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which have shown there is an association between changes in the Ox receptors and headaches (see below) (Rainero et al., 2004) and a recent multicentre case-control study revealed that chronic pain is more common in patients with narcolepsy with cataplexy than in the controls ... The orexin system has also been found to effect visceral functions, in addition to its roles in energy homeostasis and endocrine function, mentioned previously. ... orexin excites MCH neurons (van den Pol et al., 2004) and inhibits ventral medial hypothalamic (VMH) glucoreceptors to enhance feeding behaviours (Shiraishi et al., 2000). Moreover, a recent study demonstrated that the area postrema and nucleus of the tractus solitarius (NTS) are necessary for orexin-mediated hyperphagia ... However, i.v. injections of orexin-A have no effect on sympathetic activity (Matsumura et al., 2001), suggesting that the cardiac effects of orexin are mediated centrally. Consistently, microinjections of orexin-A into the rostral ventrolateral medulla (Huang et al., 2010) or rostral ventromedial medulla (Ciriello and de
Oliveira, 2003) elicit cardiovascular excitatory responses through the activation of both OX1 and OX2 receptors (Huang et al., 2010).
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well; the dopaminergic neurons originate in ventral tegmental area (VTA); and the histaminergic pathway originates from neurons in the tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN) of the posterior hypothalamus. As discussed in
Chapter 6, these neurons project widely throughout the brain from restricted collections of cell bodies. Norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, and histamine have complex modulatory functions and, in general, promote wakefulness. The PT in the brain stem is also an important component of the ARAS. Activity of PT cholinergic neurons (REM-on cells) promotes REM sleep. During waking, REM-on cells are inhibited by a subset of ARAS norepinephrine and serotonin neurons called REM-off cells. ... Orexin neurons are located in the lateral hypothalamus. They are organized in a widely projecting manner, much like the monoamines (Chapter 6), and innervate all of the components of the ARAS. They excite the REM-off monoaminergic neurons during wakefulness and the PT cholinergic neurons during REM sleep. They are inhibited by the VLPO neurons during NREM sleep.
722:(TMN), serotonergic raphe nuclei, cholinergic laterodorsal and pedunculopontine nuclei (LDT and PPT), and the dopaminergic ventral tegmental area (VTA). ... Orexin neurons project to and activate monoaminergic and cholinergic neurons involved in the maintenance of a long "awake" period. Lack of orexin produces narcolepsy (Chapter 12). Orexin neurons are regulated by peripheral mediators that carry information about energy balance, including glucose, leptin, and ghrelin. They also receive inputs from limbic structures. Orexin neurons are, therefore, in a position not only to regulate sleep-wake cycles, but also to respond to significant environmental and metabolic signals. Accordingly, orexin plays a role in the regulation of energy homeostasis, reward, and perhaps more generally in emotion.
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CB1 is shown to co-localize with the food intake inhibiting neuropeptide, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, and with the two orexigenic peptides, melanin-concentrating hormone in the lateral hypothalamus and with pre-pro-orexin in the ventromedial hypothalamus (Inui, 1999; Horvath, 2003). CB1 knockout (KO) mice showed higher levels of CRH mRNA, suggesting that hypothalamic EC receptors are involved in energy balance and may be able to mediate food intake (Cota et al., 2003). ... The ECS works through many anorexigenic and orexigenic pathways where ghrelin, leptin, adiponectin, endogenous opioids, and corticotropin-releasing hormones are involved (Viveros et al., 2008).
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phosphorylation in the RVLM. We tested the novel hypothesis that brainstem orexin-A/OX1R signaling plays a pivotal role in the central CB1R-mediated pressor response. Our multiple labeling immunofluorescence findings revealed co-localization of CB1R, OX1R and the peptide orexin-A within the C1 area of the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM). Activation of central CB1R following intracisternal (i.c.) WIN55,212–2 (15μg/rat) in conscious rats caused significant increases in BP and orexin-A level in RVLM neuronal tissue. Additional studies established a causal role for orexin-A in the central CB1R-mediated pressor response
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vagal pancreatic efferent nerve activities (Wu et al., 2004), stimulating pancreatic exocrine secretion (Miyasaka et al., 2002). Administration of orexin-A, i.a., increases duodenal secretion in normal fed but not in fasted animals, by an effect that is independent of cholinergic pathways (Flemstrom et al., 2003; Bengtsson et al., 2007). In addition, orexin-A can modify gastrointestinal motility, including gastric emptying, gastric interdigestive motility (Naslund et al., 2002; Ehrstrom et al., 2005a,b2005b; Bulbul et al., 2010), and enteric peristalsis (Satoh et al., 2006), as well as colonic motility ...
