List of cognitive biases

662: 2849: 9681: 2017:, a failure by people and society in general to remember the origin of a change, in which people know that a change has occurred in society, but forget how this change occurred; that is, the steps that were taken to bring this change about, and who took these steps. This has led to reduced social credit towards the minorities who made major sacrifices that led to a change in societal values. 12710: 2863: 614:, where discounting is the tendency for people to have a stronger preference for more immediate payoffs relative to later payoffs. Hyperbolic discounting leads to choices that are inconsistent over time—people make choices today that their future selves would prefer not to have made, despite using the same reasoning. Also known as current moment bias or present bias, and related to 12698: 2835: 479:, the tendency for individuals to give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. This effect can provide a partial explanation for the widespread acceptance of some beliefs and practices, such as 2297:

People are more likely to identify as true statements those they have previously heard (even if they cannot consciously remember having heard them), regardless of the actual validity of the statement. In other words, a person is more likely to believe a familiar statement than an unfamiliar one. See

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As you might guess, the phenomenon is named after an incident in which I was talking to a friend about the Baader-Meinhof gang (and this was many years after they were in the news). The next day, my friend phoned me and referred me to an article in that day's newspaper in which the Baader-Meinhof

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Memory distortions introduced by the loss of details in a recollection over time, often concurrent with sharpening or selective recollection of certain details that take on exaggerated significance in relation to the details or aspects of the experience lost through leveling. Both biases may be

230:

The availability heuristic (also known as the availability bias) is the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events with greater "availability" in memory, which can be influenced by how recent the memories are or how unusual or emotionally charged they may be. The availability heuristic

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or implicit bias, the underlying attitudes and stereotypes that people unconsciously attribute to another person or group of people that affect how they understand and engage with them. Many researchers suggest that unconscious bias occurs automatically as the brain makes quick judgments and

1096:

Occurs when a judgment has to be made (of a target attribute) that is computationally complex, and instead a more easily calculated heuristic attribute is substituted. This substitution is thought of as taking place in the automatic intuitive judgment system, rather than the more self-aware

1632:, the biased belief that the characteristics of an individual group member are reflective of the group as a whole or the tendency to assume that group decision outcomes reflect the preferences of group members, even when information is available that clearly suggests otherwise. 1905:

The tendency for group members to spend more time and energy discussing information that all members are already familiar with (i.e., shared information), and less time and energy discussing information that only some members are aware of (i.e., unshared information).

1416:

The illusion that a phenomenon one has noticed only recently is itself recent. Often used to refer to linguistic phenomena; the illusion that a word or language usage that one has noticed only recently is an innovation when it is, in fact, long-established (see also

715:, a widespread set of implicit biases that discriminate against a gender. For example, the assumption that women are less suited to jobs requiring high intellectual ability. Or the assumption that people or animals are male in the absence of any indicators of gender. 407:, the tendency for experimenters to believe, certify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data that appear to conflict with those expectations. 7021: 998:, the phenomena where people tend to believe that they are more objective and unbiased than others. This bias can apply to itself – where people are able to see when others are affected by the objectivity illusion, but unable to see it in themselves. See also 2764:

When a subject is able to recall parts of an item, or related information, but is frustratingly unable to recall the whole item. This is thought to be an instance of "blocking" where multiple similar memories are being recalled and interfere with each other.

1155:, the tendency of people to make systematic errors when interacting with a robot. People may base their expectations and perceptions of a robot on its appearance (form) and attribute functions which do not necessarily mirror the true functions of the robot. 129:

The anchoring bias, or focalism, is the tendency to rely too heavily—to "anchor"—on one trait or piece of information when making decisions (usually the first piece of information acquired on that subject). Anchoring bias includes or involves the following:

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After experiencing a bad outcome with a decision problem, the tendency to avoid the choice previously made when faced with the same decision problem again, even though the choice was optimal. Also known as "once bitten, twice shy" or "hot stove effect".

945:, the tendency to hold to the current situation rather than any alternative situation, to avoid risk and loss (loss aversion). Has been shown to affect various important economic decisions, for example, a choice of car insurance or electrical service. 871:, a tendency to underestimate the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) from a relatively low speed, and to overestimate the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) from a relatively high speed. 272:). The Baader–Meinhof phenomenon is the illusion where something that has recently come to one's attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable frequency shortly afterwards. It was named after an incidence of frequency illusion in which the 986:, the tendency to believe that one understands a topic much better than one actually does. The effect is strongest for explanatory knowledge, whereas people tend to be better at self-assessments for procedural, narrative, or factual knowledge. 6945: 2265:

That humorous items are more easily remembered than non-humorous ones, which might be explained by the distinctiveness of humor, the increased cognitive processing time to understand the humor, or the emotional arousal caused by the humor.

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That cognition and memory are dependent on context, such that out-of-context memories are more difficult to retrieve than in-context memories (e.g., recall time and accuracy for a work-related memory will be lower at home, and vice versa).

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When investing money to protect against risks, decision makers perceive that a dollar spent on prevention buys more security than a dollar spent on timely detection and response, even when investing in either option is equally effective.

537:, the belief that we see reality as it really is—objectively and without bias; that the facts are plain for all to see; that rational people will agree with us; and that those who do not are either uninformed, lazy, irrational, or biased. 951:, the tendency to defend and bolster the status quo. Existing social, economic, and political arrangements tend to be preferred, and alternatives disparaged, sometimes even at the expense of individual and collective self-interest. 383:

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions. There are multiple other cognitive biases which involve or are types of confirmation bias:

1618:, the tendency for people to overemphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of situational influences on the same behavior (see also actor-observer bias, 2440:

When taking turns speaking in a group using a predetermined order (e.g. going clockwise around a room, taking numbers, etc.) people tend to have diminished recall for the words of the person who spoke immediately before them.

1943:(either the chances that the memory will be recalled at all, or the amount of time it takes for it to be recalled, or both), or that alters the content of a reported memory. There are many types of memory bias, including: 7029: 1974:. Misattribution is likely to occur when individuals are unable to monitor and control the influence of their attitudes, toward their judgments, at the time of retrieval. Misattribution is divided into three components: 2128:

Tendency to remember high values and high likelihoods/probabilities/frequencies as lower than they actually were and low ones as higher than they actually were. Based on the evidence, memories are not extreme enough.

525:, the tendency to overestimate one's desirable qualities, and underestimate undesirable qualities, relative to other people. (Also known as "Lake Wobegon effect", "better-than-average effect", or "superiority bias".) 349:

is a person's tendency to attribute greater value to an outcome if they had to put effort into achieving it. This can result in more value being applied to an outcome than it actually has. An example of this is the

1662:, the tendency to attribute cause of an undesirable outcome or wrongdoing by an individual to a moral deficiency or lack of self-control rather than taking into account the impact of broader societal determinants . 8340: 4035: 1668:, the tendency to claim more responsibility for successes than failures. It may also manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a way beneficial to their interests (see also 772:, where preferences for either option A or B change in favor of option B when option C is presented, which is completely dominated by option B (inferior in all respects) and partially dominated by option A. 582:

Extension neglect occurs where the quantity of the sample size is not sufficiently taken into consideration when assessing the outcome, relevance or judgement. The following are forms of extension neglect:

992:, a psychological occurrence in which an individual doubts their skills, talents, or accomplishments and has a persistent internalized fear of being exposed as a fraud. Also known as impostor phenomenon. 288:, the tendency to focus on items that are more prominent or emotionally striking and ignore those that are unremarkable, even though this difference is often irrelevant by objective standards. See also 618:. A good example of this is a study showed that when making food choices for the coming week, 74% of participants chose fruit, whereas when the food choice was for the current day, 70% chose chocolate. 543:, a tendency to have excessive confidence in one's own answers to questions. For example, for certain types of questions, answers that people rate as "99% certain" turn out to be wrong 40% of the time. 1216:

The tendency for sensory input about the body itself to affect one's judgement about external, unrelated circumstances. (As for example, in parole judges who are more lenient when fed and rested.)

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is characterization of animals, objects, and abstract concepts as possessing human traits, emotions, or intentions. The opposite bias, of not attributing feelings or thoughts to another person, is

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That self-generated information is remembered best. For instance, people are better able to recall memories of statements that they have generated than similar statements generated by others.

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The fact that one more easily recall information one has read by rewriting it instead of rereading it. Frequent testing of material that has been committed to memory improves memory recall.

853:(also known as "hot hand phenomenon" or "hot hand"), the belief that a person who has experienced success with a random event has a greater chance of further success in additional attempts. 1497:

The standard suggested amount of consumption (e.g., food serving size) is perceived to be appropriate, and a person would consume it all even if it is too much for this particular person.

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That items near the end of a sequence are the easiest to recall, followed by the items at the beginning of a sequence; items in the middle are the least likely to be remembered. See also

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Egocentric bias is the tendency to rely too heavily on one's own perspective and/or have a different perception of oneself relative to others. The following are forms of egocentric bias:

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The notion that concepts that are learned by viewing pictures are more easily and frequently recalled than are concepts that are learned by viewing their written word form counterparts.

513:, the tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which their personal mental state is known by others, and to overestimate how well they understand others' personal mental states. 692:

False priors are initial beliefs and knowledge which interfere with the unbiased evaluation of factual evidence and lead to incorrect conclusions. Biases based on false priors include:

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The tendency to engage in overgeneralized ascriptions of purpose to entities and events that did not arise from goal-directed action, design, or selection based on functional effects.

642:

or scope insensitivity, the tendency to be insensitive to the size of a problem when evaluating it. For example, being willing to pay as much to save 2,000 children or 20,000 children.

268:. The frequency illusion is that once something has been noticed then every instance of that thing is noticed, leading to the belief it has a high frequency of occurrence (a form of 11479: 11399: 1592:), and for explanations of one's own behaviors to do the opposite (that is, to overemphasize the influence of our situation and underemphasize the influence of our own personality). 590:

or base rate neglect, the tendency to ignore general information and focus on information only pertaining to the specific case, even when the general information is more important.

4789: 1588:, the tendency for explanations of other individuals' behaviors to overemphasize the influence of their personality and underemphasize the influence of their situation (see also 1171:

The tendency for people who are satisfied with their wage to overestimate how much they earn, and vice versa, for people who are unsatisfied with their wage to underestimate it.

1255: 759:

The framing effect is the tendency to draw different conclusions from the same information, depending on how that information is presented. Forms of the framing effect include:

1678:, similar to the fundamental attribution error, in this error a person is likely to make an internal attribution to an entire group instead of the individuals within the group. 1650:, the tendency for people to want to believe that the world is fundamentally just, causing them to rationalize an otherwise inexplicable injustice as deserved by the victim(s). 843:, the tendency to think that future probabilities are altered by past events, when in reality they are unchanged. The fallacy arises from an erroneous conceptualization of the 1788:

is people's inclination towards believing, to some degree, the communication of another person, regardless of whether or not that person is actually lying or being untruthful.

1386:

The tendency to have an excessive optimism towards an invention or innovation's usefulness throughout society, while often failing to identify its limitations and weaknesses.

1017:, an effect where someone's evaluation of the logical strength of an argument is biased by the perceived plausibility of a conclusion or alignment with one's current beliefs. 8371: 73:

or judgments. Biases have a variety of forms and appear as cognitive ("cold") bias, such as mental noise, or motivational ("hot") bias, such as when beliefs are distorted by

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Recalling the past in a self-serving manner, e.g., remembering one's exam grades as being better than they were, or remembering a caught fish as bigger than it really was.

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Sometimes called the "I-knew-it-all-along" effect, or the "Hindsight is 20/20" effect, is the tendency to see past events as having been predictable before they happened.

831:, where people justify increased investment in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment, despite new evidence suggesting that the decision was probably wrong. 1778:, the tendency to over-report socially desirable characteristics or behaviours in oneself and under-report socially undesirable characteristics or behaviours. See also: 1772:, the positive or negative effect of a rapidly presented stimulus (priming stimulus) on the processing of a second stimulus (target stimulus) that appears shortly after. 5522: 2743:

The tendency to displace recent events backwards in time and remote events forward in time, so that recent events appear more remote, and remote events, more recent.

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Kelemen D, Rottman J, Seston R (2013). "Professional Physical Scientists Display Tenacious Teleological Tendencies: Purpose-Based Reasoning as a Cognitive Default".

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A smaller percentage of items are remembered in a longer list, but as the length of the list increases, the absolute number of items remembered increases as well.

1433:, recency bias gives "greater importance to the most recent event", such as the final lawyer's closing argument a jury hears before being dismissed to deliberate. 308:, which is concentrating on the people or things that "survived" some process and inadvertently overlooking those that did not because of their lack of visibility. 4083: 1803:

Ingroup bias is the tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups. It is related to the following:

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The tendency to be over-optimistic, underestimating greatly the probability of undesirable outcomes and overestimating favorable and pleasing outcomes (see also

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When some socially disadvantaged groups will express favorable attitudes (and even preferences) toward social, cultural, or ethnic groups other than their own.

859:, failure to recognize that the original plan of action is no longer appropriate for a changing situation or for a situation that is different from anticipated. 159:, an over-reliance on a familiar tool or methods, ignoring or under-valuing alternative approaches. "If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail." 11023: 2316:

The phenomenon whereby learning is greater when studying is spread out over time, as opposed to studying the same amount of time in a single session. See also

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Defetyer MA, Russo R, McPartlin PL (2009). "The picture superiority effect in recognition memory: a developmental study using the response signal procedure".

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The CIE refers to the tendency for information that is initially presented as true, but later revealed to be false, to continue to affect memory and reasoning

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Kruger J, Dunning D (December 1999). "Unskilled and unaware of it: how difficulties in recognizing one's own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments".

5365:

de Meza D, Dawson C (January 24, 2018). "Wishful Thinking, Prudent Behavior: The Evolutionary Origin of Optimism, Loss Aversion and Disappointment Aversion".

561:, the tendency for people to view themselves as relatively variable in terms of personality, behavior, and mood while viewing others as much more predictable. 99:

Although this research overwhelmingly involves human subjects, some findings that demonstrate bias have been found in non-human animals as well. For example,

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Greater likelihood of recalling recent, nearby, or otherwise immediately available examples, and the imputation of importance to those examples over others.

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gains more and more plausibility through its increasing repetition in public discourse (or "repeat something long enough and it will become true"). See also

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Losing sight of the strategic construct that a measure is intended to represent, and subsequently acting as though the measure is the construct of interest.

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has criticized the framing of cognitive biases as errors in judgment, and favors interpreting them as arising from rational deviations from logical thought.

847:. For example, "I've flipped heads with this coin five times consecutively, so the chance of tails coming out on the sixth flip is much greater than heads." 11665: 1396:

The tendency to overestimate how much one's future selves will share one's current preferences, thoughts and values, thus leading to sub-optimal choices.

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That the "gist" of what someone has said is better remembered than the verbatim wording. This is because memories are representations, not exact copies.

1470: 834: 314:, the tendency to underestimate the duration taken to traverse oft-travelled routes and overestimate the duration taken to traverse less familiar routes. 9584: 8708:

McBride DM, Dosher BA (2002). "A comparison of conscious and automatic memory processes for picture and word stimuli: a process dissociation analysis".

1556:, the tendency for a person's positive or negative traits to "spill over" from one personality area to another in others' perceptions of them (see also 1047:, where statements are perceived as true if a subject's belief demands it to be true. Also assigns perceived connections between coincidences. (Compare 11347: 1871:

The urge to do the opposite of what someone wants one to do out of a need to resist a perceived attempt to constrain one's freedom of choice (see also

8960:"How Group Perception Affects What People Share and How People Feel: The Role of Entitativity and Epistemic Trust in the "Saying-Is-Believing" Effect" 1345:

The tendency of people to give stronger weight to payoffs that are closer to the present time when considering trade-offs between two future moments.

193:, a tendency to perceive a vague and random stimulus (often an image or sound) as significant, e.g., seeing images of animals or faces in clouds, the 11320: 10872: 2461:

That people seem to perceive not the sum of an experience but the average of how it was at its peak (e.g., pleasant or unpleasant) and how it ended.

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That memory recall is higher for the last items of a list when the list items were received via speech than when they were received through writing.

1544:, the tendency to attribute greater accuracy to the opinion of an authority figure (unrelated to its content) and be more influenced by that opinion. 1360: 419:, when a researcher expects a given result and therefore unconsciously manipulates an experiment or misinterprets data in order to find it (see also 181:, the tendency to overestimate the importance of small runs, streaks, or clusters in large samples of random data (that is, seeing phantom patterns). 6150:

Young people, middle-aged people, and older people all believed they had changed a lot in the past but would change relatively little in the future.

5751:

Mills CM, Keil FC (January 2004). "Knowing the limits of one's understanding: the development of an awareness of an illusion of explanatory depth".

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Juslin P, Winman A, Olsson H (April 2000). "Naive empiricism and dogmatism in confidence research: a critical examination of the hard-easy effect".

5062: 1505:

The tendency to rely on existing numerical data when reasoning in an unfamiliar context, even if calculation or numerical manipulation is required.

11215: 914: 793: 12298: 3741: 10311: 9071: 1163:

The tendency for people to believe they accurately report their own pain levels while holding the paradoxical belief that others exaggerate it.

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The tendency for someone to act when faced with a problem even when inaction would be more effective, or to act when no evident problem exists.

