Life-cycle assessment

1370:, or outdated results. This is especially the case for the use and end of life phases in the LCA. Additionally, social implications of products are generally lacking in LCAs. Comparative life cycle analysis is often used to determine a better process or product to use. However, because of aspects like differing system boundaries, different statistical information, different product uses, etc., these studies can easily be swayed in favor of one product or process over another in one study and the opposite in another study based on varying parameters and different available data. There are guidelines to help reduce such conflicts in results but the method still provides a lot of room for the researcher to decide what is important, how the product is typically manufactured, and how it is typically used. 197:

point-of-view. Among these methods are two main types: Attributional LCA and Consequential LCA. Attributional LCAs seek to attribute the burdens associated with the production and use of a product, or with a specific service or process, for an identified temporal period. Consequential LCAs seek to identify the environmental consequences of a decision or a proposed change in a system under study, and thus are oriented to the future and require that market and economic implications must be taken into account. In other words, Attributional LCA "attempts to answer 'how are things (i.e. pollutants, resources, and exchanges among processes) flowing within the chosen temporal window?', while Consequential LCA attempts to answer 'how will flows beyond the immediate system change in response to decisions?"

953:) involves use of aggregate sector-level data on how much environmental impact can be attributed to each sector of the economy and how much each sector purchases from other sectors. Such analysis can account for long chains (for example, building an automobile requires energy, but producing energy requires vehicles, and building those vehicles requires energy, etc.), which somewhat alleviates the scoping problem of process LCA; however, EIOLCA relies on sector-level averages that may or may not be representative of the specific subset of the sector relevant to a particular product and therefore is not suitable for evaluating the environmental impacts of products. Additionally, the translation of economic quantities into environmental impacts is not validated. 307:, which defines precisely what is being studied, quantifies the service delivered by the system, provides a reference to which the inputs and outputs can be related, and provides a basis for comparing/analyzing alternative goods or services. The functional unit is a very important component of LCA and needs to be clearly defined. It is used as a basis for selecting one or more product systems that can provide the function. Therefore, the functional unit enables different systems to be treated as functionally equivalent. The defined functional unit should be quantifiable, include units, consider temporal coverage, and not contain product system inputs and outputs (e.g., kg CO 520:

that have been produced by humans, including products such as forestry, materials, and energy flows. Typically, they will not have access to data concerning inputs and outputs for previous production processes of the product. The entity undertaking the LCA must then turn to secondary sources if it does not already have that data from its own previous studies. National databases or data sets that come with LCA-practitioner tools, or that can be readily accessed, are the usual sources for that information. Care must then be taken to ensure that the secondary data source properly reflects regional or national conditions.

240: 158: 527:), and hybrid approaches. Process-based LCA is a bottom-up LCI approach the constructs an LCI using knowledge about industrial processes within the life cycle of a product, and the physical flows connecting them. EIOLCA is a top-down approach to LCI and uses information on elementary flows associated with one unit of economic activity across different sectors. This information is typically pulled from government agency national statistics tracking trade and services between sectors. Hybrid LCA is a combination of process-based LCA and EIOLCA. 7660: 512:

that is similar to a process but not exact (e.g., data from a different country, slightly different process, similar but different machine, etc.). As such, it is important to explicitly document the differences in such data. However, secondary data is not always inferior to primary data. For example, referencing another work's data in which the author used very accurate primary data. Along with primary data, secondary data should document the source, reliability, and temporal, geographical, and technological representativeness.

566:, which quantitatively transforms the LCI results within each impact category via "characterization factors" (also referred to as equivalency factors) to create "impact category indicators." In other words, this step is aimed at answering "how much does each result contribute to the impact category?" A main purpose of this step is to convert all classified flows for an impact into common units for comparison. For example, for Global Warming Potential, the unit is generally defined as CO 775:

altered. For example, woolen-garment was evaluated on its environmental impacts during its production, use and end-of-life, and identified the contribution of fossil fuel energy to be dominated by wool processing and GHG emissions to be dominated by wool production. However, the most influential factor was the number of garment wear and length of garment lifetime, indicating that the consumer has the largest influence on this products' overall environmental impact.

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parties' ethics. There are three main categories of weighting methods: the panel method, monetization method, and target method. ISO 14044 generally advises against weighting, stating that "weighting, shall not be used in LCA studies intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public". If a study decides to weight results, then the weighted results should always be reported together with the non-weighted results for transparency.

619:(conversion of raw materials into a product), transportation of the product to a market or site, construction/installation, and the beginning of the use or occupancy. Use impacts include physical impacts of operating the product or facility (such as energy, water, etc.), and any maintenance, renovation, or repairs that are required to continue to use the product or facility. End of life impacts include demolition and processing of waste or recyclable materials. 127:

understood methodology of performing an LCA is not followed, it can be completed based on a practitioner's views or the economic and political incentives of the sponsoring entity (an issue plaguing all known data-gathering practices). In turn, an LCA completed by 10 different parties could yield 10 different results. The ISO LCA Standard aims to normalize this; however, the guidelines are not overly restrictive and 10 different answers may still be generated.

8085: 8075: 8128: 825:(EPD) termed business-to-business EPDs. One of the significant uses of the cradle-to-gate approach compiles the life cycle inventory (LCI) using cradle-to-gate. This allows the LCA to collect all of the impacts leading up to resources being purchased by the facility. They can then add the steps involved in their transport to plant and manufacture process to more easily produce their own cradle-to-gate values for their products. 381:, which is used to partition the inputs and outputs of a product and is necessary for processes that produce multiple products, or co-products. This is also known as multifunctionality of a product system. ISO 14044 presents a hierarchy of solutions to deal with multifunctionality issues, as the choice of allocation method for co-products can significantly impact results of an LCA. The hierarchy methods are as follows: 8095: 7112: 435: 425:, which is the explicit documentation of the inputs/outputs (individual flows) used within the study. This is necessary as most analyses do not consider all inputs and outputs of a product system, so this provides the audience with a transparent representation of the selected data. It also provides transparency for why the system boundary, product system, functional unit, etc. was chosen. 692:. There are two fundamental types of LCA data–unit process data, and environmental input-output (EIO) data. A unit process data collects data around a single industrial activity and its product(s), including resources used from the environment and other industries, as well as its generated emissions throughout its life cycle. EIO data are based on national economic input-output data. 447:

chain and gives a clear picture of the technical system boundaries. Generally, the more detailed and complex the flow diagram, the more accurate the study and results. The input and output data needed for the construction of the model is collected for all activities within the system boundary, including from the supply chain (referred to as inputs from the technosphere).

117:(ISO), in particular, in ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. ISO 14040 provides the 'principles and framework' of the Standard, while ISO 14044 provides an outline of the 'requirements and guidelines'. Generally, ISO 14040 was written for a managerial audience and ISO 14044 for practitioners. As part of the introductory section of ISO 14040, LCA has been defined as the following: 346:, which includes any assumptions or decisions made throughout the study that may influence the final results. It is important these are made transmitted as the omittance may result in misinterpretation of the results. Additional assumptions and limitations necessary to accomplish the project are often made throughout the project and should recorded as necessary. 962:

and surrounding ecosystems. Developed by Ohio State University Center for resilience, Eco-LCA is a methodology that quantitatively takes into account regulating and supporting services during the life cycle of economic goods and products. In this approach services are categorized in four main groups: supporting, regulating, provisioning and cultural services.

3715: 1086:, the waste plants are well-fitted with regulated pollution control equipment to minimize this negative impact. A study comparing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from landfills (without energy recovery) against incineration (with energy recovery) found incineration to be superior in all cases except for when 36: 840:

incorporate social responsibility into product development. From the recycling process originate new, identical products (e.g., asphalt pavement from discarded asphalt pavement, glass bottles from collected glass bottles), or different products (e.g., glass wool insulation from collected glass bottles).

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in comparison with a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle, the WTW (accounting only the GHG for manufacturing the fuels) concludes that an electric vehicle can save around 50–60% of GHG. On the other hand, using a hybrid LCA-WTW method, concludes that GHG emission savings are 10-13% lower

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Moreover, time horizon is a sensitive parameter and was shown to introduce inadvertent bias by providing one perspective on the outcome of LCA, when comparing the toxicity potential between petrochemicals and biopolymers for instance. Therefore, conducting sensitivity analysis in LCA are important to

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Life cycle impacts can also be categorized under the several phases of the development, production, use, and disposal of a product. Broadly speaking, these impacts can be divided into first impacts, use impacts, and end of life impacts. First impacts include extraction of raw materials, manufacturing

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of inventory results. In this step, the LCI results are assigned to the chosen impact categories based on their known environmental effects. In practice, this is often completed using LCI databases or LCA software. Common impact categories include Global Warming, Ozone Depletion, Acidification, Human

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Oftentimes, the collection of primary data may be difficult and deemed proprietary or confidential by the owner. An alternative to primary data is secondary data, which is data that comes from LCA databases, literature sources, and other past studies. With secondary sources, it is often you find data

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Following the goal, the scope must be defined by outlining the qualitative and quantitative information included in the study. Unlike the goal, which may only include a few sentences, the scope often requires multiple pages. It is set to describe the detail and depth of the study and demonstrate that

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A third type of LCA, termed "social LCA", is also under development and is a distinct approach to that is intended to assess potential social and socio-economic implications and impacts. Social life cycle assessment (SLCA) is a useful tool for companies to identify and assess potential social impacts

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Therefore, the goal of LCA is to compare the full range of environmental effects assignable to products and services by quantifying all inputs and outputs of material flows and assessing how these material flows affect the environment. This information is used to improve processes, support policy and

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is arguably only one consideration in deciding which alternative process to employ, and should not be elevated as the only criterion for determining environmental acceptability. For example, a simple energy analysis does not take into account the renewability of energy flows or the toxicity of waste

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When identifying the inputs and outputs to document for each unit process within the product system of an LCI, a practitioner may come across the instance where a process has multiple input streams or generate multiple output streams. In such case, the practitioner should allocate the flows based on

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When collecting the data for each process within the system boundary, the ISO LCA standard requires the study to measure or estimate the data in order to quantitatively represent each process in the product system. Ideally, when collecting data, a practitioner should aim to collect data from primary

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As referenced in the ISO 14044 standard, the data must be related to the functional unit, as well as the goal and scope. However, since the LCA stages are iterative in nature, the data collection phase may cause the goal or scope to change. Conversely, a change in the goal or scope during the course

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Life cycle assessment (LCA) is sometimes referred to synonymously as life cycle analysis in the scholarly and agency report literatures. Also, due to the general nature of an LCA study of examining the life cycle impacts from raw material extraction (cradle) through disposal (grave), it is sometimes

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While a conventional LCA uses many of the same approaches and strategies as an Eco-LCA, the latter considers a much broader range of ecological impacts. It was designed to provide a guide to wise management of human activities by understanding the direct and indirect impacts on ecological resources

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and vehicles. The analysis is often broken down into stages entitled "well-to-station", or "well-to-tank", and "station-to-wheel" or "tank-to-wheel", or "plug-to-wheel". The first stage, which incorporates the feedstock or fuel production and processing and fuel delivery or energy transmission, and

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LCA was primarily used as a comparison tool, providing informative information on the environmental impacts of a product and comparing it to available alternatives. Its potential applications expanded to include marketing, product design, product development, strategic planning, consumer education,

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Avoid Allocation through System Expansion (or substitution) - this method attempts to expand the process of the co-product with the most likely way of providing the secondary function of the determining product (or reference product). In other words, by expanding the system of the co-product in the

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The ISO LCA Standard requires a series of parameters to be quantitatively and qualitatively expressed, which are occasionally referred to as study design parameters (SPDs). The two main SPDs for an LCA are the Goal and Scope, both which must be explicitly stated. It is recommended that a study uses

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The limitations of LCA to focus solely on the ecological aspects of sustainability, and not the economical or social aspects, distinguishes it from product line analysis (PLA) and similar methods. This limitation was made deliberately to avoid method overload but recognizes these factors should not

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LCA is a technique to assess the environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with a product, process, or service, by: / * Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases/ * Evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with identified

1048:. Energy cannibalism refers to an effect where rapid growth of an entire energy-intensive industry creates a need for energy that uses (or cannibalizes) the energy of existing power plants. Thus, during rapid growth, the industry as a whole produces no energy because new energy is used to fuel the 973:

of a system is the maximum useful work possible during a process that brings the system into equilibrium with a heat reservoir. Wall clearly states the relation between exergy analysis and resource accounting. This intuition confirmed by DeWulf and Sciubba lead to Exergo-economic accounting and to

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A key purpose of performing life cycle interpretation is to determine the level of confidence in the final results and communicate them in a fair, complete, and accurate manner. Interpreting the results of an LCA is not as simple as "3 is better than 2, therefore Alternative A is the best choice".

