414:"questionable status" as to their readiness, even though it had been the Bureau which had initially recommended the Klamaths for termination. In 1957, Congress were told that in the 1953/54 school year, 40% of Klamath students had failed to move up to the next grade; that two-thirds of able-bodied males do little or no work; and that a majority of the Indian population had been arrested at some point in their lives. Congress heard further testimony that although Klamaths had "shed the blanket" by abandoning outward Indian customs and dress, they hadn't "acquired the skills and attitudes necessary for the assumption of the responsibilities in a non-Indian society which they will be required to assume upon termination." The Klamath Education Program, designed to prepare Klamaths for termination, can only be viewed as hopelessly ineffective in their light of its own reports which reveal that up to 75% of Klamath Indians who enrolled for its vocational training programs failed to complete their courses.
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requested funds to set up a hospital because native doctors were losing control, and threatened to poison people. He also noted that tribal members were excellent workers and sought-after for work outside the reservation and that a syphilis problem since contact with whites three decades earlier was being controlled. Nickerson also requested 300 yearling cattle and 20 breeder stallions to augment the ranching operations, as well as steel plows, but recognized that climate issues in the high desert would limit
European type agriculture (the tribes cultivating some root crops and harvested aquatic plants in the swampy lake that gave the County its name during the summertime). However, the irrigation system that Nickerson suggested in 1884 was only built 16 years later, after his death and a severe drought throughout the west.
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tax contributions. By the 1940s, only 10% of
Klamath families relied upon public welfare assistance. An economist noted that "the Klamaths were never, since 1918, a 'burden' on taxpayers.". This self-sufficiency was made possible by the richness of the reservation's natural timber resources. The unsuitability of the woodlands for conventional farming had meant that most of it had escaped the fate of being given to white settlers under the 1887 Allotment Act. Consequently, 862,622 acres (3,490.91 km) were retained as tribal property.
528:
473:. Almost a decade later, through the leadership and vision of the Klamath people, and the assistance of congressional leaders, the Klamath Restoration Act was adopted into law in 1986, reestablishing the Klamath as a sovereign state. Although the land base was not returned, the Klamath Tribes were directed to compose a plan to regain economic self-sufficiency. Their Economic Self-sufficiency Plan reflects the Klamath Tribes' continued commitment to playing a pivotal role in the local economy.
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remains little vestige of religious or their traditional Indian customs ..." Klamath traditions also encouraged individualism and discouraged collectivism, the tribe having originally been a loose collection of autonomous tribelets which had only rarely, in their long history, united together in order to fight a common enemy. The 1956 Stanford report found that only half of
Klamaths had a strong sense of identification with the tribe.
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quest was individual. Persons of 'good' reputation worked to produce and to enhance their social status." Historian Floy Pepper asserts that this set up
Klamaths to do relatively well upon contact with white settlers, because "The Klamaths readily accepted certain aspects of the new culture. To work hard, to gain material possessions, to be practical were virtues of both worlds."
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the tribe, or withdrawing and receiving a monetary payment for the value of the individual share of tribal land. Of the 2,133 Klamath tribal members at the time of termination, 1,660 (78%) decided to withdraw from the tribe and accept individual payments for land. This resulted in a cash sum of US$ 43,000 per head being paid in 1961 (equivalent to $ 438,000 in 2023).
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towards the Bureau of Indian
Affairs among people who resented its control over their affairs in general, claiming: "Politically we've been kicked around and exploited for years and we're sick of it. It has cost us millions of dollars and we don't want any more government control and any more bureaucracy."