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Dalton D, Ortegren M (2011). "Gender differences in ethics research: The importance of controlling for the social desirability response bias".

7515: 1766:, the tendency for decisions to be more risk-seeking or risk-averse than the group as a whole, if the group is already biased in that direction 354:, the tendency for people to place a disproportionately high value on objects that they partially assembled themselves, such as furniture from 8437:

Fiedler K (1991). "The tricky nature of skewed frequency tables: An information loss account of distinctiveness-based illusory correlations".

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Fiedler K (1991). "The tricky nature of skewed frequency tables: An information loss account of distinctiveness-based illusory correlations".

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The tendency to estimate that the likelihood of a remembered event is less than the sum of its (more than two) mutually exclusive components.

1566:, the tendency to assume people who are physically attractive also possess intelligence, good judgment, or other desirable personality traits. 11528: 11484: 11290: 10965: 1229:

The tendency to express undue liking for things or acceptance of propaganda merely because of familiarity with or repeated exposure to them.

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The tendency of people to remember past experiences in a positive light, while overlooking negative experiences associated with that event.

11511: 10286: 8165: 964:, the tendency for unskilled individuals to overestimate their own ability and the tendency for experts to underestimate their own ability. 2552:

That information that takes longer to read and is thought about more (processed with more difficulty) is more easily remembered. See also

457:, the tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people, or to be able to identify more cognitive biases in others than in oneself. 11881: 11553: 11494: 939:, the tendency to make risk-averse choices if the expected outcome is positive, but make risk-seeking choices to avoid negative outcomes. 709:, the tendency to depend excessively on automated systems which can lead to erroneous automated information overriding correct decisions. 364:, where a person who has performed a favor for someone is more likely to do another favor for that person than they would be if they had 3476:

Iverson GL, Brooks BL, Holdnack JA (2008). "Misdiagnosis of Cognitive Impairment in Forensic Neuropsychology". In Heilbronner RL (ed.).

519:, the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's judgments, especially when available information is consistent or inter-correlated. 11308: 11200: 10867: 7909:

Payne BK, Cheng CM, Govorun O, Stewart BD (September 2005). "An inkblot for attitudes: affect misattribution as implicit measurement".

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Kruger J (August 1999). "Lake Wobegon be gone! The "below-average effect" and the egocentric nature of comparative ability judgments".

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Pronin E, Kugler MB (July 2007). "Valuing thoughts, ignoring behavior: The introspection illusion as a source of the bias blind spot".

2946: 2937: 65: 596:, the tendency to behave more compassionately towards a small number of identifiable victims than to a large number of anonymous ones. 12162: 10840: 2213:

A bias in which the emotion associated with unpleasant memories fades more quickly than the emotion associated with positive events.

1355:

The tendency to ignore plants in their environment and a failure to recognize and appreciate the utility of plants to life on earth.

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Von Restorff H (1933). "Über die Wirkung von Bereichsbildungen im Spurenfeld (The effects of field formation in the trace field)"".

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Talboy AN, Schneider SL (December 2018). "Focusing on what matters: Restructuring the presentation of Bayesian reasoning problems".

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Thomas O (2018-01-19). "Two decades of cognitive bias research in entrepreneurship: What do we know and where do we go from here?".

137:, the tendency to combine or compare research studies from the same source, or from sources that use the same methodologies or data. 10421: 8022:

Butera F, Levine JM, Vernet J (August 2009). "Influence without credit: How successful minorities respond to social cryptomnesia".

4010: 6204: 53: 11521: 11352: 11315: 10913: 10316: 6820: 2618:

Communicating a socially tuned message to an audience can lead to a bias of identifying the tuned message as one's own thoughts.

1599: 1441:

Judgement that arises when targets of differentiating judgement become subject to effects of regression that are not equivalent.

784:, the tendency to spend more money when it is denominated in small amounts (e.g., coins) rather than large amounts (e.g., bills). 8896:

Kruger, J. (1999). Lake Wobegon be gone! The "below-average effect" and the egocentric nature of comparative ability judgments"

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Pronin E, Kruger J, Savitsky K, Ross L (October 2001). "You don't know me, but I know you: the illusion of asymmetric insight".

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The tendency to search for, interpret, or recall information in a way that confirms one's beliefs or hypotheses. See also under

1107:

When better-informed people find it extremely difficult to think about problems from the perspective of lesser-informed people.

980:, the tendency to overestimate one's ability to accomplish hard tasks, and underestimate one's ability to accomplish easy tasks. 11270: 10923: 4626:

Sanna LJ, Schwarz N (July 2004). "Integrating temporal biases: the interplay of focal thoughts and accessibility experiences".

4350: 790:, the tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them separately. 5255: 2451:

That being shown some items from a list and later retrieving one item causes it to become harder to retrieve the other items.

2005:, where a memory is mistaken for novel thought or imagination, because there is no subjective experience of it being a memory. 1612:, where people view others as having (situational) extrinsic motivations and (dispositional) intrinsic motivations for oneself 11204: 9662: 9643: 9573: 9538: 9460: 9441: 9422: 9399: 9371: 9352: 9306: 9287: 9188: 9054: 9018: 8630: 8562: 8261: 8066: 8039: 7601: 7576: 7409: 6548: 6515: 6272: 6044: 5545: 4757: 4595: 4485: 4272: 4124: 3485: 3254: 2588:

The recalling of more personal events from adolescence and early adulthood than personal events from other lifetime periods.

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Misinformation continues to influence memory and reasoning about an event, despite the misinformation having been corrected.

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of alternative viewpoints by actively suppressing dissenting viewpoints, and by isolating themselves from outside influences.

766:, the enhancement or reduction of a certain stimulus's perception when compared with a recently observed, contrasting object. 5953: 5551: 3162: 1895:

The tendency, when making decisions, to favour potential candidates who do not compete with one's own particular strengths.

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Our innate tendency to assume that big events have big causes, may also explain our tendency to accept conspiracy theories.

929:, where the perceived disutility of giving up an object is greater than the utility associated with acquiring it. (see also 9204: 8854:

Curran T, Doyle J (May 2011). "Picture superiority doubly dissociates the ERP correlates of recollection and familiarity".

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The tendency to concentrate on the nominal value (face value) of money rather than its value in terms of purchasing power.

877:, where a situation is incorrectly perceived to be like a zero-sum game (i.e., one person gains at the expense of another). 208: 115:

These biases affect belief formation, reasoning processes, business and economic decisions, and human behavior in general.

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Fiedler K, Unkelbach C (2014-10-01). "Regressive Judgment: Implications of a Universal Property of the Empirical World".

2496: 1738:, the tendency to give an opinion that is more socially correct than one's true opinion, so as to avoid offending anyone. 1317:

The tendency to judge a decision by its eventual outcome instead of the quality of the decision at the time it was made.

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The tendency to judge harmful actions (commissions) as worse, or less moral, than equally harmful inactions (omissions).

602:, the tendency to assume that specific conditions are more probable than a more general version of those same conditions. 397:, the tendency to test hypotheses exclusively through direct testing, instead of testing possible alternative hypotheses. 56:, which provides a classification of biases by their common generative mechanism (such as noisy information-processing). 7839: 6837:

Trofimova I (October 1999). "An investigation of how people of different age, sex, and temperament estimate the world".

731:, expecting a member of a group to have certain characteristics without having actual information about that individual. 12372: 11380: 10945: 8580:"Perspective: the negativity bias, medical education, and the culture of academic medicine: why culture change is hard" 7736: 7187:"Reference Dependence in Bayesian Reasoning: Value Selection Bias, Congruence Effects, and Response Prompt Sensitivity" 6735:

Safi R, Browne GJ, Naini AJ (2021). "Mis-spending on information security measures: Theory and experimental evidence".

5808: 4149: 1563: 1557: 84:, or whether they result in useful attitudes or behavior. For example, when getting to know others, people tend to ask 4323:

Marks G, Miller N (1987). "Ten years of research on the false-consensus effect: An empirical and theoretical review".

3913: 1638:, the tendency to interpret others' behaviors as having hostile intent, even when the behavior is ambiguous or benign. 11162: 10775: 2509: 2499:) and tendency to remember ourselves to be worse than others at tasks at which we rate ourselves below average (also 2386:, where misinformation about an event, despite later being corrected, continues to influence memory about the event. 1598:, a tendency to attribute more blame to a harm-doer as the outcome becomes more severe or as personal or situational 911:, the tendency to sell an asset that has accumulated in value and resist selling an asset that has declined in value. 2660:

That information is better recalled if exposure to it is repeated over a long span of time rather than a short one.

2020: 12750: 11757: 11715: 11060: 9713: 8217:

Fischhoff B, Slovic P, Lichtenstein S (1977). "Knowing with certainty: The appropriateness of extreme confidence".

1595: 923:, the tendency for people to demand much more to give up an object than they would be willing to pay to acquire it. 917:, just as losses yield double the emotional impact of gains, dread yields double the emotional impact of savouring. 4535:

Adams PA, Adams JK (December 1960). "Confidence in the recognition and reproduction of words difficult to spell".

11533: 10862: 10830: 10306: 10116: 567:, a tendency to believe that mass-communicated media messages have a greater effect on others than on themselves. 6887:"Observer bias: an interaction of temperament traits with biases in the semantic perception of lexical material" 6455:

Damasio AR (October 1996). "The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex".

3456:. 2007 AAAI Fall Symposium: Emergent agents and socialities: Social and organizational aspects of intelligence. 3073: 2491:

Tendency to remember ourselves to be better than others at tasks at which we rate ourselves above average (also

1816:, where individuals see members of other groups as being relatively less varied than members of their own group. 238:, the tendency to use human analogies as a basis for reasoning about other, less familiar, biological phenomena. 174:

The tendency to perceive meaningful connections between unrelated things. The following are types of apophenia:

12245: 11543: 11516: 11453: 10972: 9685: 8396: 4810: 673: 498: 140: 10235: 5978:

Adams GS, Converse BA, Hales AH, Klotz LE (April 2021). "People systematically overlook subtractive changes".

5038: 3612: 1810:, an aversion to contact with or use of products, research, standards, or knowledge developed outside a group. 11650: 11394: 11275: 11081: 10121: 9775: 9623: 7976: 6946:"A major event has a major cause: Evidence for the role of heuristics in reasoning about conspiracy theories" 6087: 3504:"Common Source Bias, Key Informants, and Survey-Administrative Linked Data for Nonprofit Management Research" 2972: 2955: 1615: 1589: 1196: 983: 265: 1841:

Where an individual assumes that others have more traits in common with them than those others actually do.

971: 534: 12293: 12194: 12081: 11548: 11303: 11210: 10582: 10414: 9770: 7322:

Walker D, Vul E (January 2014). "Hierarchical encoding makes individuals in a group seem more attractive".

2998:, also known as Systematic bias – Difference between a measured value of a quantity and its true value 2931: 2183:

The tendency for people of one race to have difficulty identifying members of a race other than their own.

1376:

Sub-optimal matching of the probability of choices with the probability of reward in a stochastic context.

621: 52:

research, there are often controversies about how to classify these biases or how to explain them. Several

9474: 7840:"The Social Comparison Bias – or why we recommend new candidates who don't compete with our own strengths" 7652:

McCornack S, Parks M (1986). "Deception Detection and Relationship Development: The Other Side of Trust".

2141:

Incorrectly remembering one's past attitudes and behaviour as resembling present attitudes and behaviour.

302:

are not chosen completely at random, which leads to the sample not being representative of the population.

12745: 11660: 11655: 11105: 10892: 10887: 10592: 10497: 9893: 8466: 3448: 3279: 3208:"Toward a synthesis of cognitive biases: how noisy information processing can bias human decision making" 3001: 2966: 2733:

When time perceived by the individual either lengthens, making events appear to slow down, or contracts.

2553: 2336: 1152: 754: 722: 33:

are systematic patterns of deviation from norm and/or rationality in judgment. They are often studied in

3791:"Common origins of diverse misconceptions: cognitive principles and the development of biology thinking" 1720:, the tendency to do (or believe) things because many other people do (or believe) the same. Related to 12419: 12344: 12177: 11670: 11100: 10543: 10456: 10229: 9755: 7751: 5823: 5568:

Lichtenstein S, Fischhoff B (1977). "Do those who know more also know more about how much they know?".

3764: 2478: 2382: 2363:

Being shown some items from a list makes it harder to retrieve the other items (e.g., Slamecka, 1968).

1861:

The phenomenon whereby others' expectations of a target person affect the target person's performance.

1675: 1656:, the tendency for people to ascribe greater or lesser moral standing based on the outcome of an event. 1250:

Occurs when someone who does something good gives themselves permission to be less good in the future.

893: 741: 718: 416: 311: 124: 8279:"Misinformation and public opinion of science and health: Approaches, findings, and future directions" 5099:

Hsee CK, Zhang J (May 2004). "Distinction bias: misprediction and mischoice due to joint evaluation".

4900:(Gender Social Norms Index). 2020 Human Development Perspectives. United Nations Development Programme 2242:

The tendency to forget information that can be found readily online by using Internet search engines.

469:, the tendency of people to see their projects and themselves as more singular than they actually are. 12740: 12735: 11587: 11563: 10627: 10359: 10083: 9883: 9861: 9094: 4959:

Hamilton MC (1991). "Masculine Bias in the Attribution of Personhood: People = Male, Male = People".

3838: 3503: 2500: 1911: 1813: 1752:

in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional

1605: 961: 420: 279: 212: 7923: 7810:

Garcia SM, Song H, Tesser A (November 2010). "Tainted recommendations: The social comparison bias".

7681:

Levine T (2014). "Truth-Default Theory (TDT): A Theory of Human Deception and Deception Detection".

6791: 5146:"What Is Common to Transportation and Health in Machine Learning Education? The Domain Neglect Bias" 5113: 4824: 4169: 2628:

That memories relating to the self are better recalled than similar information relating to others.

865:, the tendency to judge the probability of the whole to be less than the probabilities of the parts. 12457: 12402: 12377: 12207: 12184: 12134: 12039: 11675: 11489: 11357: 10296: 10178: 9943: 9923: 9819: 8807:"The picture superiority effect in patients with Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment" 7772:"Intellectual Precursors, Major Postulates, and Practical Relevance of System Justification Theory" 7757: 5829: 5482: 4150:"When debiasing backfires: Accessible content and accessibility experiences in debiasing hindsight" 3271: 2895: 2341:

That different methods of encoding information into memory have different levels of effectiveness.

2167: 2036:, where real images can influence imagined images, or be misremembered as imagined rather than real 1991: 1963: 1952: 1775: 1635: 1328: 824: 510: 235: 7130:

Kelemen D, Rosset E (2009). "The Human Function Compunction: teleological explanation in adults".

5082: 3966: 3450:

A Preliminary Research on Modeling Cognitive Agents for Social Environments in Multi-Agent Systems

1143:

The tendency to expect or predict more extreme outcomes than those outcomes that actually happen.

12144: 11910: 11601: 11558: 11440: 11430: 10918: 10782: 10721: 10523: 10407: 9414: 8778:

Whitehouse AJ, Maybery MT, Durkin K (2006). "The development of the picture-superiority effect".

7172: 6142: 3985: 3050: 2983: 2446: 2423: 2325: 1983: 1900: 1629: 1619: 1191:

The tendency to overestimate the length or the intensity of the impact of future feeling states.

1126: 796:

bias, the tendency to neglect relevant domain knowledge while solving interdisciplinary problems.

501:, where people perceive their knowledge of their peers to surpass their peers' knowledge of them. 6507: 6499: 6264: 6256: 5906: 4364: 3865:"Dehumanized Perception: A Psychological Means to Facilitate Atrocities, Torture, and Genocide?" 12551: 12511: 12412: 12381: 12019: 11807: 11298: 11260: 11225: 10950: 10691: 10607: 10369: 10053: 10033: 9814: 9792: 7918: 7568: 7562: 6786: 5477: 5108: 4819: 4749: 4741: 4164: 4116: 4108: 4043: 3318: 2778: 2699: 2670:

The tendency to overestimate the amount that other people notice one's appearance or behavior.

2633: 2567: 2529: 2401: 2096: 1890: 1866: 1711: 1091: 1038: 936: 856: 633: 611: 549:, the tendency for people to underestimate the time it will take them to complete a given task. 460: 400: 282:, where the speed with which people can match words depends on how closely they are associated. 225: 104: 88:

which seem biased towards confirming their assumptions about the person. However, this kind of

9178: 8620: 8552: 8182:

Attneave F (August 1953). "Psychological probability as a function of experienced frequency".

8056: 6036: 6030: 5786: 5389: 5370: 3914:"Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: a meta-analytic study" 241: 80:

There are also controversies over some of these biases as to whether they count as useless or

12566: 12281: 12167: 12139: 12124: 12119: 11957: 11643: 11448: 11237: 11033: 10955: 10940: 10835: 10767: 10759: 10696: 10652: 10622: 10587: 10513: 10148: 10063: 10038: 9983: 9509:

Kahneman D, Slovic P, Tversky A (1982). "Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases".

9044: 8082:

McDunn BA, Siddiqui AP, Brown JM (April 2014). "Seeking the boundary of boundary extension".

6067: 4871: 4867: 4475: 4069: 3662:

Tversky A, Kahneman D (September 1974). "Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases".

