Project Y - Knowledge

2635: 2992: 2005:, an isotope that had not yet been discovered, but whose existence had been suspected, it being simply created by a plutonium-239 nucleus absorbing a neutron. What had not been suspected was its high spontaneous fission rate. Segrè's group measured it at 1.6 million fissions per gram per hour, compared with just 40 per gram per hour for plutonium-239. This meant that reactor-bred plutonium was unsuitable for use in a gun-type weapon. The plutonium-240 would start the chain reaction too quickly, causing a predetonation that would release enough energy to disperse the critical mass before enough plutonium reacted. A faster gun was suggested but found to be impractical. So too was the possibility of separating the isotopes, as plutonium-240 is even harder to separate from plutonium-239 than uranium-235 from uranium-238. 1170:, the head of the Ordnance and Engineering Division. Parsons' house was slightly larger, because Parsons had two children and Oppenheimer, at that point, had only one. After Bathtub Row, the next most desirable accommodation was the apartments built by Sundt. A typical two-storey building held four families. Each Sundt apartment had two or three bedrooms, a kitchen with a cranky black coal stove, and a small bathroom. J. E. Morgan and Sons supplied 56 prefabricated dwellings that became known as "Morganville". The Robert E. McKee Company built a part of the town known as "McKeeville". In June through October 1943, and again in June and July 1944, numbers outstripped the available accommodation and personnel were temporarily lodged in Frijoles Canyon. The houses at Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge, Tennessee and 2077:, began in August 1944 when Oppenheimer implemented a sweeping reorganization of the Los Alamos laboratory to focus on implosion. Two new groups were created at Los Alamos to develop the implosion weapon, X (for explosives) Division headed by Kistiakowsky and G (for gadget) Division under Robert Bacher. Although Teller was head of the T-1 (Implosion and Super) Group, Bethe considered that Teller was spending too much time on the Super, which had been given a low priority by Bethe and Oppenheimer. In June 1944, Oppenheimer created a dedicated Super Group under Teller, who was made directly responsible to Oppenheimer, and Peierls became head of the T-1 (Implosion) Group. In September, Teller's group became the F-1 (Super and General Theory) Group, part of the Enrico Fermi's new F (Fermi) Division. 9410: 1209:

could furnish only 475,000 US gallons (1,800,000 L). On 19 December, pipes that had been laid above ground to save time in 1943 froze, cutting off the supply completely. Residents had to draw water from 15 tanker trucks that carried 300,000 US gallons (1,100,000 L) per day. Because its name was secret, Los Alamos was referred to as "Site Y"; to residents it was known as "The Hill". Because they lived on Federal land, the state of New Mexico did not allow residents of Los Alamos to vote in elections, although it did require them to pay state income taxes. A drawn-out series of legal and legislative battles lay ahead before the residents of Los Alamos became fully-fledged citizens of New Mexico on 10 June 1949.

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breed some tritium from deuterium in the X-10 Graphite Reactor. For some months Teller and Bethe argued about the priority of the Super research. In June 1944, Oppenheimer removed Teller and his Super Group from Bethe's T Division and placed it directly under himself. In September, it became the F-1 (Super) Group in Fermi' s F Division. Over the following months, Super research continued unabated. It was calculated that burning 1 cubic meter (35 cu ft) of liquid deuterium would release the energy of 10 megatonnes of TNT (42 PJ), enough to devastate 1,000 square miles (2,600 km). The Super Group was transferred back to T Division on 14 November 1945.

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different tack, attempting to crush a hollow cylinder into a solid bar. The idea was to use explosives to crush a subcritical amount of fissile material into a smaller and denser form. When the fissile atoms are packed closer together, the rate of neutron capture increases, and they form a critical mass. The metal needs to travel only a very short distance, so the critical mass is assembled in much less time than it would take with the gun method. At the time, the idea of using explosives in this manner was quite novel. To facilitate the work, a small plant was established at the Anchor Ranch for casting explosive shapes.

1903:; but was initially considered too bizarre to be true. Further testing confirmed a state change around 135 °C (275 °F); it entered the δ phase, with a density of 16 g/cm. Seaborg had claimed that plutonium had a melting point of around 950 to 1,000 °C (1,740 to 1,830 °F), about that of uranium, but the metallurgists at the Los Alamos Laboratory soon discovered that it melted at around 635 °C (1,175 °F). The chemists then turned to techniques for removing light element impurities from the plutonium; but on 14 July 1944, Oppenheimer informed Kennedy that this would no longer be required. 1159:

1946. Initially, all of the population were workers, as they were the only ones for whom housing was supplied, but as time went on and more housing became available, the number of dependents increased. This trend accelerated with the end of the war and the replacement of military personnel with civilians with families. Due to the highly classified nature of the work, no census of the population of Los Alamos was conducted until April 1946. Birth certificates of babies born in Los Alamos during the war listed their place of birth as PO Box 1663 in Santa Fe. All letters and packages came through that address.

5031:, p. 163 "Out of the Review Committee’s work came one important technical contribution when Rose pointed out, in connection with the Thin Man, that the durability of the gun was quite immaterial to success, since it would be destroyed in the explosion anyway. Self-evident as this seemed once it was mentioned, it had not previously occurred to us. Now we could make drastic reductions in our estimates of the Thin Man’s size and weight. Because the gun-type bomb thus became militarily practical at an early date, work on it could go ahead on an orderly and not too hurried basis." 1151: 2684: 2271:, the CM Division's associate leader in charge of metallurgy, was concerned about using it with highly enriched uranium due to the danger of forming a critical mass. Highly enriched uranium was also far more valuable than natural uranium, and he wanted to avoid the loss of even a milligram. He recruited Richard D. Baker, a chemist who had worked with Spedding, and together they adapted the Ames Process for use at the Los Alamos laboratory. In February Baker and his group made twenty 360 gram reductions and twenty-seven 500 gram reductions with highly enriched 235: 2342: 3087: 9422: 1081:"for so long as the military necessity continues". The need for land for a new road, and later for a right of way for a 25-mile (40 km) power line, eventually brought wartime land purchases to 45,737 acres (18,509.1 ha), but only $ 414,971 was ultimately spent. The big ticket items were the school, which cost $ 350,000, and the Anchor Ranch, which cost $ 25,000. Both hired lawyers to negotiate deals with the government, but Hispanic homesteaders were paid as little as $ 7 an acre (equivalent to $ 123 in 2023). 2552: 1539: 260: 1511:, and the design of the atomic bomb itself. Chadwick remained only for a few months; he was succeeded as head of the British Mission by Rudolf Peierls. The original idea, favored by Groves, was that the British scientists would work as a group under Chadwick, who would farm out work to them. This was soon discarded in favor of having the British Mission fully integrated into the laboratory. They worked in most of its divisions, only being excluded from plutonium chemistry and metallurgy. With the passage of the 1274:(WAC) on 24 August 1943, and the detachment became part of the 4817th Service Command Unit, with a strength of two officers and 43 enlisted women. They were sworn into the United States Army by Ashbridge. It reached a peak strength of about 260 women in August 1945. The WACs did a wider variety of jobs than the PED; some were cooks, drivers and telephone operators, while others served as librarians, clerks and hospital technicians. Some performed highly specialized scientific research inside the Technical Area. 1633:

plutonium. This task fell to Bacher's P Division. Williams P-2 (Electrostatic Generator) Group carried out the first experiment in July 1943, when it used the larger of the two Van de Graaff generators to measure the ratio of the neutron per fission in plutonium against that of uranium-235. This involved some negotiation with the Metallurgical Laboratory to obtain 165 μg of plutonium, which was received at Los Alamos on 10 July 1943. Bacher was able to report that the number of neutrons per fission of

3007:. Initially, a small five-bed infirmary was established for civilians, and a three-bed infirmary for military personnel. More serious cases were handled by the Army's Bruns General Hospital in Santa Fe, but this was soon regarded as unsatisfactory due to the loss of time due to the long trip, and security risks. Nolan recommended that the infirmaries be consolidated and expanded into a 60-bed hospital. A 54-bed hospital was opened in 1944, staffed by Army personnel. A dentist arrived in March 1944. A 1244: 2770:

Group, Brode's O-3 (Fuse Development) Group and George Galloway's O-4 (Engineering) Group. Its role was to support the bomb delivery effort. Parsons became the head of Project Alberta, with Ramsey as his scientific and technical deputy, and Ashworth as his operations officer and military alternate. In all, Project Alberta consisted of 51 Army, Navy and civilian personnel. The 1st Technical Service Detachment, to which the personnel of Project Alberta were administratively assigned, was commanded by

2153: 1411: 2897: 1189:, the Guest Cottage or the Big House, which had once been part of the Los Alamos Ranch School. A school was established in 1943, catering for both grade school and high school, and 140 children were enrolled; 350 by 1946. Education was free, as was a nursery school for working mothers. With 18 grade-school teachers, 13 high-school teachers, and a superintendent, it enjoyed an excellent teacher:pupil ratio. Numerous technical buildings were constructed. Most were of a semi-permanent type, using 761: 2001:, which are more numerous at Los Alamos, which is 7,300 feet (2,200 m) above sea level. While their measurements indicated a spontaneous fission rate of 40 fissions per gram per hour, which was high but acceptable, the error margin was unacceptably large. In April 1944 they received a sample from the X-10 Graphite Reactor. Tests soon indicated 180 fissions per gram per hour, which was unacceptably high. It fell to Bacher to inform Compton, who was visibly shaken. Suspicion fell on 1551: 2548:, who suggested that deuterium could more easily be ignited if it was mixed with tritium. Bethe noted that a tritium-deuterium (T-D) reaction releases five times as much energy as a deuterium-deuterium (D-D) reaction. This was not immediately followed up, because tritium was hard to obtain, and there were hopes that deuterium could be easily ignited by a fission bomb, but the cross sections of T-D and D-D were measured by Manley's group in Chicago and Holloway's at Purdue. 2026:

use of material of lower purity. These were advantages of particular attraction to Groves. But while Neddermeyer's 1943 and early 1944 investigations into implosion showed promise, it was clear that the problem would be much more difficult from a theoretical and engineering perspective than the gun design. In July 1943, Oppenheimer wrote to John von Neumann, asking for his help, and suggesting that he visit Los Alamos where he could get "a better idea of this somewhat

885:. Teller proposed scheme after scheme, but Bethe rejected each one. The fusion idea was set aside to concentrate on producing fission bombs. Teller also raised the speculative possibility that an atomic bomb might "ignite" the atmosphere because of a hypothetical fusion reaction of nitrogen nuclei, but Bethe calculated that this could not happen, and a report co-authored with Teller showed that "no self-propagating chain of nuclear reactions is likely to be started". 9398: 1464:

T Division, despite trebling in size, remained the smallest, while E Division grew to be the largest. Security clearance was a problem. Scientists (including, at first, Oppenheimer) had to be given access to the Technical Area without proper clearance. In the interest of efficiency, Groves approved an abbreviated process by which Oppenheimer vouched for senior scientists, and three other employees were sufficient to vouch for a junior scientist or technician.

9362: 1201: 47: 2230:'s O-1 (Gun) Group. The concept was pursued so that in case of a failure to develop an implosion bomb, at least the enriched uranium could be used. Henceforth the gun-type had to work with enriched uranium only, and this allowed the Thin Man design to be greatly simplified. A high-velocity gun was no longer required, and a simpler weapon could be substituted, one short enough to fit into a B-29 bomb bay. The new design was called 1993:. They were not too worried about the plutonium itself; their main concern was the issue Chadwick had raised about interaction with light element impurities. Segrè and his group of young physicists set up their experiment in an old Forest Service log cabin in Pajarito Canyon, about 14 miles (23 km) from the Technical Area, in order to minimize background radiation emanating for other research at the Los Alamos Laboratory. 1240:

was succeeded by Lieutenant Colonel C. Whitney Ashbridge, a graduate of the Los Alamos Ranch School, in May 1943. In turn, Ashbridge was succeeded by Lieutenant Colonel Gerald R. Tyler in October 1944, Colonel Lyle E. Seaman in November 1945, and Colonel Herb C. Gee in September 1946. The post commander was answerable directly to Groves, and was responsible for the township, government property and the military personnel.

1853: 989: 1147:, with work commenced in December 1942. Groves initially allocated $ 300,000 for construction, three times Oppenheimer's estimate, with a planned completion date of 15 March 1943. It soon became clear that the scope of Project Y was far greater than expected, and by the time Sundt finished on 30 November 1943, over $ 7 million had been spent. The Zia Company took over responsibility for maintenance in April 1946. 9386: 9450: 598: 894:

considerable work was still required on the engineering, chemistry, metallurgy and ordnance aspects of building an atomic bomb. He became convinced that bomb design would require an environment where people could freely discuss problems and thereby reduce wasteful duplication of effort. He reasoned that this could best be reconciled with security by creating a central laboratory in an isolated location.

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Oppenheimer recommended Norris Bradbury. This was agreeable to Groves, who liked the fact that as a naval officer Bradbury was both a military man and a scientist. Bradbury accepted the offer on a six-month trial basis. Groves announced this at a meeting of division leaders on 18 September. Parsons arranged for Bradbury to be quickly discharged from the Navy, which awarded him the

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Division were opposed to the project, which was seen as a distraction from studies related to the form of chain reactions found in an atomic bomb, but Bacher prevailed on this point. Calculations related to the Water Boiler did take up an inordinate amount of T Division's time in 1943. The reactor theory developed by Fermi did not apply to the Water Boiler.

2287:. The design specifications were completed in February 1945, and contracts were let to build the components. Three different plants were used so that no one would have a copy of the complete design. The gun and breech were made by the Naval Gun Factory in Washington, D.C.; the target, case and some other components were by the Naval Ordnance Plant in 1047:, and recommended the one near Jemez Springs. On 16 November, Oppenheimer, Groves, Dudley and others toured the site. Oppenheimer feared that the high cliffs surrounding the site would make people feel claustrophobic, while the engineers were concerned with the possibility of flooding. The party then moved on to the Otowi site, the vicinity of the 2680:

was sufficient, that Oppenheimer decided not to use it. Instead, it was placed atop a steel tower 800 yards (730 m) from the weapon as a rough measure of how powerful the explosion would be. In the end, Jumbo survived, although its tower did not, adding credence to the belief that Jumbo would have successfully contained a fizzled explosion.

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perform a specific task had to wait their turn outside the building. The first Fat Man pre-assembly, known as F13, was assembled by 31 July, and expended in a drop test the next day. This was followed by F18 on 4 August, which was dropped the next day. Three sets of Fat Man pre-assemblies, designated F31, F32, and F33, arrived on B-29s of the

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workers in early 1945, and many of these revealed dangerous levels of plutonium. Work on the Water Boiler also occasionally exposed workers to dangerous fission products. There were 24 fatal accidents at Los Alamos between its opening in 1943 and September 1946. Most involved construction workers. Four scientists died, including

2389:. Robert F. Christy from the T-1 Group provided support with the theoretical calculations, in particular, a calculation of the critical mass. He calculated that 600 grams of uranium-235 would form a critical mass in a tamper of infinite size. Initially it was planned to operate the Water Boiler at 10 kW, but Fermi and 2620:

among those present at the colloquium. Work had to be curtailed in June 1946 due to the loss of staff. By 1950, calculations would show that the Classic Super would not work; that it would not only be unable to sustain thermonuclear burning in the deuterium fuel, but would be unable to ignite it in the first place.

2014: 2253:. This was considered by T Division as a prospective active material. The idea was that the hydrogen's ability as a neutron moderator would compensate for the loss of efficiency, but, as Bethe later recalled, its efficiency was "negligible or less, as Feynman would say", and the idea was dropped by August 1944. 2057:

reluctant, he did so in November. He became a full-time staff member on 16 February 1944, becoming Parsons' deputy for implosion; McMillan became his deputy for the gun-type. The maximum size of the bomb was determined at this time from the size of the 5-by-12-foot (1.5 by 3.7 m) bomb bay of the B-29.

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in January 1947. The contract with the University of California that had been negotiated in 1943 allowed the university to terminate it three months after the end of hostilities, and it served notice. There were concerns about the university operating a laboratory outside the state of California. The

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The first months of Bradbury's directorship were particularly trying. He had hoped that Atomic Energy Act of 1946 would be quickly passed by Congress and the wartime Manhattan Project would be superseded by a new, permanent organization. It soon became clear that this would take more than six months.

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After the war ended on 14 August 1945, Oppenheimer informed Groves of his intention to resign as director of the Los Alamos Laboratory, but agreed to remain until a suitable replacement could be found. Groves wanted someone with both a solid academic background and a high standing within the project.

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met on Guam on 7 August, the day after the Hiroshima attack, to discuss what should be done next. Parsons said that Project Alberta would have a Fat Man bomb ready by 11 August, as originally planned, but Tibbets pointed to weather reports indicating poor flying conditions on that day due to a storm,

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Within the explosives was the 4.5-inch (110 mm) thick aluminum pusher, which provided a smooth transition from the relatively low density explosive to the next layer, the 3-inch (76 mm) thick tamper of natural uranium. Its main job was to hold the critical mass together as long as possible,

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tamper. As a result, the design was made more conservative. The ultimate expression of this was the adoption of Christy's proposal that the core be solid instead of hollow. The design of lenses that detonated with the proper shape and velocity turned out to be slow, difficult and frustrating. Various

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were later added. The laboratory was organized into five divisions: Administration (A), Theoretical (T) under Bethe, Experimental Physics (P) under Bacher, Chemistry and Metallurgy (CM) under Kennedy, and Ordnance and Engineering (E) under Parsons. All the divisions expanded during 1943 and 1944, but

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with encoding machines. The first was installed in March 1943, and two more were added in May 1943. One was removed in November 1945. There were telephones in the offices, but none in private residences, as the Army regarded this as a security hazard. There were some public phones in the township for

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s bomb bay in flight. Before climbing to altitude on approach to the target, Jeppson switched the three safety plugs between the electrical connectors of the internal battery and the firing mechanism from green to red. The bomb was then fully armed. Jeppson monitored its circuits. Four other members

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For the actual test, the device, nicknamed "the gadget", was hoisted to the top of a 100-foot (30 m) steel tower, as detonation at that height would give a better indication of how the weapon would behave when dropped from a bomber. Detonation in the air maximized the energy applied directly to

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in Barberton, Ohio. Brought in a special railroad car to a siding in Pope, New Mexico, it was transported the last 25 miles (40 km) to the test site on a trailer pulled by two tractors. By the time it arrived, confidence in the implosion method was high enough, and the availability of plutonium

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Teller argued for an increase in resources for Super research on the basis that it appeared to be far more difficult than anticipated. The board declined to do so, on the grounds that it was unlikely to bear fruit before the war ended, but did not cut it entirely. Indeed, Oppenheimer asked Groves to

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From the first, research into the Super was directed by Teller, who was its most enthusiastic proponent. Although this work was always considered secondary to the objective of developing a fission bomb, the prospect of creating more powerful bombs was sufficient to keep it going. The Berkeley summer

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Christy also calculated the area that would become contaminated if an accidental explosion occurred. A site in Los Alamos Canyon was selected that was a safe distance from the township and downstream from the water supply. Known as Omega, it was approved by the Governing Board on 19 August 1943. The

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Work on an alternative method of bomb design, known as implosion, had begun by Neddermeyer's E-5 (Implosion) group. Serber and Tolman had conceived implosion during the April 1943 conferences as a means of assembling pieces of fissionable material together to form a critical mass. Neddermeyer took a

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By August 1943, they had good values for all the elements tested except for plutonium, which they were unable to measure accurately enough because the only sample they had was five 20 μg samples created by the 60-inch cyclotron at Berkeley. They did observe that measurements taken at Los Alamos were

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had to be restricted to one part in a hundred billion. There was some doubt about whether a chemical process could be developed that could ensure this level of purity, and Chadwick brought the matter to the S-1 Executive Committee's attention for it to be considered further. Four days later, though,

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Oppenheimer initially estimated that the work could be performed by 50 scientists and 50 technicians. Groves tripled this number to 300. The actual population, including family members, was about 3,500 by the end of 1943, 5,700 by the end of 1944, 8,200 by the end of 1945, and 10,000 by the close of

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reactor at the Metallurgical Laboratory and the X-10 Graphite Reactor at the Clinton Engineer Works. Improved cross-section measurements allowed Christy to refine his criticality estimate to 575 grams. In fact, only 565 grams were required. The accuracy of his prediction surprised Christy more than

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used in armor-piercing shells, he suggested using a high-explosive shaped charge to implode a spherical core. A meeting of the Governing Board on 23 September resolved to approach George Kistiakowsky, a renowned expert on explosives then working for OSRD, to join the Los Alamos Laboratory. Although

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The most desirable accommodation were the six existing log and stone cottages that had once housed the headmaster and the Los Alamos Ranch School faculty. They were the only dwellings at Los Alamos that had bathtubs, and became known as "Bathtub Row". Oppenheimer lived on Bathtub Row; his next-door

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Chemists at the Los Alamos Laboratory developed methods of purifying uranium and plutonium, the latter a metal that only existed in microscopic quantities when Project Y began. Its metallurgists found that plutonium had unexpected properties, but were nonetheless able to cast it into metal spheres.