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for the first time that orexin-A specifically acts centrally in the brain to enhance antinociceptive response to colonic distension. We would furthermore suggest that endogenous orexin-A indeed mediates the antinociceptive effect of morphine on visceral sensation through the orexin 1 receptors. All these evidence might indicate that brain orexin plays a role in the pathophysiology of functional gastrointestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome because visceral hypersensitivity of the gut is considered to play a vital role in the diseases.
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CB1-HcrtR1 heteromer compared with the HcrtR1-HcrtR1 homomer was reported (Ward et al., 2011b). These data provide unambiguous identification of CB1-HcrtR1 heteromerization, which has a substantial functional impact. ... The existence of a cross-talk between the hypocretinergic and endocannabinoid systems is strongly supported by their partially overlapping anatomical distribution and common role in several physiological and pathological processes. However, little is known about the mechanisms underlying this interaction.
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peak and trough incidence among those born in March and
September, respectively (suggesting an environmental influence during the fetal or perinatal period), and the loss of orexin neurons raise the interesting possibility that narcolepsy may be caused by an autoimmune mediated destruction of these neurons in analogy with the autoimmune destruction of insulin-secreting β-islet cells in type I diabetes. A search for small-molecule agonists at orexin receptors is underway and could lead to a treatment for narcolepsy.
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heterodi-/oligomeric complexes. However, it is unclear whether this affects their signaling. As orexin receptors efficiently signal via endocannabinoid production to CB1 receptors, dimerization could be an effective way of forming signal complexes with optimal cannabinoid concentrations available for cannabinoid receptors.
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The RAS is a complex structure consisting of several different circuits including the four monoaminergic pathways ... The norepinephrine pathway originates from the locus ceruleus (LC) and related brainstem nuclei; the serotonergic neurons originate from the raphe nuclei within the brainstem as
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CB1 is present in neurons of the enteric nervous system and in sensory terminals of vagal and spinal neurons in the gastrointestinal tract (Massa et al., 2005). Activation of CB1 is shown to modulate nutrient processing, such as gastric secretion, gastric emptying, and intestinal motility. ...
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With regard to gastrointestinal functions, orexin-A acts centrally to regulate gastrointestinal functions such as gastric and pancreatic secretion, and gastrointestinal motility. ... Little is, however, known about a role of central orexin in visceral sensation. ... These results suggest
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Most cases of narcolepsy in humans are not linked to mutations in the genes encoding orexin peptides or receptors, but are associated with significantly reduced, often undetectable, levels of orexin in cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissues. Together, the linkage of narcolepsy with HLA alleles, its
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Orexins promote both arousal and feeding (Sweet et al., 1999). ... Orexin-A also influences body temperature. In fact, an ICV administration of orexin-A induces an increase in firing rate of the sympathetic nerves to BAT, accompanied with a rise in BAT and colonic temperatures (Monda et al.,
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Orexin neurons are excitatory, express the vesicular glutamate transporter VGLUT2 (Rosin et al., 2003), and also produce dynorphin ... The analgesic properties of orexin peptides have been well-established ... The involvement of orexin in pain is also supported by clinical observations,
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Orexinergic projections in the CNS. Orexin neurons with cell bodies in the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) and posterior hypothalamus (PH) project throughout the brain (excluding the cerebellum) with dense projections to the noradrenergic locus ceruleus (LC), histaminergic tuberomamillary nucleus
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However, orexin-A signalling in the nucleus ambiguus (NA) (de
Oliveira and Ciriello, 2003) and subfornical organ (Smith et al., 2007) has been shown to produce bradycardia responses ... Moreover, activation of OX1 receptors in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus results in facilitation of
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In this review we focus on the role of orexin in cardio-respiratory functions and its potential link to hypertension. ... the central chemoreflex may be a causal link to the increased SNA and ABP in SHRs. Modulation of the orexin system could be a potential target in treating some forms of
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OX1–CB1 dimerization was suggested to strongly potentiate orexin receptor signaling, but a likely explanation for the signal potentiation is, instead, offered by the ability of OX1 receptor signaling to produce 2-arachidonoyl glycerol, a CB1 receptor ligand, and a subsequent co-signaling of the
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Orexin receptor 1 (OX1R) signaling is implicated in cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1R) modulation of feeding. Further, our studies established the dependence of the central CB1R-mediated pressor response on neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 (ERK1/2)
