848:
1146:). Each G3P molecule is composed of 3 carbons. For the Calvin cycle to continue, RuBP (ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate) must be regenerated. So, 5 out of 6 carbons from the 2 G3P molecules are used for this purpose. Therefore, there is only 1 net carbon produced to play with for each turn. To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons, and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To make one glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of the Calvin cycle. Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose, and cellulose, depending on what the plant needs.
697:
34:
1207:, helps this carbamylation process by removing one proton from the lysine and making the binding of the carbon dioxide molecule possible. Even then the RuBisCo enzyme is not yet functional, as it needs a magnesium ion bound to the lysine to function. This magnesium ion is released from the thylakoid lumen when the inner pH drops due to the active pumping of protons from the electron flow. RuBisCo activase itself is activated by increased concentrations of ATP in the stroma caused by its
1046:
825:
689:
3331:
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323:
185:
420:
857:
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3343:
548:, separating the reactions. They are activated in the light (which is why the name "dark reaction" is misleading), and also by products of the light-dependent reaction. These regulatory functions prevent the Calvin cycle from being respired to carbon dioxide. Energy (in the form of ATP) would be wasted in carrying out these reactions when they have no
1084:. The rate of photorespiration is higher at high temperatures. Photorespiration turns RuBP into 3-PGA and 2-phosphoglycolate, a 2-carbon molecule that can be converted via glycolate and glyoxalate to glycine. Via the glycine cleavage system and tetrahydrofolate, two glycines are converted into serine plus
1178:
The thioredoxin/ferredoxin system activates the enzymes glyceraldehyde-3-P dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde-3-P phosphatase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase, and ribulose-5-phosphatase kinase, which are key points of the process. This happens when light is available, as the
1187:
bond found in all these enzymes. This is a dynamic process as the same bond is formed again by other proteins that deactivate the enzymes. The implications of this process are that the enzymes remain mostly activated by day and are deactivated in the dark when there is no more reduced ferredoxin
851:
The regeneration stage of Calvin's cycle. Substances and their parts are outlined in colors: green - carbon accepting aldoses, pink - ketoses-donors of three-carbon groups, yellow - parts of ketoses remaining after donation of two-carbon keto-groups highlighted in orange. Enzymes are also
1124:
evolved to circumvent photorespiration, but can occur only in certain plants native to very warm or tropical climates—corn, for example. Furthermore, RuBisCOs catalyzing the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis generally exhibit an improved specificity for
1096:. Serine can be converted back to 3-phosphoglycerate. Thus, only 3 of 4 carbons from two phosphoglycolates can be converted back to 3-PGA. It can be seen that photorespiration has very negative consequences for the plant, because, rather than fixing
1029:
Thus, of six G3P produced, five are used to make three RuBP (5C) molecules (totaling 15 carbons), with only one G3P available for subsequent conversion to hexose. This requires nine ATP molecules and six NADPH molecules per three
749:
that is captured by enediol in second step produces an unstable six-carbon compound called 2-carboxy 3-keto 1,5-biphosphoribotol (CKABP) (or 3-keto-2-carboxyarabinitol 1,5-bisphosphate) that immediately splits into 2 molecules of
1687:"The Role of Chloroplast Electron Transport and Metabolites in Modulating Rubisco Activity in Tobacco. Insights from Transgenic Plants with Reduced Amounts of Cytochrome b/f Complex or Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase"
847:
1141:
The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) molecules, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP. (ADP and NADP are not really "products". They are regenerated and later used again in the
1183:
complex of the thylakoid electron chain when electrons are circulating through it. Ferredoxin then binds to and reduces the thioredoxin protein, which activates the cycle enzymes by severing a
1334:
The results suggested that the integrity of thylakoid membranes may be essential for the organisation of sequential enzymes of the Calvin cycle in vivo and facilitate their functioning.
797:
657:, where six-carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria. The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three-carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or "triose phosphates", namely,
529:. In the following biochemical equations, the chemical species (phosphates and carboxylic acids) exist in equilibria among their various ionized states as governed by the
497:
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages in a cell. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecule
713:, RuBP, a 5-carbon compound, by carbon dioxide (a total of 6 carbons) in a two-step reaction. The product of the first step is enediol-enzyme complex that can capture
135:
Though it is also called the "dark reaction", the Calvin cycle does not actually occur in the dark or during night time. This is because the process requires
832:
The next stage in the Calvin cycle is to regenerate RuBP. Five G3P molecules produce three RuBP molecules, using up three molecules of ATP. Since each CO
1160:
These reactions do not occur in the dark or at night. There is a light-dependent regulation of the cycle enzymes, as the third step requires NADPH.
1803:
2426:
1890:
1783:
1510:
Schulz, L; Guo, Z; Zarzycki, J; Steinchen, W; Schuller, JM; Heimerl, T; Prinz, S; Mueller-Cajar, O; Erb, TJ; Hochberg, GKA (14 October 2022).