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Laboratory facilities for medical research were limited, but some research was conducted into the effects of radiation, and the absorption and toxic effects of metals, particularly plutonium and beryllium, mainly as a result of accidents. The Health Group began conducting urine tests of laboratory

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Because of the complexity of an implosion-style weapon, it was decided that, despite the waste of fissile material, an initial test would be required. Groves approved the test, subject to the active material being recovered. Consideration was therefore given to a controlled fizzle, but Oppenheimer

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By September 1943, the values of the D-D and T-D had been revised upwards, raising hopes that a fusion reaction could be started at lower temperatures. Teller was sufficiently optimistic about the Super, and sufficiently concerned about reports that the Germans were interested in deuterium, to ask

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In September 1944, the P-7 (Water Boiler) Group became the F-2 (Water Boiler) Group, part of Fermi's F Division. On completion of the planned series of experiments in June 1944, it was decided to rebuild it as a more powerful reactor. The original goal of 10 kW power was discarded in favor of

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Two types of gun design were produced: Type A was of high alloy steel, and Type B of more ordinary steel. Type B was chosen for production because it was lighter. The primers and propellant were the same as those previously chosen for Thin Man. Scale test firing of the hollow projectile and target

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Throughout 1943, implosion was considered a backup project in case the gun-type proved impractical for some reason. Theoretical physicists like Bethe, Oppenheimer and Teller were intrigued by the idea of a design of an atomic bomb that made more efficient use of fissile material, and permitted the

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Colonel John M. Harman was the first post commander at Los Alamos. He joined the Santa Fe office as a lieutenant colonel on 19 January 1943, and was promoted to colonel on 15 February. Los Alamos officially became a military establishment on 1 April 1943, and he moved to Los Alamos on 19 April. He

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The growth of the town outpaced the sewage system, and by late 1945 there were electrical outages. Lights had to be shut off during the day, and between 7 and 10 pm. Water also ran short. During the autumn of 1945, consumption was 585,000 US gallons (2,210,000 L) per day, but the water supply

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struck a power line, and the resulting power surge caused the Manhattan Project's reactors at the Hanford site to be temporarily shut down. This generated great concern at Los Alamos that the site might come under attack. One night found everyone staring at a strange light in the sky. Oppenheimer

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presented the results of calculations that had been made concerning thermonuclear reactions. The final report on the Super, issued in June and prepared by Teller and his group, remained upbeat about the prospect of the Super being successfully developed, although that impression was not universal

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simple enough that it was only deemed necessary to do laboratory tests with the gun-type assembly. Unlike the implosion design, which required sophisticated coordination of shaped explosive charges, the gun-type design was considered almost certain to work. Thirty-two drop tests were conducted at

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ran the Santa Fe office, which opened at 109 East Palace Avenue on 27 March 1943. New staff members at the secret Los Alamos site were not given in advance any directions to the site or security credentials. They were told to report to the Santa Fe office, where McKibbin provided them with such

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was brought in for the design of utilities in December 1945. The former was paid $ 743,706.68 and the latter $ 164,116 by the time the Manhattan Project ended at the end of 1946. The Albuquerque District supervised $ 9.3 million of construction at Los Alamos, and the Manhattan District, another $

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Groves did not relish the prospect of explaining the loss of a billion dollars worth of plutonium to a Senate committee, so a cylindrical containment vessel codenamed "Jumbo" was constructed to recover the active material in the event of a failure. Measuring 25 feet (7.6 m) long and 12 feet

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Although all of its components had been tested in target and drop tests, no full test of a gun-type nuclear weapon occurred before Hiroshima. There were several reasons for not testing a Little Boy type of device. Primarily, there was insufficient uranium-235. Additionally, the weapon design was

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The work proved dangerous. By the end of the war, half the experienced chemists and metallurgists had to be removed from work with plutonium when unacceptably high levels of the element appeared in their urine. A minor fire at Los Alamos in January 1945 led to a fear that a fire in the plutonium

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A proving ground was established at the Anchor Ranch. The gun would be an unusual one, and it had to be designed in the absence of crucial data about the critical mass. The design criteria were that the gun would have a muzzle velocity of 3,000 feet per second (910 m/s); that the tube would

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of neutrons in the core and tamper were the same. Bethe's T Division, particularly Serber's T-2 (Diffusion Theory) Group and Feynman's T-4 (Diffusion Problems) Groups, would spend the next few months working on improved models. Bethe and Feynman also developed a formula for the efficiency of the

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Women at Los Alamos were encouraged to work, due to the shortage of labor and security concerns over bringing in local workers. About 60 wives of scientists were at work in Technical Area by September 1943. About 200 of the 670 workers in the laboratory, hospital and school were women in October

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Project Alberta, also known as Project A, was formed in March 1945, absorbing existing groups of Parsons's O Division that were working on bomb preparation and delivery. These included Ramsey's O-2 (Delivery) Group, Birch's O-1 (Gun) Group, Bainbridge's X-2 (Development, Engineering, and Tests)

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because sulfur's neutron capture cross section is less than that of nitrogen. The project was proposed by Bacher in April 1943 as part of an ongoing program of measuring critical masses in chain-reacting systems. He saw it also as a means of testing various materials in critical mass systems. T

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Assembly of a Fat Man unit was a complex operation involving personnel from the High Explosive, Pit, Fusing and Firing teams. To prevent the assembly building from becoming overcrowded and thereby causing an accident, Parsons limited the numbers allowed inside at any time. Personnel waiting to

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of 5 x 10 neutrons per square centimeter per second. Water cooling was installed, along with additional control rods. This time uranium nitrate was used instead of uranium sulfate because the former could more easily be decontaminated. The tamper of beryllia bricks was surrounded with graphite

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at 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) at 100 pounds per square inch (690 kPa) for 5 to 20 minutes. Some 53 bricks were made, shaped to fit around the boiler. The building at Omega Site was ready, if incomplete, by 1 February 1944, and the Water Boiler was fully assembled by 1 April. Sufficient

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Birch's tidy schedule was disrupted in December by Groves, who ordered Oppenheimer to give priority to the gun-type over implosion, so that the weapon would be ready by 1 July 1945. The bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945. The uranium-235 projectile was

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from the OSRD. This was superseded by a formal contract with the Manhattan District on 20 April 1943, which was backdated to 1 January. Financial operations were directed by the resident business officer, J. A. D. Muncy. The intent was that it would be militarized when the time came to finally

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By July 1944, Oppenheimer had concluded that plutonium could not be used in a gun design. On July 18, he wrote to Groves that "at the present time the method to which an over-riding priority must be assigned is the method of implosion." The accelerated effort on an implosion design, codenamed

2068:(red). It is surrounded by the plutonium hemispheres. There is a small air gap (white, not in the original Fat Man design) and then the uranium tamper. Around that is the aluminium pusher (purple). This is encased in the explosive lenses (gold). Colors are the same as in the diagram opposite. 1898:

Eric Jette's CM-8 (Plutonium Metallurgy) Group began experimenting with plutonium metal after gram quantities were received at the Los Alamos Laboratory in March 1944. By heating it, the metallurgists discovered five temperatures between 137 and 580 °C (279 and 1,076 °F) at which it

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of its energy. Bethe then calculated that a 10 kilotonnes of TNT (42 TJ) explosion would result in an overpressure of 0.1 standard atmospheres (10 kPa) at 3.5 kilometers (2.2 mi), and therefore result in severe damage within that radius. Von Neumann also suggested that, because

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An important consideration in the acquisition of the site was the existence of the Los Alamos Ranch School. This consisted of 54 buildings, of which 27 were houses, dormitories or other quarters providing 46,626 square feet (4,331.7 m) of accommodation. The remaining buildings included a

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The danger of accidental detonation made safety a concern. Little Boy incorporated basic safety mechanisms, but an accidental detonation could still occur. Tests were conducted to see whether a crash could drive the hollow "bullet" onto the "target" cylinder resulting in a massive release of

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The ultimate task of the metallurgists was to determine how to cast plutonium into a sphere. The brittle α phase that exists at room temperature changes to the plastic β phase at higher temperatures. Attention then shifted to the even more malleable δ phase that normally exists in the 300 to

1632:

No formula could be more accurate than the values put into it; the values for the cross sections were dubious, and had not yet been determined for plutonium. Measurement of these values would be a priority, but the laboratory possessed just 1 gram of uranium-235, and only a few micrograms of

1305:

As director of the Los Alamos Laboratory, Oppenheimer was no longer answerable to Compton, but reported directly to Groves. He was responsible for the technical and scientific aspects of Project Y. He assembled the nucleus of his staff from the groups that had been working for him on neutron

893:

Oppenheimer's deft handling of the July conference impressed his colleagues; his insight and ability to handle even the most difficult people came as a surprise even to those who knew him well. In the wake of the conference, Oppenheimer saw that while they had come to grips with the physics,

3119:

Most of the scientists at Los Alamos were eager to return to their laboratories and universities, and by February 1946 all of the wartime division heads had left, but a talented core remained. Darol Froman became head of Robert Bacher's G division, now renamed M Division. Eric Jette became

1615:

theory derived at Berkeley by Stan Frankel and E. C. Nelson. This gave a value for a uranium-235 gadget with a perfect tamper of 25 kg; but this was only an approximation. It was based on simplifying assumptions, notably that all neutrons had the same speed, that all collisions were

911:, and met with Oppenheimer, who gave him a report on bomb design on 8 October. Groves was interested in Oppenheimer's proposal to establish a separate bomb design laboratory. When they met again in Chicago on October 15, he invited Oppenheimer to discuss the issue. Groves had to catch the 1978:. If true, it might preclude the use of polonium in the neutron initiators; if true for plutonium, it might mean that the gun-type design would not work. The consensus at the Los Alamos Laboratory was that it was not true, and that Joliot-Curie's results had been distorted by impurities. 1873:

pointed to a density of 13 g/cm. This was bad; it had been assumed that its density was the same as uranium, about 19 g/cm. If these figures were correct, far more plutonium would be needed for a bomb. Kennedy disliked Seaborg's ambitious and attention-seeking manner, and with

1878:

had devised a procedure for plutonium purification independent of Seaborg's group. When they got hold of a sample in February, this procedure was tested. That month the Metallurgical Laboratory announced that it had determined that there were two different fluorides: the light colored

2325:

radiation, or possibly nuclear detonation. These showed that this required an impact of 500 times that of gravity, which made it highly unlikely. There was still concern that a crash and a fire could trigger the explosives. If immersed in water, the uranium halves were subject to a

2819:

Project Alberta proceeded with the plan to have the Little Boy ready by 1 August, and the first Fat Man ready for use as soon as possible after that. In the meantime, a series of twelve combat missions were flown between 20 and 29 July against targets in Japan using high-explosive

868:

Considering the idea of the fission bomb theoretically settled—at least until more experimental data was available—the Berkeley conference then turned in a different direction. Edward Teller pushed for discussion of a more powerful bomb: the "Super", usually referred to today as a

2831:. Four Little Boy pre-assemblies, L-1, L-2, L-5 and L-6 were expended in test drops. The Little Boy team had the live bomb completely assembled and ready for use on 31 July. The final item of preparation for the operation came on 29 July 1945. Orders for the attack were issued to 2588:

the Governing Board to raise its priority. The board agreed to some extent, but ruled that only one person could be spared to work on it full-time. Oppenheimer designated Konopinski, who would spend the rest of the war working on it. Nonetheless, in February 1944, Teller added

1868:

was produced at the Metallurgical Laboratory, it was sometimes light colored, and sometimes dark, although the chemical process was the same. When they managed to reduce it to plutonium metal in November 1943, the density was measured at 15 g/cm, and a measurement using

3157:. Operation Crossroads cost the Los Alamos Laboratory over one million dollars, and the services of 150 personnel (about one-eighth of its staff) for nine months. As the United States had only about ten atomic bombs in mid-1946 about one fifth of the stockpile was expended. 2397:

would be created that would have to be chemically removed. As a consequence, it was decided that the Water Boiler would only run at 1 kW until more operating experience had been accumulated, and features needed for high power operation were shelved for the time being.

1817:. This was followed by full-scale drop testing in June and July. These were very successful, whereas the AYD continued to suffer from problems. Archie was therefore adopted, although the scarcity of units in August 1944 precluded wholescale destructive testing. Testing of 1221:, balked at the idea. Conant, Groves and Oppenheimer then devised a compromise whereby the laboratory was operated by the University of California. Financial and procurement activities were the responsibility of the University of California under a 1 January 1943 3135:

The number of personnel at the Los Alamos Laboratory plummeted from its wartime peak of over 3,000 to around 1,000, but many were still living in substandard temporary wartime accommodation. Despite the reduced staff, Bradbury still had to provide support for

1255:, in April 1943. Its initial strength was 7 officers and 196 enlisted men; by December 1946 it had 9 officers and 486 men, and was manning 44 guard posts 24 hours a day. The Provisional Engineer Detachment (PED), 4817th Service Command Unit, was activated at 3165:

university was persuaded to rescind its notice, and the operating contract was extended until July 1948. Bradbury would remain director until 1970. The total cost of Project Y up to the end of 1946 was $ 57.88 million (equivalent to $ 900 million in 2023).

3237:(1939). "Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle" [On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons]. 1259:, on 10 April 1943. These men performed jobs around the post such as working in the boiler plant, the motor pool and the mess halls. They also maintained the buildings and roads. It reached a peak strength of 465 men, and was disbanded on 1 July 1946. 1515:, known as the McMahon Act, all British government employees had to leave. All had left by the end of 1946, except for Titterton, who was granted a special dispensation, and remained until 12 April 1947. The British Mission ended when he departed. 1770:. This allowed the fine-tuning of the testing instrumentation. The first two tubes arrived at Los Alamos on 10 March 1944, and test firing began at the Anchor Ranch under the direction of Thomas H. Olmstead, who had experience in such work at the 665:

to investigate. In its final report in July 1941, the MAUD Committee concluded that an atomic bomb was not only feasible, but might be produced as early as 1943. In response, the British government created a nuclear weapons project known as

1226:

assemble the bomb, but by this time the Los Alamos Laboratory had grown so large that this was considered both impractical and unnecessary, as the anticipated difficulties regarding civilians working on dangerous tasks had not occurred.

1677:

Parsons was appointed the head of Ordnance and Engineering Division in June 1943 on the recommendation of Bush and Conant. To staff the division, Tolman, who acted as a coordinator of the gun development effort, brought in John Streib,

1066:, approved the acquisition of the site on 25 November 1942, authorizing $ 440,000 for the purchase of the site of 54,000 acres (22,000 ha), all but 8,900 acres (3,600 ha) of which were already owned by the Federal Government. 1727:

weigh only 1 short ton (0.91 t) instead of the conventional 5 short tons (4.5 t) for a tube with that energy; that, as a consequence it would be made of alloyed steel; that it should have a maximum breech pressure of 75,000

2283:. Starting in December, test firing was done full-scale. Amazingly, the first test case produced turned out to be the best ever made. It was used in four test firings at the Anchor Ranch, and ultimately in the Little Boy used in the 2098:

as the slow explosive. The final design resembled a soccer ball, with 20 hexagonal and 12 pentagonal lenses, each weighing about 80 pounds (36 kg). Getting the detonation just right required fast, reliable and safe electrical

3061:

of the British Mission. The 1950 revelation of his espionage activities damaged the United States' nuclear cooperation with Britain and Canada. Subsequently, other instances of espionage were uncovered, leading to the arrest of

3103:

for his wartime services. He remained in the Naval Reserve, though, ultimately retiring in 1961 with the rank of captain. On 16 October 1945, there was a ceremony at Los Alamos at which Groves presented the laboratory with the

2084:

to focus the explosion onto a spherical shape using a combination of both slow and fast high explosives. A visit by Sir Geoffrey Taylor in May 1944 raised questions about the stability of the interface between the core and the

1212:

Initially Los Alamos was to have been a military laboratory with Oppenheimer and other researchers commissioned into the Army. Oppenheimer went so far as to order himself a lieutenant colonel's uniform, but two key physicists,

1694:

of the E-3 (Fuse Development) Group, Critchfield of the E-4 (Projectile, Target, and Source) Group and Neddermeyer of the E-5 (Implosion) Group. Two more groups were added in the autumn of 1943, the E-7 (Delivery) Group under

1093:. Petitions of condemnation were worded to cover all mineral, water, timber and other rights, so private individuals would have no reason whatsoever to enter the area. The site acquired an irregular shape due to abutting the 1669:

pressure increases when shock waves bounce off solid objects, the damage could be increased if the bomb was detonated at an altitude comparable to the damage radius, approximately 1 to 2 kilometers (3,300 to 6,600 ft).

2774:

Peer de Silva, and provided security and housing services on Tinian. There were two bomb assembly teams, a Fat Man Assembly Team under Commander Norris Bradbury and Roger Warner, and a Little Boy Assembly Team under Birch.

2943:. He was equipped with a special high-speed Fastax movie camera with six seconds of film in order to record the blast. Waldman forgot to open the camera shutter, and no film was exposed. Other members of the team flew to 8272: 2208:

laboratory might contaminate the whole town, and Groves authorized the construction of a new facility for plutonium chemistry and metallurgy, which became known as the DP-site. The hemispheres for the first plutonium

2691:

A pre-test explosion was conducted on 7 May 1945 to calibrate the instruments. A wooden test platform was erected 800 yards (730 m) from Ground Zero and piled with 108 short tons (98 t) of TNT spiked with

1397:

Communications with the outside world went through a single Forest Service line until April 1943, when it was replaced by five Army telephone lines. This was increased to eight in March 1945. There were also three

1659:

visited the Los Alamos Laboratory in September 1943 and participated in discussions of the damage that an atomic bomb would do. He explained that while the damage done by a small explosion was proportional to the

1454:

The Los Alamos Laboratory had a governing board, the members of which were Oppenheimer, Bacher, Bethe, Kennedy, D. L. Hughes (Personnel Director), D. P. Mitchell (Procurement Director) and Deak Parsons. McMillan,

1055:, which, he hoped, would inspire those who would work on the project. The engineers were concerned about the poor access road, and whether the water supply would be adequate, but otherwise felt that it was ideal. 6194: 2892:

on 2 August. On inspection, the high explosive blocks of F32 were found to be badly cracked and unserviceable. The other two were assembled, with F33 earmarked for a rehearsal and F31 for operational use.