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Direct CB1-HcrtR1 interaction was first proposed in 2003 (Hilairet et al., 2003). Indeed, a 100-fold increase in the potency of hypocretin-1 to activate the ERK signaling was observed when CB1 and HcrtR1 were co-expressed ... In this study, a higher potency of hypocretin-1 to regulate
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Through the diverse outputs of the orexin system, the orexin neurons in the lateral hypothalamus mediate an array of functions. Two of the most commonly noted functions of orexin peptides in the lateral hypothalamus are the promotion of feeding behavior and arousal (i.e., wakefulness). More
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Orexin receptor subtypes readily formed homo- and hetero(di)mers, as suggested by significant BRET signals. CB1 receptors formed homodimers, and they also heterodimerized with both orexin receptors. ... In conclusion, orexin receptors have a significant propensity to make homo- and
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The presence of orexin-A and its receptors has been shown in human kidneys and urine ... These findings are supported by results from physiological studies, which demonstrated that orexin-A is involved in the pelvic-urethral reflex (Peng et al., 2008) and the micturition
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Jäntti MH, Mandrika I, Kukkonen JP (March 2014). "Human orexin/hypocretin receptors form constitutive homo- and heteromeric complexes with each other and with human CB1 cannabinoid receptors".
405:. The histaminergic, dopaminergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and cholinergic nuclei which the lateral hypothalamic orexin neurons project onto constitute the primary components of the
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and the orexin system mediate many of the same cognitive and physical effects, and a significant overlap in their function and localization has been noted in a 2013 medical review; the
157:, digestive functions, and blood pressure, among many others. Clinically significant disorders that involve dysfunctions of the orexinergic projection system include
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1214:"Organization of connections between the amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex, and lateral hypothalamus: a single and double retrograde tracing study in rats"
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1419:"A pivotal role for enhanced brainstem Orexin receptor 1 signaling in the central cannabinoid receptor 1-mediated pressor response in conscious rats"
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Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 6: Widely
Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
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is associated with a marked reduction in the number of orexinergic projection neurons from the lateral hypothalamus and very low orexin peptides in
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Messina G, Dalia C, Tafuri D, Monda V, Palmieri F, Dato A, Russo A, De Blasio S, Messina A, De Luca V, Chieffi S, Monda M (2014).
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receptors (Haj-Dahmane and Shen, 2005; Turunen et al., 2012; Jäntti et al., 2013). However, this does not preclude dimerization.
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on orexinergic projection neurons in the lateral hypothalamus and many output structures, where the CB1 and
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on orexinergic projection neurons in the lateral hypothalamus and many output structures, where the CB1 and
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The orexinergic projections from the lateral hypothalamus innervate the entirety of the remainder of the
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Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 12: Sleep and
Arousal". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
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Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 12: Sleep and
Arousal". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
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are the primary signaling neurochemicals in orexin neurons; pathway-specific neurochemicals include
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signaling. Unique functional interactions have been noted as well, such as an OX1-induced CB1
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generally, the orexinergic neural projections of the lateral hypothalamus are involved in
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Figure 1: Schematic of brain CB1 expression and orexinergic neurons expressing OX1 or OX2
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Figure 1: Schematic of brain CB1 expression and orexinergic neurons expressing OX1 or OX2
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385:. In addition to the histaminergic nucleus, the orexin system also projects onto the
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Okumura T, Nozu T, Kumei S, Takakusaki K, Miyagishi S, Ohhira M (February 2015).
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Figure 2: Synaptic signaling mechanisms in cannabinoid and orexin systems
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Figure 2: Synaptic signaling mechanisms in cannabinoid and orexin systems
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1477:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 294–296, 303.
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595:) via a group of structures in the brain stem, among other functions.
518:. There is substantial anatomical and functional overlap and systemic
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514:(OX1) receptors physically and functionally join to form the CB1–OX1
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1288:(2nd ed.). New York, USA: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 295.
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Thompson MD, Xhaard H, Sakurai T, Rainero I, Kukkonen JP (2014).