84:. The Calvin cycle is present in all photosynthetic eukaryotes and also many photosynthetic bacteria. In plants, these reactions occur in the
1927:
1631:
Konwarh, Rocktotpal; Abda, Ebrahim M.; Haregu, Simatsidk; Singh, Anand Pratap (2022-01-01), Khan, Raju; Murali, S.; Gogoi, Satyabrat (eds.),
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155:
reserves to provide energy for the plant. The Calvin cycle thus happens when light is available independent of the kind of photosynthesis (
2532:
597:
572:
17:
808:(also called G3P, GP, TP, PGAL, GAP) is produced, and the NADPH itself is oxidized and becomes NADP. Again, two NADPH are utilized per
2393:
1133:, in order to minimize the oxygenation reaction. This improved specificity evolved after RuBisCO incorporated a new protein subunit.
840:
molecules produce six G3P molecules, of which five are used to regenerate RuBP, leaving a net gain of one G3P molecule per three CO
2510:
1874:
1862:
1464:"2´-carboxy-3-keto-D-arabinitol 1,5-bisphosphate, the six-carbon intermediate of the ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase reaction"
2554:
2388:
1644:
1446:
1021:(another plant-unique enzyme of the pathway) phosphorylates RuP into RuBP, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, completing the Calvin
2566:
2505:
2192:
387:
257:
1347:
2419:
359:
229:
33:
481:
293:
electron transport chain, as the energy required to reduce the carbon dioxide is provided by NADPH produced during the
120:) reactions to produce sugars in a step-wise process; there is no direct reaction that converts several molecules of CO
536:
The enzymes in the Calvin cycle are functionally equivalent to most enzymes used in other metabolic pathways such as
1920:
1902:, Fifth Edition by Jeremy M. Berg, John L. Tymoczko and Lubert Stryer. Published by W. H. Freeman and Company (2002).
1413:
1237:
406:
276:
366:
236:
214:
3398:
623:(six-carbon) sugars are not products of the Calvin cycle. Although many texts list a product of photosynthesis as
3371:
301:, also known as C2 cycle, is also coupled to the Calvin cycle, as it results from an alternative reaction of the
1306:"Involvement of thylakoid membranes in supramolecular organisation of Calvin cycle enzymes inAnacystis nidulans"
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3250:
2412:
953:
942:
344:
210:
373:
243:
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2447:
340:
206:
124:
to a sugar. There are three phases to the light-independent reactions, collectively called the Calvin cycle:
987:
are transferred to one of the G3P, giving another Xu5P. This leaves one G3P as the product of fixation of 3
1913:
1685:
Ruuska, Sari A.; Andrews, T. John; Badger, Murray R.; Price, G. Dean; von
Caemmerer, Susanne (2000-02-01).
949:
164:
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2457:
1842:
1632:
882:
355:
225:
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that can be used by the organism (and by animals that feed on it). This set of reactions is also called
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2896:
2867:
2847:
2800:
1259:
872:
868:
805:
674:
658:
593:
306:
1429:
Farazdaghi H (2009). "Modeling the
Kinetics of Activation and Reaction of Rubisco from Gas Exchange".
1305:
108:
and perform further chemical processes on them. The Calvin cycle uses the chemical energy of ATP and
2485:
1155:
1143:
957:
710:
541:
294:
129:
105:
1804:"Discoveries in Rubisco (Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase): a historical perspective"
3240:
3156:
2795:
1787:
1665:
Besse, I; Buchanan, B (1997). "Thioredoxin-linked animal and plant processes: the new generation".
1011:
1007:
195:
140:
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3178:
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2609:
762:
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catalyses the phosphorylation of 3-PGA by ATP (which was produced in the light-dependent stage).
758:
333:
199:
1936:
1463:
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3084:
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2614:
2480:
2002:
1203:
and leads to a non-functional state if left uncarbamylated. A specific activase enzyme, called
678:
576:
498:
97:
544:, but the enzymes in the Calvin cycle are found in the chloroplast stroma instead of the cell
3245:
3142:
3127:
3057:
2980:
2812:
2762:
2671:
2596:
2495:
2087:
2062:
2042:
1667:
1191:
The enzyme RuBisCo has its own, more complex activation process. It requires that a specific
912:
766:
601:
109:
1633:"Chapter 7 - Exemplary evidence of bio-nano crosstalk between carbon dots and plant systems"
3235:
3190:
2965:
2785:
2715:
2472:
2452:
2307:
2117:
2067:
1523:
1475:
1003:
920:
886:
380:
250:
8:
3258:
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3137:
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2777:
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2222:
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1018:
654:
93:
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1500:
Campbell, and Reece
Biology: 8th Edition, page 198. Benjamin Cummings, December 7, 2007.
1479:
3335:
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3163:
3132:
3013:
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2500:
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1770:
1608:
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1281:
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980:
751:
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160:
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1163:
There are two regulation systems at work when the cycle must be turned on or off: the
685:, which had been produced in the light-dependent stage. The three steps involved are:
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3316:
3281:
3264:
3202:
3120:
3115:
3043:
3028:
2998:
2919:
2886:
2857:
2852:
2827:
2817:
2737:
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2517:
2322:
2202:
2057:
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1859:
1826:
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1613:
1551:
1539:
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1409:
1370:
1325:
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1233:
1204:
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molecules. The equation of the overall Calvin cycle is shown diagrammatically below.
1838:
1774:
116:
for the plant to use. These substrates are used in a series of reduction-oxidation (
3359:
3276:
2931:
2790:
2767:
2720:
2661:
2047:
1818:
1754:
1745:
Bassham JA (2003). "Mapping the carbon reduction cycle: a personal retrospective".