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of impact categories. This step aims to determine the significance of each category and how important it is relative to the others. It allows studies to aggregate impact scores into a single indicator for comparison. Weighting is highly subjective and as it is often decided based on the interested

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of impaction categories, category indicators, and characterization models. The ISO Standard requires that a study selects multiple impacts that encompass "a comprehensive set of environmental issues". The impacts should be relevant to the geographical region of the study and justification for each

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The technosphere is more simply defined as the human-made world, and considered by geologists as secondary resources, these resources are in theory 100% recyclable; however, in a practical sense, the primary goal is salvage. For an LCI, these technosphere products (supply chain products) are those

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To develop the inventory, it is often recommended to start with a flow model of the technical system using data on inputs and outputs of the product system. The flow model is typically illustrated with a flow diagram that includes the activities that are going to be assessed in the relevant supply

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Life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from and to nature (ecosphere) for a product system. It is the process of quantifying raw material and energy requirements, atmospheric emissions, land emissions, water emissions, resource uses, and other releases over the

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of results. This step aims to answer "Is that a lot?" by expressing the LCIA results in respect to a chosen reference system. A separate reference value is often chosen for each impact category, and the rationale for the step is to provide temporal and spatial perspective and to help validate the

403:, which includes an outline of the impact categories identified under interest for the study, and the selected methodology used to calculate the respective impacts. Specifically, life cycle inventory data is translated into environmental impact scores, which might include such categories as human 196:

Despite attempts to standardize LCA, results from different LCAs are often contradictory, therefore it is unrealistic to expect these results to be unique and objective. Thus, it should not be considered as such, but rather as a family of methods attempting to quantify results through a different

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As noted above, the inventory in the LCA usually considers a number of stages including materials extraction, processing and manufacturing, product use, and product disposal. When an LCA is done on a product across all stages, the stage with the highest environmental impact can be determined and

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LCA studies the environmental aspects and potential impacts throughout a product's life cycle (i.e., cradle-to-grave) from raw materials acquisition through production, use and disposal. The general categories of environmental impacts needing consideration include resource use, human health, and

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requires more energy than can be recovered in using the solar cell. Although these results were true when solar cells were first manufactured, their efficiency increased greatly over the years. Currently, energy payback time of photovoltaic solar panels range from a few months to several years.

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Life cycle interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and evaluate information from the results of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle impact assessment. The results from the inventory analysis and impact assessment are summarized during the interpretation

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Criticisms have been leveled against the LCA approach, both in general and with regard to specific cases (e.g., in the consistency of the methodology, the difficulty in performing, the cost in performing, revealing of intellectual property, and the understanding of system boundaries). When the

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Datasets that are suboptimal in accuracy or have gaps can be, temporarily until the complete data is available or permanently, be patched or optimized by various methods such as mechanisms for "selection of a dataset that represents the missing dataset that leads in most cases to a much better

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Cradle-to-cradle is a specific kind of cradle-to-grave assessment, where the end-of-life disposal step for the product is a recycling process. It is a method used to minimize the environmental impact of products by employing sustainable production, operation, and disposal practices and aims to

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According to standards in the ISO 14040 and 14044, an LCA is carried out in four distinct phases, as illustrated in the figure shown at the above right (at opening of the article). The phases are often interdependent, in that the results of one phase will inform how other phases are completed.

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of a product, process or service, and calculates the corresponding emissions to the environment. LCA thus assesses cumulative potential environmental impacts. The aim is to document and improve the overall environmental profile of the product by serving as a holistic baseline upon which carbon

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of LCIA results. This step is accomplished by sorting or ranking the LCIA results (either characterized or normalized depending on the prior steps chosen) into a single group or several groups as defined within the goal and scope. However, grouping is subjective and may be inconsistent across

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Life cycle inventory analysis is followed by a life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). This phase of LCA is aimed at evaluating the potential environmental and human health impacts resulting from the elementary flows determined in the LCI. The ISO 14040 and 14044 standards require the following

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EPDs provide a level of transparency that is being increasingly demanded through policies and standards around the world. They are used in the built environment as a tool for experts in the industry to compose whole building life cycle assessments more easily, as the environmental impact of

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Liu, Xinyu; Reddi, Krishna; Elgowainy, Amgad; Lohse-Busch, Henning; Wang, Michael; Rustagi, Neha (January 2020). "Comparison of well-to-wheels energy use and emissions of a hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle relative to a conventional gasoline-powered internal combustion engine vehicle".

334:, which is the amount of product or energy that is needed to realize the functional unit. Typically, the reference flow is different qualitatively and quantitatively for different products or systems across the same reference flow; however, there are instances where they can be the same. 907:

was developed to evaluate the impacts of new fuels and vehicle technologies. The model evaluates the impacts of fuel use using a well-to-wheel evaluation while a traditional cradle-to-grave approach is used to determine the impacts from the vehicle itself. The model reports energy use,

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The quality of LCI data is typically evaluated with the use of a pedigree matrix. Different pedigree matrices are available, but all contain a number of data quality indicators and a set of qualitative criteria per indicator. There is another hybrid approach integrates the widely used,

340:, which delimits which processes should be included in the analysis of a product system, including whether the system produces any co-products that must be accounted for by system expansion or allocation. The system boundary should be in accordance with the stated goal of the study. 485:

sources (e.g., measuring inputs and outputs of a process on-site or other physical means). Questionnaire are frequently used to collect data on-site and can even be issued to the respective manufacturer or company to complete. Items on the questionnaire to be recorded may include:

170:, and disposal or recycling. The results are used to help decision-makers select products or processes that result in the least impact to the environment by considering an entire product system and avoiding sub-optimization that could occur if only a single process were used. 788:

Cradle-to-grave is the full life cycle assessment from resource extraction ('cradle'), to manufacturing, usage, and maintenance, all the way through to its disposal phase ('grave'). For example, trees produce paper, which can be recycled into low-energy production

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Laner, David; Feketitsch, Julia; Rechberger, Helmut; Fellner, Johann (October 2016). "A Novel Approach to Characterize Data Uncertainty in Material Flow Analysis and its Application to Plastics Flows in Austria: Characterization of Uncertainty of MFA Input Data".

301:, which is a collection of processes (activities that transform inputs to outputs) that are needed to perform a specified function and are within the system boundary of the study. It is representative of all the processes in the life cycle of a product or process. 6558:

Schneider, Laura; Berger, Markus; Schüler-Hainsch, Eckhard; Knöfel, Sven; Ruhland, Klaus; Mosig, Jörg; Bach, Vanessa; Finkbeiner, Matthias (March 2014). "The economic resource scarcity potential (ESP) for evaluating resource use based on life cycle assessment".

896:, and the fuels used in each of these transport modes. WtW analysis is useful for reflecting the different efficiencies and emissions of energy technologies and fuels at both the upstream and downstream stages, giving a more complete picture of real emissions. 1681:

It is very important to first set the goal of the life cycle analysis or assessment. In the conceptual design stage, the goal in general will be identifying the major environmental impacts of the reference process and showing how the new design reduces these

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Milà i Canals, Llorenç; Bauer, Christian; Depestele, Jochen; Dubreuil, Alain; Knuchel, Ruth Freiermuth; Gaillard, Gérard; Michelsen, Ottar; Müller-Wenk, Ruedi; Rydgren, Bernt (2007). "Key elements in a framework for land use impact assessment within LCA".

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most likely alternative way of producing the co-product independently (System 2). The impacts resulting from the alternative way of producing the co-product (System 2) are then subtracted from the determining product to isolate the impacts in System 1.

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Moreover, the fidelity of LCAs can vary substantially as various data may not be incorporated, especially in early versions: for example, LCAs that do not consider regional emission information can under-estimate the life cycle environmental impact.

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In many LCAs, characterization concludes the LCIA analysis, as it is the last compulsory stage according to ISO 14044. However, the ISO Standard provides the following optional steps to be taken in addition to the aforementioned mandatory steps:

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products. Incorporating "dynamic LCAs", e.g., with regard to renewable energy technologies—which use sensitivity analyses to project future improvements in renewable systems and their share of the power grid—may help mitigate this criticism.

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Benoît, Catherine; Norris, Gregory A.; Valdivia, Sonia; Ciroth, Andreas; Moberg, Asa; Bos, Ulrike; Prakash, Siddharth; Ugaya, Cassia; Beck, Tabea (February 2010). "The guidelines for social life cycle assessment of products: just in time!".

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In 2001, ISO published a technical specification on data documentation, describing the format for life cycle inventory data (ISO 14048). The format includes three areas: process, modeling and validation, and administrative information.

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Generally, an LCA study starts with a clear statement of its goal, outlining the study's context and detailing how and to whom the results will be communicated. Per ISO guidelines, the goal must unambiguously state the following items:

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Life cycle analysis (LCA) is a method used to evaluate the environmental impact of a product through its life cycle encompassing extraction and processing of the raw materials, manufacturing, distribution, use, recycling, and final

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Gate-to-gate is a partial LCA looking at only one value-added process in the entire production chain. Gate-to-gate modules may also later be linked in their appropriate production chain to form a complete cradle-to-gate evaluation.

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aspects of quantifiable systems. Not every factor, however, can be reduced to a number and inserted into a model. Rigid system boundaries make accounting for changes in the system difficult. This is sometimes referred to as the

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of these significant data elements, assessing the completeness and consistency of the study, and drawing conclusions and recommendations based on a clear understanding of how the LCA was conducted and the results were developed.

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Dewulf, Jo; Van Langenhove, Herman; Muys, Bart; Bruers, Stijn; Bakshi, Bhavik R.; Grubb, Geoffrey F.; Paulus, D. M.; Sciubba, Enrico (April 2008). "Exergy: Its Potential and Limitations in Environmental Science and Technology".

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The output of an LCI is a compiled inventory of elementary flows from all of the processes in the studied product system(s). The data is typically detailed in charts and requires a structured approach due to its complex nature.

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Interpretation begins with understanding the accuracy of the results, and ensuring they meet the goal of the study. This is accomplished by identifying the data elements that contribute significantly to each impact category,

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Finnveden, Göran; Hauschild, Michael Z.; Ekvall, Tomas; Guinée, Jeroen; Heijungs, Reinout; Hellweg, Stefanie; Koehler, Annette; Pennington, David; Suh, Sangwon (October 2009). "Recent developments in Life Cycle Assessment".