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The
Klamaths, in particular, were targeted for termination because they appeared to be prospering. A rarity among Native American groups, the Klamaths were financially self-sufficient, being the only tribe in the US to be funding the administrative costs of the Bureau of Indian Affairs through income
162:
Klamaths traditionally (and to this day) believe everything anyone needed to live was provided by the
Creator in their rich land east of the Cascades. They saw success as a reward for virtuous striving and likewise as an assignment of spiritual favor; thus, elders counseled, "Work hard so that people
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The
Klamaths were also considered culturally suitable for termination. As testified to Congress by the Assistant Secretary of the Interior, "It is our belief ... these people have been largely integrated into all phases of the economic and social life of the area ... Their dress is modern, and there
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US Congress also heard (but ultimately ignored) unfavorable information about the
Klamaths' readiness for termination. The 1954 Termination Act provided for a period of evaluation before termination would take effect in 1961. This evaluation led the Bureau of Indian Affairs to accord the Klamaths a
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Klamath culture, compared with other Native
American societies, was their individualistic rather than purely communal concept of wealth. Anthropologist Robert Spencer in "The Native Americans" asserts that among the Klamaths, "A basic goal was wealth and the prestige derived from it ... The wealth
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When they were finally invited to vote on the subject, they were not given the option of rejecting termination; they were only permitted to choose the way in which they were to be compensated for the loss of their reservation. Each tribal member was required to choose between remaining a member of
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As part of an effort at assimilation, in 1954 the U.S. Congress had terminated the federal relationship with the Klamath Tribes, but stated in the Klamath Termination Act, "Nothing in this shall abrogate any water rights of the tribe and its members... Nothing in this shall abrogate any fishing
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An unpopular Klamath leader, Wade Crawford, had proposed termination of his own tribe in 1945, and tried to convince other Klamaths that termination would be in their interests, with some success among wealthier Klamaths who wanted more control over their own finances. He also exploited hostility
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As testified to Congress in 1954, "The Klamath Tribe has been considered one of the most advanced Indian groups in the United States." They did have an unusually high standard of living compared to other Native American tribes. But this was partly due to the sale of communal timber reserves which
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Also, the Tribes had long-established trade networks, which led to successful freighting businesses. Nickerson requested sturdy wagons, and while some of those supplied proved inadequate, tribal operations used 80 wagons by 1881 (as well as 7 mowing machines and 5 sulky hay rakes and many smaller
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Early in the reservation period, Klamath Tribal members demonstrated an eagerness to turn new economic opportunities to their advantage. Both men and women took advantage of the vocational training offered, and soon held a wide variety of skilled jobs within the reservation, as well as, the Fort
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But ultimately Native American tribes were not consulted about termination. The fact that Klamaths, in particular, were not consulted was made clear by the testimony to Congress of Seldon Kirk, chairman of the Klamath General Council, in 1954: "We who represent and speak for the Klamath Indians
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stated that a 50-pupil boarding school had been established, apprentices served at the sawmill, carpenter's shop, and blacksmith shop, and a 10-member native police force led by the Klamath tribal chief and sub-chief kept order. However, he worried about superstitious practices and particularly
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military post and many private parties. By 1881 tribal members had already built a boarding school, an office building, many residences and agricultural outbuildings, miles of fencing and were working on a new police headquarters. By 1896 timber sales outside the reservation were estimated at a
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The Klamath Tribes ended hostilities with the invader and ceded more than 6 million acres (24,000 km) of land in 1864. They did, however, retain rights to hunt, fish and gather in safety on the lands reserved for the people "in perpetuity" forever, which gave rise to modern litigation
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Termination of the Klamath tribe was part of a broader Federal Indian termination policy which persisted for about a decade after the Termination Act of 1953, which reflected the political climate of the era, i.e. fierce anti-communism. Senator Arthur Watkins, one of the primary movers behind
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Before the reservation era, horses were considered an important form of wealth, so ranching and the ownership of cattle was easily accepted. Also, Nickerson on behalf of the Indian Agency initially leased some tribal lands to ranchers. Today the cattle industry remains important economically.
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By signing the Treaty with the Klamath of 1864, 16 Stat. 707, the Klamath tribe ceded 20 million acres (81,000 km) of land but retained 2 million acres (8,100 km) and the rights to fish, hunt, trap, and gather from the lands and waters as they have traditionally done for
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For thousands of years, the Klamath people survived by their industriousness. When the months of long winter nights were upon them, they relied on prudent reserves from the abundant seasons. Toward the end of March, when supplies dwindled, large fish surged up the
557:, under discussion since 2005, was ultimately signed into law in February 2010. To improve fishing for salmon and the quality of the salmon runs, the Klamath Tribes are pressing for dams to be demolished on the upper rivers, as they have reduced the salmon runs.