1714:
1698:
1603:
1595:
1531:
1483:
1434:
1362:
1317:
1276:
1268:
1081:
754:(also written as 3-phosphoglyceric acid, PGA, 3PGA, or 3-PGA), a 3-carbon compound.
514:
298:
1512:"Evolution of increased complexity and specificity at the dawn of form I Rubiscos"
952:(one of only three enzymes of the Calvin cycle that are unique to plants) cleaves
3217:
3173:
3168:
3062:
3038:
2872:
2835:
2688:
2678:
2561:
2332:
2297:
1878:
1866:
1438:
1208:
537:
424:
1304:
Sainis, Jayashree
Krishna; Dani, Diksha Narhar; Dey, Gautam Kumar (2003-01-01).
1175:
enzyme activation, active in the Calvin cycle, which involves its own activase.
696:
3101:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3024:
3020:
3003:
2960:
2891:
2752:
2747:
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2544:
2462:
2187:
1997:
1895:
1786:. Biochemistry and Biophysics, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Archived from
1579:
1378:
1049:
The overall equation of the Calvin cycle (black circles represent carbon atoms)
506:
462:
454:
171:
in their vacuoles every night and release it by day to make this process work.
85:
77:
73:
1822:
1758:
1584:"Variations in the Calvin–Benson cycle: selection pressures and optimization?"
1433:. Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration. Vol. 29. pp. 275–294.
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3306:
3195:
3151:
2876:
2710:
2705:
2698:
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2052:
2027:
2022:
1710:
1329:
1180:
984:
976:
916:
908:
804:
of 1,3BPGA by NADPH (which is another product of the light-dependent stage).
477:
473:
469:
125:
1535:
1403:
1321:
3183:
3033:
2948:
2924:
2914:
2906:
2807:
2742:
2641:
2490:
2312:
2292:
2257:
2252:
2242:
2237:
2217:
2197:
2107:
2077:
2037:
2017:
2007:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1830:
1766:
1728:
1617:
1543:
1487:
1374:
1290:
1196:
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molecules (as would be expected from the number of carbon atoms involved).
447:
2581:
2362:
2357:
2327:
2282:
2227:
2167:
2152:
2147:
2112:
2072:
1962:
1952:
1947:
1702:
1599:
1164:
485:
458:
89:
2404:
1891:
The
Biochemistry of the Calvin Cycle at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
769:
are the products. (However, note that two 3-PGAs are produced for every
3207:
2347:
2342:
2287:
2272:
2212:
2177:
2172:
2142:
2102:
2082:
2012:
1992:
1168:
1045:
347: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
168:
1905:
1401:
1272:
1171:
activation system, which activates some of the cycle enzymes; and the
824:
737:. Thus, enediol-enzyme complex is the real carboxylase/oxygenase. The
688:
3269:
2571:
2436:
2262:
2247:
2232:
2182:
2157:
1583:
613:
491:
290:
322:
184:
3291:
2352:
2277:
2207:
2137:
2132:
1957:
1366:
878:
465:
999:, with generation of three pentoses that can be converted to Ru5P.
975:
generates two more G3P. The ketose S7P has two carbons removed by
864:
The regeneration stage can be broken down into a series of steps.
3311:
2367:
2097:
1967:
1184:
1172:
1053:
706:
673:
molecule is incorporated into one of two three-carbon molecules (
545:
526:
488:
302:
144:
81:
1462:
Lorimer, G.H.; Andrews, T.J.; Pierce, J.; Schloss, J.V. (1986).
419:
2032:
1568:.Toronto:Nelson College Indigenous,1st ed, Vol. 1, 2010, pg 151
1192:
856:
620:
522:
152:
148:
801:
682:
510:
502:
450:
289:
The reactions of the Calvin cycle are closely coupled to the
136:
117:
113:
112:
power of NADPH from the light dependent reactions to produce
101:
1402:
Campbell, Neil A.; Brad
Williamson; Robin J. Heyden (2006).
3286:
1461:
1200:
852:
highlighted: aldolases in purple and transketolases in red.
555:
The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following:
1860:
Rubisco
Activase, from the Plant Physiology Online website
1509:
1255:"A plastic photosynthetic adaptation to arid environments"
926:
E4P and a DHAP (formed from one of the G3P from the second
692:
Calvin cycle step 1 (black circles represent carbon atoms)
653:, this is mainly for convenience to match the equation of
3296:
781:
that enters the cycle, so this step utilizes two ATP per
1684:
530:
174:
1872:
Thioredoxins, from the Plant
Physiology Online website
1630:
960:, releasing an inorganic phosphate ion into solution.
1664:
1345:
505:. The Calvin cycle uses these compounds to convert
1896:The Calvin Cycle and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway
3385:
1408:. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall.
1781:
1577:
76:is a series of chemical reactions that convert
2420:
1921:
1303:
1199:to activate the enzyme. This lysine binds to
1149:
836:molecule produces two G3P molecules, three CO
440:reductive pentose phosphate cycle (RPP cycle)
27:Light-independent reactions in photosynthesis
1428:
889:(6C). A phosphate ion is lost into solution.
860:Simplified C3 cycle with structural formulas
669:In the first stage of the Calvin cycle, a CO
1801:
1227:
677:or G3P), where it uses up two molecules of
305:enzyme, and its final byproduct is another
213:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2427:
2413:
1928:
1914:
1744:
1594:(6) (published 27 March 2019): 1697–1701.