2986: – Informal fallacy that the way one sees the world reflects the way the world really is 2883: 2623: 2368: 2302: 2291: 2280: 2276:

Inaccurately seeing a relationship between two events related by coincidence. See also under

2158: 2081:

Remembering the background of an image as being larger or more expansive than the foreground

1647: 1510: 1131:

The age-independent belief that one will change less in the future than one has in the past.

1086:

The tendency to solve problems through addition, even when subtraction is a better approach.

1044: 1020: 648:, the preference for reducing a small risk to zero over a greater reduction in a larger risk. 627: 615: 558: 540: 466: 156: 5419:, p. 193) Daniel Kahneman, together with Amos Tversky, coined the term "loss aversion." 905:, the tendency to avoid options for which the probability of a favorable outcome is unknown. 636:, the tendency to completely disregard probability when making a decision under uncertainty. 12450: 12434: 12313: 12071: 12024: 12014: 11802: 11750: 11362: 10930: 10101: 9953: 9829: 9706: 9518: 9131: 8822: 8290: 7000: 6898: 6321: 6110: 5987: 5275: 4694: 4227: 3912:

Bar-Haim Y, Lamy D, Pergamin L, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van IJzendoorn MH (January 2007).

3671: 3314: 2913: 2718: 2593: 2492: 2470: 2271: 1880: 1703: 1401: 1371: 1221: 977: 967: 948: 862: 844: 840: 821:, the tendency to misinterpret statistical experiments involving conditional probabilities. 818: 696: 522: 516: 426: 346: 340: 329: 324: 184: 153:, a tendency limiting a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used. 150: 42: 6539:

Shafir E, Diamond P, Tversky A (2000). "Money Illusion". In Kahneman D, Tversky A (eds.).

4920:"Evidence of bias against girls and women in contexts that emphasize intellectual ability" 4878:. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics. Vol. 164. IOS Press. pp. 17–22. 3094: 630:, the tendency to prefer a smaller set to a larger set judged separately, but not jointly. 8: 12581: 12481: 12172: 12056: 12004: 11972: 11952: 11690: 11425: 11255: 11043: 10960: 10897: 10647: 10256: 10173: 10073: 10008: 9948: 9938: 9933: 9797: 6504:

Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory

6261:

Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory

6228:

Prati A (2017). "Hedonic recall bias. Why you should not ask people how much they earn".

5002: 4746:

Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory

4586:

Cognitive Illusions: a handbook on fallacies and biases in thinking, judgement and memory

4113:

Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory

3597:

Edwards W (1968). "Conservatism in human information processing". In Kleinmuntz B (ed.).

3013: 2995: 2989: 2805: 2435: 2014: 1846: 1585: 1532: 1381: 1211: 781: 700: 599: 564: 555:, the tendency to overestimate one's ability to show restraint in the face of temptation. 504: 361: 299: 289: 178: 9522: 9135: 8294: 7477: 6902: 6457:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

6325: 6114: 5991: 5843:

Klauer KC, Musch J, Naumer B (October 2000). "On belief bias in syllogistic reasoning".

5523:"Changing Places: A Dual Judgment Model of Empathy Gaps in Emotional Perspective Taking" 4698: 4423:

Thompson SC (1999). "Illusions of Control: How We Overestimate Our Personal Influence".

4231: 3675: 2026: 391:, a tendency to react to disconfirming evidence by strengthening one's previous beliefs. 12678: 12663: 12501: 12446: 12439: 12407: 12308: 12303: 12255: 12233: 12202: 12029: 11131: 11121: 10935: 10789: 10662: 10637: 10476: 10153: 10138: 9898: 9888: 9871: 9615: 9552: 9256: 9154: 9119: 8986: 8959: 8931: 8879: 8831: 8806: 8733: 8419: 8313: 8278: 8234: 8157: 8107: 8004: 7787: 7698: 7634: 7543: 7535: 7458: 7347: 7304: 7261: 7213: 7186: 7155: 7076: 6965: 6921: 6886: 6862: 6812: 6752: 6712: 6687: 6668: 6592: 6565: 6480: 6432: 6407: 6344: 6309: 6185: 6134: 6011: 5927: 5728: 5703: 5537: 5503: 5173: 4984: 4972: 4837: 4717: 4682: 4651: 4584: 4579: 4552: 4456: 4448: 4243: 4217: 3944: 3889: 3864: 3815: 3790: 3695: 3532: 3424: 3399: 3380: 3341: 3143: 3007: 2889: 2738: 2603: 2515:

That older adults favor positive over negative information in their memories. See also

2422:

of unpleasant memories compared with positive memories. (see also actor-observer bias,

2208: 2076: 2066: 1872: 1756:

outcome. Group members try to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without

1669: 1547: 1207: 1118: 1102: 1028: 908: 778:, the tendency to favor the default option when given a choice between several options. 261: 134: 8721: 8694: 6771: 2992: – Using emotionally-biased reasoning to produce justifications or make decisions 2232:

The tendency for a witness to remember more details about someone of the same gender.

1916:

A tendency to believe ourselves to be worse than others at tasks which are difficult.

699:, the inclination to presume the purposeful intervention of a sentient or intelligent 343:, is the refusal to plan for, or react to, a disaster which has never happened before. 12714: 12702: 12673: 12521: 12392: 12367: 12323: 12250: 12228: 12129: 12066: 12034: 12009: 11977: 11962: 11872: 11842: 11780: 11568: 11250: 10731: 10711: 10679: 10560: 10538: 10493: 10461: 10266: 10203: 10188: 10111: 10093: 10028: 9824: 9740: 9658: 9639: 9607: 9569: 9556: 9544: 9534: 9497: 9470: 9456: 9437: 9418: 9395: 9367: 9348: 9302: 9283: 9260: 9184: 9159: 9050: 9014: 8991: 8935: 8871: 8836: 8725: 8663: 8626: 8601: 8558: 8533: 8483: 8363: 8318: 8257: 8199: 8149: 8099: 8062: 8035: 7996: 7936: 7891: 7827: 7791: 7728: 7702: 7638: 7597: 7572: 7450: 7442: 7405: 7339: 7296: 7253: 7218: 7147: 7111: 7080: 7068: 6969: 6926: 6854: 6804: 6756: 6717: 6597: 6544: 6521: 6511: 6472: 6437: 6388: 6368: 6349: 6278: 6268: 6126: 6040: 6015: 6003: 5931: 5860: 5768: 5733: 5653: 5618: 5581: 5541: 5495: 5385: 5366: 5322: 5212: 5177: 5165: 5126: 4988: 4976: 4941: 4763: 4753: 4722: 4643: 4639: 4591: 4560: 4481: 4460: 4440: 4405: 4305: 4268: 4247: 4190: 4182: 4130: 4120: 3936: 3894: 3820: 3699: 3687: 3536: 3524: 3481: 3429: 3384: 3296: 3250: 3227: 3147: 3135: 3043: 3019: 2960: 2919: 2901: 2868: 2840: 2782: 2758: 2583: 2570:

where an item at the end of a list is easier to recall. This can be disrupted by the

2456: 2427: 2358: 2218: 2178: 2106: 2086: 2056: 2023:, episodic memories are confused with other information, creating distorted memories. 1932: 1807: 1757: 1707: 1665: 1623: 1446: 1048: 1024: 989: 930: 874: 828: 587: 577: 463:, the tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree with them. 432: 378: 305: 89: 24: 10399: 9619: 8423: 8238: 8008: 7462: 7438: 7351: 7308: 7265: 7143: 6816: 6748: 6189: 6138: 5257:

G.I. Joe Phenomena: Understanding the Limits of Metacognitive Awareness on Debiasing

4655: 528: 507:, the tendency to overestimate one's degree of influence over other external events. 12653: 12606: 12576: 12531: 12387: 12318: 12271: 12076: 12051: 11937: 11897: 11785: 10850: 10825: 10674: 10642: 10567: 10333: 10193: 10133: 10058: 10043: 9903: 9856: 9765: 9760: 9745: 9599: 9526: 9489: 9329: 9248: 9149: 9139: 9086: 8981: 8971: 8923: 8883: 8863: 8826: 8818: 8787: 8760: 8737: 8717: 8690: 8655: 8591: 8523: 8479: 8475: 8446: 8411: 8355: 8308: 8298: 8226: 8191: 8161: 8141: 8111: 8091: 8027: 7988: 7928: 7883: 7819: 7779: 7690: 7667: 7663: 7626: 7547: 7527: 7434: 7397: 7331: 7288: 7245: 7208: 7198: 7159: 7139: 7103: 7060: 6996: 6957: 6916: 6906: 6866: 6846: 6796: 6744: 6707: 6699: 6672: 6660: 6587: 6577: 6484: 6464: 6427: 6419: 6384: 6380: 6339: 6329: 6237: 6175: 6118: 5995: 5919: 5852: 5760: 5723: 5715: 5645: 5608: 5577: 5533: 5507: 5487: 5312: 5204: 5157: 5118: 4968: 4931: 4879: 4829: 4712: 4702: 4635: 4544: 4517: 4432: 4397: 4332: 4297: 4235: 4174: 3948: 3928: 3884: 3876: 3810: 3802: 3756: 3722: 3679: 3574: 3566: 3516: 3419: 3411: 3372: 3345: 3333: 3292: 3288: 3219: 3177: 3127: 3031: 2815: 2665: 1856: 1717: 1659: 1576: 1411: 1282: 1244: 920: 902: 868: 850: 837:, the tendency to think that knowing about cognitive bias is enough to overcome it. 787: 734: 605: 546: 492: 404: 273: 255: 85: 74: 63:

Explanations include information-processing rules (i.e., mental shortcuts), called

9530: 8911: 8512:"The list length effect in recognition memory: an analysis of potential confounds" 8464:

Koriat A, Goldsmith M, Pansky A (2000). "Toward a psychology of memory accuracy".

7425:

Rosset E (2008-09-01). "It's no accident: Our bias for intentional explanations".

5800: 4841: 4508:

Hoorens V (1993). "Self-enhancement and Superiority Biases in Social Comparison".

3683: 3520: 2898: – The process by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events 187:, a tendency to inaccurately perceive a relationship between two unrelated events. 12591: 12571: 12546: 12536: 12491: 12486: 12240: 12212: 11947: 11930: 11925: 11920: 11915: 11790: 11743: 11458: 11245: 11009: 10845: 10657: 10301: 10291: 10068: 10048: 9963: 9866: 9841: 9836: 9809: 9787: 9699: 9144: 8764: 8596: 8579: 8031: 7972: 6911: 5878: 5191:

Binah-Pollak, Avital; Hazzan, Orit; Mike, Koby; Hacohen, Ronit Lis (2024-01-05).

4883: 4793: 4781: 4707: 4262: 3557:

DuCharme WW (1970). "Response bias explanation of conservative human inference".

3415: 3207: 2877: 2820:

That uncompleted or interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed ones.

2785: 2598:

Unexpected difficulty in remembering more than one instance of a visual sequence

2516: 2419: 2412: 2391: 2198: 2188: 2162:, where the original memory is affected by incorrect information received later. 1987: 1971: 1753: 1550:, the tendency for people to appear more attractive in a group than in isolation. 1480: 1450: 1391: 1350: 1000: 942: 887: 763: 721:, the tendency to overestimate sexual interest of another person in oneself, and 706: 593: 484: 454: 445: 394: 388: 249: 194: 144: 70: 57: 9090: 8126: 7823: 7173:"Penn Psychologists Believe 'Unit Bias' Determines The Acceptable Amount To Eat" 6961: 6367:

Zaman J, De Peuter S, Van Diest I, Van den Bergh O, Vlaeyen JW (November 2016).

5856: 5649: 5491: 5384:

Dawson C, Johnson SG (8 April 2021). "Dread Aversion and Economic Preferences".

3880: 3181: 2940: – Simple strategies or mental processes involved in making quick decisions 1885:

Devaluing proposals only because they purportedly originated with an adversary.

1331:, to overestimate the likelihood of negative things happening to them. (compare 12658: 12622: 12516: 12114: 12061: 11887: 11857: 11837: 11824: 11538: 11420: 11048: 10701: 10481: 10471: 10434: 10430: 10343: 10338: 10328: 10251: 10168: 10128: 10078: 10023: 10013: 9998: 9993: 9958: 9913: 9878: 9782: 9731: 9603: 9585:"The seven sins of memory. Insights from psychology and cognitive neuroscience" 9493: 8359: 8283:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

7992: 7977:"The Seven Sins of Memory: Insights from psychology and cognitive neuroscience" 7932: 7887: 6800: 6314:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

6241: 6091: 5999: 5764: 5719: 5208: 5145: 5122: 4401: 4336: 4301: 4178: 3760: 3740:

Schwarz N, Bless H, Strack F, Klumpp G, Rittenauer-Schatka H, Simons A (1991).

2854: 2810:

That an item that sticks out is more likely to be remembered than other items.

2748: 2710: 2706: 2691: 2655: 2643: 2639: 2575: 2561: 2533: 2523: 2317: 2247: 1979: 1936: 1541: 1426: 1322: 1302: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1234: 1176: 775: 645: 552: 410: 295: 269: 245: 198: 30: 8976: 8927: 8528: 8511: 8450: 8415: 8230: 8095: 7630: 7203: 6850: 6566:"Once bitten, twice shy: Experienced regret and non-adaptive choice switching" 6180: 6163: 5923: 4521: 3932: 3742:"Ease of Retrieval as Information: Another Look at the Availability Heuristic" 3726: 3376: 3337: 3131: 3034: – Higher probability of publishing results showing a significant finding 2928: – Inability to think and behave rationally despite adequate intelligence 2331:

reinforced over time, and by repeated recollection or re-telling of a memory.

1644:, the tendency to judge human action to be intentional rather than accidental. 215:

Fallacy, which attributes cause when there is only correlation or coincidence.

12729: 12637: 12627: 12601: 12596: 12556: 12541: 12506: 12429: 12276: 12104: 11967: 11942: 11905: 11862: 11852: 11847: 11832: 11680: 11638: 11028: 10632: 10572: 10281: 10261: 10224: 10198: 10183: 10163: 10143: 10106: 10018: 9978: 9973: 9968: 9846: 9750: 9501: 7831: 7694: 7446: 7335: 7072: 7064: 5672: 5326: 5317: 5300: 5216: 5193:"Anthropological thinking in data science education: Thinking within context" 5192: 5169: 4980: 4805: 4683:"Compassion fade: affect and charity are greatest for a single child in need" 4444: 4309: 4186: 3962: 3528: 3139: 2925: 2647: 2571: 2537: 2237: 1733: 1725: 1697: 1332: 1276: 1266: 1081: 926: 639: 476: 336: 285: 100: 93: 81: 8867: 8791: 8681:

Shepard RN (1967). "Recognition memory for words, sentences, and pictures".

8646:

Slamecka NJ (April 1968). "An examination of trace storage in free recall".

8303: 8145: 7771: 6525: 6334: 6282: 6122: 5704:"The misunderstood limits of folk science: an illusion of explanatory depth" 5673:"2017 : What scientific term or concept ought to be more widely known?" 5161: 4833: 4767: 4436: 4134: 3579: 2528:

Where an item at the beginning of a list is more easily recalled. A form of

744:, a tendency to associate more positive attributes with women than with men. 12668: 12632: 12586: 12496: 12339: 12154: 12109: 12096: 12086: 12046: 11766: 11280: 11174: 11066: 10726: 10241: 10003: 9988: 9611: 9548: 9434:

How We Know What Isn't So: The Fallibility of Human Reason in Everyday Life

9163: 9072:"Support theory: A nonextensional representation of subjective probability" 8995: 8875: 8840: 8729: 8605: 8537: 8487: 8322: 8203: 8153: 8103: 8000: 7940: 7895: 7783: 7454: 7343: 7300: 7257: 7222: 7151: 7115: 6930: 6858: 6808: 6721: 6703: 6601: 6468: 6441: 6392: 6353: 6130: 6007: 5864: 5772: 5737: 5657: 5622: 5499: 5130: 4945: 4872:"Automation Bias – A Hidden Issue for Clinical Decision Support System Use" 4726: 4647: 4564: 4409: 4194: 4084:"Harness the power of the 'Ben Franklin Effect' to get someone to like you" 3940: 3898: 3824: 3806: 3691: 3433: 3300: 3231: 2907: 2728: 2033: 2008: 2002: 1975: 1798: 1749: 1422: 1340: 1312: 769: 728: 472: 49: 9566:

Cognitive illusions: Intriguing phenomena in thinking, judgment and memory

8667: 8578:

Haizlip J, May N, Schorling J, Williams A, Plews-Ogan M (September 2012).

8367: 7401: 6476: 5230: 3478:

Neuropsychology in the Courtroom: Expert Analysis of Reports and Testimony

3360: 2101:

The tendency to remember one's choices as better than they actually were.

332:

is the perception of contradictory information and the mental toll of it.

12526: 12397: 12351: 11573: 11053: 11038: 10882: 10597: 10548: 10518: 10158: 9928: 9918: 9908: 9804: 6664: 6061: 5613: 5596: 3037: 1553: 1485:

Absence of expectation of sudden trend breaks in continuous developments

1460: 1430: 1186: 1071: 1014: 712: 413:, the tendency to construct, believe in, and trust individual narratives. 351: 202: 9334: 9317: 4452: 4222: 3911: 1700:, the tendency to be favorably biased toward people most like ourselves. 802:, the tendency to neglect the human context of technological challenges 661: 12561: 12424: 11991: 11700: 11150: 11126: 10857: 10716: 10706: 10669: 10602: 10577: 10276: 10271: 10246: 9252: 9180:

Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience

7539: 7249: 6582: 4936: 4919: 4556: 3025: 2977: 1959: 1928: 1785: 1763: 1745: 1741: 1721: 1688: 1653: 1032: 488: 190: 34: 11186: 5463: 5461: 4239: 2608:

The remembering of the past as having been better than it really was.

