1576:
116:
knew of the principle that certain substances, notably air, expand and contract and described a demonstration in which a closed tube partially filled with air had its end in a container of water. The expansion and contraction of the air caused the position of the water/air interface to move along the
124:
1396 AD - Ice storage warehouses called "Dong-bing-go-tango" (meaning "east ice storage warehouse" in Korean) and Seo-bing-go ("west ice storage warehouse") were built in Han-Yang (currently Seoul, Korea). The buildings housed ice that was collected from the frozen Han River in
January (by lunar
91:(meaning "ice pit" in Persian) is an ancient Persian type of refrigerator. The structure was formed from a mortar resistant to heat transmission, in the shape of a dome. Snow and ice was stored beneath the ground, effectively allowing access to ice even in hot months and allowing for prolonged
1207:
in Italy cooled a copper vessel with a volume of one cubic meter to 0.006 kelvins (−273.144 °C; −459.659 °F) for 15 days, setting a record for the lowest temperature in the known universe over such a large contiguous
1314:
125:
calendar). The warehouse was well-insulated, providing the royal families with ice into the summer months. These warehouses were closed in 1898 AD but the buildings are still intact in Seoul.
283:
proposed a scale with zero at the boiling point and 100 degrees at the freezing point of water. It was later changed to be the other way around, on the input from
Swedish academy of science.
535:
patented an ether liquid-vapour compression refrigeration system and developed the first practical ice-making and refrigeration room for use in the brewing and meat-packing industries of
635:
631:, and in 1869 made ice making machine using dry carbon dioxide. The same year Lowe bought a steamship and put a compressor based refrigeration device on it for transport of frozen meat.
1245:
that are a magnitude colder than those that are created in laboratories on Earth. In this space-based laboratory, up to 20 seconds interaction times and as low as 1 picokelvin (
589:
determines distribution of velocities and kinetic energies in a gas, and explains emergent property of temperature and heat, and creates a first law of statistical mechanics.
1309:
1273:
117:
tube. This was the first established principle of gas behaviour vs temperature, and principle of first thermometers later on. The idea could predate him even more (
1154:
1999 - The current world record lowest temperature was set at 100 picokelvins (pK), or 0.000 000 000 1 of a kelvin, by cooling the nuclear spins in a piece of
666:, overcame the public's mistrust of frozen food by revealing the fact to an audience of the influential (after their state meal) on 2 September, 1875.
255:
to be −240 °C using an air thermometer of his own invention (1702), theorizing at this point the gas would reach zero volume and zero pressure.
1549:
894:
1911 – Heike
Kamerlingh Onnes discloses his research on metallic low-temperature phenomenon characterised by no electrical resistance, calling it
1513:
1226:
used a matter-wave lensing technique to cool a sample of rubidium atoms to an effective temperature of 50 pK along two spatial dimensions.
651:
1833:
Kovachy, Tim; Hogan, Jason M.; Sugarbaker, Alex; Dickerson, Susannah M.; Donnelly, Christine A.; Overstreet, Chris; Kasevich, Mark A. (2015).
1215:(MIT) successfully cooled molecules in a gas of sodium potassium to a temperature of 500 nanokelvins, and it is expected to exhibit an exotic
1731:
1185:
359:
compressed ammonia to see if it followed Boyle's Law. They found at room temperature and 7 atm gaseous ammonia condensed to a liquid.
1709:
276:
invented an alcohol thermometer and temperature scale ultimately proved to be less reliable than
Fahrenheit's mercury thermometer.
273:
1741:
1687:
1432:
1388:
1212:
1597:
1454:
Essays and
Observations Physical and Literary Read Before a Society in Edinburgh and Published by Them, II, (Edinburgh 1756)
1204:
1501:
721:
to combat high-pressure problems of ammonia in when used in tropical climates (mainly for the purpose of shipping meat).
