3377:223556080
3361:1618-0402
3293:1076-3139
3130:cite book
3089:cite book
3047:238792406
3039:0717-9502
2989:cite book
2936:1095-564X
2922:: 22–36.
2891:cite book
2837:1660-2129
2790:0012-1606
2642:1058-8388
2583:1096-3634
2569:: 31–38.
2536:0002-9513
2476:1469-7580
2402:1046-6673
2235:1664-042X
2056:1932-6203
1964:0931-041X
1917:0363-6119
1867:cite book
1832:208273879
1816:1558-4232
1727:"Nephron"
1660:2045-3701
1603:1660-2129
1544:2073-4409
1492:0003-1569
1409:1460-2385
1367:223556080
1351:0940-9602
1218:1557-7023
948:uric acid
927:, have a
682:uric acid
666:uric acid
632:) in the
500:anamniote
462:and most
388:mammalian
356:and some
354:hagfishes
342:laterally
270:chordates
238:Evolution
221:amphibian
217:bony fish
143:nephridia
113:life and
54:, remove
4921:Internal
4862:(female)
4668:Podocyte
4624:efferent
4589:afferent
4511:pyramids
4119:11473651
4043:12283763
4035:17251384
3952:11441026
3834:36069778
3826:22637735
3704:18147936
3696:11049855
3588:33915542
3369:33065247
2954:33333068
2845:24854639
2658:26815664
2650:18729228
2601:25194660
2494:28960296
2410:15647334
2253:22275903
2159:20614633
2141:StemBook
2074:27144443
2026:PLOS ONE
1982:20049614
1925:24068044
1824:31759442
1678:30349665
1619:13912502
1611:16554664
1562:26378582
1496:Wikidata
1417:25140012
1359:33065247
1226:30649320
1130:25140012
1040:"Kidney"
873:nephrons
708:necrosis
705:ischemic
574:nephrons
555:reptiles
551:amniotes
504:amniotes
480:reptiles
468:amniotes
411:nephrons
334:medially
298:reptiles
259:amniotes
232:lungfish
60:hormones
4888:Urethra
4878:Trigone
4839:Bladder
4821:Ureters
4636:Nephron
4614:arcuate
4579:arcuate
4543:Nephron
4506:Medulla
4489:Capsule
4469:Kidneys
4368:5434585
3903:7271189
2945:8052282
2853:7400339
2798:9268568
2592:4252735
2544:3189590
2485:5696127
2244:3258550
2065:4856328
2034:Bibcode
1973:3189493
1669:6192171
1553:4588047
929:bladder
925:ostrich
907:in the
865:soluble
835:rabbits
811:bovines
807:species
788:urethra
784:bladder
744:medulla
674:ammonia
646:Turtles
638:lizards
615:animals
598:urethra
563:mammals
539:mammals
527:medulla
492:mammals
207:of the
194:mammals
184:called
162:animals
158:nephron
135:tubules
123:mammals
119:classes
96:urethra
34:of the
28:kidneys
4994:Kidney
4946:spongy
4914:female
4595:Veins
4499:column
4494:Cortex
4484:Fascia
4477:Layers
4415:
4366:
4358:
4319:
4311:
4268:
4241:
4214:
4184:
4152:
4117:
4109:
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4033:
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3950:
3942:
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3857:
3832:
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3686:
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3508:
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3218:
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2788:
2738:
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2327:
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1970:
1962:
1923:
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1830:
1822:
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1666:
1658:
1644:: 53.
1617:
1609:
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1560:
1550:
1542:
1498:
1490:
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1407:
1365:
1357:
1349:
1306:
1279:
1252:
1224:
1216:
1156:
1128:
1075:
1015:
988:
933:cloaca
921:ureter
909:pelvic
887:. The
847:otters
831:humans
800:cloaca
782:, and
780:ureter
776:pelvis
740:cortex
730:Kidney
654:cloaca
642:snakes
590:cloaca
582:ureter
561:, and
523:cortex
512:embryo
431:cloaca
419:coelom
396:larval
350:cloaca
338:coelom
224:larvae
209:embryo
151:coelom
141:, the
115:desert
94:, and
92:cloaca
84:ureter
32:organs
4523:Sinus
4317:S2CID
4039:S2CID
3830:S2CID
3700:S2CID
3592:S2CID
3373:S2CID
3043:S2CID
2849:S2CID
2654:S2CID
2219:: 2.