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had been taken as prisoners to Indian Territory in 1873 following the Modoc War in Oregon. In 1965, as a part of the US settlement with the Klamath reservation, a series of hearings were held from April to August. The hearings concluded without allowing the
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ended federal recognition in 1954 under its forced Indian termination policy. Some lands were restored when recognition was restored. The tribal administration currently offers services throughout Klamath County.
327:. In addition to conducting worship services, establishing a Sunday School and educating members of all three tribes (and members of other tribes they had adopted), Nickerson helped plan for improvements.
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but these were decided in favor of the Department of Interior's right to give precedence to tribal fishing in its management of water flows and rights in the Klamath Basin. In 2002, U.S. District Judge
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termination, reportedly "scoured the nation looking for tribes to terminate." In total, 113 Indian tribes were dissolved in the 1950s. There are 562 tribes recognized by the Federal Government in 2017.
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The states of California and Oregon have both tried to challenge Klamath tribe's water rights, but have been rebuffed. Local farmers tried unsuccessfully to claim water rights in the 2001 cases,
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The present-day Klamath Indian Reservation consists of twelve small non-contiguous parcels of land in Klamath County. These fragments are generally located in and near the communities of
1077:
Task Force Ten, "Terminated and Non federally recognized Indians - Final Report to the American Indian Policy Review Commission" (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1976) p45
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Task Force Ten, "Terminated and Non federally recognized Indians - Final Report to the American Indian Policy Review Commission (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1976) p44
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Stanford Research Institute, "Preliminary Planning for Termination of Federal Control over the Klamath Indian Tribe" (Melno Park, California: Stanford Research Institute, 1956) p124
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Stanford Research Institute, "Preliminary Planning for Termination of Federal Control over the Klamath Indian Tribe" (Melno Park, California: Stanford Research Institute, 1956) p29
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quarter of a million board feet. When a railroad was built in 1911, reservation timber became extremely valuable. The economy of Klamath County was sustained by it for decades.
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William Thomas Trulove, "The Economic Impact of Federal Indian Policy: Incentives and Response of the Klamath Indians (unpublished University of Oregon Ph.D. thesis, 1971), p16
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By the 1950s the Klamath tribes were among the wealthiest tribes in the United States. They owned (and judiciously managed for long-term yield) the largest remaining stand of
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At the time there was tension between the Klamath and the Modoc. A band of Modoc left the reservation to return to Northern California. The U.S. Army defeated them in the
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There are over 5700 enrolled members in the Klamath Tribes, with the government headquarters centered in Klamath County, Oregon. Most tribal lands were liquidated when
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505:. Their total land area is 308 acres (1.248 km). As is the case with many Native American tribes, today few Klamath tribal members live on the reservation; the
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in the west. Self-sufficient, the Klamath were the only tribes in the United States that paid for all federal, state and private services used by their members.
394:. Under this act, all federal supervision over Klamath lands, as well as federal aid provided to the Klamath because of their special status as Indians, ended.
296:(1872–73), and forcibly returned them to Oregon. The Klamath Indian agency actually included three tribes: the Klamath, Modoc, and the Yahooskin Band of
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The Klamath Tribes are governed by a democratically elected Tribal Council, serving three-year terms. The current tribal government leadership is as follows:
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A Klamath Tribal Agency-sponsored sawmill was completed in 1870 and construction of Agency buildings began. By 1873, Tribal members were selling lumber to
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implements). By August 1889, 20 tribal teams worked year-round to supply both private and commercial needs in the rapidly growing county.
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Donald L. Fixico, "Termination and Relocation - Federal Indian Policy, 1945–1960 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1969), p16
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1191:
436:
Termination of the Klamath Reservation, included three distinct but affiliated tribes. The Act defines the members as the "Klamath and
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1068:
Hiroto Zakoji, "Termination and the Klamath Indian Education Program, 1955–61 (Salem, Oregon: State Department of Education, 1961) p35
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Those who stayed became members of a tribal management plan. This plan became a trust relationship between tribal members and the
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The Klamath bands were bound together by ties of loyalty, family, and food. They lived along the Klamath Marsh, on the banks of
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provided every Klamath with regular disbursements, that amounted to $ 800 a year by 1950 (equivalent to $ 10,130 in 2023).