1856:

A ring of electrorefined plutonium. It has a purity of 99.96%, weighs 5.3 kg, and is about 11 cm in diameter. It is enough plutonium for one bomb core. The ring shape helps with criticality safety.

2663:

as the site for the test. Bainbridge worked with Captain Samuel P. Davalos on the construction of the Trinity Base Camp and its facilities, which included barracks, warehouses, workshops, an explosive

1895:). The chemists soon discovered how to make them selectively, and the former turned out to be easier to reduce to metal. Measurements in March 1944 indicated a density of between 19 and 20 g/cm. 3144:

was appointed the Technical Director with Marshall Holloway from B Division and Roger Warner from Z Division as associate directors. Two ships were assigned for Los Alamos Laboratory personnel, the

2655:, codenamed "Trinity". In March 1944, responsibility for planning the test was assigned to Kenneth Bainbridge, a professor of physics at Harvard, working under Kistiakowsky. Bainbridge selected the 2393:

visited in September 1943, and went over the proposed design. They pointed out the danger of decomposition of the uranium salt, and recommended heavier shielding. It was also noted that radioactive

964:, raising concerns that he might not have the prestige to deal with distinguished scientists. There were also security concerns; many of Oppenheimer's closest associates were active members of the 1649:. Subsequent experiments demonstrated that fission took less than a nanosecond too. Confirmation of the theorists' contention that the number of neutrons emitted per fission was the same for both 2249:

commenced in June 1944. Criticality experiments and the Water Boiler had priority, so the metallurgists did not receive any until August 1944. In the meantime, the CM Division experimented with

3057:

detachment was formed to handle the Manhattan Project's security issues. By 1943, it was clear that the Soviet Union was attempting to penetrate the project. The most successful Soviet spy was

2149:

but it would also reflect neutrons back into the core. Some part of it might fission as well. To prevent predetonation by an external neutron, the tamper was coated in a thin layer of boron.

1611:

A series of conferences in April and May 1943 laid out the laboratory's plan for the rest of the year. Oppenheimer estimated the critical mass of a uranium-235 gadget with a formula based on

842:

atoms that absorbed neutrons from fissioning uranium-235 atoms. At this point no reactor had been built, and only microscopic quantities of plutonium were available that had been produced by

629:, examined the theoretical issues involved in developing, producing and using atomic bombs. They considered what would happen to a sphere of pure uranium-235, and found that not only could a 8099: 1797:

type radar altimeter known as AYD and a pulse type known as 718. The AYD modifications were made by the Norden Laboratories Corporation under an OSRD contract. When the manufacturer of 718,

1690:. The division was initially organized into five groups, with original group leaders being McMillan of the E-1 (Proving Ground) Group, Kenneth Bainbridge of the E-2 (Instrumentation) Group, 2751:, who served as the Manhattan Project's press officer, helped put together the cover-story, including another press release in case of his own death. The media statement was issued by the 1813:, was just entering production, which could be adapted for use as a radar altimeter. The third unit to be made was delivered to Los Alamos in April 1944. In May it was tested by diving an 9237: 1281:(SED) was activated in October 1943 as part of the 9812th Technical Service Unit. It was made up of men with technical skills or advanced education, and was mostly drawn from the defunct 740:, a physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory, was assigned to assist Oppenheimer by contacting and coordinating experimental physics groups scattered across the country. Oppenheimer and 3124:

for Theory, Max Roy for Explosives, and Roger Wagner for Ordnance. Z Division was created in July 1945 to control testing, stock piling, and bomb assembly activities. It was named after

2156:

Norris Bradbury, group leader for bomb assembly, stands next to the partially assembled Gadget atop the Trinity test tower. Later, he became the director of Los Alamos vice Oppenheimer.

1844:, a chain reaction before the core was fully assembled. This had been considered by Oppenheimer and Seaborg the month before, and the latter had calculated that neutron emitters like 2824:, versions of the Fat Man with the explosives, but not the fissile core. Project Alberta's Sheldon Dike and Milo Bolstead flew on some of these missions, as did the British observer 1407:

could not be discussed over the phone lines. Initially the phone lines were operable only during business hours until enough WACs arrived to staff the switchboard around the clock.

1197:. This was replaced by Boiler House No. 2, which had six oil-fired boilers. In addition to the main site at Los Alamos, some 25 outlying sites were developed for experimental work. 1507:

occurs when the lighter fluid is pushing the heavier, and was vital to the interpretation of experiments with explosives, predicting the effects of an explosion, the design of the

1664:(the average pressure of the explosion times its duration), the damage from large explosions such as an atomic bomb would be determined by the peak pressure, which depends on the 2939:. They dropped "Bangometer" canisters to measure the force of the blast, but this was not used to calculate the yield at the time. Bernard Waldman was the camera operator on the 8587: 2611:

A colloquium on the Super was held at the Los Alamos Laboratory in April 1946 to review the work done during the war. Teller gave an outline of his "Classic Super" concept, and

8263: 929:

all squeezed into Nichol's single roomette compartment to discuss how a bomb laboratory could be created and how it would function. Groves subsequently had Oppenheimer come to

948:

While Oppenheimer seemed the logical person to direct the new laboratory, which became known as Project Y, he had little administrative experience; Bush, Conant, Lawrence and

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to men under 22, so they were assigned to the SED. It reached a peak strength of 1,823 men in August 1945. SED personnel worked in all areas of the Los Alamos Laboratory.

2720:

on 13 July, and precariously winched up the tower the following day. Observers included Bush, Chadwick, Conant, Farrell, Fermi, Groves, Lawrence, Oppenheimer and Tolman.

2321:, and only once did the bomb fail to fire. One last-minute modification was made, to allow the powder bags of propellant that fired the gun to be loaded in the bomb bay. 2192:

450 °C (572 to 842 °F) range. It was found that this was stable at room temperature when alloyed with aluminum, but aluminum emits neutrons when bombarded with

9299: 4071: 6764: 1778:. The primers were tested and found to work at pressures up to 80,000 pounds per square inch (550,000 kPa). Brode's group investigated the fusing systems, testing 3844: 2141:. This allowed the taking of an X-ray movie of the implosion. The lenses were designed primarily using this series of tests. In his history of the Los Alamos project, 849:

There were many ways of arranging the fissile material into a critical mass. The simplest was shooting a "cylindrical plug" into a sphere of "active material" with a "

2419:

enriched uranium had arrived by May to start it up, and it went critical on 9 May 1944. It was only the third reactor in the world to do so, the first two being the

7345: 6198: 2700:, which was dissolved and poured into tubing inside the explosive. This explosion was observed by Oppenheimer and Groves's new deputy commander, Brigadier General 1468: 454:

was fully assembled. Oppenheimer then reorganized the laboratory and orchestrated an all-out and ultimately successful effort on an alternative design proposed by

2168:, was developed to start the chain reaction at precisely the right moment. This work with the chemistry and metallurgy of radioactive polonium was directed by 2245:

After repeated slippages, the first shipment of slightly enriched uranium (13 to 15 percent uranium-235) arrived from Oak Ridge in March 1944. Shipments of

685:. He not only managed to convince them that an atomic bomb was feasible, but inspired Lawrence to convert his 37-inch (94 cm) cyclotron into a giant 1126:, all totalling 29,560 square feet (2,746 m). At the nearby Anchor Ranch there were four houses and a barn. Construction work was supervised by the 728:, who was given the title of "Co-ordinator of Rapid Rupture", and Oppenheimer as an assistant. But Breit disagreed with other scientists working at the 853:"—dense material that would focus neutrons inward and keep the reacting mass together to increase its efficiency. They also explored designs involving 654: 1840:

emitted by plutonium could produce neutrons in light elements present as impurities, which in turn would produce fission in the plutonium and cause a

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Little was known about building reactors in 1943. A group was created in Bacher's P Division, the P-7 (Water Boiler) Group, under the leadership of

2402:

Water Boiler was not simple to construct. The two halves of the 12.0625-inch (306.39 mm) stainless steel sphere that was the boiler had to be

1544:

Photograph of the Tech Area, with the buildings marked. They seem to be randomly scattered. Ashley Pond and the Fuller Lodge are in the background.

1204:

The Technical Area at Los Alamos. There was a perimeter fence around the entire site, but also an inner fence shown here around the Technical Area.

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completed on 15 June, and the target on 24 July. The target and bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the fissile components) left

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into law until 1 August 1946, and it did not become active until 1 January 1947. In the meantime, Groves' legal authority to act was limited.

2226:

Following Oppenheimer's reorganization of the Los Alamos Laboratory in July 1944, the work on the uranium gun-type weapon was concentrated in

9252: 6299: 3878: 1950:

in their 1939 treatment of the mechanism of nuclear fission. The first attempt to discover spontaneous fission in uranium was made by

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Lawrence, Oppenheimer, Compton and McMillan reported to Conant that they had confidence that the exacting purity requirement could be met.

9480: 8817: 8679: 6855: 6829: 4797: 745: 8578: 3700: 2212:(or core) were produced and delivered on 2 July 1945. Three more hemispheres followed on 23 July and were delivered three days later. 2137:. The gamma ray source was placed in the center of a metal sphere surrounded by the explosive lenses, which in turn were inside in an 9485: 9144: 5505: 1794: 506: 7511: 3108:, and presented Oppenheimer with a certificate of appreciation. Bradbury became the laboratory's second director the following day. 3963: 2843: 407:. In order to enable scientists to freely discuss their work while preserving security, the laboratory was located on the isolated 2983:. Robert Serber was supposed to be on board but was left behind by the aircraft commander because he had forgotten his parachute. 915:

train back to New York, so he asked Oppenheimer to accompany him so that they could continue the discussion. Groves, Oppenheimer,

720:

in charge of overseeing the scientific research for production and design of the bomb. He delegated bomb design and the making of

9500: 6892: 1759: 2731:(radioactive glass) in the desert 250 feet (76 m) wide. The shock wave was felt over 100 miles (160 km) away, and the 7814: 7414: 7088: 3113: 3050:

later recalled this demonstrated that "even a group of scientists is not proof against the errors of suggestion and hysteria".

1739:. Because it would need to be fired only once, the barrel could be made lighter than the conventional gun. Nor did it require 8619: 8559: 8528: 8501: 8465: 8429: 8410: 8381: 8329: 8307: 8207: 8176: 8138: 8085: 8038: 7999: 7965: 7938: 7908: 7873: 7778: 7703: 7676: 7629: 7597: 7566: 7539: 7481: 7384: 6754: 4016: 2556: 2538: 17: 3833: 2795:

James F. Nolan, a medical expert, were special consultants. All members of Project Alberta had volunteered for the mission.

2787:

led the Aerial Observation Team, and Sheldon Dike was in charge of the Aircraft Ordnance Team. Physicists Robert Serber and

3187: 3091: 1059: 698: 207: 2963:

and asked if it could be readied by 9 August. Parsons agreed to do so. For this mission, Ashworth was the weaponeer, with

1051:. Oppenheimer was impressed by and expressed a strong preference for the site, citing its natural beauty and views of the 259: 9438: 8030: 7324: 4647: 3008: 1446:

headed the A-5 (Library) Group. A large group of women worked on numerical calculations in the T-5 (Computations) Group.

942: 818:

There were still many unknown factors. The properties of pure uranium-235 were relatively unknown; even more so those of

234: 517:. A new Z Division was created to control testing, stockpiling and bomb assembly activities, which were concentrated at 2771: 923: 682: 8697: 5338:

The number of neutrons emitted per spontaneous fission of uranium-238 has also been measured and found to be 2.2±0.3.

1282: 897: 9495: 3465: 3161: 3094:(center) and Eric Jette (right) in April 1947; Colonel Lyle E. Seeman stands behind Bradbury, second from the left. 3004: 2544:

conference had convinced Teller that the Super was technologically feasible. An important contribution was made by

2048:

to release von Neumann. He visited Los Alamos from 20 September to 4 October 1943. Drawing on his recent work with

1387: 1378:. They brought with them a great deal of valuable scientific equipment. Wilson's group dismantled the cyclotron at 1131: 980:, and Frank's wife Jackie. In the end, Groves personally issued instructions to clear Oppenheimer on 20 July 1943. 522: 147: 9409: 2755:. The media would later be invited to the site in September 1945 following the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. 736:, over the security arrangements, and resigned on 18 May 1942. Compton then appointed Oppenheimer to replace him. 9505: 9490: 8672: 8080:. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 7960:. Swords of Armageddon: US Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945. Sunnyvale, California: Chukelea Publications. 7933:. Swords of Armageddon: US Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945. Sunnyvale, California: Chukelea Publications. 7532:

The Silverplate Bombers: A History and Registry of the Enola Gay and Other B-29s Configured to Carry Atomic Bombs

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between March and July 1946, except for its Z-4 (Mechanical Engineering) Group, which followed in February 1947.

2889: 2642:

loading the assembled tamper plug containing the plutonium pit and initiator into a sedan for transport from the

1719: 1645:

to be emitted from a uranium-235 nucleus when it fissions. They calculated that most were emitted in less than 1

1488: 1193:. They were heated from a central heating plant. Initially this was Boiler House No. 1, which had two coal-fired 1078: 1021: 1020:. The climate was mild, there were air and rail connections to Albuquerque, it was sufficiently distant from the 2241:

A Little Boy unit on Tinian connected to test equipment, possibly to test or charge components within the device

2204:

into the desired spherical shape. As plutonium was found to corrode readily, the sphere was coated with nickel.

1966:

in 1940; the latter are generally credited with the discovery. Compton had also heard from the French physicist

1954:, but he failed to detect it. It had been observed in Britain by Frisch and Titterton, and independently in the 1004:, was considered, but in the end it was decided that a remote location would be best. A site in the vicinity of 772:

To review this work and the general theory of fission reactions, Oppenheimer and Fermi convened meetings at the

7900: 3128:, its leader until 17 October 1945, when he returned to MIT, and was succeeded by Roger S. Warner. It moved to 2858: 2798: 2104: 1864:

at the Clinton Engineer Works came online on 4 November 1943, but there were already some worrying signs. When

1596: 509:

and participated in the bombing as weaponeers and observers. After the war ended, the laboratory supported the

31: 1185:

Rents were set based on the income of the occupant. Transient visitors to Los Alamos were accommodated in the

8371: 4964: 1755: 953: 646: 459: 1899:

suddenly started absorbing heat without increasing in temperature. This was a strong indication of multiple

1251:

Four military units were assigned to the post. The MP Detachment, 4817th Service Command Unit, arrived from

9304: 8610:

Manhattan District History, Project Y, the Los Alamos Project – Volume II: August 1945 Though December 1946

8199: 2675:(3.7 m) wide, it was fabricated at great expense from 214 long tons (217 t) of iron and steel by 2300: 2227: 2042: 1687: 1297: 1074: 547: 8640:(1966). "The Role of Radiology in the Development of the Atomic Bomb". In Ahnfeldt, Arnold Lorentz (ed.). 6460: 2991: 9272: 7983: 7376: 2792: 2350: 2197: 2161: 2142: 1870: 1278: 1270:, on 17 April 1943. Its initial strength was just one officer and seven auxiliaries. The WAAC became the 1164: 1094: 587: 479: 3090:

Bradbury (left) examines plans for new laboratory sites and permanent housing with Leslie Groves of the

1836:

At a meeting of the S-1 Executive Committee on 14 November 1942, Chadwick had expressed a fear that the

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as being too inaccessible. On Oppenheimer's recommendation, the search was narrowed to the vicinity of

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Discovering Alvarez: Selected Works of Luis W. Alvarez, with Commentary by his Students and Colleagues

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Manhattan District history, Project Y, the Los Alamos Project – Volume I: Inception until August 1945

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blocks, as beryllia was hard to procure, and to avoid the (γ, n) reaction in the beryllium, in which

2330: 1821: 1579:—were chosen by Serber based on their shapes. Thin Man was a long device, and its name came from the 1512: 1256: 1194: 1040: 721: 693:, a technique Oliphant had pioneered in 1934. In turn, Lawrence brought in his friend and colleague 677:, so Oliphant flew there in late August 1941, and spoke to American scientists including his friend 9329: 8862: 8721: 7739: 7333: 6291: 2935: 2701: 2660: 2656: 2428:

5 kW, which would keep the cooling requirements simple. It was estimated that it would have a

2307: 1167: 1067: 850: 729: 626: 388: 184: 8226: 6851: 3888: 1031:

of the Manhattan District (the military component of the Manhattan Project) surveyed sites around

952:

all expressed reservations about this. Moreover, unlike his other project leaders—Lawrence at the

697:

to double-check the physics of the MAUD Committee report, which was discussed at a meeting at the

9324: 9221: 8776: 8168: 8021: 7445: 4960: 2832: 2693: 2414:

bricks for the Water Boiler's tamper in December 1943 and January 1944. They were hot pressed in

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to test the propellant and ignition system. Test firing was conducted at the Anchor Ranch with a

1711: 1568: 1564: 1383: 1327: 1319: 1048: 1044: 1013: 916: 673:

There was still little urgency in the United States, which unlike Britain was not yet engaged in

431: 423: 416: 6509: 5610: 3964:"50th Anniversary Article: Oppenheimer's Better Idea: Ranch School Becomes Arsenal of Democracy" 3300: 1981:

At the Los Alamos Laboratory, Emilio Segrè's P-5 (Radioactivity) Group set out to measure it in

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Scharff-Goldhaber, G.; Klaiber, G. S. (1946). "Spontaneous Emission of Neutrons from Uranium".

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per month of polonium, which Monsanto was able to deliver. The whole assembly was encased in a

1947: 1825: 1763: 1744: 1700: 1404: 1391: 1171: 1090: 1017: 997: 797: 614: 567: 482:

that was the third reactor in the world to become operational. It also researched the Super, a

447: 288: 140: 2900:

Fat Man bomb, with liquid asphalt sealant sprayed on the casing's seams, is readied on Tinian.

748:

examined the problems of neutron diffusion—how neutrons moved in a nuclear chain reaction—and

9344: 9169: 8912: 8857: 8551: 8455: 8299: 7589: 6825: 3192: 2885: 2739:, so Groves issued a cover story about an ammunition magazine explosion at Alamogordo Field. 2288: 2272: 2017:

Explosive lenses are used to compress a fissile core inside an implosion-type nuclear weapon.

1888: 1861: 1841: 1728: 1496: 1271: 1263: 1182:), but Nichols said to Los Alamos scientists that housing there was Groves' problem not his. 1036: 969: 776:

in June and at the University of California in Berkeley, in July with theoretical physicists

773: 702: 591: 443: 8129:

Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945

4769: 1767: 1743:

or recoil mechanisms. Pressure curves were computed under Hirschfelder's supervision at the

1366:

and John H. Manley and his group from the Manhattan Project's Metallurgical Laboratory, and

1150: 9154: 9149: 9008: 8882: 8580:

Manhattan District History – Nonscientific aspects of Los Alamos Project Y 1942 though 1946

7841: 5321: 5274: 5225: 5186: 4781: 3693: 3474: 3461:"Separation of the Isotopes of Lithium and Some Nuclear Transformations Observed with Them" 3314: 3246: 3152: 3145: 3137: 3125: 3024: 2930: 2880:, and ordered the attack to be made "as soon as weather will permit after about 3 August". 2717: 2664: 2643: 2616: 2284: 2280: 2209: 2169: 2145:

wrote: "RaLa became the most important single experiment affecting the final bomb design".