2407:

The improved recall of information congruent with one's current mood.

11797: 11695: 11685: 11404: 11095: 10617: 10533: 10508: 10503: 10364: 9851: 9318:"Anomalies: The Endowment Effect, Loss Aversion, and Status Quo Bias" 8659: 8195: 7292: 7107: 3570: 3223: 1966:

or source misattribution is the misidentification of the origin of a

1112: 608:, the neglect of the duration of an episode in determining its value. 480: 169: 38: 16:

Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment

9475:"The Totalitarian Ego: Fabrication and Revision of Personal History" 8219:

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance

7531: 6423: 6366: 6164:"FFAB-The Form Function Attribution Bias in Human Robot Interaction" 4548: 4208:

Jeng M (2006). "A selected history of expectation bias in physics".

3637: 1455:

The tendency to take greater risks when perceived safety increases.

1201:

The tendency to seek information even when it cannot affect action.

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Fredrickson and 4210:American Journal of Physics 3869:Zeitschrift für Psychologie 3280:Annual Review of Psychology 3182:10.1037/0033-295x.106.1.180 3120:Management Review Quarterly 3002:Outline of public relations 2967:List of maladaptive schemas 2826: 2554:levels-of-processing effect 2337:Levels-of-processing effect 2294:(Illusion-of-truth effect) 1581:Attribution bias includes: 755:Framing effect (psychology) 723:sexual underperception bias 197:, and hearing non-existent 10: 12767: 12420:Levels of Processing model 12345:World Memory Championships 12178:Lost in the mall technique 12025:dissociative (psychogenic) 11671:The Disinformation Project 11101:Propaganda in Nazi Germany 10457:Algorithmic radicalization 10230:Basking in reflected glory 9721: 9604:10.1037/0003-066X.54.3.182 9583:Schacter DL (March 1999). 9494:10.1037/0003-066x.35.7.603 8500:Craik & Lockhart, 1972 8360:10.1037/0278-7393.20.4.953 7993:10.1037/0003-066X.54.3.182 7933:10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.277 7888:10.1037/0022-3514.77.2.221 7619:Journal of Business Ethics 6801:10.1016/j.tics.2005.11.007 6242:10.1016/j.jebo.2017.09.002 6000:10.1038/s41586-021-03380-y 5765:10.1016/j.jecp.2003.09.003 5720:10.1207/s15516709cog2605_1 5209:10.1007/s10639-023-12444-7 5123:10.1037/0022-3514.86.5.680 4402:10.1037/0022-3514.81.4.639 4365:"The Barnum Demonstration" 4337:10.1037/0033-2909.102.1.72 4302:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.05.011 4179:10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.497 3761:10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.195 3249:. Blackwell. p. 129. 3046: – Cognitive strategy 2614:Saying is believing effect 2497:Better-than-average effect 2479:Picture superiority effect 2402:Mood-congruent memory bias 2383:continued influence effect 2148:Continued influence effect 1950: 1796: 1686: 1676:Ultimate attribution error 1574: 1530: 894:Risk aversion (psychology) 891: 885: 810: 752: 742:Women are wonderful effect 719:Sexual overperception bias 575: 443: 417:Observer-expectancy effect 376: 322: 312:Well travelled road effect 223: 167: 125:Anchoring (cognitive bias) 122: 18: 12691: 12646: 12615: 12474: 12467: 12360: 12332: 12264: 12221: 12193: 12153: 12095: 11990: 11896: 11871: 11823: 11816: 11773: 11634: 11623: 11594: 11588:Bolivarian Army of Trolls 11582: 11564:Tobacco industry playbook 11495:CIA Kennedy assassination 11467: 11413: 11387: 11375: 11289: 11236: 11224: 11193: 11181: 11169: 11157: 11145: 11114: 11088: 11076: 11016: 11004: 11000: 10989: 10821: 10810: 10755: 10744: 10628:Manipulation (psychology) 10452: 10446: 10441: 10378: 10360:Cognitive bias mitigation 10352: 10217: 10092: 9729: 9592:The American Psychologist 9347:. New York: McGraw-Hill. 8977:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.728864 8928:10.1037/0278-7393.11.1.12 8529:10.3758/s13421-010-0007-6 8451:10.1037/0022-3514.60.1.24 8416:10.1037/1089-2680.7.2.203 8231:10.1037/0096-1523.3.4.552 8096:10.3758/s13423-013-0494-0 8058:Human Learning and Memory 7981:The American Psychologist 7973:Schacter, Daniel Lawrence 7729:"Assumed similarity bias" 7631:10.1007/s10551-011-0843-8 7476:Kokkoris M (2020-01-16). 7204:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.729285 6851:10.2466/pr0.1999.85.2.533 6181:10.1109/TCDS.2018.2851569 6029:Ackerman MS, ed. (2003). 5263:, Harvard Business School 5144:Mike K, Hazzan O (2022). 4924:The American Psychologist 4522:10.1080/14792779343000040 4072:. Harvard Business School 3933:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.1 3881:10.1027/2151-2604/a000065 3727:10.1037/0022-3514.60.1.24 3377:10.1177/01461672952111011 3338:10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175 3132:10.1007/s11301-018-0135-9 2501:Worse-than-average effect 2426:, positivity effect, and 2404:(state-dependent memory) 2221:(Self-generation effect) 2050: 2047: 1970:by the person making the 1922: 1912:Worse-than-average effect 1830: 1827: 1814:Outgroup homogeneity bias 1622:, positivity effect, and 1606:Extrinsic incentives bias 1521: 1121:) and future negatively. 1065: 1062: 421:subject-expectancy effect 368:a favor from that person. 266:Baader–Meinhof phenomenon 213:Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc 203:records played in reverse 12458:The Seven Sins of Memory 12403:Intermediate-term memory 12208:Indirect tests of memory 12185:Recovered-memory therapy 12135:Misattribution of memory 11676:East StratCom Task Force 11490:9/11 conspiracy theories 10487:List of cognitive biases 9944:Illusion of transparency 9049:. Springer. p. 26. 8339:Schmidt SR (July 1994). 7956:The Seven Sins of Memory 7695:10.1177/0261927X14535916 7336:10.1177/0956797613497969 7065:10.1177/0963721414546330 6989:Scientific American Mind 6653:American Economic Review 5952:Gupta S (7 April 2021). 5759:(1). Elsevier BV: 1–32. 5318:10.15394/jaaer.2011.1640 3984:Bellows A (March 2006). 3642:The Skeptic's Dictionary 3206:Hilbert M (March 2012). 2896:Attribution (psychology) 2788:being part of the bias. 2113:§ Confirmation bias 1964:misattribution of memory 1953:Misattribution of memory 1947:Misattribution of memory 1776:Social desirability bias 1636:Hostile attribution bias 1602:to the victim increases. 1055: 825:Escalation of commitment 511:Illusion of transparency 236:Anthropocentric thinking 12751:Cognitive science lists 12145:Source-monitoring error 11602:Public opinion brigades 11559:Niger uranium forgeries 11549:Litter boxes in schools 10919:COVID-19 misinformation 10841:Free energy suppression 10750:Books and documentaries 10524:Euphemistic misspeaking 9415:Oxford University Press 9366:. Pinter & Martin. 8964:Frontiers in Psychology 8868:10.1162/jocn.2010.21464 8792:10.1348/026151005X74153 8304:10.1073/pnas.1912437117 8146:10.1111/1467-9280.00228 7482:Harvard Business Review 7191:Frontiers in Psychology 6335:10.1073/pnas.1018033108 6123:10.1126/science.1229294 5924:10.1023/A:1026517309871 5299:Tuccio W (2011-01-01). 5254:Kristal AS, Santos LR, 5162:10.1109/TE.2022.3218013 4834:10.1162/003355397555253 4437:10.1111/1467-8721.00044 3051:Thinking, Fast and Slow 2984:Mind projection fallacy 2447:Part-list cueing effect 2424:group attribution error 2326:Leveling and sharpening 1901:Shared information bias 1837:Assumed similarity bias 1630:Group attribution error 1620:group attribution error 1153:human–robot interaction 1138:Exaggerated expectation 1127:End-of-history illusion 12552:George Armitage Miller 12512:Patricia Goldman-Rakic 11348:2016 Brexit referendum 10697:Scientific fabrication 10608:Historical negationism 9241:Psychological Research 8516:Memory & Cognition 7784:10.2307/j.ctv13qfw6w.6 6704:10.1187/cbe.14-05-0080 6500:"Mere exposure effect" 6469:10.1098/rstb.1996.0125 5801:"Objectivity illusion" 4325:Psychological Bulletin 4044:St. Paul Pioneer Press 3921:Psychological Bulletin 3807:10.1187/cbe.12-06-0074 3212:Psychological Bulletin 2779:chronological snobbery 2700:serial position effect 2634:Serial position effect 2568:serial position effect 2530:serial position effect 2375:post-event information 2097:Choice-supportive bias 1891:Social comparison bias 1712:availability heuristic 1608:, an exception to the 1160:Fundamental pain bias 1092:Attribute substitution 1039:Rhyme as reason effect 937:Pseudocertainty effect 857:Plan continuation bias 634:Neglect of probability 612:Hyperbolic discounting 461:False consensus effect 246:dehumanised perception 226:Availability heuristic 220:Availability heuristic 105:hyperbolic discounting 12715:Philosophy portal 12703:Psychology portal 12567:Henry L. Roediger III 12168:False memory syndrome 12140:Misinformation effect 12120:Imagination inflation 11644:Fact-checking website 11449:Operation Mass Appeal 11431:Clockwork Orange plot 10941:Mental illness denial 10836:Climate change denial 10653:Psychological warfare 10623:Internet manipulation 10588:Firehose of falsehood 10514:Disinformation attack 10312:Arab–Israeli conflict 10039:Social influence bias 9984:Out-group homogeneity 9482:American Psychologist 9392:Thinking and deciding 9362:Sutherland S (2007). 9280:Thinking and deciding 8753:Cognitive Development 8134:Psychological Science 8055:Lieberman DA (2011). 7402:10.4135/9781412956253 7324:Psychological Science 6839:Psychological Reports 6068:Edge Foundation, Inc. 5714:(5). Wiley: 521–562. 5341:Thinking and Deciding 5087:All Things Considered 5085:by Chana Joffe-Walt. 5007:Vanderbilt University 4742:"Conjunction fallacy" 4628:Psychological Science 2884:Affective forecasting 2624:Self-relevance effect 2415:or Negativity effect 2369:Misinformation effect 2292:Illusory truth effect 2159:misinformation effect 1935:, a memory bias is a 1748:that occurs within a 1648:Just-world hypothesis 1502:Value selection bias 1291:positive outcome bias 1045:Subjective validation 1029:stated multiple times 1021:Illusory truth effect 962:Dunning–Kruger effect 628:Less-is-better effect 616:Dynamic inconsistency 559:Trait ascription bias 541:Overconfidence effect 467:False uniqueness bias 157:Law of the instrument 19:For common errors in 12072:Motivated forgetting 10783:Who's Who in the CIA 9954:Mere-exposure effect 9884:Extrinsic incentives 9830:Selective perception 9688:at Wikimedia Commons 9079:Psychological Review 7954:Schacter DL (2001). 7756:: CS1 maint: year ( 6885:Trofimova I (2014). 6665:10.1257/aer.89.1.103 6502:. In Pohl RF (ed.). 6259:. In Pohl RF (ed.). 5845:Psychological Review 5828:: CS1 maint: year ( 5638:Psychological Review 5614:10.3758/PBR.16.1.204 4744:. In Pohl RF (ed.). 4590:. Psychology Press. 4111:. In Pohl RF (ed.). 3170:Psychological Review 3079:. In Buss DM (ed.). 2914:Cognitive distortion 2719:Subadditivity effect 2690:Diminishment of the 2594:Repetition blindness 2493:Illusory superiority 2272:Illusory correlation 1992:seven sins of memory 1881:Reactive devaluation 1780:§ Courtesy bias 1744:, the psychological 1704:Availability cascade 1402:Proportionality bias 1372:Probability matching 1222:Mere exposure effect 1206:Interoceptive bias, 1168:Hedonic recall bias 1027:, or if it has been 996:Objectivity illusion 968:Hot-cold empathy gap 949:System justification 863:Subadditivity effect 845:law of large numbers 800:Context neglect bias 697:Agent detection bias 523:Illusory superiority 517:Illusion of validity 491:, and some types of 427:Selective perception 347:Effort justification 341:cognitive dissonance 330:Cognitive dissonance 325:Cognitive dissonance 319:Cognitive dissonance 280:Implicit association 274:Baader–Meinhof Group 185:Illusory correlation 151:Functional fixedness 43:behavioral economics 12582:Arthur P. Shimamura 12482:Richard C. Atkinson 12299:Effects of exercise 12173:Memory implantation 12057:Interference theory 11973:Selective retention 11953:Meaningful learning 11485:Conspiracy theories 11426:Double-Cross System 11395:Conspiracy theories 11256:Operation INFEKTION 11044:Internet Water Army 10898:Strategy of tension 10763:by Ion Mihai Pacepa 10648:Post-truth politics 10179:Social desirability 10074:von Restorff effect 9949:Mean world syndrome 9924:Hostile attribution 9634:Tetlock PE (2005). 9523:1974Sci...185.1124T 9432:Gilovich T (1993). 9335:10.1257/jep.5.1.193 9301:. Wiley-Blackwell. 9136:2007PLoSO...2.1295S 8395:Schmidt SR (2003). 8295:2021PNAS..11812437C 8289:(15): e1912437117. 8252:Cacioppo J (2002). 7859:Forsyth DR (2009). 7844:BPS Research Digest 7520:Stanford Law Review 7032:on October 24, 2020 6903:2014PLoSO...985677T 6463:(1346): 1413–1420. 6326:2011PNAS..108.6889D 6115:2013Sci...339...96Q 5992:2021Natur.592..258A 5885:. 30 September 2021 5203:(11): 14245–14260. 4699:2014PLoSO...9j0115V 4582:. In Pohl R (ed.). 4578:Hoffrage U (2004). 4369:psych.fullerton.edu 4232:2006AmJPh..74..578J 4109:"Confirmation Bias" 4057:gang was mentioned. 3676:1974Sci...185.1124T 3670:(4157): 1124–1131. 3460:. pp. 116–123. 3270:MacCoun RJ (1998). 3014:Pollyanna principle 2996:Observational error 2990:Motivated reasoning 2806:von Restorff effect 2508:Positivity effect ( 2436:Next-in-line effect 2125:or Regressive bias 2041:Other memory biases 2015:Social cryptomnesia 1847:Outgroup favoritism 1821:Other social biases 1758:critical evaluation 1642:Intentionality bias 1586:Actor-observer bias 1533:Association fallacy 1527:Association fallacy 1382:Pro-innovation bias 1212:Hungry judge effect 1097:reflective system. 782:Denomination effect 600:Conjunction fallacy 565:Third-person effect 505:Illusion of control 362:Ben Franklin effect 290:von Restorff effect 179:Clustering illusion 145:revise one's belief 12746:Behavioral finance 12679:Andriy Slyusarchuk 12502:Hermann Ebbinghaus 12408:Involuntary memory 12309:Memory improvement 12294:Effects of alcohol 12256:Transactive memory 12234:Politics of memory 12203:Exceptional memory 11381:HIV/AIDS denialism 11358:Trolls from Olgino 11132:Paid news in India 11122:Fake news in India 10936:HIV/AIDS denialism 10790:Merchants of Doubt 10663:Military deception 10638:Media manipulation 10477:Circular reporting 10094:Statistical biases 9872:Curse of knowledge 9297:Hardman D (2009). 