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Figure 3: Schematic of brain pathways involved in food intake
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Figure 3: Schematic of brain pathways involved in food intake
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960:"Orexin-A controls sympathetic activity and eating behavior"
709:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 179.
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The orexin/hypocretin system physiology and pathophysiology
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Evidence suggest that OX1 neurons that synapse onto the
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produces a 100-fold amplification of the potency of the
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1315:"Orexin, cardio-respiratory function, and hypertension"
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peptides, and the appetite-regulating peptide hormones
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Flores A, Maldonado R, Berrendero F (December 2013).
587:) through other hypothalamic outputs, and regulating
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University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston
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Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
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32:Lateral hypothalamus is 'LT', at right, in yellow.
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1084:. Totowa, N.J: Humana Press. pp. 25–35.
1417:Ibrahim BM, Abdel-Rahman AA (October 2015).
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547:and gastrointestinal function by way of the
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1368:Ibrahim BM, Abdel-Rahman AA (March 2014).
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1981:Posterior (sympathetic/heat conservation)
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555:through several output structures (e.g.,
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591:(e.g., respiration, blood pressure, and
393:noradrenergic nucleus, the serotonergic
1212:Reppucci CJ, Petrovich GD (July 2016).
751:Li J, Hu Z, de Lecea L (January 2014).
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1267:Homeostasis and Higher Brain Function
665:functional gastrointestinal disorders
567:projections and other outputs in the
407:ascending reticular activating system
167:functional gastrointestinal disorders
1976:Anterior (parasympathetic/heat loss)
575:and neuroendocrine functions (e.g.,
383:paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus
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145:that widely projects throughout the
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412:Other output regions include: the
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2015:Parvocellular neurosecretory cell
2010:Magnocellular neurosecretory cell
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1078:Sakurai N (2006). Seiji T (ed.).
645:dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve
549:dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve
365:, with robust projections to the
249:(OX1) receptors form the CB1–OX1
1898:Anterior trigeminothalamic tract
563:property of stimuli through the
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264:
105:Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
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757:British Journal of Pharmacology
310:Central nucleus of the amygdala
2135:Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus
1435:10.1016/j.brainres.2015.06.011
1218:Brain Structure & Function
920:10.1016/j.brainres.2014.12.021
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403:laterodorsal tegmental nucleus
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623:rostral ventrolateral medulla
526:and orexin system within the
498:dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve
466:rostral ventrolateral medulla
460:substructures, including the
215:melanin-concentrating hormone
1651:Stria medullaris of thalamus
1374:Journal of Advanced Research
462:rostral ventromedial medulla
7:
2053:Suprachiasmatic (melatonin)
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155:regulating body temperature
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1656:Thalamic reticular nucleus
1386:10.1016/j.jare.2013.03.008
1187:10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.02.026
1018:Watkins BA, Kim J (2014).
482:pontine micturition center
430:periaqueductal gray matter
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1319:Frontiers in Neuroscience
1263:"Limbic System: Amygdala"
1230:10.1007/s00429-015-1081-0
1121:Frontiers in Neuroscience
833:Frontiers in Neuroscience
661:visceral hypersensitivity
545:gastrointestinal motility
490:pontine respiratory group
486:ventral respiratory group
478:spinal trigeminal nucleus
414:ventromedial hypothalamus
377:projection nucleus), the
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171:visceral hypersensitivity
131:lateral hypothalamic area
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2192:Nuclei campi perizonalis
2118:Retinohypothalamic tract
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1037:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01506
977:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00997
846:10.3389/fnins.2013.00256
559:matter), modulating the
399:pedunculopontine nucleus
371:tuberomammillary nucleus
322:Neurotransmitter systems
175:irritable bowel syndrome
137:), contains the primary
2113:Medial forebrain bundle
2043:Arcuate (dopamine/GHRH)
1313:Li A, Nattie E (2014).
1269:. Neuroscience Online.
1024:Frontiers in Psychology
964:Frontiers in Psychology
651:may play a role in the
422:central medial amygdala
2130:Mammillothalamic tract
1893:Subthalamic fasciculus
1827:Pallidothalamic tracts
1822:Mammillothalamic tract
1804:Interthalamic adhesion
600:endocannabinoid system
565:ventral tegmental area
528:central nervous system
524:endocannabinoid system
504:Cannabinoid receptor 1
387:ventral tegmental area
367:posterior hypothalamus
239:cannabinoid receptor 1
2157:is diencephalon, but
1878:Dentatothalamic tract
1837:Lenticular fasciculus
1799:Midline nuclear group
1265:. In Byrne JH (ed.).