1787: 1375: 1343: 1135: 1123: 1111: 1001: 912: 900: 658: 510: 502: 451: 59: 7500: 5498: 4061: 2687:

The explosives of "the gadget" were raised to the top of the tower for the final assembly.

2410:

would be corroded by the uranium salt. The CM-7 (Miscellaneous Metallurgy) Group produced

2080:

The new design that von Neumann and T Division, most notably Rudolf Peierls, devised used

8: 9475: 9013: 8968: 8928: 8751: 8160: 7473: 6822: 2922: 2847: 2748: 2676: 2612: 2378: 2268: 2108: 2103:, of which there were two for each lens for reliability. It was therefore decided to use 1967: 1963: 1943: 1814: 1679: 1650: 1587: 1456: 1331: 1315: 1267: 1063: 965: 661:, to whom the CSSAW had delegated responsibility for uranium research. CSSAW created the 435: 121: 5325: 5278: 5229: 5190: 4785: 3967: 3478: 3318: 3250: 2329:

effect. While this would not have caused an explosion, it could have created widespread

9078: 8902: 8872: 8812: 8637: 8608: 8127: 8122: 8017: 7988: 7893: 7763: 7758: 7661: 7639: 7438: 7369: 7083: 4066: 3330: 3262: 3011:

officer, Captain J. Stevenson, had already been assigned to look after the guard dogs.

2854: 2850: 2741: 2668: 2597: 2572: 2138: 2045: 2034: 1865: 1802: 1775: 1591: 1487:, an expert on hydrodynamics who made a major contribution to the understanding of the 1460: 1439: 1422: 1379: 1252: 1032: 694: 690: 400: 126: 51: 6896: 2973:. Walter Goodman and Lawrence H. Johnston were on board the instrumentation aircraft, 1706: 355: 9293: 9282: 9189: 9048: 9043: 8993: 8842: 8837: 8827: 8688: 8645: 8615: 8565: 8555: 8534: 8524: 8507: 8497: 8487: 8471: 8461: 8435: 8425: 8406: 8400: 8387: 8377: 8355: 8335: 8325: 8303: 8235: 8213: 8203: 8182: 8172: 8144: 8134: 8091: 8081: 8044: 8034: 7995: 7971: 7961: 7944: 7934: 7914: 7904: 7879: 7869: 7845: 7806: 7784: 7774: 7731: 7709: 7699: 7682: 7672: 7647: 7625: 7619: 7603: 7593: 7572: 7562: 7545: 7535: 7487: 7477: 7466: 7449: 7390: 7380: 7337: 7156: 7154: 7078: 6759: 6235: 6233: 6114: 6112: 6110: 6108: 5896: 5894: 5600: 5598: 4916: 4914: 4793: 2964: 2908: 2905: 2390: 2326: 2292: 2196:, which would exacerbate the pre-ignition problem. The metallurgists then hit upon a 2065: 1751: 1661: 1617: 1508: 1414: 1355: 1339: 1335: 1311: 1139: 1070: 977: 919: 904: 858: 717: 686: 403:

was its first director, serving from 1943 to December 1945, when he was succeeded by

384: 9093: 7862: 7403: 3086: 3003:

A medical program was established at Los Alamos under Captain James F. Nolan of the

2341: 9402: 9314: 9113: 9098: 9063: 9038: 8892: 8847: 8347: 8322:

The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made

8118: 7320: 5420: 5418: 5329: 5282: 5233: 5194: 4889: 4887: 4789: 4608: 4606: 3482: 3334: 3322: 3305: 3266: 3254: 3234: 3067: 2979: 2873: 2828: 2752: 2394: 2386: 2382: 2291:; and the tail fairing and mounting brackets by the Expert Tool and Die Company in 2173: 2086: 2060: 1736: 1683: 1656: 1601: 1580: 1472: 1447: 1443: 1426: 1418: 1367: 1307: 1222: 957: 930: 823: 594:. This prompted preliminary research in the United States, beginning in late 1939. 555: 455: 408: 7151: 7103: 6440: 6413: 6401: 6374: 6362: 6230: 6105: 5959: 5891: 5867: 5843: 5783: 5735: 5675: 5663: 5595: 5523: 5478: 5466: 5454: 5403: 5391: 5379: 5355: 5343: 5133: 5121: 5046: 4911: 4848: 4023: 2967:

Philip M. Barnes, of the 1st Ordnance Squadron as assistant weaponeer on the B-29

1130:

until 15 March 1944, when the Manhattan Engineer District assumed responsibility.

996:

The idea of locating Project Y at the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago, or the

9319: 9159: 9123: 9053: 8988: 8978: 8953: 8852: 8832: 8807: 8317: 7833: 7668: 7364: 5990: 5988: 5986: 5265: 5216: 5177: 3883: 3685: 3141: 3100: 2996: 2861: 2839: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2764: 2713: 2709: 2576: 2560: 2545: 2366: 2358: 2250: 2193: 2134: 2123: 1779: 1605: 1538: 1371: 1363: 1359: 1175: 1144: 1082: 938: 926: 835: 789: 678: 602: 404: 130: 114: 9068: 5415: 5010: 4941: 4884: 4734: 4603: 873:", which would use the explosive force of a detonating fission bomb to ignite a 800: 9414: 9262: 9257: 9028: 8973: 8963: 8958: 8877: 8802: 8731: 8451: 8367: 7433: 4642: 3642: 3618: 3582: 3121: 3016: 2788: 2736: 2732: 2724: 2639: 2601: 2589: 2580: 2564: 2420: 2256: 2177: 2081: 1959: 1837: 1783: 1642: 1638: 1625: 1399: 1086: 1028: 945:(NDRC). On 19 October, Groves approved the establishment of a bomb laboratory. 874: 812: 808: 781: 765: 737: 662: 630: 622: 606: 543: 487: 8265:

Manhattan District History, Book VIII, Volume 1 – Los Alamos Project – General

6734: 6051: 6024: 5983: 5971: 5947: 5918: 5879: 5795: 5771: 5759: 5622: 5571: 5547: 4637: 2911:

of the 1st Ordnance Squadron, he inserted the Little Boy's powder bags in the

2896: 1024:

for a Japanese attack not to be an issue, and the population density was low.

505:

in July 1945. Project Y personnel formed pit crews and assembly teams for the

9469: 9277: 9139: 9108: 9088: 9033: 9023: 8933: 8822: 8797: 8741: 8483: 8447: 8359: 8217: 8048: 7975: 7948: 7857: 7810: 7651: 7615: 6124: 5286: 5214:

Libby, W. F. (1939). "Stability of Uranium and Thorium for Natural Fission".

4591: 3689: 3456: 3075: 2825: 2812: 2593: 2130: 2091: 2053: 2002: 1951: 1732: 1696: 1634: 1351: 1214: 1179: 934: 870: 862: 834:. The scientists at the Berkeley conference envisioned breeding plutonium in 827: 815:. They tentatively confirmed that a fission bomb was theoretically possible. 796:, and Eldred C. Nelson, the latter three former students of Oppenheimer, and 785: 749: 741: 725: 642: 483: 439: 316: 303: 162: 149: 55: 8569: 8538: 8511: 8475: 8439: 8391: 8339: 8239: 8186: 8148: 7918: 7713: 7607: 7576: 7549: 7491: 7394: 7341: 5237: 4710: 2333:. For this reason, pilots were advised to crash on land rather than at sea. 1641:

of Wilson's P-1 (Cyclotron) Group attempted to measure the time it took for

1143:

30.4 million. The initial work was contracted to the M. M. Sundt Company of

438:

in plutonium bred in a nuclear reactor was too great due to the presence of

30:"Los Alamos Laboratory" redirects here. For the present-day laboratory, see 9334: 9216: 9073: 9018: 8998: 8983: 8887: 8711: 8644:. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army. 8095: 7926: 7849: 7788: 7561:. Los Alamos story. Los Alamos, New Mexico: Los Alamos Historical Society. 7316: 5199: 5172: 4581: 4579: 3487: 3460: 3292: 3046: 3040: 3020: 2959: 2955: 2926: 2821: 2802: 2697: 2652: 2568: 2429: 2374: 2354: 2264: 2260: 2201: 2181: 2127: 1986: 1955: 1691: 1583: 1550: 1484: 1435: 1323: 1243: 1190: 1186: 1009: 973: 793: 760: 733: 674: 650: 583: 559: 514: 415:. The wartime laboratory occupied buildings that had once been part of the 392: 67: 8649: 7883: 7735: 7686: 7453: 5333: 2152: 2013: 1754:, various propellants were tested. Hirschfelder sent John L. Magee to the 1410: 9164: 9118: 9083: 9058: 9003: 8907: 8897: 8781: 4515: 4513: 4511: 4509: 4430: 4428: 4426: 4424: 3296: 3129: 3058: 2904:

Parsons, as the weaponeer, was in command of the Hiroshima mission. With

2835: 2683: 2483: 2442: 2403: 2027: 1998: 1982: 1875: 1818: 1492: 1218: 1174:

in Washington state were basic but of a higher standard (as specified by

1005: 961: 949: 839: 804: 709: 667: 634: 575: 563: 518: 471: 8457:

The Los Alamos Primer: The First Lectures on How to Build an Atomic Bomb

8422:

Project Alberta: The Preparation of Atomic Bombs For Use in World War II

6461:"Oppenheimer, Atomic Bill and the Explosive Birth of Science Journalism" 4576: 4494: 4307: 2735:

reached 7.5 miles (12.1 km) in height. It was heard as far away as

2551: 2164:, known as an "urchin" because its shape resembled the inner shell of a 1906: 1342:. He also secured the services of Hans Bethe and Robert Bacher from the 621:

Progress was slow in the United States, but in Britain, Otto Frisch and

9267: 9211: 8948: 8938: 8867: 8156: 7895:

The Dragon's Tail: Radiation Safety in the Manhattan Project, 1942–1946

7461: 5164: 4324: 4322: 3301:"Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction" 3258: 3063: 3053:

With so many people involved, security was a difficult task. A special

3028: 2434: 2231: 2221: 2165: 2119: 2049: 1646: 1576: 1476: 1403:

emergencies. Since there was no way to prevent the lines being tapped,

1200: 777: 467: 434:. In April 1944, the Los Alamos Laboratory determined that the rate of 412: 4506: 4421: 3120:

responsible for Chemistry and Metallurgy, John H. Manley for Physics,

1637:

was 2.64 ± 0.2, about 1.2 times as much as uranium-235. Titterton and

62:(right) at the ceremony to present the Los Alamos Laboratory with the 9309: 9175: 8943: 7621:

109 East Palace: Robert Oppenheimer and the Secret City of Los Alamos

5747: 4722: 3326: 3230: 2913: 2865: 2807: 2728: 2704:. The pre-test produced data that proved vital for the Trinity test. 2463: 2185: 2100: 2041:

and the NDRC. Oppenheimer, Groves and Parsons appealed to Tolman and

1911: 1806: 1718:

casings are visible in the background. The tow truck was used by the

1665: 1612: 1590:

of the same name. The Fat Man was round and fat, and was named after

1480: 1286: 878: 843: 819: 768:, the nuclei of light elements are fused to create a heavier element. 633:

occur, but it might require as little as 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of

551: 491: 427: 8657: 8489:

Peace & War: Reminiscences of a Life on the Frontiers of Science

7501:"Early Reactors From Fermi's Water Boiler to Novel Power Prototypes" 7402:

Baker, Richard D.; Hecker, Siegfried S.; Harbur, Delbert R. (1983).

4319: 4285: 4283: 4160: 4095: 4093: 4091: 4089: 4017:"Secretary of Agriculture granting use of land for Demolition Range" 2977:. Leonard Cheshire and William Penney were on the observation plane 2600:, while Roberg worked out the ignition temperature of T-D mixtures. 46: 9349: 9182: 8716: 8586:. Los Alamos, New Mexico: Los Alamos National Laboratory. LA-5200. 8291: 8234:. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. 7730:. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. 6338: 6314: 5430: 5293: 4184: 2969: 2944: 2877: 2415: 2411: 2313:, arriving 26 July. The target inserts followed by air on 30 July. 2112: 1975: 1621: 956:, Compton at the Metallurgical Project in Chicago, and Urey at the 908: 854: 724:—the key to calculations of critical mass and weapon detonation—to 574:. At the time, few scientists in the United States thought that an 8548:

British Scientists and the Manhattan Project: the Los Alamos Years

7586:

Target Hiroshima: Deak Parsons and the Creation of the Atomic Bomb

4394: 4295: 4172: 4117: 4105: 4041: 2267:, a method of producing uranium metal on an industrial scale, but 1860:

Only microscopic quantities of plutonium were available until the

1085:

were withdrawn, and private land was purchased or condemned under

865:, which would increase the efficiency of the bomb as it exploded. 9339: 9206: 8352:

Atom Bombs: The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man

7644:

Atom Bombs: The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man

7046: 6650: 6292:"American Experience . Race for the Superbomb . Super Conference" 5145: 5109: 4280: 4268: 4129: 4086: 3548: 3546: 3182: 2596:, and Harold and Mary Argo to his T-1 Group. Ulam calculated the 2504: 2304: 2095: 2074: 1990: 1852: 1740: 1715: 1572: 1504: 1107: 988: 882: 831: 610: 571: 539: 495: 463: 7805:. Miamisburg, Ohio: Mound Laboratory, Atomic Energy Commission. 7663:

A life of One's Own: Three Gifted Women and the Men they Married

5504:. Opennet (Department of Energy), Accession No. ALMD4407152167. 4618: 3944: 3594: 3507: 3495: 3437: 907:

on 23 September 1942. He visited Berkeley to look at Lawrence's

8725: 7559:

The Battle for Civil Rights, or, How Los Alamos Became a County

7183: 7181: 6722: 5711: 5535: 5367: 5097: 5085: 2869: 2407: 1471:

under James Chadwick. The first to arrive were Otto Frisch and

1310:, Serber and McMillan from his own group, and Emilio Segrè and 1119: 597: 582:

would develop atomic weapons concerned refugee scientists from

99: 8350:(2012). "History of Project A". In Coster-Mullen, John (ed.). 8117: 7217: 7193: 7160: 7109: 6740: 6446: 6419: 6407: 6380: 6368: 6239: 6177: 6175: 6130: 6118: 6083: 6081: 6057: 6030: 5994: 5977: 5965: 5953: 5937: 5935: 5933: 5924: 5900: 5885: 5873: 5849: 5801: 5789: 5777: 5765: 5741: 5681: 5669: 5628: 5616: 5604: 5577: 5553: 5529: 5484: 5472: 5460: 5424: 5409: 5397: 5385: 5361: 5349: 5139: 5127: 5063: 5061: 5052: 5016: 5000: 4998: 4947: 4931: 4929: 4920: 4893: 4854: 4740: 4716: 4612: 4597: 4022:. Los Alamos National Laboratory. 8 April 1943. Archived from 3648: 3624: 3588: 3543: 2995:

Remote handling of a kilocurie source of radiolanthanum for a

1997:

greater than those made at Berkeley, which they attributed to

752:—how the explosion produced by a chain reaction might behave. 9432: 7058: 6755:"George Marquardt, U.S. war pilot over Hiroshima, dies at 84" 6068: 6066: 4646:. National Library of Australia. 23 October 1995. p. 2. 2805:(right) supervises loading the Little Boy bomb into the B-29 1845: 1653:

took longer, and was not completed until the autumn of 1944.

1500: 609:

of a heavy element splits into two or more light ones when a

7292: 7280: 7205: 7178: 7166: 7127: 6779: 6430: 6428: 6220: 6218: 6216: 6000: 5641: 5639: 5637: 4872: 4751: 4749: 4484: 4482: 3353: 3112:

President Harry S. Truman did not sign the act creating the

2237: 2107:, a new invention developed at Los Alamos by a group led by 1442:, and Peggy Titterton worked as scientists and technicians. 1434:

1944. Most worked in administration, but many women such as

586:

and other fascist countries, leading to the drafting of the

9287: 8756: 7404:"Plutonium: A Wartime Nightmare but a Metallurgist's Dream" 6638: 6508:. Array of Contemporary American Physicists. Archived from 6269: 6257: 6172: 6148: 6093: 6078: 6012: 5930: 5583: 5058: 5034: 4995: 4926: 3999: 3997: 3377: 2575:, in dark coat, is behind Manley; to Oppenheimer's left is 1115: 830:

and his team in February 1941, but which was theoretically

7413:(Winter/Spring). Los Alamos National Laboratory: 142–151. 7256: 7034: 6710: 6568: 6566: 6063: 6041: 6039: 5073: 4836: 4256: 4150: 4148: 4146: 4144: 3816: 3814: 3606: 3558: 3449: 2279:

insert was conducted with the 3-inch/50 caliber gun and a

7724:

The Corps of Engineers: Construction in the United States

7698:. Los Alamos, New Mexico: Los Alamos Historical Society. 7268: 7115: 7022: 7010: 6911: 6875: 6873: 6529: 6527: 6425: 6350: 6295: 6213: 5699: 5634: 4983: 4899: 4860: 4746: 4698: 4542: 4540: 4479: 4382: 3910: 3908: 3906: 3750: 3748: 3413: 2523: 1974:

had detected what might have been spontaneous fission in

1798: 1382:

and had it shipped to Los Alamos; McKibben's brought two

1374:, that had been performing Manhattan Project research at 1347: 638: 6935: 6578: 6551: 6539: 6391: 6389: 6245: 5262: 4358: 4232: 3994: 3273: 3211: 1451:

things and thereby became the gatekeeper of Los Alamos.

558:

in 1938, and its explanation (and naming) by physicists

8196:

Inventing Los Alamos: The Growth of an Atomic Community

6686: 6626: 6614: 6563: 6160: 6136: 6036: 5906: 5819: 5807: 5723: 5687: 4824: 4812: 4686: 4411: 4409: 4370: 4334: 4196: 4141: 3982: 3920: 3859: 3811: 3772: 3570: 3531: 3389: 1750:

While they waited for the guns to be fabricated by the

1301:

Passage between buildings A and B in the Technical Area

1285:. War Department policy forbade giving deferments from 7864:

Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project

7534:. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. 7139: 6998: 6923: 6870: 6803: 6698: 6674: 6524: 6483: 5831: 5651: 5559: 5442: 5244: 4674: 4662: 4537: 4445: 4443: 3903: 3801: 3799: 3745: 3735: 3733: 3684: 1824:

aircraft with Thin Man bomb shapes was carried out at

566:

soon after, opened up the possibility of a controlled

27:

Secret laboratory established by the Manhattan Project

9374: 6986: 6947: 6386: 6326: 5855: 4564: 4525: 4220: 3784: 3666: 3630: 3519: 3455: 3425: 2951:

was forced to land there, but this was not required.