1232:. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 21.
32:
2434:
2394:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry
1718:
1607:
1280:
501:and the moderate-energy hydrogen carrier
407:Learn how and when to remove this message
277:Learn how and when to remove this message
1566:Biology: Exploring the Diversity of Life
1455:
1044:
983:(R5P), and the two carbons remaining on
871:converts one of the G3P reversibly into
855:
846:
823:
798:glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
695:
687:
418:
38:The internal structure of a chloroplast
1935:
1252:
14:
3386:
1802:Portis, Archie; Parry, Martin (2007).
1348:"The path of carbon in photosynthesis"
1346:Bassham J, Benson A, Calvin M (1950).
919:are added to a G3P, giving the ketose
828:Regeneration stage of the Calvin cycle
468:. The cycle was discovered in 1950 by
143:. In the dark, plants instead release
139:, which is short-lived and comes from
2408:
2389:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1909:
1179:ferredoxin protein is reduced in the
1025:. This requires the input of one ATP.
175:Coupling to other metabolic pathways
96:. These reactions take the products (
3342:
1639:, Academic Press, pp. 155–173,
345:adding citations to reliable sources
316:
211:adding citations to reliable sources
178:
80:and hydrogen-carrier compounds into
3366:
1637:Carbon Dots in Agricultural Systems
700:Calvin cycle steps 2 and 3 combined
24:
1853:
482:University of California, Berkeley
165:crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)
25:
3415:
1884:
875:(DHAP), also a 3-carbon molecule.
765:(glycerate-1,3-bisphosphate) and
453:reactions that take place in the
436:Calvin–Benson–Bassham (CBB) cycle
423:Overview of the Calvin cycle and
3365:
3353:
3341:
3330:
3329:
1108:, this process leads to loss of
1010:. Xu5P is converted into RuP by
950:Sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase
321:
183:
1678:
1658:
1624:
1571:
1558:
1056:also reacts competitively with
907:F6P has two carbons removed by
709:catalyses the carboxylation of
332:needs additional citations for
312:
88:, the fluid-filled region of a
62:photosynthetic carbon reduction
1784:"Photosynthetic Dark Reaction"
1588:Journal of Experimental Botany
1503:
1494:
1422:
1395:
1339:
1297:
1246:
1221:
954:sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate
943:sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate
885:convert a G3P and a DHAP into
13:
1:
2694:Interface and colloid science
2448:Glossary of chemical formulae
1214:
941:fixation) are converted into
1620:– via Oxford Academic.
1468:Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B
1439:10.1007/978-1-4020-9237-4_12
7:
2971:Bioorganometallic chemistry
2458:List of inorganic compounds
1310:Journal of Plant Physiology
1228:Silverstein, Alvin (2008).
1136:
883:fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
128:, reduction reactions, and
50:light-independent reactions
18:Light-independent reactions
10:
3420:
2897:Dynamic covalent chemistry
2868:Enantioselective synthesis
2848:Physical organic chemistry
2801:Organolanthanide chemistry
1153:
1150:Light-dependent regulation
915:(E4P). The two carbons on
873:dihydroxyacetone phosphate
869:Triose phosphate isomerase
806:Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
675:glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
659:glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
594:glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
3325:
3228:
2989:
2905:
2826:
2776:
2652:
2595:
2486:Electroanalytical methods
2471:
2443:
2376:
1943:
1823:10.1007/s11120-007-9225-6
1253:Cushman, John C. (2001).
1156:Light-dependent reactions
1144:light-dependent reactions
958:sedoheptulose-7-phosphate
945:(7C) by aldolase enzyme.
892:Then fixation of another
711:ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
542:pentose phosphate pathway
295:light dependent reactions
141:light-dependent reactions
130:ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate
106:light-dependent reactions
3241:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
3157:Supramolecular chemistry
2796:Organometallic chemistry
1782:Diwan, Joyce J. (2005).
1431:Photosynthesis in silico
1012:phosphopentose epimerase
1008:phosphopentose isomerase
664:
3399:Carbohydrate metabolism
3179:Combinatorial chemistry
3090:Food physical chemistry
3053:Environmental chemistry
2937:Bioorthogonal chemistry
2863:Retrosynthetic analysis
2684:Chemical thermodynamics
2667:Spectroelectrochemistry
2610:Computational chemistry
1811:Photosynthesis Research
1759:10.1023/A:1024929725022
1536:10.1126/science.abq1416
1405:Biology: Exploring Life
1322:10.1078/0176-1617-00849
904:generates two more G3P.
763:1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
759:phosphoglycerate kinase
525:of the cycle is called
3251:of element discoveries
3097:Agricultural chemistry
3085:Carbohydrate chemistry
2976:Bioinorganic chemistry
2841:Alkane stereochemistry
2786:Coordination chemistry
2615:Mathematical chemistry
2481:Instrumental chemistry
2003:Biological engineering
1488:10.1098/rstb.1986.0046
1050:
1002:R5P is converted into
861:
853:
829:
701:
693:
427:
3394:Biochemical reactions
3246:Timeline of chemistry
3143:Post-mortem chemistry
3128:Clandestine chemistry
3058:Atmospheric chemistry
2981:Biophysical chemistry
2813:Solid-state chemistry
2763:Equilibrium chemistry
2672:Photoelectrochemistry
2088:Developmental biology
2063:Computational biology
2043:Cellular microbiology
1668:Bot. Bull. Acad. Sin.