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179:. On the Sprague River, where Gmok'am'c first began the tradition, the Klamath's still celebrate the Return of C'waam (
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218:, was the first white man recorded to have left footprints on Klamath lands. In 1832, the Hudson Bay trappers under
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Missionaries, settlers, and ranchers followed, as the Klamath assimilated. One of the early Indian agents was Rev.
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1900:
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ruled that the Klamath Tribes' right to water preceded that of non-tribal irrigators in the court case
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695:. It provides revenue which the tribe uses to support governance and investment for tribal benefit.
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The western Modoc were restored to tribal status 15 May 1978, in an Act which reinstated the Modoc,
1484:, The Walter J. Brown Media Archives & Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia,
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really do not know what the Indians want themselves. We have never taken a vote on that question."
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and other natural features using information from the Hudson's Bay Company trappers. In 1843,
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rights or privileges of the tribe or the members thereof enjoyed under Federal treaty."
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1829:
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316:
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863:"Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior"
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The Klamath and Modoc Tribes and Yahooskin Band of Snake Indians v. The United States
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Guide to the Klamath Tribal Council papers (1933–1958) at the University of Oregon
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By 1881, Indian Agent Nickerson in his third annual report to his supervisors in
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752:"The Native Americans: Ethnology and Backgrounds of the North American Indians"
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725:"Sacred Ceremony for the People's Existence: Annual c'waam Ceremony – 2019"
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in Chiloquin, Oregon in 1997 on forty acres (16 ha) of land along the
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254:
231:
190:, near the mouth of the Lower Williamson River, on Pelican Bay, beside the
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1628:
1537:
1472:
A Guide to the Yahooskin (Northern Paiute) Oral History Interviews, 96-24
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Hood, Susan (1972). "Termination of the Klamath Indian Tribe of Oregon".
542:
535:
250:
1474:. Special Collections, University Libraries, University of Nevada, Reno.
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reported only nine persons resided on its territory, five of whom were
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After signing the 1864 treaty, members were forcibly placed upon the
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767:
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1431:
Ruby, Robert H.; Brown, John A.; Collins, Cary C. (2013-02-27).
390:(Public Law 587, enacted on August 13, 1954), embodied the U.S.
151:
1362:"Judge affirms Klamath Tribes' water right of time immemorial"
750:
Miller, Jay; Spencer, Robert F.; Jennings, Jesse D. (1977).
444:, and of the individual members thereof". A portion of the
1286:
861:
Affairs, United States Bureau of Indian (22 July 1881).
1261:, Oklahoma History Center, 1969 (retrieved 25 Nov 2009)
304:, which included the reservation lands (and from which
808:
806:
1434:
A Guide to the Indian Tribes of the Pacific Northwest
749:
268:
884:
Ruby, Robert H.; Brown, John Arthur (22 July 1981).
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area. They also reported being attacked by Indians.
803:
456:
453:to be included in the rolls of the Klamath Tribe.
194:, and in the uplands of the Sprague River Valley.
1088:Blood Struggle: The Rise of Modern Indian Nations
705:List of Native American Tribal Entities in Oregon
1896:Federally recognized tribes in the United States
1872:
1430:
982:"Book Reviews, Sites, Romance, Fantasy, Fiction"
253:, a U.S. engineer, prepared a map that includes
921:. U.S. Government Printing Office. 22 July 1886
205:
1506:
1080:
516:
476:
1090:. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2005
938:
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570:Klamath Water Users Association v. Patterson
1313:. Oklahoma State University. Archived from
887:Indians of the Pacific Northwest: A History
116:federally recognized Native American Nation
27:Federally-recognized Native American nation
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1513:
1499:
380:Congress ended federal supervision of the
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883:
919:"United States Congressional Serial Set"
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300:. In 1874, Oregon's legislature created
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1486:American Archive of Public Broadcasting
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14:
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1335:
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1279:
1190:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
485:Location of Klamath Indian Reservation
1494:
1271:"U.S. Society > Native Americans."
315:, a former U.S. Army Chaplain in the
1099:
971:
814:"Lake County Museum - Local History"
538:dispute between the Klamath Tribes,
146:. The tribal government is based in
122:tribes who traditionally inhabited
49:Regions with significant populations
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555:Klamath Basin Restoration Agreement
523:Klamath Basin Restoration Agreement
24:
1592:
1521:Municipalities and communities of
1375:March 2002 (retrieved 25 Nov 2009)
798:Oregon Indian Treaties and the Law
269:1864 treaty begins Reservation Era
25:
1912:
1455:
1274:US Diplomatic Mission to Germany.