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inputs to a product are accounted for, not only direct energy inputs during manufacture, but also all energy inputs needed to produce components, materials and services needed for the manufacturing process. With LCEA, the

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Pasqualino, Jorgelina C.; Meneses, Montse; Abella, Montserrat; Castells, Francesc (May 2009). "LCA as a Decision Support Tool for the Environmental Improvement of the Operation of a Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant".

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is called the "upstream" stage, while the stage that deals with vehicle operation itself is sometimes called the "downstream" stage. The well-to-wheel analysis is commonly used to assess total energy consumption, or the

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LCIA results. Standard references are typical impacts per impact category per: geographical zone, inhabitant of geographical zone (per person), industrial sector, or another product system or baseline reference scenario.

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Cabeza, Luisa F.; Rincón, Lídia; Vilariño, Virginia; Pérez, Gabriel; Castell, Albert (January 2014). "Life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) of buildings and the building sector: A review".

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Type III environmental declaration, also known as environmental product declaration (EPD), uses LCA as a tool to report the environmental performance of a product, while conforming to the ISO standards 14040 and

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Quantitative values of greenhouse gas emissions calculated with the WTW or with the LCA method can differ, since the LCA is considering more emission sources. For example, while assessing the GHG emissions of a

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Specifically, as voiced by M.A. Curran, the goal of the LCA interpretation phase is to identify the alternative that has the least cradle-to-grave environmental negative impact on land, sea, and air resources.

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Hence, it is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product's life from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and

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the keywords represented in the Standard when documenting these details (e.g., "The goal of the study is...") to make sure there is no confusion and ensure the study is being interpreted for its intended use.

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Charpentier Poncelet, Alexandre; Helbig, Christoph; Loubet, Philippe; Beylot, Antoine; Muller, Stéphanie; Villeneuve, Jacques; Laratte, Bertrand; Thorenz, Andrea; Tuma, Axel; Sonnemann, Guido (19 May 2022).

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Allocation (or partition) based on Physical Relationship - this method attempts to divide inputs and outputs and allocate them based on physical relationships between the products (e.g., mass, energy-use,

384:

Avoid Allocation by Sub-Division - this method attempts to disaggregate the unit process into smaller sub-processes in order to separate the production of the product from the production of the co-product.

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Flysjö, Anna; Cederberg, Christel; Henriksson, Maria; Ledgard, Stewart (2011). "How does co-product handling affect the carbon footprint of milk? Case study of milk production in New Zealand and Sweden".

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Hendrickson, C.T.; Horvath, A.; Joshi, S.; Klausner, M.; Lave, L.B.; McMichael, F.C. (1997). "Comparing two life cycle assessment approaches: A process model vs. Economic input-output-based assessment".

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Righi, Serena; Dal Pozzo, Alessandro; Tugnoli, Alessandro; Raggi, Andrea; Salieri, Beatrice; Hischier, Roland (2020). "The Availability of Suitable Datasets for the LCA Analysis of Chemical Substances".

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The Global LCA Data Access network (GLAD) by the UN's Life Cycle Initiative is a "platform which allows to search, convert and download datasets from different life cycle assessment dataset providers".

821:) to the factory gate (i.e., before it is transported to the consumer). The use phase and disposal phase of the product are omitted in this case. Cradle-to-gate assessments are sometimes the basis for 1277:

Life cycle assessments can be integrated as routine processes of systems, as input for modeled future socio-economic pathways, or, more broadly, into a larger context (such as qualitative scenarios).

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Pizzol, M.; Christensen, P.; Schmidt, J.; Thomsen, M. (April 2011). "Impacts of 'metals' on human health: a comparison between nine different methodologies for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)".

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Allocation (or partition) based on Other Relationship (non-physical) - this method attempts to divide inputs and outputs and allocate them based on non-physical relationships (e.g., economic value).

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quality, since no just comparison can be done if one product has a much higher availability of accurate and valid data, as compared to another product which has lower availability of such data.

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Clark, Michael; Springmann, Marco; Rayner, Mike; Scarborough, Peter; Hill, Jason; Tilman, David; Macdiarmid, Jennie I.; Fanzo, Jessica; Bandy, Lauren; Harrington, Richard A. (16 August 2022).

3886:. LCA Food 2014: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Life Cycle Assessment in the Agri-food Sector. San Francisco: American Centre for Life Cycle Assessment. pp. 482–488. 5645:

Jyotirmay Mathur; Narendra Kumar Bansal; Hermann-Joseph Wagner (2004). "Dynamic energy analysis to assess maximum growth rates in developing power generation capacity: case study of India".

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The goal should also be defined with the commissioner for the study, and it is recommended a detailed description for why the study is being carried out is acquired from the commissioner.

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methods specifically dedicated to LCA such as Exergetic material input per unit of service (EMIPS). The concept of material input per unit of service (MIPS) is quantified in terms of the

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semi-quantitative approach that uses a pedigree matrix, into a qualitative analysis to better illustrate the quality of LCI data for non-technical audiences, in particular policymakers.

419:. As part of the scope, only an overview needs to be provided, as the main analysis on the impact categories is discussed in the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) phase of the study. 6957:

Kim, Junbeum; Yalaltdinova, Albina; Sirina, Natalia; Baranovskaya, Natalia (2015). "Integration of life cycle assessment and regional emission information in agricultural systems".

352:, which specify the kinds of data that will be included and what restrictions. According to ISO 14044, the following data quality considerations should be documented in the scope: 628:

phase. The outcome of the interpretation phase is a set of conclusions and recommendations for the study. According to ISO 14043, the interpretation should include the following:

6307:

Meron, Noa; Blass, Vered; Thoma, Greg (April 2020). "Selection of the most appropriate life cycle inventory dataset: new selection proxy methodology and case study application".

3783:

Rebitzer, G.; Ekvall, T.; Frischknecht, R.; Hunkeler, D.; Norris, G.; Rydberg, T.; Schmidt, W.-P.; Suh, S.; Weidema, B.P.; Pennington, D.W. (July 2004). "Life cycle assessment".

2257:

Rebitzer, G.; Ekvall, T.; Frischknecht, R.; Hunkeler, D.; Norris, G.; Rydberg, T.; Schmidt, W.-P.; Suh, S.; Weidema, B.P.; Pennington, D.W. (July 2004). "Life cycle assessment".

6921: 6386:

Voglhuber-Slavinsky, Ariane; Zicari, Alberto; Smetana, Sergiy; Moller, Björn; Dönitz, Ewa; Vranken, Liesbet; Zdravkovic, Milena; Aganovic, Kemal; Bahrs, Enno (27 June 2022).

5259:

Allen, S. R.; Hammond, G. P.; Harajli, H. A.; Jones, C. I.; McManus, M. C.; Winnett, A. B. (May 2008). "Integrated appraisal of micro-generators: methods and applications".

4189: 4413:

Norm Brinkman; Eberle, Ulrich; Formanski, Volker; Uwe-Dieter Grebe; Matthe, Roland (2012). "Vehicle Electrification - Quo Vadis? / Fahrzeugelektrifizierung - Quo Vadis?".

982:

technology. The service not only takes into account the total mass to be transported and the total distance, but also the mass per single transport and the delivery time.

6085:

Takano, Atsushi; Winter, Stefan; Hughes, Mark; Linkosalmi, Lauri (September 2014). "Comparison of life cycle assessment databases: A case study on building assessment".

6730: 4931:

Dewulf, J.; Van Langenhove, H. (May 2003). "Exergetic material input per unit of service (EMIPS) for the assessment of resource productivity of transport commodities".

978:, allowing the calculation of both resource input and service output in exergy terms. This exergetic material input per unit of service (EMIPS) has been elaborated for 1052:

of future power plants. Work has been undertaken in the UK to determine the life cycle energy (alongside full LCA) impacts of a number of renewable technologies.

7064:

Vallero, Daniel A. and Brasier, Chris (2008), "Sustainable Design: The Science of Sustainability and Green Engineering", John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ,

4453: 7124:

Embodied Energy: Life Cycle Assessment. Your Home Technical Manual. A joint initiative of the Australian Government and the design and construction industries.

1337:, especially because financial markets of the economy typically do not consider life cycle impacts or induced societal problems in the future and present—the " 668:

Type I environmental labelling requires a third-party certification process to verify a products compliance against a set of criteria, according to ISO 14024.

4374:"Well-to-Wheels Analysis of Advanced Fuel/Vehicle Systems – A North American Study of Energy Use, Greenhouse Gas Emissions, and Criteria Pollutant Emissions" 553:

chosen impact should be discussed. Often times in practice, this is completed by choosing an already existing LCIA method (e.g., TRACI, ReCiPe, AWARE, etc.).

1919:

Gong, Jian; You, Fengqi (2017). "Consequential Life Cycle Optimization: General Conceptual Framework and Application to Algal Renewable Diesel Production".

1373:

An in-depth review of 13 LCA studies of wood and paper products found a lack of consistency in the methods and assumptions used to track carbon during the

7008: 805:

fibers are replaced and the old fibers are disposed of, possibly incinerated. All inputs and outputs are considered for all the phases of the life cycle.

1494:

Ilgin, Mehmet Ali; Gupta, Surendra M. (2010). "Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing and Product Recovery (ECMPRO): A Review of the State of the Art".

1948: 443:

life cycle of a product or process. In other words, it is the aggregation of all elementary flows related to each unit process within a product system.

5888: 1330:. One study suggests that in LCAs, resource availability is, as of 2013, "evaluated by means of models based on depletion time, surplus energy, etc." 1239:

The BONSAI project "aims to build a shared resource where the community can contribute to data generation, validation, and management decisions" for "

5021:

Richards, Bryce S.; Watt, Muriel E. (January 2005). "Permanently dispelling a myth of photovoltaics via the adoption of a new net energy indicator".

4848:

Sciubba, Enrico (October 2004). "From Engineering Economics to Extended Exergy Accounting: A Possible Path from Monetary to Resource-Based Costing".

4485: 6204: 5048:

Dale, Michael; Benson, Sally M. (2013). "Energy Balance of the Global Photovoltaic (PV) Industry - Is the PV Industry a Net Electricity Producer?".

3488: 1225:

There are some initiatives to develop, integrate, populate, standardize, quality control, combine and maintain such datasets or LCAs – for example:

294:

the goal can be achieved within the stated limitations. Under the ISO LCA Standard guidelines, the scope of the study should outline the following:

7935: 3198: 1902: 1621: 4883:

Rocco, M.V.; Colombo, E.; Sciubba, E. (January 2014). "Advances in exergy analysis: a novel assessment of the Extended Exergy Accounting method".

7985: 7458: 1044:

Module recycling could further reduce the energy payback time to around one month. Another new concept that flows from life cycle assessments is

5586: 5370:

Liamsanguan, Chalita; Gheewala, Shabbir H. (April 2008). "LCA: A decision support tool for environmental assessment of MSW management systems".

201:

along the lifecycle of a product or service on various stakeholders (for example: workers, local communities, consumers). SLCA is framed by the

7545: 114: 7015:

Baumann, H. och Tillman, A-M. The hitchhiker's guide to LCA : an orientation in life cycle assessment methodology and application. 2004.