1127:
1974:
1917:
1411:
1173:
522:
35:
down to close to absolute zero, i.e. –273.15 °C, –459.67 °F or 0 K). It also lists important milestones in
1892:
1772:
459:
681:
562:
480:
469:
397:
785:
published hydrogen's critical temperature as 33 K; critical pressure, 13.3 atmospheres; and boiling point, 23 K.
699:
445:
1989:
919:
1299:
1141:
356:
1999:
1946:
1234:
175:
describes thermometer with a scale, using air thermometer principle with column of air and liquid water.
1546:
677:
646:
to reach a temperature of -20°C in a sealed room. Together with another new
Australian, industrialist
2004:
1517:
1304:
1193:
1088:
991:
987:
532:
266:
259:
1242:
962:
754:
729:
655:
597:
526:
1119:
1112:
829:
760:
604:
547:
411:
1644:
Zu, H.; Dai, W.; de Waele, A.T.A.M. (2022). "Development of
Dilution refrigerators – A review".
269:
proposes a
Fahrenheit scale, which had finer scale and greater reproducibility than competitors.
1032:
1949 – S.G. Sydoriak, E.R. Grilly, E.F. Hammel, first measurements on pure 3He in the 1 K range
884:
707:
199:
1747:
1248:
1035:
1950 - Invention of the so-called
Gifford-McMahon cooler by K.W. Taconis (patent US2,567,454)
2009:
1537:
Mendelssohn, Kurt. "Quest for absolute zero: the meaning of low temperature physics." (1977).
1378:
1294:
1084:
1043:
955:
948:
647:
600:
refrigeration system using gaseous ammonia dissolved in water (referred to as "aqua ammonia")
191:
1275:
K) temperatures are projected to be achievable, and it could lead to exploration of unknown
782:
772:
262:
invented the first reliable thermometer, using mercury instead of alcohol and water mixtures
1856:
1815:
1464:
Taton, René (1952). "Quelques précisions sur le chimiste Clouet et deux de ses homonymes".
1230:
1009:
840:
743:
733:
569:
518:
497:
487:
324:
303:
71:
103:
in order to slow the heat loss. Modern refrigerators are still called yakhchal in
Persian.
8:
1994:
1705:
1223:
1049:
1027:
624:
586:
377:
44:
1860:
1846:
1771:(Press release). Low Temperature Laboratory, Teknillinen Korkeakoulu. 8 December 2000.
1669:
1502:
Wisniak, Jaime. "Louis Paul Cailletet—The liquefaction of the permanent gases." (2003).
1481:
1356:
1059:
558:
248:
113:
1423:
Arora, Ramesh Chandra (30 March 2012). "Mechanical vapour compression refrigeration".
1339:
Martynov, A. V. (1976). "The terminology of low-temperature technology (discussion)".
593:
465:
1874:
1737:
1673:
1661:
1657:
1449:
Of the Cold Produced by Evaporating Fluids and of Some Other Means of Producing Cold,
1428:
1407:
1384:
1360:
1289:
1276:
1099:
1055:
1956 – G.K. Walters, W.M. Fairbank, discovery of phase separation in 3He-4He mixtures
895:
608:
428:
320:
179:
165:
158:
137:
92:
579:
1869:
1864:
1834:
1653:
1473:
1374:
1348:
1123:
1092:
1074:
1965 – D.O. Edwards, and others, discovery of finite solubility of 3He in 4He at 0K
944:
877:
810:
514:
patented his mechanical refrigeration machine in the US to make ice to cool the air
352:
345:
141:
1691:
543:
1553:
1216:
1071:
1960 - Reinvention of the Gifford-McMahon cooler by H.O. McMahon and W.E. Gifford
1066:
980:
940:
930:
836:
817:
monk, patented a hand-cranked device that did not lose coolant to the atmosphere.