2723:

At 05:30 on 16 July 1945 the gadget exploded with an

2064:

An implosion-type nuclear bomb. In the center is the

1073:

granted use of some 45,100 acres (18,300 ha) of

8165:

Their Day in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project

4552: 4467: 4455: 4406: 4346: 4244: 3932: 3401: 3199: 2712:. The gadget was assembled under the supervision of 8521:

Gatekeeper to Los Alamos: Dorothy Scarritt McKibbin

8261: 7326:

Norris E. Bradbury 1909–1996: A Biographical Memoir

6791: 6662: 6602: 6590: 4585: 4519: 4500: 4440: 4434: 4328: 4313: 4301: 4289: 4274: 4208: 4190: 4178: 4166: 4135: 4123: 4111: 4099: 4062:"Land for Los Alamos Lab Taken Unfairly, Heirs Say" 4047: 3796: 3760: 3730: 3718: 3654: 3459:; Shire, E. S.; Crowther, B. M. (15 October 1934). 2696:in the form of an irradiated uranium slug from the 533: 8607: 8126: 7987: 7892: 7861: 7762: 7660: 7465: 7437: 7368: 3365: 2921:of Project Alberta flew on the Hiroshima mission. 2727:of around 20 kilotons of TNT, leaving a crater of 2529:The reactor commenced operation in December 1944. 2033:At the time, von Neumann was working for the Navy 655:Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Warfare 8606:Truslow, Edith C.; Smith, Ralph Carlisle (1961). 7401: 6826:"Eyewitness Account of Atomic Bomb Over Nagasaki" 5753: 5151: 5115: 2188:bomb casing to protect it from bullets and flak. 1604:'s character in the same film, as referred to by 1178:) than the houses at Los Alamos (as specified by 9467: 3966:. Los Alamos National Laboratory. Archived from 2365:in water. Uranium sulfate was chosen instead of 2111:. A contract for their manufacture was given to 1747:prior to his joining the Los Alamos Laboratory. 1563:In 1943, development efforts were directed to a 8155: 8016: 7931:Volume I: The Development of US Nuclear Weapons 7079:"A Spy's Path: Iowa to A-Bomb to Kremlin Honor" 6344: 6320: 5717: 5541: 5436: 5373: 5299: 5103: 5091: 4624: 4400: 3694:"Ignition of the Atmosphere with Nuclear Bombs" 3600: 3552: 3513: 3501: 3443: 3359: 2008: 1008:was rejected on security grounds, and one near 857:, a primitive form of "implosion" suggested by 7315: 7298: 7211: 7187: 7172: 7133: 3229: 1699:and the E-8 (Interior Ballistics) Group under 1571:. The names for all three atomic bomb designs— 1467:The Los Alamos Laboratory was reinforced by a 422:The development effort initially focused on a 8673: 8424:. Los Alamos, New Mexico: Exceptional Books. 8071:Hewlett, Richard G.; Duncan, Francis (1969). 8070: 7720: 7638: 7363: 7286: 7064: 7052: 6785: 6728: 6656: 6006: 5312:Segrè, Emilio (1952). "Spontaneous Fission". 3950: 3291: 1735:); and that it should have three independent 1314:'s groups from the University of California, 714:Office of Scientific Research and Development 637:to unleash the energy of hundreds of tons of 625:, two refugee physicists from Germany at the 613:is captured. If more neutrons are emitted, a 383:, was a secret laboratory established by the 8605: 8482: 8460:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 8446: 8296:Robert Oppenheimer: A Life Inside the Center 7262: 7223: 7199: 6895:. Atomic Heritage Foundation. Archived from 6275: 4878: 4842: 4770:"An Overview of Rayleigh-Taylor Instability" 3612: 2815:is on his left, with his back to the camera. 2437:produced by the reactor-generated neutrons: 2200:, which stabilized the δ phase and could be 1600:. Little Boy came last, and was named after 1306:calculations. These included his secretary, 1097:and a Native American sacred burial ground. 466:. A variant of the gun-type design known as 7510:. Los Alamos National Laboratory: 124–131. 7235: 6965: 6844: 6815: 5496: 5163: 1801:, was contacted, it was learned that a new 1429:at Oppenheimer's home in Los Alamos in 1944 992:Map of Los Alamos site, New Mexico, 1943–45 8680: 8666: 7721:Fine, Lenore; Remington, Jesse A. (1972). 2838:on 25 July under the signature of General 2579:. The Army officer on the left is Colonel 2090:explosives were tested before settling on 888: 826:that had only recently been discovered by 578:was practical, but the possibility that a 486:that would use a fission bomb to ignite a 478:The laboratory built the Water Boiler, an 395:. Its mission was to design and build the 45: 8523:. Los Alamos: Alamos Historical Society. 8402:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb 7646:. Waukesha, Wisconsin: J. Coster-Mullen. 7583: 5198: 5185:(5). American Physical Society: 426–450. 4238: 3486: 2353:, a type of nuclear reactor in which the 1518: 1386:from Wisconsin; and Manley's brought the 1154:Four-family apartment units at Los Alamos 1138:, was engaged as architect and engineer. 1016:, where Oppenheimer owned a ranch in the 507:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 208:U.S. National Register of Historic Places 8324:. New York: William Morrow and Company. 8271:. Washington, D.C.: Manhattan District. 8133:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 7556: 7529: 6716: 6692: 6644: 6632: 6620: 6584: 6557: 6545: 4388: 4376: 3085: 2990: 2895: 2844:Chief of Staff of the United States Army 2797: 2682: 2633: 2550: 2340: 2281:20 mm (0.79 in) Hispano cannon 2236: 2151: 2059: 2012: 1905: 1851: 1705: 1409: 1296: 1242: 1199: 1149: 987: 759: 596: 217:U.S. National Historic Landmark District 8576: 8518: 8316: 8228:Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb 8121:; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; 7982: 7955: 7925: 7795: 7693: 7499:Bunker, Merle E. (Winter–Spring 1983). 7432: 7274: 7145: 7121: 6572: 6500: 6498: 6458: 6286: 6284: 6263: 6224: 6181: 6166: 6154: 6142: 6099: 6087: 6045: 6018: 5941: 5912: 5825: 5813: 5729: 5705: 5693: 5645: 5589: 5565: 5497:Oppenheimer, J. Robert (18 July 1944). 5448: 5067: 5040: 5004: 4989: 4935: 4905: 4866: 4755: 4728: 4704: 4680: 4668: 4546: 4531: 4415: 4262: 4059: 3938: 3790: 3564: 3525: 3205: 2559:. In the front row are (left to right) 960:in New York—Oppenheimer did not have a 755: 14: 9511:Military projects of the United States 9468: 8636: 8398: 8366: 8346: 8193: 7958:Volume V: US Nuclear Weapons Histories 7890: 7856: 7832: 7757: 7614: 7498: 7077:Broad, William J. (12 November 2007). 7040: 7004: 6966:Wellenstein, Alex (15 February 2015). 6953: 6941: 6929: 6879: 6680: 6533: 6489: 6072: 5837: 5657: 5250: 5079: 5028: 4692: 4570: 4558: 4488: 4473: 4461: 4352: 4340: 4226: 4202: 4154: 3988: 3926: 3820: 3778: 3672: 3636: 3431: 3419: 3407: 3395: 3383: 3279: 3217: 3183:"National Register Information System" 1985:, −235 and −238, plutonium, polonium, 933:, where the matter was discussed with 8687: 8661: 8545: 8278:from the original on 12 February 2017 8224: 7460: 7076: 7028: 7016: 6992: 6917: 6858:from the original on 25 December 2012 6767:from the original on 19 February 2014 6434: 6395: 6356: 6332: 5861: 5311: 5213: 4830: 4818: 4767: 4638:"Obituary: Lady Titterton, 1921–1995" 4449: 4364: 4250: 4003: 3914: 3805: 3766: 3754: 3660: 3371: 3160:The Los Alamos Laboratory became the 2864:. The order designated four targets: 657:(CSSAW), who in turn passed it on to 501:The Fat Man design was tested in the 9439: 8419: 8290: 7838:Britain and Atomic Energy, 1935–1945 7658: 7420:from the original on 17 October 2011 7244:from the original on 25 October 2018 7091:from the original on 17 January 2018 6854:. National Science Digital Library. 6832:from the original on 3 February 2011 6828:. National Science Digital Library. 6821: 6809: 6797: 6752: 6704: 6668: 6608: 6596: 6495: 6281: 6251: 5511:from the original on 4 December 2023 4961:"Ernest William Titterton 1916–1990" 4214: 3865: 3739: 3724: 3576: 3537: 3188:National Register of Historic Places 3140:, the nuclear tests in the Pacific. 3092:Armed Forces Special Weapons Project 2986: 2303:, California, on 16 July aboard the 2118:To study the behavior of converging 1060:United States Under Secretary of War 699:General Electric Research Laboratory 8593:from the original on 22 August 2017 8354:. United States: J. Coster-Mullen. 8058:from the original on 9 October 2022 8031:Pennsylvania State University Press 7694:Ebinger, Virginia Nylander (2006). 6302:from the original on 28 August 2016 3175: 2604:joined the group in February 1945. 2037:, Princeton University, the Army's 1266:(WAAC) Detachment was activated at 943:National Defense Research Committee 521:. The Los Alamos Laboratory became 344:Bungalow/Craftsman, Modern Movement 24: 9481:Former nuclear research institutes 9145:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 8614:. Los Angeles: Tomash Publishers. 8405:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 8376:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 7994:. Los Angeles: Tomash Publishers. 7624:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 7517:from the original on 16 April 2016 7236:Wellerstein, Alex (25 July 2016). 5173:"The Mechanism of Nuclear Fission" 4800:from the original on 7 August 2020 4650:from the original on 14 March 2020 4074:from the original on 14 March 2020 3706:from the original on 18 April 2005 3699:. Los Alamos National Laboratory. 3341:from the original on 28 April 2019 2758: 2377:, that included Charles P. Baker, 1946:had been raised by Niels Bohr and 1768:3-inch (76 mm)/50 caliber gun 25: 9522: 8105:from the original on 16 July 2017 7351:from the original on 3 March 2016 6970:. Restricted Data. Archived from 5619:, pp. 161, 270–271, 307–308. 4971:from the original on 6 March 2019 3834:"FBI file: Katherine Oppenheimer" 2555:The April 1946 colloquium on the 2539:History of the Teller–Ulam design 1283:Army Specialized Training Program 983: 266: 241: 9486:History of the Manhattan Project 9448: 9420: 9408: 9396: 9384: 9361: 9360: 7557:Chambers, Marjorie Bell (1999). 7229: 7070: 6959: 6885: 6746: 6471:from the original on 4 June 2023 6452: 6187: 5490: 5305: 5256: 5207: 5157: 5022: 4953: 4761: 3847:from the original on 25 May 2013 3466:Proceedings of the Royal Society 3162:Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 3005:United States Army Medical Corps 1594:'s "Kasper Gutman" character in 1549: 1537: 1132:Willard C. Kruger and Associates 937:, the director of the OSRD, and 534:Nuclear fission and atomic bombs 523:Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 265: 258: 240: 233: 200:Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 8249:from the original on 6 May 2017 6197:. Nuclear Power. Archived from 5754:Baker, Hecker & Harbur 1983 5499:"Memo to General Leslie Groves" 5152:Baker, Hecker & Harbur 1983 5116:Baker, Hecker & Harbur 1983 4630: 4060:Yardley, Jim (27 August 2001). 4053: 4009: 3956: 3871: 3841:Federal Bureau of Investigation 3826: 3678: 2890:216th Army Air Forces Base Unit 2708:the target, and generated less 2651:opted instead for a full-scale 2336: 2105:exploding-bridgewire detonators 1720:216th Army Air Forces Base Unit 1229: 1100: 1022:West Coast of the United States 9501:Military history of New Mexico 7901:University of California Press 7868:. New York: Harper & Row. 3887:. 27 June 1949. Archived from 3285: 3223: 3078:remained unknown for decades. 2779:was the head of the Pit Crew, 1672: 1370:and his group, which included 350: 32:Los Alamos National Laboratory 13: 1: 8546:Szasz, Ferenc Morton (1992). 8373:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 8020:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). 7799:History of the Dayton Project 7584:Christman, Albert B. 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Peter (1987). 6345:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6321:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 5718:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 5542:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 5437:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 5374:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 5300:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 5104:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 5092:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4625:Howes & Herzenberg 1999 4401:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 3601:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 3553:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 3514:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 3502:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 3444:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 3360:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 3081: 3034: 2351:aqueous homogeneous reactor 2162:modulated neutron initiator 1871:X-ray scattering techniques 1620:, that they were scattered 1523: 1489:Rayleigh–Taylor instability 1330:, Felix Bloch's group from 1292: 1279:Special Engineer Detachment 1247:The main gate at Los Alamos 1234: 1095:Bandelier National Monument 1089:using the authority of the 480:aqueous homogeneous reactor 143:, New Mexico, United States 10: 9527: 8577:Truslow, Edith C. (1973). 7891:Hacker, Barton C. 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Annapolis, Maryland: 7446:Oxford University Press 6852:"The Story of Nagasaki" 6506:"The Manhattan Project" 5238:10.1103/PhysRev.55.1269 5169:Wheeler, John Archibald 3239:Die Naturwissenschaften 2598:inverse Compton cooling 2357:in the form of soluble 2247:highly enriched uranium 2198:plutonium–gallium alloy 2039:Aberdeen Proving Ground 1901:allotropes of plutonium 1881:plutonium tetrafluoride 1567:using plutonium called 1565:gun-type fission weapon 1328:University of Wisconsin 1320:University of Minnesota 1049:Los Alamos Ranch School 1027:In October 1942, Major 1014:Albuquerque, New Mexico 903:became director of the 889:Bomb laboratory concept 798:experimental physicists 588:Einstein–Szilard letter 424:gun-type fission weapon 417:Los Alamos Ranch School 9506:Military in New Mexico 9491:Los Alamos, New Mexico 8767:Salt Wells Pilot Plant 8318:Nichols, Kenneth David 8123:Westfall, Catherine L. 7765:What Little I Remember 5200:10.1103/PhysRev.56.426 3488:10.1098/rspa.1934.0197 3386:, pp. 39–43, 407. 3095: 3000: 2901: 2816: 2688: 2647: 2630:Trinity (nuclear test) 2584: 2571:and J. 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Roosevelt 538:The discovery of the 377:Los Alamos Laboratory 40:Los Alamos Laboratory 18:Los Alamos Laboratory 9253:British contribution 9155:Operation Peppermint 9150:Operation Crossroads 9009:Maria Goeppert Mayer 8194:Hunner, Jon (2004). 7842:Macmillan Publishing 7474:Simon & Schuster 7332:. 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Groves Jr. 756:Bomb design concepts 659:George Paget Thomson 511:Operation Crossroads 503:Trinity nuclear test 470:was developed using 387:and operated by the 322:35.88167; -106.29833 168:35.88056; -106.30389 9014:George Kistiakowsky 8969:Charles Critchfield 8638:Warren, Stafford L. 8029:. 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Other spies like 2848:General of the Army 2749:William L. Laurence 2613:Nicholas Metropolis 2379:Gerhart Friedlander 2269:Cyril Stanley Smith 1964:Konstantin Petrzhak 1944:spontaneous fission 1795:frequency modulated 1680:Charles Critchfield 1457:George Kistiakowsky 1332:Stanford University 1268:Fort Sill, Oklahoma 1064:Robert P. Patterson 811:, John Manley, and 462:, which was called 436:spontaneous fission 313: / 159: / 64:Army-Navy "E" Award 41: 9427:History of science 9391:Nuclear technology 9079:Henry DeWolf Smyth 8858:Robert Oppenheimer 8813:Priscilla Duffield 8552:St. Martin's Press 7745:on 1 February 2017 7508:Los Alamos Science 7411:Los Alamos Science 7084:The New York Times 6753:McLellan, Dennis. 