9253:10.1007/bf02409636 7735:. Washington, DC: 7382:, pp. 138–139 7250:10.1037/xap0000187 6983:Buckley T (2015). 6743:(102291): 102291. 6583:10.7717/peerj.1035 6298:, pp. 258–259 5807:. Washington, DC: 5003:"Unconscious Bias" 4937:10.1037/amp0000427 4792:2017-08-08 at the 4671:, pp. 224–228 4613:, pp. 172–178 4046:. 23 February 2007 3770:on 9 February 2014 3404:Neural Computation 3008:Outline of thought 2890:Anecdotal evidence 2739:Telescoping effect 2604:Rosy retrospection 2348:List-length effect 2209:Fading affect bias 2077:Boundary extension 2067:Bizarreness effect 1873:Reverse psychology 1670:group-serving bias 1548:Cheerleader effect 1419:frequency illusion 1208:Embodied cognition 1119:rosy retrospection 1103:Curse of knowledge 909:Disposition effect 300:statistical sample 262:Frequency illusion 135:Common source bias 12723: 12722: 12687: 12686: 12674:Cosmos Rossellius 12522:Marcia K. Johnson 12393:Exosomatic memory 12378:Context-dependent 12368:Absent-mindedness 12251:Memory conformity 12229:Collective memory 12130:Memory conformity 12067:Memory inhibition 11986: 11985: 11978:Tip of the tongue 11733: 11732: 11729: 11728: 11619: 11618: 11615: 11614: 11569:Operation Shocker 11371: 11370: 11251:K-1000 battleship 11082:Operation Neptune 10985: 10984: 10981: 10980: 10806: 10805: 10740: 10739: 10732:Yellow journalism 10680:counterpropaganda 10561:List of fallacies 10494:Conspiracy theory 10462:Alternative facts 10397: 10396: 10034:Social comparison 9815:Choice-supportive 9684:Media related to 9664:978-1-56726-217-9 9645:978-0-691-12302-8 9575:978-1-138-90341-8 9540:978-0-521-28414-1 9462:978-0-521-79679-8 9443:978-0-02-911706-4 9424:978-0-19-516229-5 9401:978-0-521-65030-4 9373:978-1-905177-07-3 9354:978-0-07-050477-6 9308:978-1-4051-2398-3 9289:978-0-521-43732-5 9190:978-1-133-00912-2 9056:978-1-85233-436-9 9020:978-0-273-71086-8 8632:978-0-495-09303-9 8619:Weiten W (2007). 8584:Academic Medicine 8564:978-0-495-60197-5 8551:Weiten W (2010). 8263:978-0-262-53195-5 8068:978-1-139-50253-5 8041:978-0-511-80446-5 7752:cite encyclopedia 7603:978-0-205-97335-4 7578:978-0-19-280632-1 7561:Colman A (2003). 7411:978-1-4129-1670-7 6550:978-0-521-62749-8 6517:978-1-84169-351-4 6320:(17): 6889–6892. 6274:978-1-84169-351-4 6046:978-0-262-01195-2 5986:(7853): 258–261. 5824:cite encyclopedia 5708:Cognitive Science 5547:978-0-12-407188-9 4759:978-1-84169-351-4 4597:978-1-84169-351-4 4487:978-0-19-829582-2 4274:978-1-4292-3719-2 4240:10.1119/1.2186333 4126:978-1-84169-351-4 4015:howstuffworks.com 3487:978-1-59385-634-2 3371:(11): 1229–1239. 3256:978-1-4051-1304-5 3044:Self-handicapping 3020:Positive feedback 2961:List of fallacies 2920:Defence mechanism 2902:Black swan theory 2869:Philosophy portal 2841:Psychology portal 2824: 2823: 2783:appeal to novelty 2781:with possibly an 2759:Tip of the tongue 2584:Reminiscence bump 2428:negativity effect 2359:Memory inhibition 2219:Generation effect 2179:Cross-race effect 2107:Confirmation bias 2087:Childhood amnesia 2057:Availability bias 1933:cognitive science 1920: 1919: 1808:Not invented here 1708:collective belief 1666:Self-serving bias 1624:negativity effect 1519: 1518: 1511:Weber–Fechner law 1471:Teleological bias 1447:Risk compensation 1049:confirmation bias 1025:easier to process 990:Impostor Syndrome 931:Sunk cost fallacy 841:Gambler's fallacy 835:G. I. Joe fallacy 829:sunk cost fallacy 819:Berkson's paradox 690: 689: 588:Base rate fallacy 578:Extension neglect 572:Extension neglect 493:personality tests 433:Semmelweis reflex 379:Confirmation bias 373:Confirmation bias 306:Survivorship bias 141:Conservatism bias 90:confirmation bias 86:leading questions 25:List of fallacies 12758: 12741:Psychology lists 12736:Cognitive biases 12713: 12712: 12711: 12701: 12700: 12699: 12654:Jonathan Hancock 12607:Robert Stickgold 12577:Richard Shiffrin 12532:Elizabeth Loftus 12472: 12471: 12388:Childhood memory 12195:Research methods 12077:Repressed memory 12052:Forgetting curve 12040:transient global 11911:Autobiographical 11821: 11820: 11760: 11753: 11746: 11737: 11736: 11625: 11624: 11444:MMR autism fraud 11327:On US elections 11261:Operation Toucan 11234: 11233: 11002: 11001: 10991: 10990: 10956:anti-vaccination 10904: 10903: 10851:Holocaust denial 10826:Bermuda Triangle 10812: 10811: 10746: 10745: 10675:black propaganda 10643:Potemkin village 10568:False accusation 10544:list of websites 10443: 10442: 10424: 10417: 10410: 10401: 10400: 10194:Systematic error 10149:Omitted-variable 10064:Trait ascription 9904:Frog pond effect 9732:Cognitive biases 9716: 9709: 9702: 9693: 9692: 9683: 9668: 9649: 9630: 9629:on May 13, 2013. 9628: 9622:. 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Archived from 6100: 6094:(January 2013). 6083: 6077: 6076: 6075: 6074: 6057: 6051: 6050: 6026: 6020: 6019: 5975: 5969: 5968: 5966: 5964: 5949: 5943: 5942: 5940: 5938: 5909: 5901: 5895: 5894: 5892: 5890: 5883:The Decision Lab 5875: 5869: 5868: 5840: 5834: 5833: 5827: 5819: 5817: 5816: 5797: 5791: 5790: 5783: 5777: 5776: 5748: 5742: 5741: 5731: 5699: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5685: 5668: 5662: 5661: 5633: 5627: 5626: 5616: 5592: 5586: 5585: 5565: 5559: 5558: 5556: 5550:. Archived from 5527: 5518: 5512: 5511: 5485: 5476:(6): 1121–1134. 5465: 5456: 5450: 5444: 5438: 5432: 5426: 5420: 5413: 5407: 5400: 5394: 5393: 5381: 5375: 5374: 5362: 5356: 5350: 5344: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5320: 5296: 5290: 5289: 5287: 5286: 5271: 5265: 5264: 5262: 5251: 5245: 5244: 5242: 5241: 5227: 5221: 5220: 5188: 5182: 5181: 5141: 5135: 5134: 5116: 5096: 5090: 5080: 5074: 5073: 5071: 5070: 5059: 5053: 5052: 5050: 5049: 5035: 5029: 5028:, pp. 38–41 5023: 5017: 5016: 5014: 5013: 4999: 4993: 4992: 4956: 4950: 4949: 4939: 4930:(9): 1139–1153. 4915: 4909: 4908: 4906: 4905: 4894: 4888: 4887: 4864: 4858: 4852: 4846: 4845: 4827: 4802: 4796: 4778: 4772: 4771: 4740:Fisk JE (2004). 4737: 4731: 4730: 4720: 4710: 4678: 4672: 4666: 4660: 4659: 4623: 4614: 4608: 4602: 4601: 4589: 4580:"Overconfidence" 4575: 4569: 4568: 4532: 4526: 4525: 4505: 4499: 4498: 4496: 4494: 4471: 4465: 4464: 4420: 4414: 4413: 4385: 4379: 4378: 4376: 4375: 4361: 4355: 4354: 4347: 4341: 4340: 4320: 4314: 4313: 4285: 4279: 4278: 4258: 4252: 4251: 4225: 4205: 4199: 4198: 4172: 4154: 4145: 4139: 4138: 4104: 4098: 4097: 4095: 4094: 4088:Business Insider 4079: 4073: 4066: 4060: 4059: 4053: 4051: 4032: 4026: 4025: 4023: 4021: 4006: 4000: 3999: 3997: 3996: 3990:Damn Interesting 3981: 3975: 3974: 3959: 3953: 3952: 3918: 3909: 3903: 3902: 3892: 3860: 3854: 3853: 3851: 3850: 3835: 3829: 3828: 3818: 3786: 3780: 3779: 3777: 3775: 3769: 3763:. Archived from 3746: 3737: 3731: 3730: 3710: 3704: 3703: 3659: 3653: 3652: 3650: 3648: 3633: 3627: 3626: 3624: 3623: 3609: 3603: 3602: 3594: 3585: 3584: 3582: 3580:2060/19700009379 3571:10.1037/h0029546 3554: 3548: 3547: 3545: 3543: 3506: 3498: 3492: 3491: 3473: 3462: 3461: 3455: 3444: 3438: 3437: 3427: 3410:(6): 1511–1527. 3395: 3389: 3388: 3356: 3350: 3349: 3323: 3311: 3305: 3304: 3276: 3267: 3261: 3260: 3242: 3236: 3235: 3224:10.1037/a0025940 3203: 3186: 3185: 3167: 3158: 3152: 3151: 3115: 3109: 3108: 3106: 3105: 3091: 3085: 3084: 3078: 3069: 3032:Publication bias 2952: 2943: 2871: 2866: 2865: 2864: 2857: 2852: 2851: 2843: 2838: 2837: 2836: 2816:Zeigarnik effect 2797: 2796: 2774: 2773: 2687: 2686: 2666:Spotlight effect 2549: 2548: 2350: 2349: 2308: 2306: 2286: 2284: 2262: 2261: 2150: 2149: 2138: 2137: 2136:Consistency bias 2124: 2123: 2045: 2044: 2021:Source confusion 1984:source confusion 1857:Pygmalion effect 1825: 1824: 1737: 1736: 1718:Bandwagon effect 1660:Puritanical bias 1577:Attribution bias 1571:Attribution bias 1494: 1493: 1438:Systematic bias 1412:Recency illusion 1283:wishful thinking 1245:Moral credential 1197:Information bias 1140: 1139: 1060: 1059: 978:Hard–easy effect 921:Endowment effect 903:Ambiguity effect 869:Time-saving bias 851:Hot-hand fallacy 788:Distinction bias 735:Unconscious bias 685: 682: 664: 657: 606:Duration neglect 547:Planning fallacy 405:expectation bias 256:Attentional bias 242:Anthropomorphism 75:wishful thinking 31:Cognitive biases 12766: 12765: 12761: 12760: 12759: 12757: 12756: 12755: 12726: 12725: 12724: 12719: 12709: 12707: 12697: 12695: 12683: 12664:Dominic O'Brien 12642: 12611: 12592:Susumu Tonegawa 12572:Daniel Schacter 12547:Eleanor Maguire 12537:Geoffrey Loftus 12492:Stephen J. Ceci 12487:Robert A. Bjork 12463: 12382:state-dependent 12356: 12328: 12260: 12241:Cultural memory 12217: 12213:Memory disorder 12189: 12149: 12091: 11982: 11892: 11867: 11812: 11769: 11764: 11734: 11725: 11630: 11611: 11590: 11578: 11463: 11459:Zinoviev letter 11409: 11383: 11367: 11291:Post-Soviet era 11285: 11246:Active Measures 11229: 11220: 11189: 11177: 11165: 11153: 11141: 11110: 11084: 11072: 11012: 11010:Jihadunspun.com 10996: 10977: 10902: 10878:New World Order 10846:Genocide denial 10817: 10802: 10751: 10736: 10658:Memetic warfare 10448: 10437: 10428: 10398: 10393: 10374: 10348: 10213: 10088: 10069:Turkey illusion 9837:Compassion fade 9734: 9725: 9720: 9676: 9671: 9665: 9646: 9626: 9587: 9576: 9541: 9477: 9463: 9444: 9425: 9402: 9385: 9383:Further reading 9380: 9374: 9355: 9309: 9290: 9273: 9268: 9237: 9233: 9228: 9224: 9214: 9212: 9203: 9202: 9198: 9191: 9175: 9171: 9116: 9112: 9103: 9101: 9097: 9074: 9068: 9064: 9057: 9041: 9037: 9032: 9028: 9021: 9007: 9003: 8956: 8952: 8947: 8943: 8908: 8904: 8895: 8891: 8852: 8848: 8803: 8799: 8776: 8772: 8749: 8745: 8706: 8702: 8679: 8675: 8644: 8640: 8633: 8617: 8613: 8576: 8572: 8565: 8549: 8545: 8508: 8504: 8499: 8495: 8462: 8458: 8435: 8431: 8399: 8393: 8389: 8380: 8378: 8374: 8343: 8337: 8333: 8275: 8271: 8264: 8250: 8246: 8215: 8211: 8180: 8176: 8168: 8129: 8123: 8119: 8080: 8076: 8069: 8053: 8049: 8042: 8020: 8016: 7970: 7963: 7952: 7948: 7924:10.1.1.392.4775 7907: 7903: 7872: 7868: 7857: 7853: 7838: 7808: 7804: 7796: 7794: 7770: 7769: 7765: 7749: 7748: 7742: 7740: 7727: 7726: 7722: 7714: 7710: 7679: 7675: 7650: 7646: 7615: 7611: 7604: 7590: 7586: 7579: 7559: 7555: 7532:10.2307/1229439 7512: 7508: 7500: 7496: 7486: 7484: 7474: 7470: 7423: 7419: 7412: 7390: 7386: 7380:Sutherland 2007 7378: 7371: 7363: 7359: 7320: 7316: 7277: 7273: 7234: 7230: 7183: 7179: 7171: 7167: 7128: 7124: 7092: 7088: 7049: 7045: 7035: 7033: 7020: 7019: 7015: 7005: 7003: 6981: 6977: 6942: 6938: 6883: 6874: 6835: 6831: 6823: 6792:10.1.1.178.7054 6774: 6768: 6764: 6733: 6729: 6684: 6680: 6649: 6645: 6637: 6633: 6625: 6621: 6613: 6609: 6562: 6558: 6551: 6537: 6533: 6518: 6496: 6492: 6453: 6449: 6424:10.1038/nrn3950 6404: 6400: 6365: 6361: 6306: 6302: 6294: 6290: 6275: 6253: 6249: 6226: 6222: 6213: 6211: 6201: 6197: 6160: 6156: 6148:on 2013-01-13. 6145: 6109:(6115): 96–98. 6098: 6084: 6080: 6072: 6070: 6058: 6054: 6047: 6027: 6023: 5976: 5972: 5962: 5960: 5950: 5946: 5936: 5934: 5902: 5898: 5888: 5886: 5877: 5876: 5872: 5841: 5837: 5821: 5820: 5814: 5812: 5799: 5798: 5794: 5785: 5784: 5780: 5749: 5745: 5700: 5693: 5683: 5681: 5669: 5665: 5634: 5630: 5593: 5589: 5566: 5562: 5554: 5548: 5525: 5519: 5515: 5466: 5459: 5451: 5447: 5439: 5435: 5427: 5423: 5414: 5410: 5401: 5397: 5382: 5378: 5363: 5359: 5351: 5347: 5338: 5334: 5297: 5293: 5284: 5282: 5272: 5268: 5260: 5252: 5248: 5239: 5237: 5229: 5228: 5224: 5189: 5185: 5142: 5138: 5114:10.1.1.484.9171 5097: 5093: 5081: 5077: 5068: 5066: 5061: 5060: 5056: 5047: 5045: 5037: 5036: 5032: 5024: 5020: 5011: 5009: 5001: 5000: 4996: 4957: 4953: 4916: 4912: 4903: 4901: 4896: 4895: 4891: 4865: 4861: 4853: 4849: 4825:10.1.1.337.3544 4803: 4799: 4794:Wayback Machine 4782:Daniel Kahneman 4779: 4775: 4760: 4738: 4734: 4679: 4675: 4667: 4663: 4624: 4617: 4611:Sutherland 2007 4609: 4605: 4598: 4576: 4572: 4549:10.2307/1419942 4533: 4529: 4506: 4502: 4492: 4490: 4488: 4472: 4468: 4421: 4417: 4386: 4382: 4373: 4371: 4363: 4362: 4358: 4349: 4348: 4344: 4321: 4317: 4286: 4282: 4275: 4259: 4255: 4223:physics/0508199 4206: 4202: 4170:10.1.1.387.5964 4152: 4146: 4142: 4127: 4105: 4101: 4092: 4090: 4080: 4076: 4067: 4063: 4049: 4047: 4034: 4033: 4029: 4019: 4017: 4007: 4003: 3994: 3992: 3982: 3978: 3960: 3956: 3916: 3910: 3906: 3861: 3857: 3848: 3846: 3837: 3836: 3832: 3787: 3783: 3773: 3771: 3767: 3744: 3738: 3734: 3711: 3707: 3660: 3656: 3646: 3644: 3634: 3630: 3621: 3619: 3611: 3610: 3606: 3595: 3588: 3555: 3551: 3541: 3539: 3499: 3495: 3488: 3474: 3465: 3453: 3445: 3441: 3396: 3392: 3357: 3353: 3332:(2): 175–220 . 