1564:Russell, Wolfe et al.
1048:
913:erythrose-4-phosphate
859:
850:
827:
699:
691:
681:and two molecules of
422:
132:(RuBP) regeneration.
3236:History of chemistry
3191:Chemical engineering
2966:Bioorganic chemistry
2716:Structural chemistry
2453:List of biomolecules
2308:Reproductive biology
2193:Mathematical biology
2118:Evolutionary biology
2068:Conservation biology
1703:10.1104/pp.122.2.491
1004:ribulose-5-phosphate
963:Fixation of a third
921:xylulose-5-phosphate
887:fructose 6-phosphate
341:improve this article
207:improve this section
167:); CAM plants store
3259:The central science
3213:Ceramic engineering
3138:Forensic toxicology
3111:Chemistry education
3009:Radiation chemistry
2991:Interdisciplinarity
2944:Medicinal chemistry
2882:Fullerene chemistry
2758:Microwave chemistry
2627:Molecular mechanics
2622:Molecular modelling
2093:Ecological genetics
1937:Branches of biology
1528:2022Sci...378..155S
1480:1986RSPTB.313..397L
1019:phosphoribulokinase
655:aerobic respiration
94:thylakoid membranes
54:bio synthetic phase
3302:Chemical substance
3164:Chemical synthesis
3133:Forensic chemistry
3014:Actinide chemistry
2956:Clinical chemistry
2637:Molecular geometry
2632:Molecular dynamics
2587:Elemental analysis
2540:Separation process
2384:History of biology
2318:Structural biology
2303:Relational biology
2128:Generative biology
2123:Freshwater biology
1877:2008-06-16 at the
1865:2009-02-18 at the
1600:10.1093/jxb/erz078
1122:C4 carbon fixation
1051:
981:ribose-5-phosphate
862:
854:
830:
752:3-phosphoglycerate
702:
694:
428:
307:glyceraldehyde-3-P
161:C4 carbon fixation
157:C3 carbon fixation
3381:
3380:
3317:Quantum mechanics
3282:Chemical compound
3265:Chemical reaction
3203:Materials science
3121:General chemistry
3116:Amateur chemistry
3044:Photogeochemistry
3029:Stellar chemistry
2999:Nuclear chemistry
2920:Molecular biology
2887:Polymer chemistry
2858:Organic synthesis
2853:Organic reactions
2818:Ceramic chemistry
2808:Cluster chemistry
2738:Chemical kinetics
2726:Molecular physics
2605:Quantum chemistry
2518:Mass spectrometry
2402:
2401:
2323:Synthetic biology
2203:Molecular biology
2058:Cognitive biology
1646:978-0-323-90260-1
1522:(6616): 155–160.
1474:(1162): 397–407.
1448:978-1-4020-9236-7
1273:10.1104/pp.010818
515:organic compounds
417:
416:
409:
391:
297:. The process of
287:
286:
279:
261:
16:(Redirected from
3411:
3369:
3368:
3357:
3345:
3344:
3333:
3332:
3277:Chemical element
2932:Chemical biology
2791:Magnetochemistry
2768:Mechanochemistry
2721:Chemical physics
2662:Electrochemistry
2567:Characterization
2429:
2422:
2415:
2406:
2405:
2048:Chemical biology
1930:
1923:
1916:
1907:
1906:
1849:
1847:
1841:. Archived from
1808:
1798:
1796:
1795:
1778:
1733:
1732:
1722:
1691:Plant Physiology
1682:
1676:
1675:
1662:
1656:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1628:
1622:
1621:
1611:
1582:(1 March 2019).
1578:Schreier, Tina;
1575:
1569:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1507:
1501:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1459:
1453:
1452:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1390:
1389:
1383:
1377:. Archived from
1352:
1343:
1337:
1336:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1284:
1267:(4): 1439–1448.