6729:Coster-Mullen 2012 6657:Coster-Mullen 2012 6647:, pp. 46, 80. 6512:on 4 February 2014 6007:Coster-Mullen 2012 5171:(September 1939). 4707:, pp. 32, 36. 4615:, pp. 99–100. 4067:The New York Times 3457:Oliphant, M. L. E. 3259:10.1007/BF01488241 3096: 3001: 2954:Purnell, Parsons, 2902: 2855:Potsdam Conference 2851:George C. Marshall 2817: 2772:Lieutenant Colonel 2742:The New York Times 2689: 2648: 2585: 2573:Robert Oppenheimer 2347: 2263:had developed the 2243: 2158: 2139:ionization chamber 2070: 2046:William R. Purnell 2035:Bureau of Ordnance 2019: 1940: 1934: (δ'), & 1910:Plutonium has six 1866:plutonium fluoride 1858: 1809:, later nicknamed 1803:tail warning radar 1776:Dahlgren, Virginia 1724: 1597:The Maltese Falcon 1592:Sydney Greenstreet 1509:neutron initiators 1461:Kenneth Bainbridge 1440:Jane Hamilton Hall 1431: 1423:Robert Oppenheimer 1380:Harvard University 1326:'s group from the 1303: 1272:Women's Army Corps 1253:Fort Riley, Kansas 1249: 1206: 1156: 1140:Black & Veatch 1118:, carpentry shop, 994: 924:Lieutenant Colonel 770: 695:Robert Oppenheimer 691:isotope separation 641:. Their superior, 619: 590:to warn President 442:and would cause a 401:Robert Oppenheimer 397:first atomic bombs 127:Robert Oppenheimer 91:Research type 70:on 16 October 1945 52:Robert Oppenheimer 39: 9372: 9371: 9294:Los Alamos Primer 9283:Interim Committee 9238:African Americans 9190:The Great Artiste 9049:Isidor Isaac Rabi 9044:Norman Ramsey Jr. 8843:Franklin Matthias 8782:Heavy water sites 8689:Manhattan Project 8621:978-0-938228-08-0 8561:978-0-312-06167-8 8530:978-0-941232-30-2 8503:978-0-231-10546-0 8467:978-0-520-07576-4 8431:978-0-944482-01-8 8412:978-0-684-80400-2 8383:978-0-671-44133-3 8331:978-0-688-06910-0 8309:978-0-385-50407-2 8209:978-0-8061-3891-6 8178:978-1-56639-719-3 8140:978-0-521-44132-2 8119:Hoddeson, Lillian 8087:978-0-520-07187-2 8040:978-0-520-07186-5 8001:978-0-938228-08-0 7967:978-0-9791915-0-3 7940:978-0-9791915-1-0 7910:978-0-520-05852-1 7875:978-0-306-70738-4 7780:978-0-521-28010-5 7705:978-0-941232-34-0 7678:978-0-06-010949-3 7631:978-0-7432-5007-8 7599:978-1-55750-120-2 7568:978-0-941232-23-4 7541:978-0-7864-2139-8 7483:978-0-671-74012-2 7386:978-0-226-81304-2 7277:, pp. 89–90. 7202:, pp. 95–96. 7124:, pp. 82–83. 6944:, pp. 68–69. 6812:, pp. 64–65. 6760:The Seattle Times 6731:, pp. 34–35. 6719:, pp. 38–40. 6707:, pp. 56–57. 6227:, pp. 95–98. 6195:"Neutron Sources" 5427:, pp. 86–90. 5019:, pp. 82–85. 4992:, pp. 98–99. 4950:, pp. 78–80. 4908:, pp. 85–88. 4896:, pp. 75–78. 4869:, pp. 74–75. 4833:, pp. 46–49. 4821:, pp. 18–19. 4758:, pp. 27–30. 4743:, pp. 93–94. 4695:, pp. 84–85. 4627:, pp. 43–45. 4391:, pp. 41–49. 4343:, pp. 92–94. 4331:, pp. S6–S8. 4205:, pp. 40–41. 4169:, pp. S5–S6. 4157:, pp. 31–32. 3991:, pp. 66–67. 3929:, pp. 64–65. 3917:, pp. 83–84. 3823:, pp. 61–63. 3781:, pp. 60–61. 3757:, pp. 82–83. 3651:, pp. 44–45. 3627:, pp. 54–56. 3603:, pp. 33–35. 3591:, pp. 42–44. 3516:, pp. 50–51. 3504:, pp. 46–47. 3446:, pp. 43–44. 3398:, pp. 43–45. 3313:(3615): 239–240. 2987:Health and safety 2975:The Great Artiste 2936:The Great Artiste 2909:Morris R. Jeppson 2906:Second Lieutenant 2725:energy equivalent 2638:Herbert Lehr and 2391:Samuel K. Allison 2327:neutron moderator 2293:Detroit, Michigan 2066:neutron initiator 1760:Experimental Mine 1752:Naval Gun Factory 1415:Isidor Isaac Rabi 1356:Robert F. Christy 1340:Purdue University 1336:Marshall Holloway 1318:' group from the 1312:Joseph W. Kennedy 1071:Claude R. Wickard 920:James C. Marshall 905:Manhattan Project 898:Brigadier General 877:reaction between 859:Richard C. Tolman 792:, Robert Serber, 718:Arthur H. Compton 687:mass spectrometer 617:becomes possible. 513:nuclear tests at 385:Manhattan Project 373: 372: 16:(Redirected from 9518: 9461: 9453: 9452: 9451: 9441: 9425: 9424: 9423: 9413: 9412: 9401: 9400: 9399: 9389: 9388: 9387: 9380: 9364: 9363: 9315:Quebec Agreement 9099:John von Neumann 9039:George B. Pegram 8848:Dorothy McKibbin 8682: 8675: 8668: 8659: 8658: 8653: 8633: 8631: 8629: 8613: 8602: 8600: 8598: 8592: 8585: 8573: 8542: 8515: 8479: 8443: 8416: 8395: 8363: 8343: 8313: 8287: 8285: 8283: 8277: 8270: 8258: 8256: 8254: 8248: 8233: 8221: 8190: 8167:. Philadelphia: 8152: 8132: 8114: 8112: 8110: 8104: 8079: 8067: 8065: 8063: 8057: 8028: 8013: 8011: 8009: 7993: 7979: 7952: 7922: 7898: 7887: 7867: 7853: 7834:Gowing, Margaret 7829: 7827: 7825: 7820:on 12 April 2019 7819: 7813:. Archived from 7804: 7792: 7768: 7754: 7752: 7750: 7744: 7738:. Archived from 7729: 7717: 7690: 7669:Harper & Row 7666: 7655: 7635: 7611: 7580: 7553: 7526: 7524: 7522: 7516: 7505: 7495: 7471: 7457: 7443: 7429: 7427: 7425: 7419: 7408: 7398: 7374: 7365:Alvarez, Luis W. 7360: 7358: 7356: 7350: 7331: 7302: 7296: 7290: 7284: 7278: 7272: 7266: 7260: 7254: 7253: 7251: 7249: 7233: 7227: 7226:, p. 22–23. 7221: 7215: 7209: 7203: 7197: 7191: 7185: 7176: 7170: 7164: 7158: 7149: 7143: 7137: 7131: 7125: 7119: 7113: 7107: 7101: 7100: 7098: 7096: 7087:. pp. 1–2. 7074: 7068: 7062: 7056: 7050: 7044: 7038: 7032: 7026: 7020: 7014: 7008: 7002: 6996: 6990: 6984: 6983: 6981: 6979: 6963: 6957: 6951: 6945: 6939: 6933: 6927: 6921: 6915: 6909: 6908: 6906: 6904: 6893:"James F. Nolan" 6889: 6883: 6877: 6868: 6867: 6865: 6863: 6848: 6842: 6841: 6839: 6837: 6819: 6813: 6807: 6801: 6795: 6789: 6783: 6777: 6776: 6774: 6772: 6750: 6744: 6738: 6732: 6726: 6720: 6714: 6708: 6702: 6696: 6690: 6684: 6678: 6672: 6666: 6660: 6654: 6648: 6642: 6636: 6630: 6624: 6618: 6612: 6606: 6600: 6594: 6588: 6582: 6576: 6570: 6561: 6555: 6549: 6543: 6537: 6531: 6522: 6521: 6519: 6517: 6502: 6493: 6487: 6481: 6480: 6478: 6476: 6456: 6450: 6444: 6438: 6432: 6423: 6417: 6411: 6405: 6399: 6393: 6384: 6378: 6372: 6366: 6360: 6354: 6348: 6342: 6336: 6330: 6324: 6318: 6312: 6311: 6309: 6307: 6288: 6279: 6273: 6267: 6261: 6255: 6249: 6243: 6237: 6228: 6222: 6211: 6210: 6208: 6206: 6191: 6185: 6179: 6170: 6164: 6158: 6152: 6146: 6140: 6134: 6128: 6122: 6116: 6103: 6097: 6091: 6085: 6076: 6070: 6061: 6055: 6049: 6043: 6034: 6028: 6022: 6016: 6010: 6004: 5998: 5992: 5981: 5975: 5969: 5963: 5957: 5951: 5945: 5939: 5928: 5922: 5916: 5910: 5904: 5898: 5889: 5883: 5877: 5871: 5865: 5859: 5853: 5847: 5841: 5835: 5829: 5823: 5817: 5811: 5805: 5799: 5793: 5787: 5781: 5775: 5769: 5763: 5757: 5751: 5745: 5739: 5733: 5727: 5721: 5715: 5709: 5708:, p. I-298. 5703: 5697: 5691: 5685: 5679: 5673: 5667: 5661: 5655: 5649: 5648:, p. V-123. 5643: 5632: 5626: 5620: 5614: 5608: 5602: 5593: 5587: 5581: 5575: 5569: 5563: 5557: 5551: 5545: 5539: 5533: 5527: 5521: 5520: 5518: 5516: 5510: 5503: 5494: 5488: 5482: 5476: 5470: 5464: 5458: 5452: 5446: 5440: 5434: 5428: 5422: 5413: 5407: 5401: 5395: 5389: 5383: 5377: 5371: 5365: 5359: 5353: 5347: 5341: 5340: 5309: 5303: 5297: 5291: 5290: 5260: 5254: 5248: 5242: 5241: 5211: 5205: 5204: 5202: 5161: 5155: 5149: 5143: 5137: 5131: 5125: 5119: 5113: 5107: 5101: 5095: 5089: 5083: 5077: 5071: 5065: 5056: 5050: 5044: 5038: 5032: 5026: 5020: 5014: 5008: 5002: 4993: 4987: 4981: 4980: 4978: 4976: 4957: 4951: 4945: 4939: 4933: 4924: 4918: 4909: 4903: 4897: 4891: 4882: 4876: 4870: 4864: 4858: 4852: 4846: 4840: 4834: 4828: 4822: 4816: 4810: 4809: 4807: 4805: 4765: 4759: 4753: 4744: 4738: 4732: 4726: 4720: 4714: 4708: 4702: 4696: 4690: 4684: 4678: 4672: 4666: 4660: 4659: 4657: 4655: 4634: 4628: 4622: 4616: 4610: 4601: 4595: 4589: 4583: 4574: 4568: 4562: 4556: 4550: 4544: 4535: 4529: 4523: 4517: 4504: 4498: 4492: 4486: 4477: 4471: 4465: 4459: 4453: 4447: 4438: 4432: 4419: 4413: 4404: 4398: 4392: 4386: 4380: 4374: 4368: 4362: 4356: 4350: 4344: 4338: 4332: 4326: 4317: 4311: 4305: 4299: 4293: 4287: 4278: 4272: 4266: 4260: 4254: 4248: 4242: 4236: 4230: 4224: 4218: 4212: 4206: 4200: 4194: 4188: 4182: 4176: 4170: 4164: 4158: 4152: 4139: 4133: 4127: 4121: 4115: 4109: 4103: 4097: 4084: 4083: 4081: 4079: 4057: 4051: 4045: 4039: 4038: 4036: 4034: 4029:on 20 April 2011 4028: 4021: 4013: 4007: 4001: 3992: 3986: 3980: 3979: 3977: 3975: 3970:on 20 April 2011 3960: 3954: 3948: 3942: 3936: 3930: 3924: 3918: 3912: 3901: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3875: 3869: 3863: 3857: 3856: 3854: 3852: 3838: 3830: 3824: 3818: 3809: 3803: 3794: 3788: 3782: 3776: 3770: 3764: 3758: 3752: 3743: 3737: 3728: 3722: 3716: 3715: 3713: 3711: 3705: 3698: 3686:Konopinski, E. J 3682: 3676: 3670: 3664: 3658: 3652: 3646: 3640: 3634: 3628: 3622: 3616: 3610: 3604: 3598: 3592: 3586: 3580: 3574: 3568: 3562: 3556: 3550: 3541: 3535: 3529: 3523: 3517: 3511: 3505: 3499: 3493: 3492: 3490: 3473:(859): 922–929. 3453: 3447: 3441: 3435: 3429: 3423: 3417: 3411: 3405: 3399: 3393: 3387: 3381: 3375: 3369: 3363: 3357: 3351: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3327:10.1038/143239a0 3289: 3283: 3277: 3271: 3270: 3227: 3221: 3215: 3209: 3203: 3197: 3196: 3179: 3148:Cumberland Sound 3068:David Greenglass 3009:Veterinary Corps 2919: 2829:Leonard Cheshire 2753:Second Air Force 2747: 2521: 2519: 2518: 2511: 2510: 2501: 2499: 2498: 2491: 2490: 2480: 2478: 2477: 2470: 2469: 2460: 2458: 2457: 2450: 2449: 2395:fission products 2387:Raemer Schreiber 2383:Lindsay Helmholz 2174:Monsanto Company 2087:depleted uranium 2082:explosive lenses 1932:delta prime 1780:radar altimeters 1684:Seth Neddermeyer 1657:John von Neumann 1602:Elisha Cook, Jr. 1588:series of movies 1581:Dashiell Hammett 1575:, Thin Man, and 1553: 1541: 1473:Ernest Titterton 1448:Dorothy McKibbin 1444:Charlotte Serber 1427:Victor Weisskopf 1419:Dorothy McKibbin 1368:Robert R. Wilson 1308:Priscilla Greene 1223:letter of intent 958:SAM Laboratories 931:Washington, D.C. 836:nuclear reactors 824:chemical element 556:Fritz Strassmann 456:John von Neumann 409:Pajarito Plateau 379:, also known as 352: 328: 327: 325: 324: 323: 318: 314: 311: 310: 309: 306: 275: 269: 268: 262: 250: 244: 243: 237: 180:Operating agency 174: 173: 171: 170: 169: 164: 160: 157: 156: 155: 152: 86: 84: 49: 42: 38: 21: 9526: 9525: 9521: 9520: 9519: 9517: 9516: 9515: 9466: 9465: 9464: 9454: 9449: 9447: 9444: 9440:sister projects 9437:at Knowledge's 9431: 9421: 9419: 9407: 9397: 9395: 9385: 9383: 9375: 9373: 9368: 9354: 9320:RaLa Experiment 9226: 9195: 9160:Project Alberta 9128: 9124:Chien-Shiung Wu 9054:James Rainwater 8989:Richard Feynman 8979:John R. Dunning 8954:Norris Bradbury 8917: 8903:Stafford Warren 8873:William Purnell 8853:Kenneth Nichols 8833:Ernest Lawrence 8808:James B. Conant 8786: 8700: 8691: 8686: 8656: 8627: 8625: 8622: 8596: 8594: 8590: 8583: 8562: 8531: 8504: 8468: 8452:Rhodes, Richard 8432: 8413: 8384: 8368:Rhodes, Richard 8332: 8310: 8281: 8279: 8275: 8268: 8252: 8250: 8246: 8231: 8210: 8179: 8141: 8108: 8106: 8102: 8088: 8077: 8061: 8059: 8055: 8041: 8026: 8007: 8005: 8002: 7968: 7941: 7911: 7876: 7823: 7821: 7817: 7802: 7781: 7748: 7746: 7742: 7727: 7706: 7679: 7632: 7600: 7569: 7542: 7520: 7518: 7514: 7503: 7484: 7434:Compton, Arthur 7423: 7421: 7417: 7406: 7387: 7354: 7352: 7348: 7329: 7311: 7306: 7305: 7297: 7293: 7285: 7281: 7273: 7269: 7261: 7257: 7247: 7245: 7234: 7230: 7222: 7218: 7210: 7206: 7198: 7194: 7186: 7179: 7171: 7167: 7159: 7152: 7144: 7140: 7132: 7128: 7120: 7116: 7108: 7104: 7094: 7092: 7075: 7071: 7063: 7059: 7051: 7047: 7039: 7035: 7027: 7023: 7015: 7011: 7003: 6999: 6991: 6987: 6977: 6975: 6964: 6960: 6952: 6948: 6940: 6936: 6928: 6924: 6916: 6912: 6902: 6900: 6891: 6890: 6886: 6878: 6871: 6861: 6859: 6850: 6849: 6845: 6835: 6833: 6820: 6816: 6808: 6804: 6796: 6792: 6784: 6780: 6770: 6768: 6751: 6747: 6739: 6735: 6727: 6723: 6715: 6711: 6703: 6699: 6691: 6687: 6679: 6675: 6667: 6663: 6655: 6651: 6643: 6639: 6631: 6627: 6619: 6615: 6607: 6603: 6595: 6591: 6583: 6579: 6571: 6564: 6556: 6552: 6544: 6540: 6532: 6525: 6515: 6513: 6504: 6503: 6496: 6488: 6484: 6474: 6472: 6457: 6453: 6445: 6441: 6433: 6426: 6418: 6414: 6406: 6402: 6394: 6387: 6379: 6375: 6367: 6363: 6355: 6351: 6343: 6339: 6331: 6327: 6319: 6315: 6305: 6303: 6290: 6289: 6282: 6274: 6270: 6262: 6258: 6250: 6246: 6238: 6231: 6223: 6214: 6204: 6202: 6193: 6192: 6188: 6180: 6173: 6165: 6161: 6153: 6149: 6141: 6137: 6129: 6125: 6117: 6106: 6098: 6094: 6086: 6079: 6071: 6064: 6056: 6052: 6044: 6037: 6029: 6025: 6017: 6013: 6005: 6001: 5993: 5984: 5976: 5972: 5964: 5960: 5952: 5948: 5940: 5931: 5923: 5919: 5911: 5907: 5899: 5892: 5884: 5880: 5872: 5868: 5860: 5856: 5848: 5844: 5836: 5832: 5824: 5820: 5812: 5808: 5800: 5796: 5788: 5784: 5776: 5772: 5764: 5760: 5752: 5748: 5740: 5736: 5732:, pp. 3–4. 5728: 5724: 5716: 5712: 5704: 5700: 5692: 5688: 5680: 5676: 5668: 5664: 5656: 5652: 5644: 5635: 5627: 5623: 5615: 5611: 5603: 5596: 5588: 5584: 5576: 5572: 5564: 5560: 5552: 5548: 5540: 5536: 5528: 5524: 5514: 5512: 5508: 5501: 5495: 5491: 5483: 5479: 5471: 5467: 5459: 5455: 5447: 5443: 5435: 5431: 5423: 5416: 5408: 5404: 5396: 5392: 5384: 5380: 5372: 5368: 5360: 5356: 5348: 5344: 5314:Physical Review 5310: 5306: 5298: 5294: 5266:Physical Review 5261: 5257: 5249: 5245: 5217:Physical Review 5212: 5208: 5178:Physical Review 5162: 5158: 5150: 5146: 5138: 5134: 5126: 5122: 5114: 5110: 5102: 5098: 5090: 5086: 5078: 5074: 5066: 5059: 5051: 5047: 5039: 5035: 5027: 5023: 5015: 5011: 5003: 4996: 4988: 4984: 4974: 4972: 4959: 4958: 4954: 4946: 4942: 4934: 4927: 4919: 4912: 4904: 4900: 4892: 4885: 4877: 4873: 4865: 4861: 4853: 4849: 4841: 4837: 4829: 4825: 4817: 4813: 4803: 4801: 4766: 4762: 4754: 4747: 4739: 4735: 4727: 4723: 4715: 4711: 4703: 4699: 4691: 4687: 4683:, pp. 1–3. 4679: 4675: 4667: 4663: 4653: 4651: 4636: 4635: 4631: 4623: 4619: 4611: 4604: 4596: 4592: 4584: 4577: 4569: 4565: 4557: 4553: 4549:, pp. 5–6. 4545: 4538: 4530: 4526: 4518: 4507: 4499: 4495: 4487: 4480: 4472: 4468: 4460: 4456: 4448: 4441: 4433: 4422: 4414: 4407: 4399: 4395: 4387: 4383: 4379:, pp. 4–7. 4375: 4371: 4363: 4359: 4351: 4347: 4339: 4335: 4327: 4320: 4312: 4308: 4300: 4296: 4288: 4281: 4273: 4269: 4261: 4257: 4249: 4245: 4237: 4233: 4225: 4221: 4213: 4209: 4201: 4197: 4193:, p. 7.15. 