3321: 3312: 3308: 3274: 3268: 3264: 3257: 3243: 3239: 3204: 3189: 3165: 3159: 3155: 3116: 3112: 3103: 3101: 3093: 3092: 3088: 3076: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3057: 2950: 2941: 2878:Abilene paradox 2867: 2862: 2860: 2853: 2846: 2839: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2795:Verbatim effect 2794: 2793: 2786:logical fallacy 2772:Travis syndrome 2771: 2770: 2684: 2683: 2546: 2545: 2517:euphoric recall 2488:Placement bias 2471:traumatic event 2413:Negativity bias 2392:Modality effect 2347: 2346: 2300: 2299: 2278: 2277: 2259: 2258: 2199:Euphoric recall 2189:Egocentric bias 2147: 2146: 2135: 2134: 2121: 2120: 2043: 1996: 1995: 1988:Daniel Schacter 1955: 1949: 1925: 1823: 1801: 1795: 1754:decision-making 1750:group of people 1732: 1731: 1691: 1685: 1579: 1573: 1535: 1529: 1524: 1491: 1490: 1481:Turkey illusion 1451:Peltzman effect 1392:Projection bias 1361:Prevention bias 1351:Plant blindness 1225: 1137: 1136: 1058: 1011: 1001:bias blind spot 972:visceral drives 958: 956:Self-assessment 943:Status quo bias 896: 890: 888:Prospect theory 884: 882:Prospect theory 815: 809: 807:Logical fallacy 764:Contrast effect 757: 751: 707:Automation bias 686: 680: 677: 670:needs expansion 655: 594:Compassion fade 580: 574: 485:fortune telling 455:Bias blind spot 448: 446:Egocentric bias 442: 440:Egocentric bias 395:Congruence bias 389:Backfire effect 381: 375: 327: 321: 250:objectification 228: 222: 199:hidden messages 195:man in the Moon 172: 166: 127: 121: 113: 58:Gerd Gigerenzer 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 12764: 12754: 12753: 12748: 12743: 12738: 12721: 12720: 12718: 12717: 12705: 12692: 12689: 12688: 12685: 12684: 12682: 12681: 12676: 12671: 12666: 12661: 12659:Paul R. McHugh 12656: 12650: 12648: 12644: 12643: 12641: 12640: 12635: 12630: 12625: 12619: 12617: 12613: 12612: 12610: 12609: 12604: 12599: 12594: 12589: 12584: 12579: 12574: 12569: 12564: 12559: 12554: 12549: 12544: 12539: 12534: 12529: 12524: 12519: 12517:Ivan Izquierdo 12514: 12509: 12504: 12499: 12494: 12489: 12484: 12478: 12476: 12469: 12465: 12464: 12462: 12461: 12454: 12444: 12443: 12442: 12432: 12427: 12422: 12417: 12416: 12415: 12405: 12400: 12395: 12390: 12385: 12375: 12370: 12364: 12362: 12358: 12357: 12355: 12354: 12349: 12348: 12347: 12336: 12334: 12330: 12329: 12327: 12326: 12321: 12316: 12311: 12306: 12301: 12296: 12291: 12290: 12289: 12284: 12274: 12268: 12266: 12262: 12261: 12259: 12258: 12253: 12248: 12243: 12238: 12237: 12236: 12225: 12223: 12219: 12218: 12216: 12215: 12210: 12205: 12199: 12197: 12191: 12190: 12188: 12187: 12182: 12181: 12180: 12170: 12165: 12159: 12157: 12151: 12150: 12148: 12147: 12142: 12137: 12132: 12127: 12122: 12117: 12115:Hindsight bias 12112: 12107: 12101: 12099: 12093: 12092: 12090: 12089: 12084: 12079: 12074: 12069: 12064: 12062:Memory erasure 12059: 12054: 12049: 12044: 12043: 12042: 12037: 12032: 12027: 12022: 12020:post-traumatic 12017: 12012: 12007: 11996: 11994: 11988: 11987: 11984: 11983: 11981: 11980: 11975: 11970: 11965: 11960: 11958:Personal-event 11955: 11950: 11945: 11940: 11935: 11934: 11933: 11928: 11923: 11913: 11908: 11902: 11900: 11894: 11893: 11891: 11890: 11888:Working memory 11885: 11877: 11875: 11869: 11868: 11866: 11865: 11860: 11858:Motor learning 11855: 11850: 11845: 11840: 11835: 11829: 11827: 11818: 11814: 11813: 11811: 11810: 11805: 11800: 11794: 11793: 11788: 11783: 11777: 11775: 11774:Basic concepts 11771: 11770: 11763: 11762: 11755: 11748: 11740: 11731: 11730: 11727: 11726: 11724: 11723: 11718: 11713: 11708: 11703: 11698: 11693: 11688: 11683: 11678: 11673: 11668: 11663: 11658: 11653: 11648: 11647: 11646: 11635: 11632: 11631: 11621: 11620: 11617: 11616: 11613: 11612: 11610: 11609: 11604: 11598: 11596: 11592: 11591: 11586: 11584: 11580: 11579: 11577: 11576: 11571: 11566: 11561: 11556: 11551: 11546: 11541: 11539:Habbush letter 11536: 11531: 11526: 11525: 11524: 11514: 11509: 11508: 11507: 11502: 11497: 11492: 11482: 11477: 11471: 11469: 11465: 11464: 11462: 11461: 11456: 11451: 11446: 11438: 11433: 11428: 11423: 11421:Bell Pottinger 11417: 11415: 11414:United Kingdom 11411: 11410: 11408: 11407: 11402: 11397: 11391: 11389: 11385: 11384: 11379: 11377: 11373: 11372: 11369: 11368: 11366: 11365: 11360: 11355: 11350: 11345: 11344: 11343: 11338: 11333: 11325: 11324: 11323: 11313: 11312: 11311: 11306: 11295: 11293: 11287: 11286: 11284: 11283: 11278: 11273: 11268: 11263: 11258: 11253: 11248: 11242: 11240: 11231: 11222: 11221: 11219: 11218: 11213: 11208: 11197: 11195: 11191: 11190: 11185: 11183: 11179: 11178: 11173: 11171: 11167: 11166: 11161: 11159: 11155: 11154: 11149: 11147: 11143: 11142: 11140: 11139: 11134: 11129: 11124: 11118: 11116: 11112: 11111: 11109: 11108: 11103: 11098: 11092: 11090: 11086: 11085: 11080: 11078: 11077:Czechoslovakia 11074: 11073: 11071: 11070: 11063: 11058: 11057: 11056: 11051: 11049:PLA Unit 61398 11046: 11041: 11036: 11031: 11020: 11018: 11014: 11013: 11008: 11006: 10998: 10997: 10987: 10986: 10983: 10982: 10979: 10978: 10976: 10975: 10970: 10969: 10968: 10963: 10958: 10948: 10943: 10938: 10933: 10928: 10927: 10926: 10924:by governments 10916: 10910: 10908: 10901: 10900: 10895: 10890: 10885: 10880: 10875: 10870: 10865: 10860: 10855: 10854: 10853: 10843: 10838: 10833: 10828: 10822: 10819: 10818: 10808: 10807: 10804: 10803: 10801: 10800: 10793: 10786: 10779: 10772: 10765: 10761:Disinformation 10756: 10753: 10752: 10742: 10741: 10738: 10737: 10735: 10734: 10729: 10724: 10719: 10714: 10709: 10704: 10699: 10694: 10689: 10688: 10687: 10682: 10677: 10667: 10666: 10665: 10660: 10650: 10645: 10640: 10635: 10630: 10625: 10620: 10615: 10610: 10605: 10600: 10595: 10590: 10585: 10580: 10575: 10570: 10565: 10564: 10563: 10553: 10552: 10551: 10546: 10541: 10531: 10526: 10521: 10516: 10511: 10506: 10501: 10491: 10490: 10489: 10482:Cognitive bias 10479: 10474: 10472:Cherry picking 10469: 10464: 10459: 10453: 10450: 10449: 10439: 10438: 10435:misinformation 10431:Disinformation 10427: 10426: 10419: 10412: 10404: 10395: 10394: 10392: 10391: 10386: 10379: 10376: 10375: 10373: 10372: 10367: 10362: 10356: 10354: 10353:Bias reduction 10350: 10349: 10347: 10346: 10341: 10336: 10331: 10329:Political bias 10326: 10321: 10320: 10319: 10314: 10309: 10304: 10299: 10294: 10289: 10284: 10274: 10269: 10264: 10259: 10257:Infrastructure 10254: 10249: 10244: 10239: 10232: 10227: 10221: 10219: 10215: 10214: 10212: 10211: 10206: 10201: 10196: 10191: 10186: 10181: 10176: 10174:Self-selection 10171: 10166: 10161: 10156: 10151: 10146: 10141: 10136: 10131: 10126: 10125: 10124: 10114: 10109: 10104: 10098: 10096: 10090: 10089: 10087: 10086: 10081: 10076: 10071: 10066: 10061: 10056: 10051: 10046: 10041: 10036: 10031: 10026: 10021: 10016: 10011: 10009:Pro-innovation 10006: 10001: 9996: 9994:Overton window 9991: 9986: 9981: 9976: 9971: 9966: 9961: 9956: 9951: 9946: 9941: 9936: 9931: 9926: 9921: 9916: 9911: 9906: 9901: 9896: 9891: 9886: 9881: 9876: 9875: 9874: 9864: 9862:Dunning–Kruger 9859: 9854: 9849: 9844: 9839: 9834: 9833: 9832: 9822: 9817: 9812: 9807: 9802: 9801: 9800: 9790: 9785: 9780: 9779: 9778: 9776:Correspondence 9773: 9771:Actor–observer 9763: 9758: 9753: 9748: 9743: 9737: 9735: 9730: 9727: 9726: 9719: 9718: 9711: 9704: 9696: 9690: 9689: 9675: 9674:External links 9672: 9670: 9669: 9663: 9650: 9644: 9631: 9598:(3): 182–203. 9580: 9574: 9561: 9539: 9506: 9488:(7): 603–618. 9467: 9461: 9448: 9442: 9429: 9423: 9406: 9400: 9386: 9384: 9381: 9379: 9378: 9372: 9359: 9353: 9340: 9328:(1): 193–206. 9313: 9307: 9294: 9288: 9274: 9272: 9269: 9267: 9266: 9247:(1): 299–342. 9231: 9222: 9196: 9189: 9169: 9110: 9085:(4): 547–567. 9062: 9055: 9035: 9026: 9019: 9001: 8950: 8941: 8902: 8889: 8846: 8817:(2): 595–598. 8797: 8786:(4): 767–773. 8770: 8759:(3): 265–273. 8743: 8716:(3): 423–460. 8700: 8673: 8654:(4): 504–513. 8638: 8631: 8611: 8570: 8563: 8543: 8502: 8493: 8474:(1): 481–537. 8456: 8429: 8410:(2): 203–210. 8387: 8354:(4): 953–967. 8331: 8269: 8262: 8244: 8225:(4): 552–564. 8209: 8174: 8140:(2): 132–138. 8117: 8090:(2): 370–375. 8074: 8067: 8047: 8040: 8014: 7987:(3): 182–203. 7975:(March 1999). 7961: 7946: 7917:(3): 277–293. 7901: 7882:(2): 221–232. 7866: 7861:Group Dynamics 7851: 7849: 7848: 7802: 7763: 7720: 7708: 7673: 7644: 7609: 7602: 7584: 7577: 7553: 7526:(4): 683–768. 7506: 7494: 7468: 7433:(3): 771–780. 7417: 7410: 7384: 7369: 7357: 7330:(1): 230–235. 7314: 7287:(4): 371–378. 7271: 7244:(4): 440–458. 7228: 7177: 7165: 7138:(1): 138–143. 7122: 7086: 7059:(5): 361–367. 7043: 7013: 6975: 6936: 6872: 6845:(2): 533–552. 6829: 6762: 6727: 6698:(3): 437–443. 6678: 6659:(1): 103–124. 6643: 6631: 6619: 6607: 6556: 6549: 6531: 6516: 6490: 6447: 6418:(7): 419–429. 6398: 6359: 6300: 6288: 6273: 6247: 6220: 6195: 6174:(4): 843–851. 6154: 6078: 6052: 6045: 6021: 5970: 5944: 5896: 5870: 5851:(4): 852–884. 5835: 5792: 5778: 5743: 5691: 5663: 5644:(2): 384–396. 5628: 5607:(1): 204–213. 5587: 5576:(2): 159–183. 5560: 5557:on 2016-05-28. 5546: 5513: 5483:10.1.1.64.2655 5457: 5445: 5433: 5421: 5408: 5395: 5376: 5357: 5345: 5332: 5291: 5266: 5246: 5222: 5183: 5156:(3): 226–233. 5136: 5107:(5): 680–695. 5091: 5089:, 12 May 2009. 5075: 5054: 5030: 5018: 4994: 4967:(3): 393–402. 4951: 4910: 4889: 4859: 4847: 4818:(2): 443–477. 4797: 4773: 4758: 4732: 4693:(6): e100115. 4673: 4661: 4634:(7): 474–481. 4615: 4603: 4596: 4570: 4543:(4): 544–552. 4527: 4516:(1): 113–139. 4500: 4486: 4466: 4431:(6): 187–190. 4415: 4396:(4): 639–656. 4380: 4356: 4342: 4315: 4296:(4): 565–578. 4280: 4273: 4253: 4216:(7): 578–583. 4200: 4163:(3): 497–502. 4140: 4125: 4099: 4074: 4061: 4040:twincities.com 4027: 4001: 3976: 3965:(2005-08-07). 3954: 3904: 3875:(3): 175–181. 3855: 3845:. 3 March 2010 3830: 3801:(3): 209–215. 3781: 3755:(2): 195–202. 3732: 3705: 3654: 3628: 3604: 3586: 3549: 3515:(1): 232–256. 3493: 3486: 3463: 3439: 3390: 3351: 3306: 3287:(1): 259–287. 3262: 3255: 3237: 3187: 3176:(1): 180–209. 3153: 3126:(2): 107–143. 3110: 3086: 3063: 3061: 3058: 3056: 3055: 3047: 3041: 3035: 3029: 3023: 3017: 3011: 3005: 2999: 2993: 2987: 2981: 2975: 2970: 2964: 2958: 2953: 2944: 2935: 2929: 2923: 2917: 2911: 2905: 2899: 2893: 2887: 2881: 2874: 2873: 2872: 2858: 2855:Society portal 2844: 2828: 2825: 2822: 2821: 2818: 2812: 2811: 2808: 2802: 2801: 2798: 2790: 2789: 2775: 2767: 2766: 2762: 2755: 2754: 2751: 2749:Testing effect 2745: 2744: 2741: 2735: 2734: 2731: 2725: 2724: 2721: 2715: 2714: 2711:primacy effect 2707:recency effect 2692:recency effect 2688: 2680: 2679: 2676: 2672: 2671: 2668: 2662: 2661: 2658: 2656:Spacing effect 2652: 2651: 2644:primacy effect 2640:recency effect 2636: 2630: 2629: 2626: 2620: 2619: 2616: 2610: 2609: 2606: 2600: 2599: 2596: 2590: 2589: 2586: 2580: 2579: 2576:primacy effect 2564: 2562:Recency effect 2558: 2557: 2550: 2542: 2541: 2534:recency effect 2526: 2524:Primacy effect 2520: 2519: 2513: 2505: 2504: 2489: 2485: 2484: 2481: 2475: 2474: 2467: 2463: 2462: 2459: 2453: 2452: 2449: 2443: 2442: 2438: 2432: 2431: 2416: 2409: 2408: 2405: 2398: 2397: 2394: 2388: 2387: 2371: 2365: 2364: 2361: 2355: 2354: 2351: 2343: 2342: 2339: 2333: 2332: 2328: 2322: 2321: 2318:spacing effect 2314: 2310: 2309: 2295: 2288: 2287: 2274: 2268: 2267: 2263: 2255: 2254: 2251: 2248:Hindsight bias 2244: 2243: 2240: 2234: 2233: 2230: 2226: 2225: 2222: 2215: 2214: 2211: 2205: 2204: 2201: 2195: 2194: 2191: 2185: 2184: 2181: 2175: 2174: 2170: 2168:Context effect 2164: 2163: 2151: 2143: 2142: 2139: 2131: 2130: 2126: 2117: 2116: 2109: 2103: 2102: 2099: 2093: 2092: 2089: 2083: 2082: 2079: 2073: 2072: 2069: 2063: 2062: 2059: 2053: 2052: 2049: 2042: 2039: 2038: 2037: 2030: 2027:Suggestibility 2024: 2018: 2012: 2006: 1980:false memories 1957: 1956: 1951:Main article: 1948: 1945: 1937:cognitive bias 1924: 1921: 1918: 1917: 1914: 1908: 1907: 1903: 1897: 1896: 1893: 1887: 1886: 1883: 1877: 1876: 1869: 1863: 1862: 1859: 1853: 1852: 1849: 1843: 1842: 1839: 1833: 1832: 1829: 1822: 1819: 1818: 1817: 1811: 1797:Main article: 1794: 1791: 1790: 1789: 1783: 1773: 1767: 1761: 1739: 1729: 1715: 1701: 1687:Main article: 1684: 1681: 1680: 1679: 1673: 1663: 1657: 1651: 1645: 1639: 1633: 1627: 1613: 1603: 1593: 1575:Main article: 1572: 1569: 1568: 1567: 1561: 1551: 1545: 1542:Authority bias 1531:Main article: 1528: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1516: 1513: 1507: 1506: 1503: 1499: 1498: 1495: 1487: 1486: 1483: 1477: 1476: 1473: 1467: 1466: 1463: 1457: 1456: 1453: 1443: 1442: 1439: 1435: 1434: 1427:cognitive bias 1414: 1408: 1407: 1404: 1398: 1397: 1394: 1388: 1387: 1384: 1378: 1377: 1374: 1368: 1367: 1363: 1357: 1356: 1353: 1347: 1346: 1343: 1337: 1336: 1325: 1323:Pessimism bias 1319: 1318: 1315: 1309: 1308: 1305: 1303:Ostrich effect 1299: 1298: 1295:pessimism bias 1293:, and compare 1287:valence effect 1279: 1273: 1272: 1269: 1263: 1262: 1258: 1252: 1251: 1248: 1241: 1240: 1237: 1235:Money illusion 1231: 1230: 1227: 1218: 1217: 1214: 1203: 1202: 1199: 1193: 1192: 1189: 1183: 1182: 1179: 1177:Hindsight bias 1173: 1172: 1169: 1165: 1164: 1161: 1157: 1156: 1149: 1145: 1144: 1141: 1133: 1132: 1129: 1123: 1122: 1115: 1109: 1108: 1105: 1099: 1098: 1094: 1088: 1087: 1084: 1078: 1077: 1074: 1068: 1067: 1064: 1057: 1054: 1053: 1052: 1042: 1036: 1018: 1010: 1009:Truth judgment 1007: 1006: 1005: 993: 987: 981: 975: 965: 957: 954: 953: 952: 946: 940: 934: 924: 918: 915:Dread aversion 912: 906: 886:Main article: 883: 880: 879: 878: 872: 866: 860: 854: 848: 838: 832: 822: 811:Main article: 808: 805: 804: 803: 797: 794:Domain neglect 791: 785: 779: 776:Default effect 773: 767: 753:Main article: 750: 749:Framing effect 747: 746: 745: 739: 732: 726: 716: 710: 704: 688: 687: 667: 665: 654: 651: 650: 649: 646:Zero-risk bias 643: 637: 631: 625: 619: 609: 603: 597: 591: 576:Main article: 573: 570: 569: 568: 562: 556: 553:Restraint bias 550: 544: 538: 532: 529:Naïve cynicism 526: 520: 514: 508: 502: 496: 470: 464: 458: 444:Main article: 441: 438: 437: 436: 430: 424: 414: 411:Narrative bias 408: 401:Experimenter's 398: 392: 377:Main article: 374: 371: 370: 369: 359: 344: 323:Main article: 320: 317: 316: 315: 309: 303: 296:Selection bias 293: 283: 277: 276:was mentioned. 