5313: 1377:. A wide variety of methods and assumptions were used, leading to different and potentially contrary conclusions—particularly with regard to 6388:"Setting life cycle assessment (LCA) in a future-oriented context: the combination of qualitative scenarios and LCA in the agri-food sector" 4261:

Huang, Yue; Bird, Roger N.; Heidrich, Oliver (November 2007). "A review of the use of recycled solid waste materials in asphalt pavements".

1762: 8105: 7160: 1280:

For example, a study estimated the environmental benefits of microbial protein within a future socio-economic pathway, showing substantial

202: 843:

Allocation of burden for products in open loop production systems presents considerable challenges for LCA. Various methods, such as the

7836: 1233:

is "to develop a database and tool set intended to provide data for use in LCAs of food, biofuels, and a variety of other bioproducts".

1213:

Datasets can also consist of options, activities, or approaches, rather than of products – for example one dataset assesses PET bottle

7123: 7537: 5415:"The rationale for energy efficiency policy: Assessing the recognition of the multiple benefits of energy efficiency retrofit policy" 1362:. The accuracy and availability of data can also contribute to inaccuracy. For instance, data from generic processes may be based on 5150:

Gerbinet, Saïcha; Belboom, Sandra; Léonard, Angélique (October 2014). "Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) of photovoltaic panels: A review".

1333:

Broadly, various types of life cycle assessments (or commissioning such) could be used in various ways in various types of societal

1314:

The life cycle perspective also allows considering losses and lifetimes of rare goods and services in the economy. For example, the

143:, "LCA is a technique to assess the environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with a product, process, or service, by: 8153: 7390: 6940: 6903: 2161: 707:

determine which parameters considerably impact the results, and can also be used to identify which parameters cause uncertainties.

6427:

Humpenöder, Florian; Bodirsky, Benjamin Leon; Weindl, Isabelle; Lotze-Campen, Hermann; Linder, Tomas; Popp, Alexander (May 2022).

5604: 5224:

McManus, M.C. (October 2010). "Life cycle impacts of waste wood biomass heating systems: A case study of three UK based systems".

3819: 7819: 6684: 1293: 4329:

Jiménez-González, C.; Kim, S.; Overcash, M. (2000). "Methodology for developing gate-to-gate Life cycle inventory information".

8099: 7659: 7541: 7511: 7116: 6802: 4373: 3629:

Reap, John; Roman, Felipe; Duncan, Scott; Bra, Bert (14 May 2008). "A survey of unresolved problems in life cycle assessment".

233: 4717:

Rosen, Marc A; Dincer, Ibrahim (January 2001). "Exergy as the confluence of energy, environment and sustainable development".

7799: 7604: 7095: 7030: 6934: 6662: 6367: 6258: 6163: 5996: 5833: 4239: 3891: 3599: 3574: 3471: 3248: 3152: 2935: 2898: 2690: 2657: 2606: 2568: 2505: 2450: 2339: 2241: 2049: 1886: 5680:

R. Kenny; C. Law; J.M. Pearce (2010). "Towards Real Energy Economics: Energy Policy Driven by Life Cycle Carbon Emission".

3286:. Proceedings of the 2015 Building Educators' Society Conference. Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah. pp. 123–130. 1066:

If materials are incinerated during the disposal process, the energy released during burning can be harnessed and used for

20: 1458: 7451: 6752:"Consumers and their behavior: state of the art in behavioral science supporting use phase modeling in LCA and ecodesign" 1694:

Sánchez-Barroso, Gonzalo; Botejara-Antúnez, Manuel; García-Sanz-Calcedo, Justo; Zamora-Polo, Francisco (September 2021).

1251:

toolchain capable of supporting LCA calculations". With product footprints they refer to the goal of "reliable, unbiased

1217:

options in Bauru, Brazil. There are also LCA databases about buildings – complex products – which a 2014 study compared.

5314:"Life-cycle-assessment of the historical development of air pollution control and energy recovery in waste incineration" 3437: 7832: 7783: 7208: 3391: 1844: 1551: 1145:

over its lifetime than it initially thought it would mitigate, with this most well documented {{Citation needed|reason=

822: 6179: 4602:"A new hybrid method for reducing the gap between WTW and LCA in the carbon footprint assessment of electric vehicles" 4460: 2708:"Review: Consumption and Use of Non-Renewable Mineral and Energy Raw Materials from an Economic Geology Point of View" 1322:

were found to be short as of 2022. Such data could be combined with conventional life cycle analyses, e.g., to enable

1308: 7549: 7084: 7059: 7044: 7020: 4693: 4649: 4165: 3690: 3531: 3044:

Weidema, Bo P. (September 1998). "Multi-user test of the data quality matrix for product life cycle inventory data".

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Stamford, Laurence (1 January 2020), Ren, Jingzheng; Scipioni, Antonio; Manzardo, Alessandro; Liang, Hanwei (eds.),

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Garrido, Sara Russo (1 January 2017). "Social Life-Cycle Assessment: An Introduction". In Abraham, Martin A. (ed.).

7564: 7324: 7153: 5785: 1164:

etc.—have inconsistent functional units, different quality, and different values. This is due to the fact that the

991: 928:

with size smaller than 10 micrometer (PM10), particulate matter with size smaller than 2.5 micrometer (PM2.5), and

229: 6533: 6121: 5725:

Nielsen, Søren Nors; Müller, Felix; Marques, Joao Carlos; Bastianoni, Simone; Jørgensen, Sven Erik (August 2020).

4071:

Wiedemann, S.G.; Biggs, L.; Nebel, B.; Bauch, K.; Laitala, K.; Klepp, I.G.; Swan, P.G.; Watson, K. (August 2020).

941:

than the WTW results, as the GHG due to the manufacturing and the end of life of the battery are also considered.

8163: 7795: 7791: 7773: 7702: 7519: 7218: 7213: 6484: 2143:"PAS 2050:2011 Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services" 3087:

Salemdeeb, Ramy; Saint, Ruth; Clark, William; Lenaghan, Michael; Pratt, Kimberley; Millar, Fraser (March 2021).

2200: 8088: 8045: 8040: 7533: 7444: 7069: 925: 8035: 7649: 7349: 6020:

Martin, Eduardo J.P.; Oliveira, Deborah S.B.L.; Oliveira, Luiza S.B.L.; Bezerra, Barbara S. (December 2020).

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Damgaard, Anders; Riber, Christian; Fruergaard, Thilde; Hulgaard, Tore; Christensen, Thomas H. (July 2010).

3548: 1137:, the growing nature of the power grid must be taken into consideration. If this is not done, a given class 26:

This article is about the environment impacts of products. For the ultimate cost of business decisions, see

7980: 7467: 7289: 4676:

Singh, S.; Bakshi, B.R. (2009). "Eco-LCA: A tool for quantifying the role of ecological resources in LCA".

1265:

approximation of environmental impacts than a dataset selected by default or by geographical proximity" or

1169: 975: 873: 4493: 3089:"A pragmatic and industry-oriented framework for data quality assessment of environmental footprint tools" 8158: 8010: 7903: 7866: 7840: 7743: 7233: 7146: 7090:

Vogtländer, J.G., "A practical guide to LCA for students, designers, and business managers", VSSD, 2010,

6650: 6245:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 11762. Springer International Publishing. pp. 75–79. 5821: 4380: 3739: 3495: 2741:"Futura: A new tool for transparent and shareable scenario analysis in prospective life cycle assessment" 2556: 2493: 1319: 1165: 900: 477:

of the study may cause additional collection of data or removal of previously collected data in the LCI.

210: 5857:"Exergy as a Measure of Resource Use in Life Cycle Assessment and Other Sustainability Assessment Tools" 5093:"Life cycle energy use and environmental implications of high-performance perovskite tandem solar cells" 4958:

Ramesh, T.; Prakash, Ravi; Shukla, K.K. (2010). "Life cycle energy analysis of buildings: An overview".

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Wall, Göran; Gong, Mei (2001). "On exergy and sustainable development—Part 1: Conditions and concepts".

8118: 7950: 7894: 7828: 7728: 7707: 7385: 7299: 6603: 4553:"Electricity carbon intensity in European Member States: Impacts on GHG emissions of electric vehicles" 3735: 3322: 1433: 1304: 913: 7133: 1019:

It is recognized that much energy is lost in the production of energy commodities themselves, such as

7975: 7824: 7688: 7188: 5583: 1285: 797:, then used as an energy-saving device in the ceiling of a home for 40 years, saving 2,000 times the 6350:

Algren, Mikaela; Fisher, Wendy; Landis, Amy E. (2021). "Machine learning in life cycle assessment".

5806: 5702: 5281: 4439: 1696:"A life cycle analysis of ionizing radiation shielding construction systems in healthcare buildings" 82:

extraction and processing (cradle), through the product's manufacture, distribution and use, to the

8005: 7913: 7876: 7845: 7758: 7712: 7515: 7471: 7400: 7309: 7248: 3520:

Shaked, Shanna; Crettaz, Pierre; Saade-Sbeih, Myriam; Jolliet, Olivier; Jolliet, Alexandre (2015).

2494:"21 - Sustainability and life assessment of high strength natural fibre composites in construction" 1413: 1323: 1079: 937: 909: 248: 186: 110: 27: 7025:

Curran, Mary A. "Environmental Life Cycle Assessment", McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing, 1996,

5605:"Thermodynamic limitations to nuclear energy deployment as a greenhouse gas mitigation technology" 4772: 3909:"A review of online sources of open-access life cycle assessment data for the construction sector" 3675:

Proceedings of the 1997 IEEE International Symposium on Electronics and the Environment. ISEE-1997

8060: 8050: 8000: 7644: 7639: 7415: 7405: 7344: 7339: 7284: 7003:

Crawford, R.H. (2011) Life Cycle Assessment in the Built Environment, London: Taylor and Francis.

4073:"Environmental impacts associated with the production, use, and end-of-life of a woollen garment" 1754: 1695: 1297: 1240: 1196: 834: 260:

Therefore, none of the stages should be considered finalized until the entire study is complete.

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Pehnt, Martin (2003). "Assessing future energy and transport systems: the case of fuel cells".

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including all intervening transportation steps necessary or caused by the product's existence.

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Pehnt, Martin (2006). "Dynamic life cycle assessment (LCA) of renewable energy technologies".

2856:"Approaches to LCA - Economic Input-Output Life Cycle Assessment - Carnegie Mellon University" 632:

Identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of an LCA

516:

the "Allocation procedure" outlined in the previous "Goal and scope" section of this article.

8148: 8015: 7733: 7624: 7589: 7329: 6428: 5793: 4426: 4183:"Cradle-to-gate Life Cycle Inventory of Nine Plastic Resins and Four Polyurethane Precursors" 2915: 1693: 1448: 664:

ISO specifies three types of classification in regard to standards and environmental labels:

150:

Evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with identified inputs and releases

3924: 2088: 671:

Type II environmental labels are self-declared environmental claims, according to ISO 14021.

8020: 7955: 7529: 7395: 7334: 7314: 7263: 7203: 6966: 6875: 6832: 6763: 6615: 6568: 6499: 6440: 6316: 6094: 6033: 6022:"Dataset for life cycle assessment of pet bottle waste management options in Bauru, Brazil" 5929: 5738: 5689: 5654: 5549: 5485: 5426: 5379: 5328: 5268: 5233: 5190: 5104: 5057: 4967: 4892: 4857: 4814: 4613: 4525: 4338: 4084: 4034: 3920: 3848: 3716:

LCA Digital Commons Unit Process Data: field operations/ work processes and farm implements

3638: 3521: 3053: 2964: 2375: 2302: 2224:

Curran, Mary Ann (2017). "Overview of Goal and Scope Definition in Life Cycle Assessment".