1232:"The Klamath Tribes -Termination"
865:. U.S. Government Printing Office
493:Map of Klamath Indian Reservation
440:Tribes and the Yahooskin Band of
1437:. University of Oklahoma Press.
890:. University of Oklahoma Press.
197:The most distinctive feature of
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1403:
1378:
1355:
1340:"Klamath Tribes' Water Rights."
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1136:"25 U.S. Code § 564a - Omitted"
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800:(Portland, Oregon: 1989), p. 63
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457:Klamath Restoration Act of 1986
183:(Deltistes luxatus)) Ceremony.
1311:"Treaty with the Klamath, etc"
911:
877:
854:
832:
790:
743:
717:
687:The Klamath Tribes opened the
339:Klamath military post, and in
112:Klamath Indian Tribe of Oregon
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1:
1287:"Klamath Reservation, Oregon"
710:
665:Councilperson: Ellsworth Lang
662:Councilperson: Jessie Hecocta
656:Councilperson: Jeannie McNair
653:Councilperson: Clayton Dumont
641:Vice-Chairwoman: Gail Hatcher
630:Councilperson: Jeannie McNair
624:Councilperson: Ellsworth Lang
603:Vice-Chairwoman: Gail Hatcher
588:
384:tribe in Oregon in 1954. The
226:and their journals mentioned
650:Councilperson: Willa Powless
612:Councilperson: Willa Powless
319:who had also worked for the
230:. Work's expedition visited
7:
1291:United States Census Bureau
698:
659:Councilperson: Rose Treetop
627:Councilperson: Rose Treetop
621:Councilperson: Les Anderson
431:United States National Bank
206:Contact with white settlers
10:
1917:
1482:Oregon Public Broadcasting
1411:"The Klamath Tribes Today"
1023:US Congress 1954a: 203-204
958:Nativeamericannetroots.net
840:"Klamath Tribes - History"
682:
647:Treasurer: Brandi Hatcher
609:Treasurer: Brandi Hatcher
585:originally filed in 1975.
553:became national news. The
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517:Klamath Basin water rights
477:Klamath Indian Reservation
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288:Klamath Indian Reservation
157:
1846:
1828:
1692:
1604:
1590:
1554:
1535:
1059:US Congress, 1957a: 56-59
929:– via Google Books.
907:– via Google Books.
873:– via Google Books.
596:2022-2025 Tribal Council
392:Indian termination policy
214:, a fur trapper from the
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84:
73:
68:
53:
48:
43:
38:
644:Secretary: Roberta Frost
606:Secretary: Roberta Frost
600:Chairman: Clayton Dumont
583:United States vs. Adair,
471:Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma
261:led a party which named
1373:U.S. Water News Online,
1352:(retrieved 25 Nov 2009)
1276:(retrieved 25 Nov 2009)
574:Kandra v. United States
387:Klamath Termination Act
369:Klamath Termination Act
363:Klamath Termination Act
298:Northern Paiute Indians
1901:Klamath County, Oregon
1598:
1524:Klamath County, Oregon
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494:
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308:was later separated).
306:Klamath County, Oregon
278:
1596:
1478:“Your Land, My Land,”
954:"The Termination Era"
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492:
484:
433:in Portland, Oregon.
277:Klamath Indian Agency
276:
263:Christmas (Hart) Lake
85:Related ethnic groups
1859:United States portal
1413:. The Klamath Tribes
1086:Wilkinson, Charles.
638:Chairman: Don Gentry
534:In 2001, an ongoing
228:Hunter's Hot Springs
216:Hudson's Bay Company
118:consisting of three
1838:Klamath Reservation
1350:The Klamath Tribes.
1206:"Public Law 95-281"
302:Lake County, Oregon
163:will respect you."
128:Northern California
35:
18:Klamath Reservation
1830:Indian reservation
1599:
1597:Klamath County map
1367:2009-05-23 at the
1345:2011-07-21 at the
1257:2010-06-03 at the
532:
495:
487:
317:American Civil War
313:Linus M. Nickerson
279:
33:
1868:
1867:
1755:Lake of the Woods
1444:978-0-8061-8950-5
1390:Klamathtribes.org
986:Kirkusreviews.com
844:Klamathtribes.org
729:Klamathtribes.org
325:Fairfax, Virginia
321:Freedmen's Bureau
282:discussed below.