629:Clinical significance
442:substantia innominata
416:, medial and lateral
1861:Trigeminal lemniscus
1622:Subcommissural organ
1594:Habenular commissure
607:receptor heterodimer
551:, reducing pain and
516:receptor heterodimer
251:receptor heterodimer
123:lateral hypothalamus
21:Lateral hypothalamus
2182:Subthalamic nucleus
2000:posterior pituitary
1868:Spinothalamic tract
1842:Thalamic fasciculus
638:cerebrospinal fluid
557:periaqueductal gray
141:nucleus within the
129:), also called the
1883:Acoustic radiation
884: •
879: •
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589:visceral functions
573:energy homeostasis
397:, and cholinergic
389:dopamine nucleus,
282:. You can help by
163:motility disorders
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1905:Medullary laminae
1873:Lateral lemniscus
1832:Ansa lenticularis
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1589:Habenular trigone
769:10.1111/bph.12415
647:and parts of the
611:orexin receptor 1
512:orexin receptor 1
454:prefrontal cortex
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1112:
1103:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1075:
1064:
1063:
1049:
1039:
1015:
1004:
1003:
989:
979:
955:
944:
943:
899:
888:
872:
858:
848:
824:
801:
800:
780:
748:
725:
724:
702:
689:
680:
619:pressor response
605:
541:thermoregulation
474:solitary nucleus
470:nucleus ambiguus
450:stria terminalis
434:lateral habenula
354:
351:
333:
326:
295:
292:
281:
268:
261:
189:endocannabinoids
182:neurotransmitter
111:edit on Wikidata
108:
30:
18:
17:
2248:
2247:
2243:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2238:
2237:
2233:Sleep disorders
2208:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2196:Fields of Forel
2164:
2141:
2085:
2057:
2048:Preoptic (GnRH)
2005:Paraventricular
1985:
1952:
1943:Mammillary body
1934:Median eminence
1909:
1888:Optic radiation
1808:
1736:Pulvinar nuclei
1674:
1665:
1626:
1598:
1558:
1550:Anatomy of the
1548:
1501:
1496:
1485:
1471:
1464:
1415:
1411:
1366:
1362:
1311:
1307:
1296:
1282:
1278:
1259:
1255:
1210:
1206:
1171:
1164:
1113:
1106:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1076:
1067:
1016:
1007:
956:
947:
900:
891:
883:
878:
873:
825:
804:
796:
793:
749:
728:
717:
703:
692:
681:
677:
673:
653:pathophysiology
631:
536:
446:nucleus basalis
379:arcuate nucleus
355:
349:
346:
339:needs expansion
324:
318:
296:
290:
287:
277:
274:needs expansion
259:
151:pain perception
115:
33:
12:
11:
5:
2246:
2236:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2203:
2202:
2200:
2199:
2189:
2184:
2178:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2166:
2165:
2163:
2162:
2151:
2149:
2143:
2142:
2140:
2139:
2138:
2137:
2132:
2122:
2121:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2099:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2087:
2086:
2084:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2067:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2056:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2033:
2019:
2018:
2017:
2012:
1995:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1983:
1978:
1972:
1970:
1960:
1954:
1953:
1951:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1938:Tuber cinereum
1930:
1928:
1921:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1907:
1901:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1864:
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1858:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1824:
1818:
1816:
1810:
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1807:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1795:
1794:
1784:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1772:
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1765:
1760:
1750:
1740:
1739:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1718:
1717:
1716:
1703:
1689:
1680:
1678:
1667:
1666:
1664:
1663:
1661:Taenia thalami
1658:
1653:
1647:
1645:
1638:
1632:
1631:
1628:
1627:
1625:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1612:Pretectal area
1608:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1597:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1575:
1573:
1566:
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1518:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1500:
1499:External links
1497:
1495:
1494:
1483:
1462:
1423:Brain Research
1409:
1360:
1305:
1294:
1276:
1253:
1224:(6): 2937–62.