1998: 1503: 1463: 1443: 1378: 1152:

A problem that arises when using the energy analysis method is that different energy forms—

1098: 644: 582:

is given a value of 1 and all other units are converted respective to their related impact.

75: 71: 59: 7436: 6120:

Ciroth, Andreas; Di Noi, Claudia; Burhan, Salwa Syed; Srocka, Michael (23 December 2019).

5976: 5644: 2780:

Moni, Sheikh Moniruzzaman; Mahmud, Roksana; High, Karen; Carbajales-Dale, Michael (2019).

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inputs and releases / * Interpreting the results to help you make a more informed decision

1039:, directly or indirectly. A controversial early result of LCEA claimed that manufacturing 8: 7990: 7940: 7899: 7634: 7507: 7304: 7054:"LCA: Principles, Practice and Prospects". CSIRO Publishing, Victoria, Australia, 2009., 3933: 3908: 2953:"The creation, management, and use of data quality information for life cycle assessment" 794: 6970: 6900: 6879: 6836: 6767: 6619: 6572: 6503: 6444: 6320: 6235: 6180:"Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Digital Commons Database | U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit" 6098: 6037: 5933: 5742: 5693: 5658: 5553: 5489: 5430: 5383: 5332: 5272: 5237: 5194: 5108: 5061: 4971: 4896: 4861: 4818: 4617: 4529: 4454:"Full Fuel Cycle Assessment: Well-To-Wheels Energy Inputs, Emissions, and Water Impacts" 4342: 4214: 4088: 4038: 3852: 3843:

Guo, M.; Murphy, R.J. (2012). "LCA data quality: Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis".

3642: 3057: 2968: 2379: 2306: 2158: 2002: 1507: 147:

Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases

39:

Illustration of the general phases of a life cycle assessment, as described by ISO 14040

8078: 7850: 7778: 7683: 7629: 7380: 7364: 7359: 7169: 6866:

Björklund, Anna E. (March 2002). "Survey of approaches to improve reliability in lca".

6781: 6631: 6584: 6515: 6464: 6409: 6359: 6332: 6264: 6067: 6054: 6021: 6002: 5952: 5917: 5761: 5726: 5627: 5565: 5454: 5352: 5294: 5206: 5127: 5092: 4699: 4577: 4552: 4354: 4311: 4112: 3938: 3826: 3696: 3654: 3373: 3192: 3110: 3069: 3026: 2985: 2952: 2803: 2762: 2391: 2041: 2014: 1896: 1836: 1666: 1615: 1327: 1199: 1045: 1028: 5666: 5178: 4944: 4757: 4730: 4158:

Smart electronic systems: heterogeneous integration of silicon and printed electronics

2112:

ISO 14044: Environmental management—Life cycle assessment, Requirements and guidelines

1350: 710:

Data sources used in LCAs are typically large databases. Common data sources include:

8074: 8030: 7768: 7698: 7668: 7614: 7493: 7183: 7091: 7080: 7065: 7055: 7040: 7026: 7016: 6982: 6930: 6848: 6785: 6658: 6627: 6588: 6519: 6468: 6456: 6413: 6363: 6336: 6268: 6254: 6159: 6071: 6059: 5992: 5957: 5829: 5766: 5631: 5458: 5395: 5344: 5298: 5210: 5132: 5073: 4830: 4689: 4645: 4582: 4358: 4315: 4161: 4116: 4050: 3942: 3887: 3864: 3800: 3686: 3658: 3527: 3467: 3377: 3284:

Future-Proof Building Materials: A Life Cycle Analysis. Intersections and Adjacencies

3244: 3148: 3114: 3073: 3030: 2990: 2931: 2894: 2807: 2766: 2686: 2653: 2649: 2602: 2564: 2501: 2446: 2395: 2318: 2274: 2237: 2045: 2018: 1970: 1882: 1840: 1826: 1670: 1519: 1386: 1374: 1355: 1138: 1134: 1114: 1106: 1036: 1014: 905:

Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET) model

244: 67: 63: 6799: 6635: 6006: 5988: 5569: 5356: 4703: 4384: 4274: 3860: 3700: 635:

Evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks

7579: 7425: 7279: 6974: 6883: 6840: 6771: 6623: 6576: 6507: 6448: 6399: 6355: 6324: 6246: 6151: 6106: 6102: 6049: 6041: 5984: 5947: 5937: 5868: 5756: 5746: 5707: 5662: 5619: 5557: 5522: 5493: 5444: 5434: 5387: 5336: 5286: 5241: 5198: 5179:"Life cycle assessment of recycling strategies for perovskite photovoltaic modules" 5159: 5122: 5112: 5065: 5030: 5003: 4975: 4940: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4865: 4822: 4753: 4726: 4681: 4642:

Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and Services: An Input–Output Approach

4621: 4572: 4564: 4537: 4533: 4414: 4346: 4301: 4270: 4102: 4092: 4042: 3928: 3856: 3792: 3678: 3646: 3365: 3357: 3221: 3100: 3061: 3018: 2980: 2972: 2923: 2920:

Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and Services: An Input-output Approach

2886: 2834: 2793: 2752: 2719: 2678: 2645: 2438: 2383: 2310: 2266: 2229: 2074:

ISO 14040: Environmental management—Life cycle assessment, Principles and framework

2037: 2006: 1928: 1818: 1715: 1707: 1662: 1511: 1423: 1359: 1315: 1266: 1214: 1130: 1035:

is the energy content of the product minus energy input used during extraction and

893: 190: 6150:. LCA Compendium – the Complete World of Life Cycle Assessment. pp. 123–147. 6146:

Ciroth, Andreas; Burhan, Salwa (2021). "Life Cycle Inventory Data and Databases".

5391: 4979: 4247: 3607: 3225: 2855: 2314: 2142: 1932: 1562:

National Risk Management Research Laboratory (NRMRL). 6 March 2012. Archived from

1515: 224:

series of environmental management standards, in particular, ISO 14040 and 14044.

7748: 7678: 7584: 7554: 7503: 7498: 7482: 7410: 7354: 7127: 6907: 6806: 6737: 6717: 6250: 5590: 5526: 5474:"Engineering sustainability: thermodynamics, energy systems, and the environment" 5340: 5245: 4306: 4289: 3882:

Groen, E. A.; Heijungs, R.; Bokkers, E. A. M.; de Boer, I. J. M. (October 2014).

3817: 3796: 3105: 3088: 2270: 2165: 1952: 1468: 1334: 1192: 1161: 1110: 1061: 1049: 917: 311:

emissions). Another way to look at it is by considering the following questions:

228:(GHG) product life cycle assessments can also comply with specifications such as 6750:

Polizzi di Sorrentino, Eugenia; Woelbert, Eva; Sala, Serenella (February 2016).

6155: 5711: 5584:"Optimizing Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Strategies to Suppress Energy Cannibalism" 5439: 5414: 4662: 2890: 2233: 7619: 7474: 7294: 6821:"Uncertainty Implications of Hybrid Approach in LCA: Precision versus Accuracy" 6511: 6452: 6404: 6387: 6328: 5623: 5290: 5202: 5163: 5034: 5007: 4685: 4663:"Limitations of the EIO-LCA Method—Economic Input-Output Life Cycle Assessment" 4097: 4072: 3297: 2476:. Cincinnati, Ohio: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. pp. 19–30. 2228:. LCA Compendium – the Complete World of Life Cycle Assessment. pp. 1–62. 1711: 1382: 1367: 1252: 1122: 921: 844: 450:

According to ISO 14044, an LCI should be documented using the following steps:

416: 412: 225: 7134:

LCA Example: Light Emitting Diode (LED) from GSA's Sustainable Facilities Tool

6776: 6751: 6580: 6045: 4626: 4601: 4568: 4372:

Brinkman, Norman; Wang, Michael; Weber, Trudy; Darlington, Thomas (May 2005).

3999: 3766:"Environmental management — Life cycle assessment — Data documentation format" 3650: 2976: 2821:

Khasreen, Mohamad Monkiz; Banfill, Phillip F. G.; Menzies, Gillian F. (2009).

2682: 2442: 2387: 2010: 1974: 899:

The well-to-wheel variant has a significant input on a model developed by the

8142: 8132: 7965: 7420: 6709: 5873: 5856: 4869: 3682: 3241:

Review of Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) Methods and Inventory Databases

1822: 1743:. Cincinnati, Ohio: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. pp. 3–9. 1281: 1173: 1020: 889: 881: 286:

Whether the results will be used in a comparative assertion released publicly

6844: 6820: 5942: 4412: 1810: 1563: 1307:, can also be integrated in analyses of potentials, barriers and methods to 185:

assessment requires the assessment of raw-material production, manufacture,

35: 7945: 7559: 6986: 6852: 6460: 6429:"Projected environmental benefits of replacing beef with microbial protein" 6063: 5961: 5770: 5399: 5348: 5136: 5117: 5077: 4834: 4586: 4489: 4418: 4054: 3868: 3804: 3369: 3361: 2994: 2823:"Life-Cycle Assessment and the Environmental Impact of Buildings: A Review" 2322: 2278: 1877:

Hauschild, Michael Z., Ralph K. Rosenbaum, & Stig Irving Olsen (2018).

1523: 1428: 1207: 1087: 1075: 1024: 929: 688:

A life cycle analysis is only as accurate and valid as is its basis set of

79: 3765: 3183:

Matthews, H. Scott, Chis T. Hendrickson, & Deanna H. Matthews (2014).

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Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards

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National Council for Air and Stream Improvement Special Report No: 04-03

5889:"These are the UK supermarket items with the worst environmental impact" 4913: 3466:. Cham, Switzerland: Spring International Publishing. pp. 324–334. 3185:

Life Cycle Assessment: Quantitative Approaches for Decisions that Matter

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Life Cycle Assessment: Quantitative Approaches for Decisions that Matter

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Life Cycle Assessment: Quantitative Approaches for Decisions that Matter

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Life Cycle Assessment: Quantitative Approaches for Decisions That Matter

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2009 IEEE International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technology

4350: 4107: 3143:

Hauschild, Michael Z.; Rosenbaum, Ralph K.; Olsen, Stig Irving (2018).

3065: 3022: 2798: 2781: 2757: 2740: 2597:

Hauschild, Michael Z.; Rosenbaum, Ralph K.; Olsen, Stig Irving (2018).

2418:

Matthews, H. Scott; Hendrickson, Chris T.; Matthews, Deanna H. (2014).

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Matthew, H. Scott; Hendrickson, Chris T.; Matthews, Deanna H. (2014).

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LCI methods include "process-based LCAs", economic input–output LCA (

221: 206: 139:

As stated by the National Risk Management Research Laboratory of the

106: 105:

Widely recognized procedures for conducting LCAs are included in the

83: 6557: 6426: 3282:

Rich, Brian D. (2015). Gines, J.; Carraher, E.; Galarze, J. (eds.).

203:

UNEP/SETAC’s Guidelines for social life cycle assessment of products

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Interpreting the results to help you make a more informed decision".

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A synthesis of research on wood products and greenhouse gas impacts

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Hendrickson, Chris T.; Lave, Lester B.; Matthews, H. Scott (2006).