270:selection bias 259: 253: 239: 224:Main article: 221: 218: 217: 216: 211:, also called 209:Causal Fallacy 206: 188: 182: 168:Main article: 165: 162: 161: 160: 154: 148: 138: 123:Main article: 120: 119:Anchoring bias 117: 112: 109: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12763: 12752: 12749: 12747: 12744: 12742: 12739: 12737: 12734: 12733: 12731: 12716: 12706: 12704: 12694: 12693: 12690: 12680: 12677: 12675: 12672: 12670: 12667: 12665: 12662: 12660: 12657: 12655: 12652: 12651: 12649: 12645: 12639: 12638:Clive Wearing 12636: 12634: 12631: 12629: 12626: 12624: 12621: 12620: 12618: 12614: 12608: 12605: 12603: 12602:Endel Tulving 12600: 12598: 12597:Anne Treisman 12595: 12593: 12590: 12588: 12585: 12583: 12580: 12578: 12575: 12573: 12570: 12568: 12565: 12563: 12560: 12558: 12557:Brenda Milner 12555: 12553: 12550: 12548: 12545: 12543: 12542:James McGaugh 12540: 12538: 12535: 12533: 12530: 12528: 12525: 12523: 12520: 12518: 12515: 12513: 12510: 12508: 12507:Sigmund Freud 12505: 12503: 12500: 12498: 12495: 12493: 12490: 12488: 12485: 12483: 12480: 12479: 12477: 12473: 12470: 12466: 12460: 12459: 12455: 12452: 12451:retrospective 12448: 12445: 12441: 12438: 12437: 12436: 12433: 12431: 12430:Muscle memory 12428: 12426: 12423: 12421: 12418: 12414: 12411: 12410: 12409: 12406: 12404: 12401: 12399: 12396: 12394: 12391: 12389: 12386: 12383: 12379: 12376: 12374: 12371: 12369: 12366: 12365: 12363: 12359: 12353: 12350: 12346: 12343: 12342: 12341: 12338: 12337: 12335: 12331: 12325: 12322: 12320: 12317: 12315: 12312: 12310: 12307: 12305: 12302: 12300: 12297: 12295: 12292: 12288: 12285: 12283: 12280: 12279: 12278: 12277:Art of memory 12275: 12273: 12270: 12269: 12267: 12263: 12257: 12254: 12252: 12249: 12247: 12244: 12242: 12239: 12235: 12232: 12231: 12230: 12227: 12226: 12224: 12220: 12214: 12211: 12209: 12206: 12204: 12201: 12200: 12198: 12196: 12192: 12186: 12183: 12179: 12176: 12175: 12174: 12171: 12169: 12166: 12164: 12161: 12160: 12158: 12156: 12152: 12146: 12143: 12141: 12138: 12136: 12133: 12131: 12128: 12126: 12125:Memory biases 12123: 12121: 12118: 12116: 12113: 12111: 12108: 12106: 12105:Confabulation 12103: 12102: 12100: 12098: 12097:Memory errors 12094: 12088: 12085: 12083: 12080: 12078: 12075: 12073: 12070: 12068: 12065: 12063: 12060: 12058: 12055: 12053: 12050: 12048: 12045: 12041: 12038: 12036: 12033: 12031: 12028: 12026: 12023: 12021: 12018: 12016: 12015:post-hypnotic 12013: 12011: 12008: 12006: 12003: 12002: 12001: 11998: 11997: 11995: 11993: 11989: 11979: 11976: 11974: 11971: 11969: 11968:Rote learning 11966: 11964: 11961: 11959: 11956: 11954: 11951: 11949: 11946: 11944: 11943:Hyperthymesia 11941: 11939: 11936: 11932: 11929: 11927: 11924: 11922: 11919: 11918: 11917: 11914: 11912: 11909: 11907: 11906:Active recall 11904: 11903: 11901: 11899: 11895: 11889: 11886: 11883: 11879: 11878: 11876: 11874: 11870: 11864: 11861: 11859: 11856: 11854: 11851: 11849: 11846: 11844: 11841: 11839: 11836: 11834: 11831: 11830: 11828: 11826: 11822: 11819: 11815: 11809: 11806: 11804: 11803:Consolidation 11801: 11799: 11796: 11795: 11792: 11789: 11787: 11784: 11782: 11779: 11778: 11776: 11772: 11768: 11761: 11756: 11754: 11749: 11747: 11742: 11741: 11738: 11722: 11719: 11717: 11714: 11712: 11709: 11707: 11704: 11702: 11699: 11697: 11694: 11692: 11689: 11687: 11684: 11682: 11681:FactCheck.org 11679: 11677: 11674: 11672: 11669: 11667: 11664: 11662: 11659: 11657: 11654: 11652: 11649: 11645: 11642: 11641: 11640: 11639:Fact-checking 11637: 11636: 11633: 11626: 11622: 11608: 11605: 11603: 11600: 11599: 11597: 11593: 11589: 11585: 11581: 11575: 11572: 11570: 11567: 11565: 11562: 11560: 11557: 11555: 11552: 11550: 11547: 11545: 11542: 11540: 11537: 11535: 11532: 11530: 11527: 11523: 11520: 11519: 11518: 11515: 11513: 11510: 11506: 11503: 11501: 11498: 11496: 11493: 11491: 11488: 11487: 11486: 11483: 11481: 11478: 11476: 11473: 11472: 11470: 11468:United States 11466: 11460: 11457: 11455: 11452: 11450: 11447: 11445: 11443: 11439: 11437: 11434: 11432: 11429: 11427: 11424: 11422: 11419: 11418: 11416: 11412: 11406: 11403: 11401: 11398: 11396: 11393: 11392: 11390: 11386: 11382: 11378: 11374: 11364: 11361: 11359: 11356: 11354: 11351: 11349: 11346: 11342: 11339: 11337: 11334: 11332: 11329: 11328: 11326: 11322: 11319: 11318: 11317: 11314: 11310: 11307: 11305: 11302: 11301: 11300: 11297: 11296: 11294: 11292: 11288: 11282: 11279: 11277: 11274: 11272: 11269: 11267: 11264: 11262: 11259: 11257: 11254: 11252: 11249: 11247: 11244: 11243: 11241: 11239: 11235: 11232: 11227: 11223: 11217: 11214: 11212: 11209: 11206: 11202: 11199: 11198: 11196: 11192: 11188: 11184: 11180: 11176: 11172: 11168: 11164: 11160: 11156: 11152: 11148: 11144: 11138: 11135: 11133: 11130: 11128: 11125: 11123: 11120: 11119: 11117: 11113: 11107: 11104: 11102: 11099: 11097: 11094: 11093: 11091: 11087: 11083: 11079: 11075: 11069: 11068: 11064: 11062: 11059: 11055: 11052: 11050: 11047: 11045: 11042: 11040: 11037: 11035: 11032: 11030: 11029:50 Cent Party 11027: 11026: 11025: 11022: 11021: 11019: 11015: 11011: 11007: 11003: 10999: 10992: 10988: 10974: 10971: 10967: 10964: 10962: 10959: 10957: 10954: 10953: 10952: 10949: 10947: 10944: 10942: 10939: 10937: 10934: 10932: 10929: 10925: 10922: 10921: 10920: 10917: 10915: 10912: 10911: 10909: 10905: 10899: 10896: 10894: 10891: 10889: 10886: 10884: 10881: 10879: 10876: 10874: 10871: 10869: 10866: 10864: 10861: 10859: 10856: 10852: 10849: 10848: 10847: 10844: 10842: 10839: 10837: 10834: 10832: 10829: 10827: 10824: 10823: 10820: 10813: 10809: 10799: 10798: 10794: 10792: 10791: 10787: 10785: 10784: 10780: 10778: 10777: 10773: 10771: 10770: 10766: 10764: 10762: 10758: 10757: 10754: 10747: 10743: 10733: 10730: 10728: 10725: 10723: 10720: 10718: 10715: 10713: 10710: 10708: 10705: 10703: 10700: 10698: 10695: 10693: 10690: 10686: 10683: 10681: 10678: 10676: 10673: 10672: 10671: 10668: 10664: 10661: 10659: 10656: 10655: 10654: 10651: 10649: 10646: 10644: 10641: 10639: 10636: 10634: 10633:Media culture 10631: 10629: 10626: 10624: 10621: 10619: 10616: 10614: 10611: 10609: 10606: 10604: 10601: 10599: 10596: 10594: 10591: 10589: 10586: 10584: 10581: 10579: 10576: 10574: 10573:False dilemma 10571: 10569: 10566: 10562: 10559: 10558: 10557: 10554: 10550: 10547: 10545: 10542: 10540: 10537: 10536: 10535: 10532: 10530: 10527: 10525: 10522: 10520: 10517: 10515: 10512: 10510: 10507: 10505: 10502: 10499: 10495: 10492: 10488: 10485: 10484: 10483: 10480: 10478: 10475: 10473: 10470: 10468: 10465: 10463: 10460: 10458: 10455: 10454: 10451: 10444: 10440: 10436: 10432: 10425: 10420: 10418: 10413: 10411: 10406: 10405: 10402: 10390: 10387: 10385: 10381: 10380: 10377: 10371: 10368: 10366: 10363: 10361: 10358: 10357: 10355: 10351: 10345: 10342: 10340: 10337: 10335: 10332: 10330: 10327: 10325: 10322: 10318: 10315: 10313: 10310: 10308: 10307:United States 10305: 10303: 10300: 10298: 10295: 10293: 10290: 10288: 10285: 10283: 10282:False balance 10280: 10279: 10278: 10275: 10273: 10270: 10268: 10265: 10263: 10260: 10258: 10255: 10253: 10250: 10248: 10245: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10237: 10233: 10231: 10228: 10226: 10223: 10222: 10220: 10216: 10210: 10207: 10205: 10202: 10200: 10197: 10195: 10192: 10190: 10187: 10185: 10182: 10180: 10177: 10175: 10172: 10170: 10167: 10165: 10162: 10160: 10157: 10155: 10154:Participation 10152: 10150: 10147: 10145: 10142: 10140: 10137: 10135: 10132: 10130: 10127: 10123: 10122:Psychological 10120: 10119: 10118: 10115: 10113: 10110: 10108: 10105: 10103: 10100: 10099: 10097: 10095: 10091: 10085: 10082: 10080: 10077: 10075: 10072: 10070: 10067: 10065: 10062: 10060: 10057: 10055: 10052: 10050: 10047: 10045: 10042: 10040: 10037: 10035: 10032: 10030: 10027: 10025: 10022: 10020: 10017: 10015: 10012: 10010: 10007: 10005: 10002: 10000: 9997: 9995: 9992: 9990: 9987: 9985: 9982: 9980: 9977: 9975: 9972: 9970: 9967: 9965: 9962: 9960: 9957: 9955: 9952: 9950: 9947: 9945: 9942: 9940: 9937: 9935: 9932: 9930: 9927: 9925: 9922: 9920: 9917: 9915: 9912: 9910: 9907: 9905: 9902: 9900: 9897: 9895: 9892: 9890: 9889:Fading affect 9887: 9885: 9882: 9880: 9877: 9873: 9870: 9869: 9868: 9865: 9863: 9860: 9858: 9855: 9853: 9850: 9848: 9845: 9843: 9840: 9838: 9835: 9831: 9828: 9827: 9826: 9823: 9821: 9818: 9816: 9813: 9811: 9808: 9806: 9803: 9799: 9796: 9795: 9794: 9791: 9789: 9786: 9784: 9781: 9777: 9774: 9772: 9769: 9768: 9767: 9764: 9762: 9759: 9757: 9754: 9752: 9749: 9747: 9744: 9742: 9739: 9738: 9736: 9733: 9728: 9724: 9717: 9712: 9710: 9705: 9703: 9698: 9697: 9694: 9687: 9686:Memory biases 9682: 9678: 9677: 9666: 9660: 9656: 9651: 9647: 9641: 9637: 9632: 9625: 9621: 9617: 9613: 9609: 9605: 9601: 9597: 9593: 9586: 9581: 9577: 9571: 9567: 9562: 9558: 9554: 9550: 9546: 9542: 9536: 9532: 9528: 9524: 9520: 9516: 9512: 9507: 9503: 9499: 9495: 9491: 9487: 9483: 9476: 9472: 9468: 9464: 9458: 9454: 9449: 9445: 9439: 9435: 9430: 9426: 9420: 9416: 9412: 9407: 9403: 9397: 9393: 9388: 9387: 9375: 9369: 9365: 9364:Irrationality 9360: 9356: 9350: 9346: 9341: 9336: 9331: 9327: 9323: 9319: 9314: 9310: 9304: 9300: 9295: 9291: 9285: 9281: 9276: 9275: 9262: 9258: 9254: 9250: 9246: 9242: 9235: 9226: 9210: 9206: 9200: 9192: 9186: 9182: 9181: 9173: 9165: 9161: 9156: 9151: 9146: 9141: 9137: 9133: 9130:(12): e1295. 9129: 9125: 9121: 9114: 9100:on 2017-01-09 9096: 9092: 9088: 9084: 9080: 9073: 9066: 9058: 9052: 9048: 9047: 9039: 9030: 9022: 9016: 9012: 9005: 8997: 8993: 8988: 8983: 8978: 8973: 8969: 8965: 8961: 8954: 8945: 8937: 8933: 8929: 8925: 8921: 8917: 8913: 8906: 8899: 8893: 8885: 8881: 8877: 8873: 8869: 8865: 8861: 8857: 8850: 8842: 8838: 8833: 8828: 8824: 8820: 8816: 8812: 8808: 8801: 8793: 8789: 8785: 8781: 8774: 8766: 8762: 8758: 8754: 8747: 8739: 8735: 8731: 8727: 8723: 8719: 8715: 8711: 8704: 8696: 8692: 8688: 8684: 8677: 8669: 8665: 8661: 8657: 8653: 8649: 8642: 8634: 8628: 8624: 8623: 8615: 8607: 8603: 8598: 8593: 8589: 8585: 8581: 8574: 8566: 8560: 8556: 8555: 8547: 8539: 8535: 8530: 8525: 8522:(2): 348–63. 8521: 8517: 8513: 8506: 8497: 8489: 8485: 8481: 8477: 8473: 8469: 8468: 8460: 8452: 8448: 8444: 8440: 8433: 8425: 8421: 8417: 8413: 8409: 8405: 8398: 8391: 8377:on 2016-03-15 8373: 8369: 8365: 8361: 8357: 8353: 8349: 8342: 8335: 8328: 8325:. p. 4: 8324: 8320: 8315: 8310: 8305: 8300: 8296: 8292: 8288: 8284: 8280: 8273: 8265: 8259: 8255: 8248: 8240: 8236: 8232: 8228: 8224: 8220: 8213: 8205: 8201: 8197: 8193: 8189: 8185: 8178: 8167: 8163: 8159: 8155: 8151: 8147: 8143: 8139: 8135: 8128: 8121: 8113: 8109: 8105: 8101: 8097: 8093: 8089: 8085: 8078: 8070: 8064: 8060: 8059: 8051: 8043: 8037: 8033: 8029: 8025: 8018: 8010: 8006: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7978: 7974: 7968: 7966: 7957: 7950: 7942: 7938: 7934: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7916: 7912: 7905: 7897: 7893: 7889: 7885: 7881: 7877: 7870: 7862: 7855: 7846:. 2010-10-28. 7845: 7841: 7837: 7836: 7833: 7829: 7825: 7821: 7818:(2): 97–101. 7817: 7813: 7806: 7793: 7789: 7785: 7781: 7777: 7773: 7767: 7759: 7753: 7738: 7734: 7730: 7724: 7718:, p. 206 7717: 7712: 7704: 7700: 7696: 7692: 7688: 7684: 7677: 7669: 7665: 7661: 7657: 7656: 7648: 7640: 7636: 7632: 7628: 7624: 7620: 7613: 7605: 7599: 7595: 7588: 7580: 7574: 7570: 7566: 7565: 7557: 7549: 7545: 7541: 7537: 7533: 7529: 7525: 7521: 7517: 7510: 7504:, p. 185 7503: 7498: 7483: 7479: 7472: 7464: 7460: 7456: 7452: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7432: 7428: 7421: 7413: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7395: 7388: 7381: 7376: 7374: 7367:, p. 275 7366: 7361: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7341: 7337: 7333: 7329: 7325: 7318: 7310: 7306: 7302: 7298: 7294: 7290: 7286: 7282: 7275: 7267: 7263: 7259: 7255: 7251: 7247: 7243: 7239: 7232: 7224: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7181: 7174: 7169: 7161: 7157: 7153: 7149: 7145: 7141: 7137: 7133: 7126: 7117: 7113: 7109: 7105: 7101: 7097: 7090: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7058: 7054: 7047: 7031: 7027: 7025: 7017: 7002: 6998: 6994: 6990: 6986: 6979: 6971: 6967: 6963: 6959: 6955: 6951: 6947: 6940: 6932: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6897:(1): e85677. 6896: 6892: 6888: 6881: 6879: 6877: 6868: 6864: 6860: 6856: 6852: 6848: 6844: 6840: 6833: 6822: 6818: 6814: 6810: 6806: 6802: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6784: 6780: 6773: 6766: 6758: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6731: 6723: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6693: 6689: 6682: 6674: 6670: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6647: 6641:, p. 104 6640: 6635: 6628: 6623: 6617:, p. 386 6616: 6611: 6603: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6567: 6560: 6552: 6546: 6542: 6535: 6527: 6523: 6519: 6513: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6494: 6486: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6451: 6443: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6402: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6370: 6363: 6355: 6351: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6304: 6297: 6292: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6251: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6231: 6224: 6210: 6206: 6199: 6191: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6158: 6151: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6086:Quoidbach J, 6082: 6069: 6065: 6064: 6056: 6048: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6033: 6025: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5974: 5959: 5955: 5948: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5908: 5900: 5884: 5880: 5874: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5839: 5831: 5825: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5796: 5788: 5782: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5747: 5739: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5698: 5696: 5680: 5679: 5674: 5667: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5632: 5624: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5591: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5564: 5553: 5549: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5524: 5517: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5464: 5462: 5455:, p. 382 5454: 5449: 5443:, p. 193 5442: 5437: 5431:, p. 137 5430: 5425: 5418: 5412: 5405: 5399: 5391: 5387: 5380: 5372: 5368: 5361: 5355:, p. 372 5354: 5349: 5342: 5336: 5328: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5295: 5281: 5277: 5270: 5259: 5258: 5250: 5236: 5235:brilliant.org 5232: 5226: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5187: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5140: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5095: 5088: 5084: 5079: 5064: 5058: 5044: 5040: 5034: 5027: 5022: 5008: 5004: 4998: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4955: 4947: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4914: 4899: 4893: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4863: 4857:, p. 353 4856: 4851: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4812: 4807: 4801: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4777: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4736: 4728: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4677: 4670: 4665: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4622: 4620: 4612: 4607: 4599: 4593: 4588: 4587: 4581: 4574: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4531: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4504: 4489: 4483: 4479: 4478: 4470: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4419: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4384: 4370: 4366: 4360: 4353:. 