1204:
1162:
1104:
1090:
1065:
1005:
945:
908:Brain Research
889:
802:
726:
715:
690:
674:
672:
669:
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535:
532:
444:(contains the
391:locus ceruleus
357:
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317:
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271:
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258:
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147:nervous system
117:
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22:
9:
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2:
2245:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2223:Limbic system
2221:
2219:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2197:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
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2020:
2016:
2013:
2011:
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2003:
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1997:
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1992:
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1982:
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1610:
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1587:
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1582:
1580:
1577:
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1574:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1545:
1540:
1538:
1533:
1531:
1526:
1525:
1522:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1502:
1491:
1486:
1484:9780071481274
1480:
1476:
1469:
1467:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1413:
1405:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1380:(2): 137–45.
1379:
1375:
1371:
1364:
1357:
1356:hypertension.
1352:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1309:
1302:
1297:
1295:9780071481274
1291:
1287:
1280:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1257:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1208:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1181:(2): 486–90.
1180:
1176:
1169:
1167:
1159:
1154:
1150:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1111:
1109:
1093:
1091:9781592599509
1087:
1083:
1082:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1014:
1012:
1010:
1002:
997:
993:
988:
983:
978:
973:
969:
965:
961:
954:
952:
950:
942:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
898:
896:
894:
887:
882:
877:
871:
866:
862:
857:
852:
847:
842:
838:
834:
830:
823:
821:
819:
817:
815:
813:
811:
809:
807:
799:
788:
784:
779:
774:
770:
766:
763:(2): 332–50.
762:
758:
754:
747:
745:
743:
741:
739:
737:
735:
733:
731:
723:
718:
716:9780071481274
712:
708:
701:
699:
697:
695:
688:
684:
679:
675:
668:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
641:
639:
635:
626:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
601:
596:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
571:, regulating
570:
569:reward system
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
543:, regulating
542:
531:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
499:
495:
494:area postrema
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
438:diagonal band
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
418:septal nuclei
415:
410:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
353:
344:
340:
337:This section
335:
332:
328:
327:
323:
311:
308:
306:
302:
301:
294:
285:
280:
275:
272:This section
270:
267:
263:
262:
254:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
201:
200:neuropeptides
198:
194:
190:
186:
183:
178:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
112:
106:
102:
99:
96:
94:
90:
87:
84:
82:
78:
75:
72:
69:
65:
62:
59:
57:
53:
50:
47:
45:
41:
36:
29:
24:
19:
16:
2218:Hypothalamus
2187:Zona incerta
2161:is glandular
2124:
2102:
2095:White matter
2076:Ventromedial
2070:
2039:
1998:
1948:Infundibulum
1919:Hypothalamus
1848:
1814:White matter
1792:Centromedian
1787:Intralaminar
1778:
1743:Metathalamus
1683:
1579:Pineal gland
1552:diencephalon
1488:
1474:
1456:
1426:
1422:
1412:
1377:
1373:
1363:
1354:
1322:
1318:
1308:
1299:
1285:
1279:
1266:
1256:
1221:
1217:
1207:
1198:
1178:
1174:
1156:
1124:
1120:
1095:. Retrieved
1080:
1059:
1027:
1023:
999:
967:
963:
939:
911:
907:
868:
836:
832:
790:
760:
756:
720:
706:
678:
657:chronic pain
642:
632:
597:
537:
522:between the
502:
426:zona incerta
411:
395:raphe nuclei
363:hypothalamus
360:
347:
343:adding to it
338:
288:
284:adding to it
273:
179:
143:hypothalamus
134:
130:
126:
122:
120:
86:A14.1.08.929
74:birnlex_4037
15:
2174:Subthalamus
2081:Dorsomedial
2031:vasopressin
1958:Grey matter
1671:Grey matter
1604:Grey matter
1564:Epithalamus
1556:human brain
615:ERK pathway
553:nociception
508:colocalized
276: with:
243:colocalized
139:orexinergic
38:Identifiers
2228:Narcolepsy
2212:Categories
2022:Supraoptic
1261:Wright A.
687:NeuroNames
671:References
649:brain stem
634:Narcolepsy
613:-mediated
520:cross-talk
458:brain stem
456:, various
381:, and the
320:See also:
219:nociceptin
195:) and the
193:anandamide
169:involving
159:narcolepsy
56:NeuroNames
2155:Posterior
2147:Pituitary
1991:Endocrine
1967:Autonomic
1429:: 51–63.