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Inputs (raw materials, ancillary materials, energy, transportation)

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2nd Climate Change Technology Conference Proceedings, p. 48, 2009

3392:"Sustainable Management of Construction and Demolition Materials" 1418: 1363: 6604:"Integration of Life Cycle Assessment Into Agent-Based Modeling" 5981:

2017 Sustainable Internet and ICT for Sustainability (SustainIT)

5915: 5612:

International Journal of Nuclear Governance, Economy and Ecology

3007: 2364: 367:

Consistency and reproducibility of the methods used in the study

7738: 7609: 7319: 7111: 6122:"LCA database creation: Current challenges and the way forward" 5820:

Sekerka, Robert F. (1 January 2015), Sekerka, Robert F. (ed.),

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Advanced High Strength Natural Fibre Composites in Construction

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Indonesian Journal of Life Cycle Assessment and Sustainability

5918:"Estimating the environmental impacts of 57,000 food products" 5724: 4803: 3818:

Scientific Applications International Corporation (May 2006).

2291: 2133:

ISO 14044 replaced earlier versions of ISO 14041 to ISO 14043.

996:

Life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) is an approach in which all

944: 847:

approach have been proposed to deal with the issues involved.

434: 220:

Some widely recognized procedures for LCA are included in the

7886: 7193: 6019: 5091:

Tian, Xueyu; Stranks, Samuel D.; You, Fengqi (31 July 2020).

4640:

Hendrickson, C. T., Lave, L. B., and Matthews, H. S. (2005).

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3438:"TrueValueMetrics ... Impact Accounting for the 21st Century" 2779: 828: 6731:

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6084: 4514: 1272: 1105:

In recent years, the literature on life cycle assessment of

699:

When comparing LCAs, the data used in each LCA should be of

7574: 7466: 6685:"Why the circular economy and LCA make each other stronger" 6376: 6229: 5911: 5909: 4371: 4328: 4215:"Cradle to Cradle Marketplace | Frequently asked Questions" 3974: 3881: 3743: 3575:"ISO Descriptions of Environmental Labels and Declarations" 3086: 2555:

Haque, Nawshad (1 January 2020), Letcher, Trevor M. (ed.),

2417: 1153: 1071: 868: 783: 689: 408: 364:

Precision, completeness, and representativeness of the data

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1987: 1202:

in supermarkets, potentially e.g., informing consumers or

1188:

There are structured systematic datasets of and for LCAs.

1109:

has begun to reflect the interactions between the current

7871: 5679: 4992: 4557:

Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment

3424:

Life Cycle Assessment: Best Practices of ISO 14040 Series

3269:

Life Cycle Assessment: Best Practices of ISO 14040 Series

2627:

Life Cycle Assessment: Best Practices of ISO 14040 Series

1559: 234:

GHG Protocol Life Cycle Accounting and Reporting Standard

140: 86:

or final disposal of the materials composing it (grave).

6119: 5906: 5413:

Kerr, Niall; Gouldson, Andy; Barrett, John (July 2017).

5258: 4070: 1229:

The goal of the LCA Digital Commons Project of the U.S.

1195:

calculated detailed environmental impacts of >57,000

3461: 3142: 2913: 2596: 1967:

Guidelines for social life cycle assessment of products

1946:

Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products

1811:"Attributional and Consequential Life Cycle Assessment" 1789:

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

1349:

Life cycle assessment is a powerful tool for analyzing

373:

Uncertainty of information and any recognized data gaps

6282: 5149: 4773:"Exergy - a useful concept within resource accounting" 3913:

IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science

2820: 2492:

Cao, C. (1 January 2017), Fan, Mizi; Fu, Feng (eds.),

2159:"Product Life Cycle Accounting and Reporting Standard" 1180:

may be used as the metric for LCA, instead of energy.

534: 454:

Preparation of data collection based on goal and scope

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database for collecting LCA data for food products.

1168:

measures the change in internal energy, whereas the

205:

published in 2009 in Quebec. The tool builds on the

6601: 5412: 5369: 4957: 4882: 4156:Zheng, Li-Rong; Tenhunen, Hannu; Zou, Zhuo (2018). 2951:Edelen, Ashley; Ingwersen, Wesley W. (April 2018). 2883:

Life Cycle Assessment in the Chemical Product Chain

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Data validation (even if using another work's data)