2016-01-13. 4352: 4346: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4319: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4284: 4276: 4270: 4266: 4265: 4257: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4224: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4204: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4151: 4144: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4103: 4089: 4085: 4078: 4071: 4065: 4058: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4031: 4016: 4012: 4005: 3991: 3987: 3980: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3958: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3915: 3908: 3900: 3896: 3891: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3859: 3844: 3840: 3834: 3826: 3822: 3817: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3785: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3743: 3736: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3709: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3658: 3643: 3639: 3632: 3618: 3617:PsycholoGenie 3614: 3608: 3600: 3593: 3591: 3581: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3553: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3505: 3497: 3489: 3483: 3479: 3472: 3470: 3468: 3459: 3452: 3451: 3443: 3435: 3431: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3394: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3355: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3320: 3316: 3310: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3281: 3273: 3266: 3258: 3252: 3248: 3241: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3218:(2): 211–37. 3217: 3213: 3209: 3202: 3200: 3198: 3196: 3194: 3192: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3164: 3157: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3114: 3100: 3096: 3090: 3082: 3075: 3068: 3064: 3054: 3052: 3048: 3045: 3042: 3039: 3036: 3033: 3030: 3027: 3024: 3021: 3018: 3015: 3012: 3009: 3006: 3003: 3000: 2997: 2994: 2991: 2988: 2985: 2982: 2979: 2976: 2974: 2971: 2968: 2965: 2962: 2959: 2957: 2954: 2948: 2945: 2939: 2936: 2933: 2930: 2927: 2926:Dysrationalia 2924: 2921: 2918: 2915: 2912: 2909: 2906: 2903: 2900: 2897: 2894: 2891: 2888: 2885: 2882: 2879: 2876: 2875: 2870: 2859: 2856: 2850: 2845: 2842: 2831: 2819: 2817: 2814: 2813: 2809: 2807: 2804: 2803: 2799: 2792: 2791: 2787: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2769: 2768: 2763: 2760: 2757: 2756: 2752: 2750: 2747: 2746: 2742: 2740: 2737: 2736: 2732: 2730: 2727: 2726: 2722: 2720: 2717: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685:Suffix effect 2682: 2681: 2677: 2674: 2673: 2669: 2667: 2664: 2663: 2659: 2657: 2654: 2653: 2649: 2648:suffix effect 2645: 2641: 2637: 2635: 2632: 2631: 2627: 2625: 2622: 2621: 2617: 2615: 2612: 2611: 2607: 2605: 2602: 2601: 2597: 2595: 2592: 2591: 2587: 2585: 2582: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2572:suffix effect 2569: 2565: 2563: 2560: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2544: 2543: 2539: 2538:suffix effect 2535: 2531: 2527: 2525: 2522: 2521: 2518: 2514: 2511: 2507: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2487: 2486: 2482: 2480: 2477: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2465: 2464: 2460: 2458: 2457:Peak–end rule 2455: 2454: 2450: 2448: 2445: 2444: 2439: 2437: 2434: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2414: 2411: 2410: 2406: 2403: 2400: 2399: 2395: 2393: 2390: 2389: 2385: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2370: 2367: 2366: 2362: 2360: 2357: 2356: 2352: 2345: 2344: 2340: 2338: 2335: 2334: 2329: 2327: 2324: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2312: 2311: 2304: 2296: 2293: 2290: 2289: 2282: 2275: 2273: 2270: 2269: 2264: 2257: 2256: 2252: 2249: 2246: 2245: 2241: 2239: 2238:Google effect 2236: 2235: 2231: 2228: 2227: 2223: 2220: 2217: 2216: 2212: 2210: 2207: 2206: 2202: 2200: 2197: 2196: 2192: 2190: 2187: 2186: 2182: 2180: 2177: 2176: 2171: 2169: 2166: 2165: 2161: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2145: 2144: 2140: 2133: 2132: 2127: 2119: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2108: 2105: 2104: 2100: 2098: 2095: 2094: 2090: 2088: 2085: 2084: 2080: 2078: 2075: 2074: 2070: 2068: 2065: 2064: 2060: 2058: 2055: 2054: 2046: 2035: 2031: 2028: 2025: 2022: 2019: 2016: 2013: 2010: 2007: 2004: 2001: 2000: 1999: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1972:memory recall 1969: 1965: 1961: 1954: 1944: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1915: 1913: 1910: 1909: 1904: 1902: 1899: 1898: 1894: 1892: 1889: 1888: 1884: 1882: 1879: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1868: 1865: 1864: 1860: 1858: 1855: 1854: 1850: 1848: 1845: 1844: 1840: 1838: 1835: 1834: 1826: 1815: 1812: 1809: 1806: 1805: 1804: 1800: 1787: 1784: 1781: 1777: 1774: 1771: 1768: 1765: 1762: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1740: 1735: 1734:Courtesy bias 1730: 1727: 1726:herd behavior 1723: 1719: 1716: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1702: 1699: 1698:Affinity bias 1696: 1695: 1694: 1690: 1677: 1674: 1671: 1667: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1655: 1652: 1649: 1646: 1643: 1640: 1637: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1614: 1611: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1597: 1594: 1591: 1587: 1584: 1583: 1582: 1578: 1565: 1562: 1559: 1555: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1543: 1540: 1539: 1538: 1534: 1514: 1512: 1509: 1508: 1504: 1501: 1500: 1496: 1489: 1488: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1478: 1474: 1472: 1469: 1468: 1464: 1462: 1459: 1458: 1454: 1452: 1448: 1445: 1444: 1440: 1437: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1413: 1410: 1409: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1399: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1389: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1379: 1375: 1373: 1370: 1369: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1358: 1354: 1352: 1349: 1348: 1344: 1342: 1339: 1338: 1334: 1333:optimism bias 1330: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1320: 1316: 1314: 1311: 1310: 1306: 1304: 1301: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1278: 1277:Optimism bias 1275: 1274: 1270: 1268: 1267:Omission bias 1265: 1264: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1253: 1249: 1246: 1243: 1242: 1238: 1236: 1233: 1232: 1228: 1223: 1220: 1219: 1215: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1204: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1194: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1184: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1174: 1170: 1167: 1166: 1162: 1159: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1147: 1146: 1142: 1135: 1134: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1114: 1111: 1110: 1106: 1104: 1101: 1100: 1095: 1093: 1090: 1089: 1085: 1083: 1082:Additive bias 1080: 1079: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1069: 1061: 1050: 1046: 1043: 1040: 1037: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1019: 1016: 1013: 1012: 1004: 1002: 997: 994: 991: 988: 985: 982: 979: 976: 973: 969: 966: 963: 960: 959: 950: 947: 944: 941: 938: 935: 932: 928: 927:Loss aversion 925: 922: 919: 916: 913: 910: 907: 904: 901: 900: 899: 895: 889: 876: 875:Zero-sum bias 873: 870: 867: 864: 861: 858: 855: 852: 849: 846: 842: 839: 836: 833: 830: 826: 823: 820: 817: 816: 814: 801: 798: 795: 792: 789: 786: 783: 780: 777: 774: 771: 768: 765: 762: 761: 760: 756: 743: 740: 736: 733: 730: 727: 724: 720: 717: 714: 711: 708: 705: 702: 698: 695: 694: 693: 684: 675: 671: 668:This section 666: 663: 659: 658: 647: 644: 641: 640:Scope neglect 638: 635: 632: 629: 626: 623: 620: 617: 613: 610: 607: 604: 601: 598: 595: 592: 589: 586: 585: 584: 579: 566: 563: 560: 557: 554: 551: 548: 545: 542: 539: 536: 535:Naïve realism 533: 530: 527: 524: 521: 518: 515: 512: 509: 506: 503: 500: 497: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 477:Barnum effect 474: 471: 468: 465: 462: 459: 456: 453: 452: 451: 447: 434: 431: 428: 425: 422: 418: 415: 412: 409: 406: 402: 399: 396: 393: 390: 387: 386: 385: 380: 367: 363: 360: 357: 353: 348: 345: 342: 338: 337:Normalcy bias 335: 334: 333: 331: 326: 313: 310: 307: 304: 301: 297: 294: 291: 287: 286:Salience bias 284: 281: 278: 275: 271: 267: 263: 260: 257: 254: 251: 247: 243: 240: 237: 234: 233: 232: 227: 214: 210: 207: 204: 200: 196: 192: 189: 186: 183: 180: 177: 176: 175: 171: 158: 155: 152: 149: 146: 142: 139: 136: 133: 132: 131: 126: 116: 108: 106: 102: 101:loss aversion 97: 95: 91: 87: 83: 78: 76: 72: 68: 67: 61: 59: 55: 51: 46: 44: 40: 36: 32: 26: 22: 12669:Ben Pridmore 12587:Larry Squire 12497:Susan Clancy 12456: 12340:Memory sport 12265:Other topics 12155:False memory 12110:Cryptomnesia 12087:Weapon focus 12047:Decay theory 11808:Neuroanatomy 11767:Human memory 11441: 11376:South Africa 11363:Web brigades 11299:Cyberwarfare 11281:Useful idiot 11230:Soviet Union 11175:Fintas Group 11067:Global Times 11065: 11034:cyberwarfare 10795: 10788: 10781: 10774: 10768: 10760: 10727:Whataboutism 10722:Urban legend 10692:Quote mining 10486: 10383: 10267:In education 10234: 10218:Other biases 10204:Verification 10189:Survivorship 10139:Non-response 10112:Healthy user 10054:Substitution 10029:Self-serving 9825:Confirmation 9793:Availability 9741:Acquiescence 9654: 9635: 9624:the original 9595: 9591: 9565: 9514: 9510: 9485: 9481: 9471:Greenwald AG 9452: 9433: 9413:. New York: 9410: 9391: 9363: 9344: 9325: 9321: 9298: 9279: 9244: 9240: 9234: 9225: 9213:. Retrieved 9211:. 2011-03-23 9208: 9199: 9179: 9172: 9127: 9123: 9113: 9102:. Retrieved 9095:the original 9082: 9078: 9065: 9045: 9038: 9029: 9010: 9004: 8967: 8963: 8953: 8944: 8922:(1): 12–21. 8919: 8915: 8905: 8897: 8892: 8859: 8855: 8849: 8814: 8810: 8800: 8783: 8779: 8773: 8756: 8752: 8746: 8713: 8709: 8703: 8686: 8682: 8676: 8651: 8647: 8641: 8621: 8614: 8587: 8583: 8573: 8553: 8546: 8519: 8515: 8505: 8496: 8471: 8465: 8459: 8445:(1): 24–36. 8442: 8438: 8432: 8407: 8403: 8390: 8379:. Retrieved 8372:the original 8351: 8347: 8334: 8326: 8286: 8282: 8272: 8253: 8247: 8222: 8218: 8212: 8190:(2): 81–86. 8187: 8183: 8177: 8137: 8133: 8120: 8087: 8083: 8077: 8057: 8050: 8023: 8017: 7984: 7980: 7955: 7949: 7914: 7910: 7904: 7879: 7875: 7869: 7860: 7854: 7843: 7815: 7811: 7805: 7795:, retrieved 7775: 7766: 7741:. Retrieved 7732: 7723: 7711: 7686: 7682: 7676: 7659: 7653: 7647: 7625:(1): 73–93. 7622: 7618: 7612: 7593: 7587: 7563: 7556: 7523: 7519: 7509: 7497: 7485:. Retrieved 7481: 7471: 7430: 7426: 7420: 7393: 7387: 7360: 7327: 7323: 7317: 7284: 7280: 7274: 7241: 7237: 7231: 7194: 7190: 7180: 7168: 7135: 7131: 7125: 7099: 7095: 7089: 7056: 7052: 7046: 7034:. Retrieved 7030:the original 7023: 7016: 7004:. Retrieved 6992: 6988: 6978: 6956:(2): 18–28. 6953: 6949: 6939: 6894: 6890: 6842: 6838: 6832: 6785:(1): 31–37. 6782: 6778: 6765: 6740: 6736: 6730: 6695: 6691: 6681: 6656: 6652: 6646: 6639:Hardman 2009 6634: 6629:, p. 44 6622: 6610: 6573: 6569: 6559: 6540: 6534: 6503: 6493: 6460: 6456: 6450: 6415: 6411: 6401: 6376: 6372: 6362: 6317: 6313: 6303: 6291: 6260: 6250: 6233: 6229: 6223: 6212:. Retrieved 6208: 6198: 6171: 6167: 6157: 6149: 6143:the original 6106: 6102: 6081: 6071:, retrieved 6062: 6055: 6031: 6024: 5983: 5979: 5973: 5961:. Retrieved 5958:Science News 5957: 5947: 5935:. 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Retrieved 4368: 4359: 4345: 4331:(1): 72–90. 4328: 4324: 4318: 4293: 4289: 4283: 4263: 4256: 4213: 4209: 4203: 4160: 4156: 4143: 4112: 4102: 4091:. Retrieved 4087: 4077: 4064: 4055: 4048:. Retrieved 4039: 4030: 4018:. Retrieved 4014: 4004: 3993:. Retrieved 3989: 3979: 3971:Language Log 3970: 3957: 3924: 3920: 3907: 3872: 3868: 3858: 3847:. Retrieved 3843:Live Science 3842: 3833: 3798: 3794: 3784: 3772:. Retrieved 3765:the original 3752: 3748: 3735: 3721:(1): 24–36. 3718: 3714: 3708: 3667: 3663: 3657: 3645:. Retrieved 3641: 3636:Carroll RT. 3631: 3620:. Retrieved 3616: 3607: 3598: 3565:(1): 66–74. 3562: 3558: 3552: 3540:. Retrieved 3512: 3508: 3496: 3477: 3457: 3449: 3442: 3407: 3403: 3393: 3368: 3364: 3354: 3329: 3325: 3315:Nickerson RS 3309: 3284: 3278: 3265: 3246: 3240: 3215: 3211: 3173: 3169: 3156: 3123: 3119: 3113: 3102:. 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