1260:Plant Physiology
1250:
1244:
1243:
1225:
1205:RuBisCo activase
1119:
1118:
1117:
1107:
1106:
1105:
1095:
1094:
1093:
1082:photorespiration
1079:
1078:
1077:
1067:
1066:
1065:
1041:
1040:
1039:
998:
997:
996:
974:
973:
972:
940:
939:
938:
903:
902:
901:
819:
818:
817:
792:
791:
790:
780:
779:
778:
748:
747:
746:
736:
735:
734:
724:
723:
722:
652:
651:
650:
642:
641:
633:
632:
591:
589:
588:
570:
569:
568:
550:net productivity
412:
405:
401:
398:
392:
390:
349:
325:
317:
299:photorespiration
282:
275:
271:
268:
262:
260:
219:
187:
179:
36:
21:
3419:
3418:
3414:
3413:
3412:
3410:
3409:
3408:
3384:
3383:
3382:
3377:
3321:
3224:
3218:Polymer science
3174:Click chemistry
3169:Green chemistry
3063:Ocean chemistry
3039:Biogeochemistry
2985:
2901:
2873:Total synthesis
2836:Stereochemistry
2822:
2772:
2689:Surface science
2679:Thermochemistry
2648:
2591:
2562:Crystallography
2467:
2439:
2433:
2403:
2398:
2372:
2333:Systems biology
2298:Quantum biology
1939:
1934:
1887:
1879:Wayback Machine
1867:Wayback Machine
1856:
1854:Further reading
1845:
1806:
1793:
1791:
1747:Photosynth. Res
1737:
1736:
1683:
1679:
1663:
1659:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1629:
1625:
1580:Hibberd, Julian
1576:
1572:
1563:
1559:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1495:
1460:
1456:
1449:
1427:
1423:
1416:
1400:
1396:
1387:
1385:
1381:
1350:
1344:
1340:
1302:
1298:
1251:
1247:
1240:
1226:
1222:
1217:
1209:phosphorylation
1158:
1152:
1139:
1132:
1128:
1116:
1113:
1112:
1111:
1109:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1099:
1097:
1092:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1085:
1076:
1073:
1072:
1071:
1069:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1059:
1057:
1038:
1035:
1034:
1033:
1031:
1006:(Ru5P, RuP) by
995:
992:
991:
990:
988:
971:
968:
967:
966:
964:
946:
937:
934:
933:
932:
930:
900:
897:
896:
895:
893:
843:
839:
835:
816:
813:
812:
811:
809:
789:
786:
785:
784:
782:
777:
774:
773:
772:
770:
745:
742:
741:
740:
738:
733:
730:
729:
728:
726:
721:
718:
717:
716:
714:
672:
667:
649:
646:
645:
644:
640:
637:
636:
635:
631:
628:
627:
626:
624:
611:
607:
587:
584:
583:
582:
580:
567:
564:
563:
562:
560:
538:gluconeogenesis
519:carbon fixation
446:is a series of
425:carbon fixation
413:
402:
396:
393:
350:
348:
338:
326:
315:
283:
272:
266:
263:
220:
218:
204:
188:
177:
123:
42:
41:
40:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3417:
3407:
3406:
3404:Photosynthesis
3401:
3396:
3379:
3378:
3376:
3375:
3363:
3351:
3339:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3320:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3262:
3255:
3254:
3253:
3243:
3238:
3232:
3230:
3226:
3225:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3200:
3199:
3198:
3188:
3187:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3161:
3160:
3159:
3148:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3140:
3130:
3125:
3124:
3123:
3118:
3107:
3106:
3105:
3104:
3102:Soil chemistry
3094:
3093:
3092:
3087:
3080:Food chemistry
3077:
3075:Carbochemistry
3072:
3070:Clay chemistry
3067:
3066:
3065:
3060:
3049:
3048:
3047:
3046:
3041:
3031:
3025:Astrochemistry
3021:Cosmochemistry
3018:
3017:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3004:Radiochemistry
2995:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2961:Neurochemistry
2958:
2953:
2952:
2951:
2941:
2940:
2939:
2929:
2928:
2927:
2922:
2911:
2909:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2899:
2894:
2892:Petrochemistry
2889:
2884:
2879:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2844:
2843:
2832:
2830:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2804:
2803:
2793:
2788:
2782:
2780:
2774:
2773:
2771:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2753:Spin chemistry
2750:
2748:Photochemistry
2745:
2740:
2735:
2733:Femtochemistry
2730:
2729:
2728:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2702:
2701:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2675:
2674:
2669:
2658:
2656:
2650:
2649:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2644:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2618:
2617:
2607:
2601:
2599:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2558:
2557:
2552:
2545:Chromatography
2542:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2515:
2514:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2488:
2483:
2477:
2475:
2469:
2468:
2466:
2465:
2463:Periodic table
2460:
2455:
2450:
2444:
2441:
2440:
2432:
2431:
2424:
2417:
2409:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2380:
2378:
2374:
2373:
2371:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2188:Marine biology
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1998:Bioinformatics
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1933:
1932:
1925:
1918:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1893:
1886:
1885:External links
1883:
1882:
1881:
1869:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1848:on 2012-03-12.
1817:(1): 121–143.
1799:
1779:
1753:(1–3): 35–52.
1741:
1740:
1735:
1734:
1697:(2): 491–504.