4189: 4185: 4177: 4173: 4165: 4161: 4153: 4142: 4134: 4130: 4122: 4118: 4110: 4106: 4098: 4087: 4077: 4075: 4058: 4054: 4046: 4042: 4032: 4030: 4026: 4019: 4015: 4014: 4010: 4002: 3995: 3987: 3983: 3973: 3971: 3962: 3961: 3957: 3949: 3945: 3937: 3933: 3925: 3921: 3913: 3904: 3894: 3892: 3877: 3876: 3872: 3864: 3860: 3850: 3848: 3836: 3832: 3831: 3827: 3819: 3812: 3804: 3797: 3789: 3785: 3777: 3773: 3765: 3761: 3753: 3746: 3738: 3731: 3723: 3719: 3709: 3707: 3703: 3696: 3683: 3679: 3671: 3667: 3659: 3655: 3647: 3643: 3635: 3631: 3623: 3619: 3611: 3607: 3599: 3595: 3587: 3583: 3575: 3571: 3563: 3559: 3551: 3544: 3536: 3532: 3524: 3520: 3512: 3508: 3500: 3496: 3454: 3450: 3442: 3438: 3430: 3426: 3418: 3414: 3406: 3402: 3394: 3390: 3382: 3378: 3370: 3366: 3358: 3354: 3344: 3342: 3290: 3286: 3278: 3274: 3228: 3224: 3216: 3212: 3204: 3200: 3181: 3180: 3176: 3171: 3142:Ralph A. Sawyer 3101:Legion of Merit 3084: 3043: 3037: 2997:RaLa Experiment 2989: 2917: 2862:Harry S. Truman 2840:Thomas T. Handy 2781:Bernard Waldman 2777:Philip Morrison 2767: 2765:Project Alberta 2761: 2759:Project Alberta 2745: 2714:Norris Bradbury 2710:nuclear fallout 2632: 2626: 2592:, Jane Roberg, 2577:Richard Feynman 2561:Norris Bradbury 2546:Emil Konopinski 2541: 2535: 2517: 2515: 2514: 2513: 2509: 2507: 2506: 2505: 2503: 2497: 2495: 2494: 2493: 2489: 2486: 2485: 2484: 2482: 2476: 2474: 2473: 2472: 2468: 2466: 2465: 2464: 2462: 2456: 2454: 2453: 2452: 2448: 2445: 2444: 2443: 2441: 2367:uranium nitrate 2359:uranium sulfate 2339: 2251:uranium hydride 2224: 2218: 2194:alpha particles 2135:gamma radiation 2124:RaLa Experiment 2011: 1894: 1887:) and the dark 1886: 1838:alpha particles 1834: 1784:proximity fuses 1756:Bureau of Mines 1675: 1643:prompt neutrons 1624:, and that the 1606:Humphrey Bogart 1584:detective novel 1561: 1560: 1559: 1558: 1557: 1554: 1546: 1545: 1542: 1533: 1532: 1526: 1521: 1485:Geoffrey Taylor 1469:British Mission 1400:teletypewriters 1372:Richard Feynman 1364:Alvin C. Graves 1360:Darol K. Froman 1295: 1237: 1232: 1145:Tucson, Arizona 1103: 1083:Grazing permits 986: 966:Communist Party 939:James B. Conant 927:Kenneth Nichols 891: 790:Emil Konopinski 758: 732:, particularly 679:Ernest Lawrence 603:nuclear fission 536: 531: 405:Norris Bradbury 365:15 October 1966 321: 319: 315: 312: 307: 304: 302: 300: 299: 279: 278: 277: 276: 273: 272: 271: 270: 253: 252: 251: 248: 247: 246: 245: 219: 210: 201: 181: 167: 165: 161: 158: 153: 150: 148: 146: 145: 144: 131:Norris Bradbury 129: 115:Nuclear weapons 111: 104:$ 57.88 million 82: 80: 71: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9524: 9514: 9513: 9508: 9503: 9498: 9493: 9488: 9483: 9478: 9463: 9462: 9433: 9430: 9429: 9417: 9405: 9393: 9370: 9369: 9359: 9356: 9355: 9353: 9352: 9347: 9342: 9337: 9332: 9327: 9322: 9317: 9312: 9307: 9302: 9297: 9290: 9285: 9280: 9275: 9270: 9265: 9263:Chicago Pile-1 9260: 9258:Calutron Girls 9255: 9250: 9245: 9240: 9234: 9232: 9231:Related topics 9228: 9227: 9225: 9224: 9219: 9214: 9209: 9203: 9201: 9197: 9196: 9194: 9193: 9186: 9179: 9172: 9167: 9162: 9157: 9152: 9147: 9142: 9136: 9134: 9130: 9129: 9127: 9126: 9121: 9116: 9111: 9106: 9101: 9096: 9094:Stanisław Ulam 9091: 9086: 9081: 9076: 9071: 9066: 9061: 9056: 9051: 9046: 9041: 9036: 9031: 9029:Edwin McMillan 9026: 9021: 9016: 9011: 9006: 9001: 8996: 8991: 8986: 8981: 8976: 8974:Harry Daghlian 8971: 8966: 8964:John Cockcroft 8961: 8959:James Chadwick 8956: 8951: 8946: 8941: 8936: 8931: 8925: 8923: 8919: 8918: 8916: 8915: 8910: 8905: 8900: 8895: 8890: 8885: 8883:Charles Thomas 8880: 8878:Frank Spedding 8875: 8870: 8865: 8860: 8855: 8850: 8845: 8840: 8838:James Marshall 8835: 8830: 8825: 8820: 8818:Thomas Farrell 8815: 8810: 8805: 8803:Arthur Compton 8800: 8794: 8792: 8791:Administrators 8788: 8787: 8785: 8784: 8779: 8774: 8769: 8764: 8759: 8754: 8749: 8744: 8739: 8734: 8729: 8719: 8714: 8708: 8706: 8702: 8701: 8696: 8693: 8692: 8685: 8684: 8677: 8670: 8662: 8655: 8654: 8634: 8620: 8603: 8574: 8560: 8543: 8529: 8516: 8502: 8484:Serber, Robert 8480: 8466: 8448:Serber, Robert 8444: 8430: 8417: 8411: 8396: 8382: 8364: 8344: 8330: 8314: 8308: 8288: 8259: 8222: 8208: 8191: 8177: 8157:Howes, Ruth H. 8153: 8139: 8115: 8086: 8068: 8039: 8014: 8000: 7984:Hawkins, David 7980: 7966: 7953: 7939: 7923: 7909: 7888: 7874: 7858:Groves, Leslie 7854: 7830: 7793: 7779: 7755: 7718: 7704: 7691: 7677: 7656: 7636: 7630: 7616:Conant, Jennet 7612: 7598: 7581: 7567: 7554: 7540: 7527: 7496: 7482: 7462:Bethe, Hans A. 7458: 7430: 7399: 7385: 7361: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7304: 7303: 7291: 7279: 7267: 7255: 7228: 7216: 7204: 7192: 7177: 7165: 7150: 7138: 7126: 7114: 7102: 7069: 7067:, p. 472. 7057: 7045: 7033: 7021: 7009: 7007:, p. 253. 6997: 6995:, p. 267. 6985: 6958: 6946: 6934: 6932:, p. 881. 6922: 6910: 6884: 6882:, p. 879. 6869: 6843: 6814: 6802: 6790: 6778: 6745: 6743:, p. 393. 6733: 6721: 6709: 6697: 6685: 6683:, p. 691. 6673: 6661: 6649: 6637: 6625: 6613: 6601: 6589: 6587:, p. 157. 6577: 6575:, p. 286. 6562: 6560:, p. 156. 6550: 6548:, p. 143. 6538: 6536:, p. 346. 6523: 6494: 6492:, p. 340. 6482: 6451: 6439: 6424: 6412: 6400: 6398:, p. 512. 6385: 6373: 6361: 6349: 6337: 6335:, p. 465. 6325: 6313: 6280: 6268: 6256: 6244: 6229: 6212: 6186: 6171: 6169:, p. 213. 6159: 6147: 6145:, p. 101. 6135: 6123: 6104: 6092: 6077: 6062: 6060:, p. 333. 6050: 6048:, p. 113. 6035: 6033:, p. 293. 6023: 6011: 5999: 5997:, p. 265. 5982: 5980:, p. 262. 5970: 5958: 5956:, p. 257. 5946: 5929: 5927:, p. 252. 5917: 5915:, p. 148. 5905: 5890: 5888:, p. 181. 5878: 5866: 5864:, p. 143. 5854: 5842: 5840:, p. 541. 5830: 5828:, p. 223. 5818: 5816:, p. 221. 5806: 5804:, p. 250. 5794: 5782: 5780:, p. 290. 5770: 5768:, p. 288. 5758: 5746: 5734: 5722: 5720:, p. 235. 5710: 5698: 5696:, p. 203. 5686: 5674: 5662: 5660:, p. 195. 5650: 5646:Hansen (1995b) 5633: 5631:, p. 299. 5621: 5609: 5594: 5582: 5580:, p. 162. 5570: 5558: 5556:, p. 245. 5546: 5544:, p. 311. 5534: 5522: 5489: 5477: 5465: 5453: 5441: 5429: 5414: 5402: 5390: 5378: 5376:, p. 241. 5366: 5354: 5342: 5304: 5292: 5255: 5253:, p. 129. 5243: 5206: 5156: 5154:, p. 146. 5144: 5132: 5120: 5118:, p. 141. 5108: 5106:, p. 211. 5096: 5094:, p. 109. 5084: 5072: 5057: 5045: 5033: 5021: 5009: 4994: 4982: 4952: 4940: 4925: 4910: 4898: 4883: 4881:, p. 104. 4871: 4859: 4847: 4835: 4823: 4811: 4760: 4745: 4733: 4721: 4709: 4697: 4685: 4673: 4671:, p. 180. 4661: 4643:Canberra Times 4629: 4617: 4602: 4600:, p. 109. 4590: 4575: 4573:, p. 153. 4563: 4551: 4536: 4524: 4505: 4493: 4478: 4466: 4454: 4439: 4420: 4405: 4393: 4381: 4369: 4357: 4345: 4333: 4318: 4306: 4304:, p. S16. 4294: 4279: 4267: 4255: 4253:, p. 469. 4243: 4241:, p. 118. 4239:Christman 1998 4231: 4229:, p. 193. 4219: 4217:, p. 339. 4207: 4195: 4183: 4181:, p. S19. 4171: 4159: 4140: 4128: 4126:, p. 2.7. 4116: 4114:, p. 3.3. 4104: 4085: 4052: 4050:, p. 3.6. 4040: 4008: 3993: 3981: 3955: 3943: 3931: 3919: 3902: 3879:"The Brothers" 3870: 3858: 3825: 3810: 3795: 3783: 3771: 3759: 3744: 3742:, p. 325. 3729: 3727:, p. 321. 3717: 3690:Teller, Edward 3688:; Marvin, C.; 3677: 3675:, p. 419. 3665: 3653: 3641: 3639:, p. 417. 3629: 3617: 3605: 3593: 3581: 3569: 3557: 3555:, p. 103. 3542: 3530: 3518: 3506: 3494: 3448: 3436: 3434:, p. 372. 3424: 3412: 3400: 3388: 3376: 3364: 3352: 3284: 3272: 3235:Strassmann, F. 3222: 3210: 3198: 3195:. 9 July 2010. 3173: 3172: 3170: 3167: 3122:George Placzek 3083: 3080: 3039:Main article: 3036: 3033: 3027:involving the 3017:Harry Daghlian 2988: 2985: 2791:, and US Army 2789:William Penney 2763:Main article: 2760: 2757: 2737:El Paso, Texas 2733:mushroom cloud 2716:at the nearby 2702:Thomas Farrell 2640:Harry Daghlian 2628:Main article: 2625: 2622: 2602:Maria Goeppert 2590:Stanislaw Ulam 2581:Oliver Haywood 2537:Main article: 2534: 2531: 2527: 2526: 2516: 2508: 2496: 2487: 2475: 2467: 2455: 2446: 2421:Chicago Pile-1 2338: 2335: 2257:Frank Spedding 2220:Main article: 2217: 2214: 2178:Dayton Project 2054:shaped charges 2010: 2007: 1960:Georgy Flyorov 1942:The notion of 1892: 1884: 1833: 1830: 1731:(520,000 1674: 1671: 1639:Boyce McDaniel 1626:mean free path 1555: 1548: 1547: 1543: 1536: 1535: 1534: 1530: 1529: 1528: 1527: 1525: 1522: 1520: 1517: 1316:J. H. Williams 1294: 1291: 1236: 1233: 1231: 1228: 1102: 1099: 1087:eminent domain 1079:War Department 1039:, La Ventana, 1029:John H. Dudley 985: 984:Site selection 982: 890: 887: 875:nuclear fusion 813:Edwin McMillan 809:Franco Rasetti 782:John Van Vleck 766:nuclear fusion 757: 754: 738:John H. Manley 716:(OSRD) placed 663:MAUD Committee 631:chain reaction 623:Rudolf Peierls 607:atomic nucleus 544:James Chadwick 535: 532: 530: 527: 488:nuclear fusion 371: 370: 367: 366: 363: 359: 358: 353: 346: 345: 342: 338: 337: 334: 330: 329: 297: 293: 292: 287:Central Ave., 285: 281: 280: 264: 263: 257: 256: 255: 254: 239: 238: 232: 231: 230: 229: 228: 225: 224: 221: 220: 215: 212: 211: 206: 203: 202: 199: 196: 195: 192: 191: 188: 187: 182: 179: 176: 175: 138: 134: 133: 124: 118: 117: 112: 109: 106: 105: 102: 96: 95: 92: 88: 87: 77: 73: 72: 50: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9523: 9512: 9509: 9507: 9504: 9502: 9499: 9497: 9494: 9492: 9489: 9487: 9484: 9482: 9479: 9477: 9474: 9473: 9471: 9459: 9458: 9446: 9445: 9442: 9436: 9428: 9418: 9416: 9411: 9406: 9404: 9394: 9392: 9382: 9381: 9378: 9367: 9357: 9351: 9348: 9346: 9343: 9341: 9338: 9336: 9333: 9331: 9328: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9318: 9316: 9313: 9311: 9308: 9306: 9303: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9295: 9291: 9289: 9286: 9284: 9281: 9279: 9278:Franck Report 9276: 9274: 9271: 9269: 9266: 9264: 9261: 9259: 9256: 9254: 9251: 9249: 9246: 9244: 9241: 9239: 9236: 9235: 9233: 9229: 9223: 9220: 9218: 9215: 9213: 9210: 9208: 9205: 9204: 9202: 9198: 9192: 9191: 9187: 9185: 9184: 9180: 9178: 9177: 9173: 9171: 9168: 9166: 9163: 9161: 9158: 9156: 9153: 9151: 9148: 9146: 9143: 9141: 9140:Alsos Mission 9138: 9137: 9135: 9131: 9125: 9122: 9120: 9117: 9115: 9114:Robert Wilson 9112: 9110: 9109:Eugene Wigner 9107: 9105: 9102: 9100: 9097: 9095: 9092: 9090: 9089:Edward Teller 9087: 9085: 9082: 9080: 9077: 9075: 9072: 9070: 9067: 9065: 9064:Glenn Seaborg 9062: 9060: 9057: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9035: 9034:Mark Oliphant 9032: 9030: 9027: 9025: 9024:Willard Libby 9022: 9020: 9017: 9015: 9012: 9010: 9007: 9005: 9002: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8992: 8990: 8987: 8985: 8982: 8980: 8977: 8975: 8972: 8970: 8967: 8965: 8962: 8960: 8957: 8955: 8952: 8950: 8947: 8945: 8942: 8940: 8937: 8935: 8934:Robert Bacher 8932: 8930: 8927: 8926: 8924: 8920: 8914: 8913:Roscoe Wilson 8911: 8909: 8906: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8879: 8876: 8874: 8871: 8869: 8866: 8864: 8861: 8859: 8856: 8854: 8851: 8849: 8846: 8844: 8841: 8839: 8836: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8828:John Lansdale 8826: 8824: 8823:Leslie Groves 8821: 8819: 8816: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8806: 8804: 8801: 8799: 8798:Vannevar Bush 8796: 8795: 8793: 8789: 8783: 8780: 8778: 8775: 8773: 8770: 8768: 8765: 8763: 8760: 8758: 8755: 8753: 8750: 8748: 8745: 8743: 8740: 8738: 8735: 8733: 8730: 8727: 8723: 8720: 8718: 8715: 8713: 8710: 8709: 8707: 8703: 8699: 8694: 8690: 8683: 8678: 8676: 8671: 8669: 8664: 8663: 8660: 8651: 8647: 8643: 8639: 8635: 8623: 8617: 8612: 8611: 8604: 8589: 8582: 8581: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8563: 8557: 8553: 8549: 8544: 8540: 8536: 8532: 8526: 8522: 8517: 8513: 8509: 8505: 8499: 8495: 8491: 8490: 8485: 8481: 8477: 8473: 8469: 8463: 8459: 8458: 8453: 8449: 8445: 8441: 8437: 8433: 8427: 8423: 8418: 8414: 8408: 8404: 8403: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8385: 8379: 8375: 8374: 8369: 8365: 8361: 8357: 8353: 8349: 8348:Ramsey, N. F. 8345: 8341: 8337: 8333: 8327: 8323: 8319: 8315: 8311: 8305: 8301: 8297: 8293: 8289: 8274: 8267: 8266: 8260: 8245: 8241: 8237: 8230: 8229: 8223: 8219: 8215: 8211: 8205: 8201: 8197: 8192: 8188: 8184: 8180: 8174: 8170: 8166: 8162: 8158: 8154: 8150: 8146: 8142: 8136: 8131: 8130: 8124: 8120: 8116: 8101: 8097: 8093: 8089: 8083: 8076: 8075: 8069: 8054: 8050: 8046: 8042: 8036: 8032: 8025: 8024: 8019: 8015: 8003: 7997: 7992: 7991: 7985: 7981: 7977: 7973: 7969: 7963: 7959: 7954: 7950: 7946: 7942: 7936: 7932: 7928: 7927:Hansen, Chuck 7924: 7920: 7916: 7912: 7906: 7902: 7897: 7896: 7889: 7885: 7881: 7877: 7871: 7866: 7865: 7859: 7855: 7851: 7847: 7843: 7839: 7835: 7831: 7816: 7812: 7808: 7801: 7800: 7794: 7790: 7786: 7782: 7776: 7772: 7767: 7766: 7760: 7756: 7741: 7737: 7733: 7726: 7725: 7719: 7715: 7711: 7707: 7701: 7697: 7692: 7688: 7684: 7680: 7674: 7670: 7665: 7664: 7657: 7653: 7649: 7645: 7641: 7637: 7633: 7627: 7623: 7622: 7617: 7613: 7609: 7605: 7601: 7595: 7591: 7587: 7582: 7578: 7574: 7570: 7564: 7560: 7555: 7551: 7547: 7543: 7537: 7533: 7528: 7513: 7509: 7502: 7497: 7493: 7489: 7485: 7479: 7475: 7470: 7469: 7463: 7459: 7455: 7451: 7447: 7442: 7441: 7435: 7431: 7416: 7412: 7405: 7400: 7396: 7392: 7388: 7382: 7378: 7373: 7372: 7366: 7362: 7347: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7328: 7327: 7322: 7318: 7317:Agnew, Harold 7314: 7313: 7300: 7295: 7289:, p. 43. 7288: 7283: 7276: 7271: 7264: 7259: 7243: 7239: 7232: 7225: 7220: 7213: 7208: 7201: 7196: 7189: 7184: 7182: 7174: 7169: 7162: 7157: 7155: 7148:, p. 98. 7147: 7142: 7135: 7130: 7123: 7118: 7111: 7106: 7090: 7086: 7085: 7080: 7073: 7066: 7061: 7054: 7049: 7042: 7037: 7030: 7025: 7018: 7013: 7006: 7001: 6994: 6989: 6973: 6969: 6962: 6956:, p. 71. 6955: 6950: 6943: 6938: 6931: 6926: 6919: 6914: 6898: 6894: 6888: 6881: 6876: 6874: 6857: 6853: 6847: 6831: 6827: 6824: 6818: 6811: 6806: 6800:, p. 60. 6799: 6794: 6788:, p. 66. 6787: 6782: 6766: 6762: 6761: 6756: 6749: 6742: 6737: 6730: 6725: 6718: 6717:Campbell 2005 6713: 6706: 6701: 6695:, p. 41. 6694: 6693:Campbell 2005 6689: 6682: 6677: 6671:, p. 55. 6670: 6665: 6658: 6653: 6646: 6645:Campbell 2005 6641: 6635:, p. 50. 6634: 6633:Campbell 2005 6629: 6623:, p. 27. 6622: 6621:Campbell 2005 6617: 6611:, p. 52. 6610: 6605: 6599:, p. 30. 6598: 6593: 6586: 6585:Campbell 2005 6581: 6574: 6569: 6567: 6559: 6558:Campbell 2005 6554: 6547: 6546:Campbell 2005 6542: 6535: 6530: 6528: 6511: 6507: 6501: 6499: 6491: 6486: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6455: 6448: 6443: 6436: 6431: 6429: 6421: 6416: 6409: 6404: 6397: 6392: 6390: 6382: 6377: 6370: 6365: 6358: 6353: 6346: 6341: 6334: 6329: 6322: 6317: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6287: 6285: 6278:, p. 60. 6277: 6272: 6265: 6260: 6253: 6248: 6241: 6236: 6234: 6226: 6221: 6219: 6217: 6200: 6196: 6190: 6183: 6178: 6176: 6168: 6163: 6156: 6151: 6144: 6139: 6133:, p. 88. 6132: 6127: 6120: 6115: 6113: 6111: 6109: 6101: 6096: 6089: 6084: 6082: 6074: 6069: 6067: 6059: 6054: 6047: 6042: 6040: 6032: 6027: 6020: 6015: 6009:, p. 30. 6008: 6003: 5996: 5991: 5989: 5987: 5979: 5974: 5967: 5962: 5955: 5950: 5943: 5938: 5936: 5934: 5926: 5921: 5914: 5909: 5902: 5897: 5895: 5887: 5882: 5875: 5870: 5863: 5858: 5851: 5846: 5839: 5834: 5827: 5822: 5815: 5810: 5803: 5798: 5791: 5786: 5779: 5774: 5767: 5762: 5755: 5750: 5743: 5738: 5731: 5726: 5719: 5714: 5707: 5702: 5695: 5690: 5683: 5678: 5671: 5666: 5659: 5654: 5647: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5630: 5625: 5618: 5613: 5606: 5601: 5599: 5591: 5586: 5579: 5574: 5568:, p. 84. 5567: 5562: 5555: 5550: 5543: 5538: 5531: 5526: 5507: 5500: 5493: 5486: 5481: 5474: 5469: 5462: 5457: 5451:, p. 74. 5450: 5445: 5438: 5433: 5426: 5421: 5419: 5411: 5406: 5399: 5394: 5387: 5382: 5375: 5370: 5363: 5358: 5351: 5346: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5308: 5301: 5296: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5267: 5259: 5252: 5247: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5218: 5210: 5201: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5179: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5160: 5153: 5148: 5141: 5136: 5129: 5124: 5117: 5112: 5105: 5100: 5093: 5088: 5081: 5076: 5069: 5064: 5062: 5054: 5049: 5042: 5037: 5030: 5025: 5018: 5013: 5006: 5001: 4999: 4991: 4986: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4956: 4949: 4944: 4937: 4932: 4930: 4922: 4917: 4915: 4907: 4902: 4895: 4890: 4888: 4880: 4875: 4868: 4863: 4856: 4851: 4844: 4839: 4832: 4827: 4820: 4815: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4780:(1–3): 3–18. 4779: 4775: 4771: 4764: 4757: 4752: 4750: 4742: 4737: 4730: 4725: 4719:, p. 92. 4718: 4713: 4706: 4701: 4694: 4689: 4682: 4677: 4670: 4665: 4649: 4645: 4644: 4639: 4633: 4626: 4621: 4614: 4609: 4607: 4599: 4594: 4587: 4582: 4580: 4572: 4567: 4561:, p. 23. 4560: 4555: 4548: 4543: 4541: 4534:, p. 43. 4533: 4528: 4521: 4516: 4514: 4512: 4510: 4502: 4497: 4490: 4485: 4483: 4476:, p. 50. 4475: 4470: 4464:, p. 16. 4463: 4458: 4452:, p. 86. 