249:In 1838, Colonel
224:Goose Lake Valley
212:Peter Skene Ogden
181:Lost River sucker
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689:Kla-Mo-Ya Casino
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615:Councilperson:
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259:John C. Fremont
208:
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124:Southern Oregon
120:Native American
110:, formerly the
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1750:Klamath Agency
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1462:Klamath Tribes
1457:
1456:External links
1454:
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375:Ponderosa pine
367:Main article:
364:
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503:Klamath Falls
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1800:Pelican City
1654:Fort Klamath
1624:Beaver Marsh
1543:
1433:
1426:
1415:. Retrieved
1405:
1393:. Retrieved
1389:
1380:
1372:
1357:
1349:
1319:. Retrieved
1315:the original
1305:
1294:. Retrieved
1281:
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1236:the original
1226:
1214:. Retrieved
1209:
1200:
1175:. Retrieved
1168:the original
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1139:
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1105:
1102:Ethnohistory
1101:
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989:. Retrieved
985:
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913:
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867:. Retrieved
856:
848:the original
843:
834:
822:. Retrieved
818:the original
797:
792:
759:
756:Ethnohistory
755:
745:
733:. Retrieved
728:
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686:
673:
670:Demographics
633:
617:Natalie Ball
595:
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536:water rights
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511:white people
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232:Warner Lakes
222:were in the
209:
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111:
107:
105:
30:Ethnic group
1785:Modoc Point
1696:communities
1674:Rocky Point
1539:County seat
561:centuries.
507:2000 census
446:Modoc Tribe
251:J. J. Abert
199:pre-contact
188:Agency Lake
77:, formerly
1875:Categories
1805:Pine Grove
1740:Hildebrand
1417:2009-09-29
1321:2009-11-25
1296:2006-11-29
1177:2014-12-31
762:(3): 307.
711:References
634:2019-2022
589:Government
549:along the
348:Washington
236:Lake Abert
192:Link River
177:Lost River
169:Williamson
1659:Gilchrist
1569:Chiloquin
776:0014-1801
547:fishermen
499:Chiloquin
463:Wyandotte
341:Linkville
294:Modoc War
220:John Work
148:Chiloquin
144:Yahooskin
95:Yahooskin
69:Languages
1729:Hatfield
1639:Crescent
1614:Altamont
1365:Archived
1343:Archived
1255:Archived
1216:July 22,
1186:cite web
699:See also
676:Congress
210:In 1826
114:, are a
1810:Shevlin
1780:Midland
1770:Lorella
1634:Chemult
1584:Merrill
1564:Bonanza
1395:22 July
1145:22 July
991:22 July
963:22 July
925:22 July
903:22 July
869:22 July
824:22 July
683:Economy
543:farmers
382:Klamath
242:in the
173:Sprague
158:History
136:Klamath
130:in the
79:Klamath
75:English
1891:Paiute
1815:Worden
1790:Odessa
1775:Malone
1735:Henley
1709:Algoma
1619:Beatty
1556:Cities
1441:
1122:481441
1120:
894:
784:481724
782:
774:
735:25 Jun
731:. 2019
545:, and
469:, and
467:Peoria
175:, and
152:Oregon
142:, and
134:: the
60:
1886:Modoc
1820:Yonna
1795:Olene
1724:Hager
1719:Dairy
1694:Other
1579:Malin
1171:(PDF)
1164:(PDF)
1118:JSTOR
780:JSTOR
438:Modoc
140:Modoc
91:Modoc
1765:Lenz
1745:Kirk
1664:Keno
1606:CDPs
1439:ISBN
1397:2022
1218:2022
1192:link
1147:2022
993:2022
965:2022
927:2022
905:2022
892:ISBN
871:2022
826:2022
772:ISSN
737:2020
572:and
501:and
234:and
126:and
106:The
44:5700
1704:Ady
1629:Bly
1110:doi
764:doi
323:in
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1194:)
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995:.
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290:.
20:)
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