593:urination
561:rewarding
506:(CB1) is
375:histamine
350:July 2015
291:July 2015
279:this list
241:(CB1) is
227:dynorphin
185:glutamate
2159:anterior
2125:efferent
2103:afferent
2027:oxytocin
1779:midline:
1636:Thalamus
1584:Habenula
1453:26096126
1404:25685481
1351:24574958
1248:26169110
1195:24530395
1153:24834023
1056:25610411
1030:: 1506.
996:25250003
928:25527398
914:: 12–7.
865:24391536
787:24102345
683:hier-409
585:HPT axis
581:HPG axis
577:HPA axis
534:Function
207:orexin-B
203:orexin-A
187:and the
68:NeuroLex
2071:Lateral
2063:Emotion
1927:Surface
1721:Lateral
1692:Ventral
1684:paired:
1644:Surface
1572:Surface
1554:of the
1444:4562882
1395:4294710
1342:3921571
1239:4713378
1144:4018553
1097:19 July
1047:4285050
987:4157463
970:: 997.
936:7239191
856:3868890
839:: 256.
778:3904255
621:in the
604:CB1–OX1
316:Outputs
303:Medial
235:ghrelin
223:glucose
191:(e.g.,
173:(e.g.,
49:D007026
2040:other:
1768:K cell
1763:M cell
1758:P cell
1676:nuclei
1481:
1451:
1441:
1402:
1392:
1349:
1339:
1325:: 22.
1292:
1246:
1236:
1193:
1151:
1141:
1127:: 57.
1088:
1054:
1044:
1001:2001).
994:
984:
934:
926:
863:
853:
798:reflex
785:
775:
713:
583:, and
496:, and
488:, and
257:Inputs
231:leptin
225:, the
197:orexin
153:, and
1969:zones
932:S2CID
373:(the
109:[
98:62030
1850:PCML
1479:ISBN
1449:PMID
1427:1622
1400:PMID
1347:PMID
1290:ISBN
1244:PMID
1191:PMID
1149:PMID
1099:2015
1086:ISBN
1052:PMID
992:PMID
924:PMID
912:1598
861:PMID
783:PMID
711:ISBN
659:and
598:The
401:and
233:and
211:GABA
205:and
180:The
121:The
81:TA98
44:MeSH
1714:VPL
1710:VPM
1439:PMC
1431:doi
1390:PMC
1382:doi
1337:PMC
1327:doi
1234:PMC
1226:doi
1222:221
1183:doi
1179:445
1139:PMC
1129:doi
1042:PMC
1032:doi
982:PMC
972:doi
916:doi
851:PMC
841:doi
773:PMC
765:doi
761:171
685:at
663:in
655:of
492:),
448:),
345:.
286:.
165:or
135:LHA
93:FMA
61:426
2214::
1782:MD
1753:LG
1748:MG
1731:LP
1726:LD
1706:VP
1701:VL
1697:VA
1687:AN
1487:.
1465:^
1455:.
1447:.
1437:.
1425:.
1421:.
1398:.
1388:.
1376:.
1372:.
1353:.
1345:.
1335:.
1321:.
1317:.
1298:.
1242:.
1232:.
1220:.
1216:.
1197:.
1189:.
1177:.
1165:^
1155:.
1147:.
1137:.
1123:.
1119:.
1107:^
1068:^
1058:.
1050:.
1040:.
1026:.
1022:.
1008:^
998:.
990:.
980:.
966:.
962:.
948:^
938:.
930:.
922:.
910:.
906:.
892:^
867:.
859:.
849:.
835:.
831:.
805:^
789:.
781:.
771:.
759:.
755:.
729:^
719:.
693:^
667:.
625:.
579:,
530:.
500:.
484:,
480:,
476:,
472:,
468:,
464:,
452:,
440:,
436:,
432:,
428:,
424:,
420:,
409:.
369:,
253:.
221:,
217:,
213:,
161:,
127:LH
70:ID
2198:)
2194:(
2029:/
2002::
1936:/
1712:/
1708:/
1699:/
1673:/
1543:e
1536:t
1529:v
1433::
1406:.
1384::
1378:5
1329::
1323:8
1273:.
1250:.
1228::
1185::
1131::
1125:8
1101:.
1034::
1028:5
974::
968:5
918::
843::
837:7
767::
352:)
348:(
293:)
289:(
133:(
125:(
113:]
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