4451: 4446: 4444: 4436: 4431: 4429: 4427: 4425: 4417: 4412: 4410: 4402: 4397: 4390: 4389:Chambers 1999 4385: 4378: 4377:Chambers 1999 4373: 4366: 4361: 4355:, p. 29. 4354: 4349: 4342: 4337: 4330: 4325: 4323: 4315: 4310: 4303: 4298: 4292:, p. S8. 4291: 4286: 4284: 4277:, p. S9. 4276: 4271: 4264: 4259: 4252: 4247: 4240: 4235: 4228: 4223: 4216: 4211: 4204: 4199: 4192: 4187: 4180: 4175: 4168: 4163: 4156: 4151: 4149: 4147: 4145: 4138:, p. s4. 4137: 4132: 4125: 4120: 4113: 4108: 4102:, p. S3. 4101: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4090: 4073: 4069: 4068: 4063: 4056: 4049: 4044: 4025: 4018: 4012: 4005: 4000: 3998: 3990: 3985: 3969: 3965: 3959: 3952: 3947: 3940: 3935: 3928: 3923: 3916: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3890: 3886: 3885: 3880: 3874: 3867: 3862: 3846: 3842: 3835: 3829: 3822: 3817: 3815: 3808:, p. 87. 3807: 3802: 3800: 3793:, p. 73. 3792: 3787: 3780: 3775: 3769:, p. 77. 3768: 3763: 3756: 3751: 3749: 3741: 3736: 3734: 3726: 3721: 3702: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3681: 3674: 3669: 3663:, p. 30. 3662: 3657: 3650: 3645: 3638: 3633: 3626: 3621: 3615:, p. 21. 3614: 3609: 3602: 3597: 3590: 3585: 3578: 3573: 3566: 3561: 3554: 3549: 3547: 3539: 3534: 3528:, p. 86. 3527: 3522: 3515: 3510: 3503: 3498: 3489: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3467: 3462: 3458: 3452: 3445: 3440: 3433: 3428: 3421: 3416: 3410:, p. 78. 3409: 3404: 3397: 3392: 3385: 3380: 3374:, p. 12. 3373: 3368: 3362:, p. 29. 3361: 3356: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3307: 3302: 3298: 3297:Frisch, O. R. 3294: 3293:Meitner, Lise 3288: 3281: 3276: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3226: 3219: 3214: 3208:, p. 14. 3207: 3202: 3194: 3190: 3189: 3184: 3178: 3174: 3166: 3163: 3158: 3156: 3155: 3150: 3149: 3143: 3139: 3133: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3117: 3115: 3109: 3107: 3102: 3093: 3088: 3079: 3077: 3076:Theodore Hall 3073: 3069: 3065: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3048: 3042: 3032: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3012: 3010: 3006: 2999:at Los Alamos 2998: 2993: 2984: 2982: 2981: 2976: 2972: 2971: 2966: 2961: 2958:, Spaatz and 2957: 2952: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2937: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2916: 2915: 2910: 2907: 2898: 2894: 2891: 2887: 2881: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2849: 2845: 2842:, the acting 2841: 2837: 2834: 2830: 2827: 2826:Group Captain 2823: 2822:pumpkin bombs 2814: 2813:Norman Ramsey 2810: 2809: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2773: 2766: 2756: 2754: 2750: 2744: 2743: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2721: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2705: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2685: 2681: 2678: 2672: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2657:bombing range 2654: 2645: 2641: 2636: 2631: 2621: 2618: 2614: 2609: 2605: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2594:Geoffrey Chew 2591: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2553: 2549: 2547: 2540: 2530: 2525: 2520: 2500: 2479: 2459: 2440: 2439: 2438: 2436: 2431: 2425: 2422: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2399: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2371: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2343: 2334: 2332: 2328: 2322: 2320: 2314: 2312: 2311: 2306: 2302: 2296: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2276: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2252: 2248: 2239: 2235: 2233: 2229: 2228:Francis Birch 2223: 2213: 2211: 2205: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2189: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2144: 2143:David Hawkins 2140: 2136: 2132: 2131:lanthanum-140 2129: 2125: 2121: 2116: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2097: 2093: 2092:composition B 2088: 2083: 2078: 2076: 2067: 2062: 2058: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2031: 2029: 2023: 2015: 2006: 2004: 2003:plutonium-240 2000: 1994: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1979: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1952:Willard Libby 1949: 1945: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1908: 1904: 1902: 1896: 1890: 1882: 1877: 1872: 1867: 1863: 1854: 1850: 1847: 1843: 1842:predetonation 1839: 1829: 1827: 1823: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1791: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1748: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1722:to move them. 1721: 1717: 1713: 1708: 1704: 1702: 1698: 1697:Norman Ramsey 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1670: 1667: 1663: 1658: 1654: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1635:plutonium-239 1630: 1627: 1623: 1622:isotropically 1619: 1614: 1609: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1598: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1552: 1540: 1516: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1503:of different 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1465: 1462: 1458: 1452: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1406: 1401: 1395: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1352:Edward Teller 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1299: 1290: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1275: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1260: 1258: 1254: 1245: 1241: 1227: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1215:Robert Bacher 1210: 1202: 1198: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1183: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1166: 1163:neighbor was 1160: 1152: 1148: 1146: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1098: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1056: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1041:Jemez Springs 1038: 1034: 1030: 1025: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 990: 981: 979: 975: 972:, girlfriend 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 946: 944: 940: 936: 935:Vannevar Bush 932: 928: 925: 921: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 899: 895: 886: 884: 880: 876: 872: 871:hydrogen bomb 866: 864: 860: 856: 852: 847: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 828:Glenn Seaborg 825: 821: 816: 814: 810: 806: 802: 799: 795: 791: 787: 786:Edward Teller 783: 779: 775: 767: 762: 753: 751: 750:hydrodynamics 747: 743: 742:Robert Serber 739: 735: 731: 727: 726:Gregory Breit 723: 719: 715: 711: 706: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 680: 676: 671: 669: 664: 660: 656: 652: 648: 644: 643:Mark Oliphant 640: 636: 632: 628: 624: 616: 612: 608: 604: 599: 595: 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 526: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 499: 497: 493: 489: 485: 484:hydrogen bomb 481: 475: 473: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 449: 445: 444:predetonation 441: 440:plutonium-240 437: 433: 429: 425: 420: 418: 414: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 368: 364: 362:Added to NRHP 360: 357: 354: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 326: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 261: 236: 226: 222: 218: 213: 209: 204: 197: 193: 189: 186: 183: 177: 172: 142: 139: 135: 132: 128: 125: 123: 119: 116: 113: 107: 103: 101: 97: 93: 89: 78: 74: 69: 65: 61: 60:Robert Sproul 58:(center) and 57: 56:Leslie Groves 53: 48: 43: 37: 33: 19: 9460:from Commons 9455: 9434: 9350:Y-12 Project 9335:Smyth Report 9330:S-50 Project 9292: 9288:K-25 Project 9217:Pumpkin bomb 9188: 9181: 9174: 9104:John Wheeler 9074:Louis Slotin 9069:Emilio Segrè 9019:George Koval 8999:James Franck 8984:Enrico Fermi 8929:Luis Alvarez 8888:Paul Tibbets 8863:Deak Parsons 8746: 8641: 8626:. 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Retrieved 3310: 3304: 3287: 3275: 3245:(1): 11–15. 3242: 3238: 3225: 3213: 3206:Compton 1956 3201: 3186: 3177: 3159: 3153: 3147: 3134: 3118: 3110: 3097: 3052: 3047:fire balloon 3044: 3041:Atomic spies 3021:Louis Slotin 3013: 3002: 2978: 2974: 2968: 2960:Curtis LeMay 2956:Paul Tibbets 2953: 2948: 2934: 2927:Harold Agnew 2923:Luis Alvarez 2912: 2903: 2882: 2818: 2806: 2803:Deak Parsons 2785:Luis Alvarez 2768: 2740: 2722: 2706: 2698:Hanford Site 2690: 2673: 2653:nuclear test 2649: 2610: 2606: 2586: 2569:Enrico Fermi 2542: 2528: 2430:neutron flux 2426: 2400: 2375:Donald Kerst 2372: 2355:nuclear fuel 2348: 2345:Water Boiler 2337:Water boiler 2323: 2315: 2310:Indianapolis 2309: 2297: 2277: 2265:Ames process 2261:Ames Project 2255: 2244: 2225: 2206: 2190: 2159: 2147: 2128:radioisotope 2117: 2109:Luis Alvarez 2079: 2071: 2043:Rear Admiral 2032: 2024: 2020: 1995: 1987:protactinium 1980: 1968:Pierre Auger 1956:Soviet Union 1941: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1897: 1859: 1835: 1810: 1792: 1749: 1725: 1692:Robert Brode 1676: 1655: 1631: 1610: 1595: 1562: 1499:between two 1479:and his son 1466: 1453: 1436:Lilli Hornig 1432: 1396: 1324:Joe McKibben 1304: 1276: 1261: 1250: 1238: 1230:Organization 1211: 1207: 1191:gypsum board 1187:Fuller Lodge 1184: 1161: 1157: 1104: 1101:Construction 1077:land to the 1057: 1026: 1010:Reno, Nevada 995: 974:Jean Tatlock 947: 896: 892: 867: 848: 817: 801:Emilio Segrè 794:Stan Frankel 771: 734:Enrico Fermi 707: 675:World War II 672: 651:Henry Tizard 620: 584:Nazi Germany 560:Lise Meitner 550:by chemists 537: 515:Bikini Atoll 500: 490:reaction in 476: 421: 411:in Northern 393:World War II 380: 376: 374: 291:, New Mexico 68:Fuller Lodge 36: 9165:Silverplate 9119:Leona Woods 9084:Leo Szilard 9059:Bruno Rossi 9004:Klaus Fuchs 8908:Ed Westcott 8898:Harold Urey 8628:20 February 8624:. LAMS-2532 8109:13 December 8008:20 February 8004:. LAMS-2532 7424:22 November 7375:. Chicago: 7041:Groves 1962 7005:Conant 2005 6954:Hacker 1987 6942:Hacker 1987 6930:Warren 1966 6903:14 November 6880:Warren 1966 6681:Rhodes 1986 6534:Ramsey 2012 6490:Ramsey 2012 6205:12 November 6073:Bunker 1983 5838:Rhodes 1986 5658:Rhodes 1995 5251:Frisch 1979 5165:Bohr, Niels 5080:Ramsey 2012 5029:Groves 1962 4693:Conant 2005 4654:21 December 4571:Groves 1962 4559:Conant 2005 4489:Groves 1962 4474:Hunner 2004 4462:Hunner 2004 4353:Hunner 2004 4341:Hunner 2004 4227:Hunner 2004 4203:Hunner 2004 4155:Hunner 2004 3989:Groves 1962 3927:Groves 1962 3851:16 December 3821:Groves 1962 3779:Groves 1962 3710:23 November 3673:Rhodes 1986 3637:Rhodes 1986 3432:Rhodes 1986 3420:Gowing 1964 3408:Gowing 1964 3396:Gowing 1964 3384:Gowing 1964 3280:Rhodes 1986 3218:Rhodes 1986 3130:Sandia Base 3059:Klaus Fuchs 2853:was at the 2836:Carl Spaatz 2565:John Manley 2202:hot pressed 2120:shock waves 2050:blast waves 2028:Buck Rogers 1999:cosmic rays 1983:uranium-234 1930: (δ), 1926: (γ), 1922: (β), 1918: (α), 1876:Arthur Wahl 1819:Silverplate 1673:Development 1493:instability 1219:Isidor Rabi 1006:Los Angeles 962:Nobel Prize 950:Harold Urey 840:uranium-238 805:Felix Bloch 710:S-1 Section 668:Tube Alloys 645:, took the 635:uranium-235 576:atomic bomb 564:Otto Frisch 519:Sandia Base 472:uranium-235 450:before the 320: / 308:106°17′54″W 296:Coordinates 166: / 154:106°18′14″W 76:Established 9476:Code names 9470:Categories 9268:Demon core 9212:Little Boy 9133:Operations 8949:Niels Bohr 8939:Hans Bethe 8922:Scientists 8868:Boris Pash 8747:Los Alamos 8198:. 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London: 7824:31 October 7309:References 7029:Jones 1985 7017:Jones 1985 6993:Jones 1985 6978:10 January 6918:Jones 1985 6771:2 February 6516:8 February 6435:Jones 1985 6396:Jones 1985 6357:Jones 1985 6333:Jones 1985 5862:Jones 1985 5515:20 October 4831:Szasz 1992 4819:Szasz 1992 4804:6 December 4450:Jones 1985 4365:Jones 1985 4251:Jones 1985 4004:Jones 1985 3915:Jones 1985 3806:Jones 1985 3767:Jones 1985 3755:Jones 1985 3661:Bethe 1991 3372:Jones 1985 3064:Harry Gold 3029:demon core 2965:Lieutenant 2669:commissary 2435:gamma rays 2404:arc welded 2232:Little Boy 2222:Little Boy 2216:Little Boy 2166:sea urchin 2101:detonators 2030:project". 1938: (ε) 1912:allotropes 1647:nanosecond 1629:reaction. 1577:Little Boy 1483:, and Sir 1477:Niels Bohr 976:, brother 844:cyclotrons 778:Hans Bethe 468:Little Boy 413:New Mexico 305:35°52′54″N 289:Los Alamos 151:35°52′50″N 141:Los Alamos 94:Classified 83:1943-01-01 9435:Project Y 9403:Chemistry 9310:Plutonium 9176:Enola Gay 8994:Val Fitch 8944:Aage Bohr 8893:Bud Uanna 8762:Oak Ridge 8597:21 August 8360:298514167 8300:Doubleday 8292:Monk, Ray 8253:25 August 8218:154690200 8049:637004643 7976:231585284 7949:231585284 7929:(1995a). 7811:650540359 7749:25 August 7652:298514167 7521:27 August 7248:27 August 6810:Russ 1990 6798:Russ 1990 6705:Russ 1990 6669:Russ 1990 6609:Russ 1990 6597:Russ 1990 6306:28 August 6252:Dash 1973 4975:28 August 4774:Physica D 4215:Monk 2012 4078:25 August 3866:Monk 2012 3740:Monk 2012 3725:Monk 2012 3577:Monk 2012 3538:Monk 2012 3345:19 August 3154:Albemarle 3146:USS 2980:Big Stink 2949:Enola Gay 2914:Enola Gay 2866:Hiroshima 2859:President 2808:Enola Gay 2729:Trinitite 2363:dissolved 2308:USS 2186:duralumin 1832:Plutonium 1807:AN/APS-13 1714:casings. 1710:A row of 1686:from the 1666:cube root 1613:diffusion 1505:densities 1497:interface 1481:Aage Bohr 1390:from the 1287:the draft 1112:ice house 1037:Las Vegas 909:calutrons 879:deuterium 855:spheroids 820:plutonium 552:Otto Hahn 525:in 1947. 492:deuterium 428:plutonium 381:Project Y 9366:Category 9222:Thin Man 9183:Bockscar 8777:Wendover 8757:New York 8752:Montreal 8742:Inyokern 8717:Berkeley 8698:Timeline 8588:Archived 8570:23901666 8539:57475908 8512:37631186 8476:23693470 8454:(1992). 8440:24429257 8392:13793436 8370:(1986). 8340:15223648 8320:(1987). 8294:(2012). 8273:Archived 8244:Archived 8240:10913875 8187:49569088 8163:(1999). 8149:26764320 8125:(1993). 8100:Archived 8062:26 March 8053:Archived 7986:(1961). 7919:13794117 7860:(1962). 7836:(1964). 7761:(1979). 7714:62408863 7642:(2012). 7618:(2005). 7608:38257982 7577:41185070 7550:58554961 7512:Archived 7492:22661282 7464:(1991). 7436:(1956). 7415:Archived 7395:15791693 7346:Archived 7342:79388516 7323:(1998). 7242:Archived 7089:Archived 6862:28 March 6856:Archived 6836:18 March 6830:Archived 6765:Archived 6469:Archived 6300:Archived 5506:Archived 4969:Archived 4798:Archived 4648:Archived 4072:Archived 3845:Archived 3701:Archived 3692:(1946). 3339:Archived 3299:(1939). 3231:Hahn, O. 3082:Post-war 3035:Security 2970:Bockscar 2947:in case 2945:Iwo Jima 2878:Nagasaki 2846:, since 2665:magazine 2424:anyone. 2416:graphite 2412:beryllia 2406:because 2319:Wendover 2113:Raytheon 1976:polonium 1712:Thin Man 1569:Thin Man 1524:Research 1338:'s from 1293:Civilian 1235:Military 432:Thin Man 356:66000893 284:Location 137:Location 122:Director 54:(left), 9415:Physics 9377:Portals 9340:Uranium 9207:Fat Man 9200:Weapons 8772:Trinity 8737:Hanford 8722:Chicago 8282:7 March 8096:3717478 7850:3195209 7789:4114334 7355:6 April 6475:12 June 5322:Bibcode 5275:Bibcode 5226:Bibcode 5187:Bibcode 4782:Bibcode 4033:6 April 3974:6 April 3475:Bibcode 3335:4113262 3315:Bibcode 3267:5920336 3247:Bibcode 2874:Niigata 2833:General 2793:Captain 2624:Trinity 2522:- 1.66 2305:cruiser 2172:of the 2096:baratol 2075:Fat Man 1991:thorium 1936:epsilon 1790:fuses. 1741:rifling 1737:primers 1716:Fat Man 1662:impulse 1618:elastic 1573:Fat Man 1495:at the 1491:. 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