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After 40 years the 438:An example of a life cycle inventory (LCI) diagram 161:Example life cycle assessment (LCA) stages diagram 89:An LCA study involves a thorough inventory of the 5450:20.500.11820/b78583fe-7f05-4c05-ad27-af5135a07e3e 4669: 4260: 3907:Pagnon, F; Mathern, A; Ek, K (21 November 2020). 864:Well-to-wheel (WtW) is the specific LCA used for 8140: 6714:The Informed Student Guide to Management Science 5602: 4155: 3820:"Life cycle assessment: principles and practice" 2705: 2214: 1482: 7986:Environmental, social, and corporate governance 6819:Perkins, Jessica; Suh, Sangwon (2 April 2019). 6485:"Losses and lifetimes of metals in the economy" 6352:Data Science Applied to Sustainability Analysis 6306: 5922:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4180: 3906: 2950: 1172:measures entropy increase. Approaches such as 769:Comprehensive Environmental Data Archive (CEDA) 16:Methodology for assessing environmental impacts 6959:Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 6534:"Integrating life cycle cost analysis and LCA" 5176: 5090: 3489:"Life Cycle Analysis: Principles and Practice" 3350:International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 2738: 2474:Life Cycle Assessment: Principles and Practice 2201:"Defining the goal and scope of the LCA study" 1741:Life Cycle Assessment: Principles and Practice 1546: 1544: 1542: 1540: 1538: 174:provide a sound basis for informed decisions. 115:International Organization for Standardization 97:that are required across the supply chain and 7452: 7154: 4550: 3957:"Your source for LCA and sustainability data" 3884:Sensitivity analysis in life cycle assessment 2103: 2101: 2099: 2097: 2065: 2063: 2061: 1955:, United Nations Environment Programme, 2009. 1815:Sustainability Assessment at the 21st century 1656: 985: 817:product life cycle from resource extraction ( 507:Quantity and quality of each input and output 429: 70:, or service. For instance, in the case of a 6243:The Semantic Web: ESWC 2019 Satellite Events 6145: 5020: 4401:See Executive Summary – ES.1 Background, pp1 3713: 3197:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2922:. Resources for the Future. pp. 21–28. 2435:Perspectives in Life Cycle Impact Assessment 1965:Benoît, Catherine; Mazijn, Bernard. (2013). 1964: 1901:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1620:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1289: 1149:|date=October 2023}} in wind energy's case. 638:Conclusions, limitations and recommendations 6910:. Ncasi.org. 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United Nations Environment Programme. 1641: 1605: 1220: 784:Cradle-to-grave or life cycle assessment 540:mandatory steps for completing an LCIA: 433: 238: 156: 131:Definition, synonyms, goals, and purpose 34: 7820:Pollutant release and transfer register 5828:, Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 31–48, 5819: 5471: 5223: 4926: 4924: 4847: 4791:Exergy analysis and resource accounting 3572: 3549:"Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) explained" 3043: 2706:Steinbach, V.; Wellmer, F. 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There also is at least one 1003:total life cycle energy input 715:HESTIA (University of Oxford) 7981:Environmental pricing reform 7512:environmental responsibility 6251:10.1007/978-3-030-32327-1_15 5527:10.1016/j.renene.2005.03.002 5341:10.1016/j.wasman.2010.03.025 5246:10.1016/j.energy.2010.06.014 4307:10.1016/j.procir.2021.01.039 3825:. p. 88. Archived from 3797:10.1016/j.envint.2003.11.005 3243:. 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F. (1997). 6777:10.1007/s11367-015-1016-2 6581:10.1007/s11367-013-0666-1 6046:10.1016/j.dib.2020.106355 5603:Joshua M. Pearce (2008). 4627:10.1007/s11367-015-0954-z 4569:10.1016/j.trd.2017.07.012 4331:Int. J. Life Cycle Assess 4136:thebusinessprofessor.com/ 3785:Environment International 3651:10.1007/s11367-008-0009-9 2977:10.1007/s11367-017-1348-1 2683:10.1002/9781118528372.ch5 2443:10.1007/978-1-4615-5127-0 2388:10.1007/s11367-011-0283-9 2259:Environment International 2011:10.1007/s11367-009-0147-8 1368:unrepresentative sampling 1286:climate change mitigation 1255:information on products". 495:Period of data collection 350:Data quality requirements 8006:Health impact assessment 7877:Sustainability reporting 7846:Toxics Release Inventory 7640:Transparency (behavioral 7615:Social impact assessment 7504:Corporate accountability 7401:Ecological modernization 7310:Ecological modernization 7249:Life-cycle cost analysis 6087:Building and Environment 5874:10.3390/resources5030023 4870:10.1162/1088198043630397 4789:Gaudreau, Kyrke (2009). 4551:Moro A; Lonza L (2018). 3683:10.1109/ISEE.1997.605313 3604:www.thegreenstandard.org 3579:ecosystem-analytics.com/ 3442:www.truevaluemetrics.org 1823:10.5772/intechopen.89202 1414:Anthropogenic metabolism 1191:A 2022 dataset provided 1080:greenhouse gas emissions 938:battery electric vehicle 910:greenhouse gas emissions 277:The intended application 249:greenhouse gas emissions 243:Life cycle analysis and 122:ecological consequences. 111:environmental management 28:Life cycle cost analysis 8061:Supply chain management 8001:Global justice movement 7800:profit-and-loss account 7416:Sustainable development 7406:Environmental economics 7345:Precautionary principle 7340:Polluter pays principle 7285:Cradle-to-cradle design 6845:10.1021/acs.est.9b00084 5943:10.1073/pnas.2120584119 4606:Int J Life Cycle Assess 4160:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. 3925:2020E&ES..588d2051P 3298:"Life Cycle Assessment" 1951:18 January 2012 at the 1074:and natural gas. While 835:Cradle-to-cradle design 492:Data collector and date 8164:Management cybernetics 8026:SDG Publishers Compact 7788:Environmental conflict 7595:Organizational justice 7386:Design for environment 7254:Material flow analysis 6920:Sathre, Roger (2010). 5801:Cite journal requires 5118:10.1126/sciadv.abb0055 4434:Cite journal requires 4419:10.13140/2.1.2638.8163 4000:"Data License: CEDA 5" 3736:"How Does GREET Work?" 3553:pre-sustainability.com 3362:10.1065/lca2006.05.250 2109:Saling, Peter (2006). 2071:Saling, Peter (2006). 1409:Agroecosystem analysis 1385:in landfills and with 1147:Please include a study 1068:electricity production 957:Ecologically based LCA 439: 361:Technological coverage 255:Main ISO phases of LCA 251: 162: 124: 40: 8016:Product certification 7815:Life-cycle assessment 7734:Performance indicator 7625:Social responsibility 7590:Organizational ethics 7520:social responsibility 7330:Industrial metabolism 7244:Life-cycle assessment 7189:Cost–benefit analysis 7119:at Wikimedia Commons 7117:Life-cycle assessment 7075:Vigon, B. W. (1994). 6740:Building Green, 2010. 6492:Nature Sustainability 5183:Nature Sustainability 4250:on 26 September 2015. 4181:Franklin Associates. 3714:Joyce Cooper (2015). 3327:www.sciencedirect.com 2928:10.4324/9781936331383 1449:End-of-life (product) 1221:LCA dataset platforms 1060:Further information: 1013:Further information: 578:equivalents) where CO 437: 423:Documentation of data 358:Geographical coverage 242: 160: 119: 76:environmental impacts 60:environmental impacts 44:Life cycle assessment 38: 8021:Public participation 7956:Conflict of interest 7546:inequality in the UK 7538:in the United States 7530:Environmental racism 7396:Ecological economics 7335:Industrial symbiosis 7315:Efficient energy use 7264:Stakeholder analysis 7204:Ecological footprint 6805:9 March 2013 at the 6736:5 March 2012 at the 6538:2.-0 LCA consultants 6354:. pp. 167–190. 5589:14 June 2011 at the 4960:Energy and Buildings 4771:Wall, Göran (1977). 3847:. 435–436: 230–243. 3832:on 23 November 2009. 3677:. pp. 176–181. 2677:. pp. 105–141. 1464:True cost accounting 1444:Ecological footprint 1379:carbon sequestration 1320:tech-critical metals 1284:reduction (56%) and 1260:Dataset optimization 1241:product footprinting 1184:LCA dataset creation 379:Allocation procedure 72:manufactured product 7991:Ethical consumerism 7941:Benefit corporation 7833:metrics and indices 7635:Sullivan principles 7550:injustice in Europe 7305:Eco-industrial park 6971:2015JSFA...95.2544K 6880:2002IJLCA...7...64B 6837:2019EnST...53.3681P 6768:2016IJLCA..21..237P 6620:2009JInEc..13..306D 6573:2014IJLCA..19..601S 6504:2022NatSu...5..717C 6445:2022Natur.605...90H 6321:2020IJLCA..25..771M 6184:toolkit.climate.gov 6099:2014BuEnv..79...20T 6038:2020DIB....3306355M 5934:2022PNAS..11920584C 5928:(33): e2120584119. 5743:2020Entrp..22..820N 5694:2010EnPol..38.1969K 5659:2004EnPol..32..281M 5554:2003IJLCA...8..283P 5490:2004IJER...28..613H 5431:2017EnPol.106..212K 5384:2008JEnvM..87..132L 5333:2010WaMan..30.1244D 5273:2008ICEE..161...73A 5238:2010Ene....35.4064M 5195:2021NatSu...4..821T 5109:2020SciA....6...55T 5062:2013EnST...47.3482D 4972:2010EneBu..42.1592R 4897:2014ApEn..113.1405R 4862:2004JInEc...8...19S 4819:2008EnST...42.2221D 4618:2017IJLCA..22....4M 4530:2020IJHE...45..972L 4343:2000IJLCA...5..153J 4089:2020IJLCA..25.1486W 4039:2009EnST...43.3300P 3853:2012ScTEn.435..230G 3643:2008IJLCA..13..374R 3610:on 12 November 2011 3187:. pp. 373–393. 3058:1998IJLCA...3..259W 2969:2018IJLCA..23..759E 2544:. pp. 101–112. 2422:. pp. 174–186. 2380:2011IJLCA..16..420F 2307:2009JEnvM..91....1F 2003:2010IJLCA..15..156B 1508:2010JEnvM..91..563I 1292:of per-capita beef 232:(PAS) 2050 and the 52:life cycle analysis 8159:Industrial ecology 8079:Environment portal 7851:Triple bottom line 7779:Emission inventory 7684:Double bottom line 7630:Stakeholder theory 7381:Cleaner production 7365:Waste valorization 7360:Waste minimisation 7229:Input–output model 7170:Industrial ecology 6906:7 May 2013 at the 6888:10.1007/BF02978849 6689:PRé Sustainability 6209:One Planet network 5983:. pp. 88–90. 5562:10.1007/BF02978920 4351:10.1007/BF02978615 4240:"Cradle-to-Cradle" 4195:on 6 February 2011 3501:on 18 October 2011 3487:Curran, Mary Ann. 3066:10.1007/BF02979832 3023:10.1111/jiec.12326 2799:10.1111/jiec.12965 2758:10.1111/jiec.13115 2164:9 May 2013 at the 1558:. Washington, DC. 1383:methane generation 1328:sustainable design 1318:of, often scarce, 1046:energy cannibalism 1033:Net energy content 1029:petroleum products 926:particulate matter 892:, including their 793:(fiberised paper) 440: 252: 213:(GRI) Guidelines. 163: 78:are assessed from 41: 8114: 8113: 8031:Social enterprise 7936:Bangladesh Accord 7796:management system 7792:impact assessment 7769:Carbon accounting 7699:Impact assessment 7650:UN Global Compact 7542:in Western Europe 7494:Aarhus Convention 7434: 7433: 7290:Dematerialization 7184:Agent-based model 7115:Media related to 7096:978-90-6562-253-2 7031:978-0-07-015063-8 6979:10.1002/jsfa.7149 6965:(12): 2544–2553. 6946:on 21 March 2012. 6936:978-0-86488-546-3 6664:978-0-12-815581-3 6369:978-0-12-817976-5 6260:978-3-030-32326-4 6165:978-3-030-62269-5 5998:978-3-901882-99-9 5835:978-0-12-803304-3 5752:10.3390/e22080820 5232:(10): 4064–4070. 5070:10.1021/es3038824 4966:(10): 1592–1600. 4827:10.1021/es071719a 4047:10.1021/es802056r 3893:978-0-9882145-7-6 3473:978-3-319-56474-6 3250:978-3-030-39149-2 3154:978-3-319-56474-6 2937:978-1-933115-23-8 2900:978-3-030-34423-8 2885:. pp. 3–32. 2840:10.3390/su1030674 2725:10.3390/su2051408 2692:978-1-118-09972-8 2659:978-0-262-32786-2 2608:978-3-319-56474-6 2570:978-0-08-102886-5 2507:978-0-08-100411-1 2452:978-1-4613-7333-9 2243:978-94-024-0854-6 2051:978-0-12-804792-7 1888:978-3-319-56474-6 1610:. pp. 83–95. 1387:carbon accounting 1375:product lifecycle 1356:boundary critique 1298:microbial protein 1139:energy technology 1135:energy technology 1115:energy technology 1107:energy technology 1099:Energy efficiency 1015:Energy production 1009:Energy production 745:LC-Inventories.ch 401:Impact assessment 355:Temporal coverage 245:carbon accounting 113:standards of the 50:), also known as 8171: 8131: 8130: 8122: 8097: 8096: 8087: 8086: 8077: 7662: 7580:Little Eichmanns 7461: 7454: 7447: 7438: 7437: 7426:Urban metabolism 7280:Circular economy 7163: 7156: 7149: 7140: 7139: 7114: 7006:J. 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3280: 3276: 3265: 3258: 3251: 3237: 3233: 3210: 3206: 3190: 3189: 3181: 3162: 3155: 3141: 3122: 3085: 3081: 3042: 3038: 3006: 3002: 2949: 2945: 2938: 2912: 2908: 2901: 2878: 2874: 2864: 2862: 2852: 2848: 2819: 2815: 2778: 2774: 2737: 2733: 2704: 2700: 2693: 2671: 2667: 2660: 2638: 2634: 2623: 2616: 2609: 2595: 2584: 2575: 2573: 2571: 2553: 2549: 2538: 2521: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2490: 2481: 2472: 2471: 2460: 2453: 2431: 2427: 2416: 2403: 2363: 2359: 2349: 2347: 2338: 2337: 2330: 2290: 2286: 2255: 2251: 2244: 2222: 2215: 2203: 2197: 2176: 2166:Wayback Machine 2157: 2153: 2141: 2137: 2132: 2128: 2118: 2116: 2106: 2095: 2080: 2078: 2068: 2059: 2052: 2030: 2026: 1986: 1982: 1963: 1959: 1953:Wayback Machine 1944: 1940: 1917: 1910: 1894: 1893: 1889: 1875: 1852: 1833: 1807: 1803: 1793: 1791: 1783: 1782: 1778: 1768: 1766: 1753: 1752: 1748: 1739: 1738: 1729: 1692: 1688: 1677: 1655: 1651: 1640: 1629: 1613: 1612: 1604: 1583: 1569: 1567: 1566:on 6 March 2012 1550: 1549: 1536: 1492: 1483: 1478: 1473: 1469:Water footprint 1399: 1347: 1335:decision-making 1275: 1262: 1223: 1186: 1162:chemical energy 1144: 1128: 1111:electrical grid 1096: 1064: 1062:Energy recovery 1058: 1056:Energy recovery 1050:embodied energy 1017: 1011: 994: 988: 968: 959: 947: 918:carbon monoxide 862: 853: 837: 831: 811: 786: 781: 772: 748:Social Hotspots 686: 658: 625: 581: 577: 573: 569: 537: 457:Data collection 432: 370:Sources of data 338:System boundary 310: 305:Functional unit 266: 257: 133: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8177: 8167: 8166: 8161: 8156: 8151: 8136: 8135: 8112: 8111: 8109: 8108: 8103: 8091: 8081: 8070: 8067: 8066: 8064: 8063: 8058: 8048: 8043: 8038: 8033: 8028: 8023: 8018: 8013: 8008: 8003: 7998: 7993: 7988: 7983: 7978: 7973: 7968: 7963: 7958: 7953: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7932: 7930: 7926: 7925: 7923: 7922: 7917: 7907: 7897: 7891: 7889: 7883: 7882: 7880: 7879: 7874: 7872:GxP guidelines 7869: 7863: 7861: 7857: 7856: 7854: 7853: 7848: 7843: 7822: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7781: 7776: 7771: 7765: 7763: 7755: 7754: 7752: 7751: 7746: 7741: 7736: 7731: 7726: 7721: 7716: 7710: 7705: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7675: 7673: 7665: 7664: 7657: 7655: 7653: 7652: 7647: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7620:Social justice 7617: 7612: 7607: 7602: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7572: 7567: 7562: 7557: 7552: 7527: 7522: 7516:responsibility 7501: 7496: 7490: 7488: 7479: 7478: 7475:accountability 7464: 7463: 7456: 7449: 7441: 7432: 7431: 7429: 7428: 7423: 7418: 7413: 7408: 7403: 7398: 7393: 7388: 7383: 7377: 7375: 7374:Related fields 7371: 7370: 7368: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7350:Rebound effect 7347: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7297: 7295:Eco-efficiency 7292: 7287: 7282: 7276: 7274: 7270: 7269: 7267: 7266: 7261: 7256: 7251: 7246: 7241: 7236: 7231: 7226: 7221: 7216: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7196: 7191: 7186: 7180: 7178: 7174: 7173: 7166: 7165: 7158: 7151: 7143: 7137: 7136: 7131: 7107: 7106:External links 7104: 7103: 7102: 7099: 7088: 7073: 7062: 7048: 7033: 7023: 7013: 7004: 6999: 6996: 6993: 6992: 6949: 6935: 6912: 6893: 6858: 6811: 6791: 6762:(2): 237–251. 