1828:S2CID
1615:S2CID
1522:Cells
1363:S2CID
901:birds
849:have
843:bears
790:. In
756:Blood
586:urine
559:birds
535:birds
478:. In
404:edema
330:trunk
190:birds
103:fresh
80:urine
64:renin
52:blood
4909:male
4528:Lobe
4413:ISBN
4364:PMID
4356:ISSN
4309:ISSN
4266:ISBN
4239:ISBN
4212:ISBN
4182:ISBN
4150:ISBN
4115:PMID
4107:ISSN
4031:PMID
4023:ISSN
3975:ISBN
3948:PMID
3940:ISSN
3888:ISBN
3855:ISBN
3822:PMID
3814:ISSN
3773:ISBN
3728:ISBN
3692:PMID
3684:ISSN
3627:ISBN
3584:PMID
3576:ISSN
3506:ISBN
3452:ISBN
3425:ISBN
3398:ISBN
3365:PMID
3357:ISSN
3314:ISBN
3289:ISSN
3243:ISBN
3216:ISBN
3189:ISBN
3162:ISBN
3136:link
3116:ISBN
3095:link
3075:ISBN
3035:ISSN
2995:link
2975:ISBN
2950:PMID
2932:ISSN
2897:link
2877:ISBN
2841:PMID
2833:ISSN
2794:PMID
2786:ISSN
2736:ISBN
2706:ISBN
2679:ISBN
2646:PMID
2638:ISSN
2597:PMID
2579:ISSN
2540:PMID
2532:ISSN
2490:PMID
2472:ISSN
2406:PMID
2398:ISSN
2355:ISBN
2325:ISBN
2249:PMID
2231:ISSN
2185:ISBN
2155:PMID
2095:ISBN
2070:PMID
2052:ISSN
1978:PMID
1960:ISSN
1921:PMID
1913:ISSN
1873:link
1853:ISBN
1820:PMID
1812:ISSN
1758:ISBN
1702:ISBN
1674:PMID
1656:ISSN
1607:PMID
1599:ISSN
1558:PMID
1540:ISSN
1488:ISSN
1413:PMID
1405:ISSN
1355:PMID
1347:ISSN
1304:ISBN
1277:ISBN
1250:ISBN
1222:PMID
1214:ISSN
1154:ISBN
1126:PMID
1073:ISBN
1013:ISBN
986:ISBN
861:urea
845:and
827:pigs
819:rats
817:and
815:mice
678:urea
672:and
670:urea
537:and
525:and
482:and
464:fish
452:and
282:ions
219:and
192:and
172:and
133:and
127:fish
105:and
26:The
4348:doi
4344:127
4299:doi
4142:doi
4097:doi
4013:doi
3930:doi
3926:204
3898:PMC
3880:doi
3806:doi
3765:hdl
3676:doi
3672:279
3619:doi
3566:doi
3347:doi
3343:233
3281:doi
3025:doi
2940:PMC
2924:doi
2920:474
2825:doi
2821:126
2776:doi
2772:188
2628:doi
2624:237
2587:PMC
2571:doi
2524:doi
2520:255
2480:PMC
2464:doi
2460:231
2388:doi
2239:PMC
2221:doi
2145:doi
2060:PMC
2042:doi
1968:PMC
1952:doi
1905:doi
1901:305
1804:doi
1664:PMC
1646:doi
1589:doi
1585:103
1548:PMC
1530:doi
1480:doi
1451:doi
1397:doi
1337:doi
1333:233
1204:doi
1118:doi
899:In
829:or
710:of
549:In
374:In
74:of
38:in
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