1677:
1657:
1645:
1623:
1570:
1557:
1502:
1493:
1454:
1447:
1421:
1414:
1394:
1367:10.2172/910351
1338:
1296:
1245:
1238:
1230:Photosynthesis
1219:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1195:amino acid be
1154:Main article:
1151:
1148:
1138:
1135:
1130:
1126:
1114:
1102:
1090:
1074:
1062:
1036:
1027:
1026:
1015:
1000:
993:
969:
961:
935:
929:
928:
927:
924:
905:
898:
890:
876:
841:
837:
833:
822:
821:
814:
800:catalyses the
794:
787:
775:
755:
743:
731:
719:
670:
666:
663:
647:
638:
629:
618:
617:
609:
608: (P
605:
585:
565:
507:carbon dioxide
463:photosynthetic
415:
414:
356:"Calvin cycle"
329:
327:
320:
314:
311:
285:
284:
226:"Calvin cycle"
191:
189:
182:
176:
173:
121:
78:carbon dioxide
74:photosynthesis
58:dark reactions
37:
31:
30:
29:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3416:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3391:
3389:
3374:
3373:
3364:
3362:
3361:
3356:
3352:
3350:
3349:
3340:
3338:
3337:
3328:
3327:
3324:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3307:Chemical bond
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3271:
3268:
3267:
3266:
3263:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3249:
3248:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3233:
3231:
3227:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3205:
3204:
3201:
3197:
3196:Stoichiometry
3194:
3193:
3192:
3189:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3166:
3165:
3162:
3158:
3155:
3154:
3153:
3152:Nanochemistry
3150:
3149:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3113:
3112:
3109:
3108:
3103:
3100:
3099:
3098:
3095:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3082:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3055:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3036:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3019:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3001:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2992:
2988:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2942:
2938:
2935:
2934:
2933:
2930:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2916:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2904:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2877:Semisynthesis
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2842:
2839:
2838:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2829:
2825:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2779:
2775:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2727:
2724:
2723:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2711:Sonochemistry
2709:
2707:
2706:Cryochemistry
2704:
2700:
2699:Micromeritics
2697:
2696:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2664:
2663:
2660:
2659:
2657:
2655:
2651:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2616:
2613:
2612:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2602:
2600:
2598:
2594:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2577:Wet chemistry
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2519:
2516:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2493:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2474:
2470:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2445:
2442:
2438:
2430:
2425:
2423:
2418:
2416:
2411:
2410:
2407:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2381:
2379:
2375:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2268:Phylogenetics
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2163:Human biology
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2053:Chronobiology
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2028:Biotechnology
2026:
2024:
2023:Biostatistics
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
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1971:
1969:
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1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1945:
1942:
1938:
1931:
1926:
1924:
1919:
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1415:0-13-250882-6
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1384:on 2009-02-19
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1181:photosystem I
1176:
1174:
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1147:
1145:
1134:
1129:relative to O
1123:
1083:
1055:
1047:
1043:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
986:
985:transketolase
982:
978:
977:transketolase
962:
959:
955:
951:
948:
947:
944:
925:
922:
918:
917:transketolase
914:
910:
909:transketolase
906:
891:
888:
884:
880:
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508:
504:
500:
495:
493:
490:
487:
484:by using the
483:
479:
478:Andrew Benson
475:
474:James Bassham
471:
470:Melvin Calvin
467:
464:
460:
456:
452:
449:
445:
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400:
397:December 2023
389:
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379:
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368:
365:
361:
358: –
357:
353:
352:Find sources:
346:
342:
336:
335:
330:This section
328:
324:
319:
318:
310:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
281:
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270:
267:December 2023
259:
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249:
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242:
238:
235:
231:
228: –
227:
223:
222:Find sources:
216:
212:
208:
202:
201:
197:
192:This section
190:
186:
181:
180:
172:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
133:
131:
127:
126:carboxylation
119:
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103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
35:
19:
3370:
3358:
3346:
3334:
3184:Biosynthesis
3034:Geochemistry
2949:Pharmacology
2925:Cell biology
2915:Biochemistry
2743:Spectroscopy
2642:VSEPR theory
2491:Spectroscopy
2435:Branches of
2313:Sociobiology
2293:Protistology
2258:Photobiology
2253:Pharmacology
2243:Parasitology
2238:Paleontology
2218:Neuroscience
2198:Microbiology
2108:Epidemiology
2078:Cytogenetics
2038:Cell biology
2018:Biosemiotics
2008:Biomechanics
1988:Biogeography
1983:Biochemistry
1978:Bacteriology
1973:Astrobiology
1900:Biochemistry
1899:
1843:the original
1814:
1810:
1792:. Retrieved
1788:the original
1750:
1746:
1694:
1690:
1680:
1671:
1666:
1660:
1650:, retrieved
1636:
1626:
1591:
1587:
1573:
1565:
1560:
1519:
1515:
1505:
1496:
1471:
1467:
1457:
1430:
1424:
1404:
1397:
1386:. Retrieved
1379:the original
1361:(2): 781–7.
1358:
1354:
1341:
1333:
1316:(1): 23–32.
1313:
1309:
1299:
1264:
1258:
1248:
1229:
1223:
1197:carbamylated
1190:
1177:
1162:
1159:
1140:
1052:
1028:
1022:
863:
831:
668:
619:
612:= inorganic
554:
535:
518:
496:
443:
439:
435:
432:Calvin cycle
431:
429:
403:
394:
384:
377:
370:
363:
351:
339:Please help
334:verification
331:
313:Calvin cycle
288:
273:
264:
254:
247:
240:
233:
221:
205:Please help
193:
134:
92:outside the
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
46:Calvin cycle
45:
43:
3372:WikiProject
2597:Theoretical
2582:Calorimetry
2363:Xenobiology
2358:Virophysics
2328:Systematics
2283:Primatology
2228:Ornithology
2168:Ichthyology
2153:Herpetology
2148:Gerontology
2113:Epigenetics
2073:Cryobiology
1963:Agrostology
1953:Aerobiology
1948:Abiogenesis
1355:J Biol Chem
1188:available.
1165:thioredoxin
1068:instead of
796:The enzyme
757:The enzyme
705:The enzyme
596:(G3P) + 6
486:radioactive
459:chloroplast
448:biochemical
151:from their
90:chloroplast
3388:Categories
3208:Metallurgy
2907:Biological
2473:Analytical
2348:Toxicology
2343:Teratology
2288:Proteomics
2273:Physiology
2213:Neontology
2178:Lipidology
2173:Immunology
2143:Geobiology
2103:Embryology
2083:Dendrology
2013:Biophysics
1993:Biogeology
1794:2012-10-24
1652:2023-04-22
1388:2013-07-03
1215:References
1169:ferredoxin
521:. The key
367:newspapers
309:molecule.