6742: 6729:Malin, Nadav, 6722: 6702: 6676: 6663: 6641: 6614:(2): 306–325. 6594: 6567:(3): 601–610. 6550: 6525: 6498:(8): 717–726. 6474: 6419: 6375: 6368: 6342: 6315:(4): 771–783. 6299: 6274: 6259: 6222: 6196: 6171: 6164: 6138: 6112: 6077: 6012: 5997: 5967: 5905: 5880: 5847: 5834: 5812: 5803:|journal= 5776: 5717: 5672: 5653:(2): 281–287. 5637: 5618:(1): 113–130. 5595: 5575: 5548:(5): 283–289. 5532: 5505: 5499:10.1002/er.988 5484:(7): 613–639. 5464: 5405: 5378:(1): 132–138. 5362: 5304: 5251: 5216: 5189:(9): 821–829. 5169: 5142: 5083: 5040: 5013: 4985: 4950: 4939:(2): 161–174. 4920: 4885:Applied Energy 4875: 4840: 4796: 4781: 4763: 4752:(3): 128–145. 4736: 4709: 4694: 4668: 4654: 4633: 4592: 4543: 4524:(1): 972–983. 4507: 4477: 4445: 4436:|journal= 4405: 4364: 4337:(3): 153–159. 4321: 4280: 4253: 4231: 4206: 4173: 4166: 4148: 4122: 4060: 4016: 3991: 3966: 3948: 3899: 3892: 3874: 3835: 3810: 3791:(5): 701–720. 3775: 3757: 3746:on 8 June 2018 3724: 3706: 3691: 3664: 3637:(5): 374–388. 3621: 3591: 3565: 3539: 3532: 3512: 3479: 3472: 3454: 3429: 3409: 3398:. 8 March 2016 3383: 3339: 3314: 3289: 3274: 3256: 3249: 3231: 3204: 3160: 3153: 3120: 3079: 3052:(5): 259–265. 3036: 3000: 2963:(4): 759–772. 2943: 2936: 2906: 2899: 2872: 2860:www.eiolca.net 2846: 2833:(3): 674–701. 2827:Sustainability 2813: 2772: 2751:(1): 134–144. 2731: 2712:Sustainability 2698: 2691: 2665: 2658: 2632: 2614: 2607: 2582: 2569: 2547: 2519: 2506: 2479: 2458: 2451: 2425: 2401: 2374:(5): 420–430. 2357: 2328: 2284: 2265:(5): 701–720. 2249: 2242: 2213: 2174: 2151: 2135: 2126: 2093: 2057: 2050: 2024: 1997:(2): 156–163. 1980: 1957: 1938: 1908: 1887: 1850: 1831: 1817:. IntechOpen. 1801: 1776: 1746: 1727: 1686: 1675: 1649: 1627: 1581: 1534: 1502:(3): 563–591. 1480: 1479: 1477: 1474: 1472: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1456: 1451: 1446: 1441: 1436: 1431: 1426: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1406: 1400: 1398: 1395: 1346: 1343: 1274: 1271: 1261: 1258: 1257: 1256: 1253:sustainability 1237: 1234: 1222: 1219: 1185: 1182: 1142: 1126: 1123:carbon dioxide 1095: 1092: 1078:produces more 1057: 1054: 1021:nuclear energy 1010: 1007: 990:Main article: 987: 984: 967: 964: 958: 955: 946: 943: 922:nitrogen oxide 890:motor vehicles 882:marine vessels 861: 858: 852: 849: 845:avoided burden 830: 827: 810: 809:Cradle-to-gate 807: 785: 782: 780: 777: 771: 770: 767: 766:Agri-footprint 764: 761: 758: 755: 752: 749: 746: 743: 740: 737: 736:ESU World Food 734: 731: 728: 725: 722: 719: 716: 712: 685: 682: 677: 676: 672: 669: 657: 654: 640: 639: 636: 633: 624: 623:Interpretation 621: 616: 615: 608: 601: 584: 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 561: 560:Toxicity, etc. 557:Classification 554: 536: 533: 509: 508: 505: 502: 499: 496: 493: 490: 474: 473: 470: 467: 464: 461: 458: 455: 431: 428: 427: 426: 420: 417:eutrophication 413:global warming 398: 397: 396: 393: 389: 385: 376: 375: 374: 371: 368: 365: 362: 359: 356: 347: 341: 335: 332:Reference flow 329: 328: 327: 324: 321: 318: 315: 308: 302: 299:Product system 288: 287: 284: 281: 278: 265: 264:Goal and scope 262: 256: 253: 226:Greenhouse gas 155: 154: 151: 148: 132: 129: 58:for assessing 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8176: 8165: 8162: 8160: 8157: 8155: 8152: 8150: 8147: 8146: 8144: 8134: 8129: 8124: 8123: 8120: 8107: 8106:Organizations 8104: 8102: 8101: 8092: 8090: 8082: 8080: 8076: 8072: 8071: 8068: 8062: 8059: 8056: 8052: 8049: 8047: 8044: 8042: 8039: 8037: 8034: 8032: 8029: 8027: 8024: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7999: 7997: 7994: 7992: 7989: 7987: 7984: 7982: 7979: 7977: 7974: 7972: 7969: 7967: 7966:Disinvestment 7964: 7962: 7959: 7957: 7954: 7952: 7949: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7933: 7931: 7927: 7921: 7918: 7915: 7914:certification 7911: 7908: 7905: 7904:certification 7901: 7900:Environmental 7898: 7896: 7893: 7892: 7890: 7888: 7884: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7865: 7864: 7862: 7858: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7844: 7842: 7838: 7834: 7830: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7797: 7793: 7789: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7772: 7770: 7767: 7766: 7764: 7762: 7759:Environmental 7756: 7750: 7747: 7745: 7742: 7740: 7737: 7735: 7732: 7730: 7727: 7725: 7722: 7720: 7717: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7703:environmental 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7680: 7677: 7676: 7674: 7672: 7666: 7661: 7651: 7648: 7646: 7643: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7613: 7611: 7608: 7606: 7603: 7601: 7598: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7547: 7543: 7539: 7535: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7517: 7513: 7509: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7491: 7489: 7484: 7480: 7476: 7473: 7472:environmental 7469: 7462: 7457: 7455: 7450: 7448: 7443: 7442: 7439: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7421:Urban ecology 7419: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7378: 7376: 7372: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7277: 7275: 7271: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7181: 7179: 7175: 7171: 7164: 7159: 7157: 7152: 7150: 7145: 7144: 7141: 7135: 7132: 7129: 7125: 7122: 7121: 7120: 7118: 7113: 7100: 7097: 7093: 7089: 7086: 7085:1-56670-015-9 7082: 7078: 7074: 7071: 7067: 7063: 7061: 7060:0-643-09452-0 7057: 7053: 7049: 7046: 7045:1-56670-214-3 7042: 7038: 7034: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7022: 7021:91-44-02364-2 7018: 7014: 7011: 7010: 7005: 7002: 7001: 6988: 6984: 6980: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6964: 6960: 6953: 6942: 6938: 6932: 6925: 6924: 6916: 6909: 6905: 6902: 6897: 6889: 6885: 6881: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6862: 6854: 6850: 6846: 6842: 6838: 6834: 6830: 6826: 6822: 6815: 6808: 6804: 6801: 6795: 6787: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6769: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6753: 6746: 6739: 6735: 6732: 6726: 6719: 6715: 6711: 6710:Werner Ulrich 6706: 6690: 6686: 6680: 6666: 6660: 6656: 6652: 6645: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6598: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6574: 6570: 6566: 6562: 6554: 6539: 6535: 6529: 6521: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6486: 6478: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6423: 6415: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6382: 6380: 6371: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6346: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6303: 6288: 6284: 6278: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6244: 6237: 6233: 6226: 6210: 6206: 6200: 6185: 6181: 6175: 6167: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6142: 6134: 6130: 6123: 6116: 6108: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6081: 6073: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6026:Data in Brief 6023: 6016: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5971: 5963: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5912: 5910: 5894: 5893:New Scientist 5890: 5884: 5875: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5851: 5837: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5816: 5808: 5795: 5787: 5780: 5772: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5721: 5713: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5682:Energy Policy 5676: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5647:Energy Policy 5641: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5606: 5599: 5592: 5588: 5585: 5582:J.M. Pearce, 5579: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5536: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5509: 5500: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5468: 5460: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5419:Energy Policy 5416: 5409: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5366: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5315: 5308: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5255: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5220: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5173: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5146: 5138: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5087: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5044: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5017: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4989: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4954: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4927: 4925: 4915: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4891:: 1405–1420. 4890: 4886: 4879: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4844: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4800: 4792: 4785: 4774: 4767: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4740: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4713: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4695:9781424443246 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4672: 4664: 4658: 4651: 4650:1-933115-24-6 4647: 4643: 4637: 4628: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4596: 4588: 4584: 4579: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4547: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4511: 4496:on 4 May 2011 4495: 4491: 4487: 4481: 4462: 4455: 4449: 4441: 4428: 4420: 4416: 4409: 4402: 4390:on 1 May 2011 4386: 4382: 4375: 4368: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4325: 4317: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4294:Procedia CIRP 4291: 4284: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4257: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4235: 4220: 4216: 4210: 4191: 4184: 4177: 4169: 4167:9783527338955 4163: 4159: 4152: 4137: 4133: 4126: 4118: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4067: 4065: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4020: 4005: 4001: 3995: 3980: 3976: 3975:"CarbonCloud" 3970: 3962: 3961:openLCA Nexus 3958: 3952: 3944: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3919:(4): 042051. 3918: 3914: 3910: 3903: 3895: 3889: 3885: 3878: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3839: 3828: 3821: 3814: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3779: 3771: 3767: 3761: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3731: 3729: 3717: 3710: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3692:0-7803-3808-1 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3668: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3625: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3595: 3580: 3576: 3569: 3554: 3550: 3543: 3535: 3533:9780429111051 3529: 3525: 3524: 3516: 3497: 3490: 3483: 3475: 3469: 3465: 3458: 3443: 3439: 3433: 3425: 3418: 3416: 3414: 3397: 3393: 3387: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3343: 3328: 3324: 3318: 3303: 3299: 3293: 3285: 3278: 3270: 3263: 3261: 3252: 3246: 3242: 3235: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3208: 3200: 3194: 3186: 3179: 3177: 3175: 3173: 3171: 3169: 3167: 3165: 3156: 3150: 3146: 3139: 3137: 3135: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3116: 3112: 3107: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3083: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3040: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3004: 2996: 2992: 2987: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2947: 2939: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2910: 2902: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2876: 2861: 2857: 2850: 2841: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2817: 2809: 2805: 2800: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2776: 2768: 2764: 2759: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2735: 2726: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2702: 2694: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2669: 2661: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2636: 2628: 2621: 2619: 2610: 2604: 2600: 2593: 2591: 2589: 2587: 2572: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2551: 2543: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2509: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2488: 2486: 2484: 2475: 2469: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2454: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2429: 2421: 2414: 2412: 2410: 2408: 2406: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2361: 2345: 2341: 2335: 2333: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2288: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2253: 2245: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2220: 2218: 2209: 2202: 2195: 2193: 2191: 2189: 2187: 2185: 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1425: 1422: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1401: 1394: 1390: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1371: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1352: 1351:commensurable 1342: 1340: 1339:externalities 1336: 1331: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1312: 1310: 1306: 1301: 1299: 1295: 1287: 1283: 1282:deforestation 1278: 1270: 1268: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1235: 1232: 1228: 1227: 1226: 1218: 1216: 1211: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1198: 1194: 1189: 1181: 1179: 1175: 1174:cost analysis 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1150: 1148: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1103: 1100: 1091: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1063: 1053: 1051: 1047: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1016: 1006: 1004: 999: 993: 983: 981: 977: 972: 963: 954: 952: 942: 939: 933: 931: 930:sulfur oxides 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 906: 902: 897: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 870: 867: 860:Well-to-wheel 857: 848: 846: 841: 836: 826: 824: 820: 816: 806: 804: 800: 796: 792: 776: 768: 765: 762: 759: 756: 754:bioenergiedat 753: 750: 747: 744: 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