237:newspapers
169:malic acid
3270:Catalysis
2778:Inorganic
2572:Titration
2437:chemistry
2263:Phycology
2248:Pathology
2233:Osteology
2223:Nutrition
2183:Mammalogy
2158:Histology
1711:1532-2548
1552:252897276
1330:0176-1617
1017:Finally,
979:, giving
911:, giving
802:reduction
614:phosphate
492:carbon-14
466:organisms
291:thylakoid
194:does not
147:into the
3336:Category
3292:Molecule
3229:See also
2654:Physical
2377:See also
2353:Virology
2338:Taxonomy
2278:Pomology
2208:Mycology
2138:Genomics
2133:Genetics
1958:Agronomy
1875:Archived
1863:Archived
1839:39767233
1831:17665149
1775:52854452
1767:16228564
1729:10677442
1618:30916343
1544:36227987
1375:14774424
1291:11743087
1137:Products
879:Aldolase
540:and the
444:C3 cycle
110:reducing
3348:Commons
3312:Alchemy
2828:Organic
2368:Zoology
2098:Ecology
1968:Anatomy
1674:: 1–11.
1609:6436154
1524:Bibcode
1516:Science
1476:Bibcode
1282:1540176
1185:cystine
1173:RuBisCo
1054:RuBisCO
923:(Xu5P).
793:fixed.)
707:RuBisCO
661:(G3P).
546:cytosol
527:RuBisCO
489:isotope
480:at the
381:scholar
303:RuBisCO
251:scholar
215:removed
200:sources
145:sucrose
82:glucose
3360:Portal
2506:UV-Vis
2033:Botany
1837:
1829:
1773:
1765:
1727:
1717:
1709:
1643:
1616:
1606:
1550:
1542:
1445:
1412:
1373:
1328:
1289:
1279:
1236:
1193:lysine
820:fixed.
621:Hexose
523:enzyme
476:, and
455:stroma
383:
376:
369:
362:
354:
253:
246:
239:
232:
224:
163:, and
153:starch
149:phloem
114:sugars
86:stroma
2533:MALDI
2501:Raman
1898:from
1846:(PDF)
1835:S2CID
1807:(PDF)
1771:S2CID
1720:58886
1548:S2CID
1382:(PDF)
1351:(PDF)
1023:cycle
956:into
683:NADPH
665:Steps
604:+ 8 P
573:NADPH
513:into
511:water
503:NADPH
451:redox
388:JSTOR
374:books
258:JSTOR
244:books
137:NADPH
118:redox
104:) of
102:NADPH
70:cycle
60:, or
3287:Atom
2555:HPLC
1827:PMID
1763:PMID
1725:PMID
1707:ISSN
1641:ISBN
1614:PMID
1540:PMID
1443:ISBN
1410:ISBN
1371:PMID
1326:ISSN
1287:PMID
1234:ISBN
1201:RuBP
881:and
600:+ 9
598:NADP
579:+ 5
575:+ 9
571:+ 6
509:and
430:The
360:news
230:news
198:any
196:cite
100:and
44:The
3297:Ion
2528:ICP
2511:NMR
1819:doi
1755:doi
1715:PMC
1699:doi
1695:122
1604:PMC
1596:doi
1532:doi
1520:378
1484:doi
1472:313
1435:doi
1363:doi
1359:185
1318:doi
1314:160
1277:PMC
1269:doi
1265:127
1080:in
767:ADP
725:or
679:ATP
602:ADP
577:ATP
499:ATP
461:in
457:of
442:or
343:by
209:by
98:ATP
72:of
66:PCR
3390::
3027:/
3023:/
2875:/
2550:GC
2523:EI
2496:IR
1833:.
1825:.
1815:94
1813:.
1809:.
1769:.
1761:.
1751:76
1749:.
1723:.
1713:.
1705:.
1693:.
1689:.
1672:38
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1612:.
1602:.
1592:70
1590:.
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1538:.
1530:.
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1514:.
1482:.
1470:.
1466:.
1441:.
1369:.
1357:.
1353:.
1332:.
1324:.
1312:.
1308:.
1285:.
1275:.
1263:.
1257:.
1211:.
1125:CO
1120:.
1110:CO
1098:CO
1086:CO
1070:CO
1032:CO
989:CO
965:CO
931:CO
894:CO
810:CO
783:CO
771:CO
739:CO
715:CO
639:12
592:→
561:CO
559:3
552:.
533:.
531:pH
494:.
472:,
438:,
434:,
159:,
68:)
56:,
52:,
48:,
3261:"
3257:"
2428:e
2421:t
2414:v
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1821::
1797:.
1777:.
1757::
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1701::
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1534::
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1437::
1418:.
1391:.
1365::
1320::
1293:.
1271::
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1167:/
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1127:2
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1037:2
1014:.
994:2
970:2
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842:2
838:2
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744:2
732:2
727:O
720:2
671:2
648:6
643:O
634:H
630:6
625:C
616:)
610:i
606:i
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404:(
399:)
395:(
385:·
378:·
371:·
364:·
337:.
280:)
274:(
269:)
265:(
255:·
248:·
241:·
234:·
217:.
203:.
122:2
64:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