718:
670:
663:
614:
554:
504:
435:
129:
1077:
1965 – P. Das, R. de Bruyn Ouboter, K.W. Taconis, one-shot dilution refrigerator
968:
1929 - David Forbes Keith of Toronto, Ontario, Canada received a patent for the
507:
makes a hypothesis that freezing substances increases their dielectric constant.
1793:
1319:
1023:
973:
906:
902:
873:
858:
821:
789:
764:
725:
688:
628:
618:
491:
338:
314:
287:
280:
221:
145:
40:
1612:
1983:
1665:
1105:
1017:
999:
796:" cold chamber for preserving food, using an early ammonia absorption system.
776:
573:
476:
455:
404:
373:
wrote "the reducibility of all elastic fluids of whatever kind, into liquids"
334:
310:
299:
295:
252:
32:
22:
582:
observed for the first time some pumping effect due to electrical discharge.
1925:
1878:
1238:
1169:
1133:
1039:
1013:
934:
923:
844:
739:
714:
449:
393:
242:
210:
206:
172:
1477:
1768:
1145:
1137:
1080:
1966 – H.E. Hall, P.J. Ford, K. Thomson, continuous dilution refrigerator
995:
804:
800:
511:
389:
1803 – Thomas Moore of Baltimore, Md. received a patent on refrigeration.
370:
328:
238:
225:
183:
133:
48:
36:
1485:
70:, ruler of Mari in Syria commanded the construction of one of the first
1632:
1352:
1315:
Timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processes
1237:(ISS) in 2018. The instrument creates extremely cold conditions in the
1148:
cooled to 170 nK. They won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2001 for BEC.
912:
814:
118:
26:
1564:
1172:
temperatures below 100 pK were reported for an experiment at the
1151:
1999 – D.J. Cousins and others, dilution refrigerator reaching 1.75 mK
832:
for liquefaction of atmospheric air or other gases (approved in 1903).
396:
designed the first closed circuit refrigeration machine based on the
195:
75:
67:
1596:
JT Critchell & J. Raymond (Constable & Co., London: 1912),
969:
926:
invent the 3 fluids absorption chiller, exclusively driven by heat.
866:
703:
414:
214:
100:
88:
18:
1851:
763:
fitted a compression refrigeration unit to the New Zealand vessel
1910:
1189:
1181:
1155:
692:
639:
536:
421:
384:
1279:
phenomena and test some of the most fundamental laws of physics.
1832:
1820:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, Cambridge
1003:
888:
862:
825:
793:
747:
309:
1756 – The first documented public demonstration of artificial
291:
224:(gas law relating pressure and volume) is demonstrated using a
187:
96:
51:, that were crucial in development of low temperature systems.
468:
characterizes phase transitions between two phases in form of
1200:
1177:
643:
417:
1192:
property called nuclear spin – not the overall average
557:
creates a sophisticated theory of gases based including all
1310:
Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology
972:
which helped hundreds of thousands of families through the
1058:
1957 – Lewis D. Hall, Robert L. Jepsen and John C. Helmer
337:
liquefied the first pure gas with Clouet producing liquid
659:
1466:
Revue d'Histoire des Sciences et de Leurs Applications
1184:. However, this was the temperature of one particular
1736:. Espoo, Finland: Helsinki University of Technology.
1251:
965:
introduced the first hermetic compressor refrigerator
746:, working separately, develop two methods to liquefy
983:
and others – Adiabatic demagnetization refrigeration
1241:environment of the ISS leading to the formation of
1108:
demonstrated in the groups of Wineland and Dehmelt.
1893:"Coolest science ever headed to the space station"
1733:Nuclear Magnetism and Superconductivity in Rhodium
1267:
1233:(CAL), an experimental instrument launched to the
803:invents the vacuum-insulated, silver-plated glass
1405:Principles and Methods of Temperature Measurement
1981:
1835:"Matter Wave Lensing to Picokelvin Temperatures"
1794:"CUORE: The Coldest Heart in the Known Universe"
1373:
230:1665 – Boyle theorizes a minimum temperature in
1115:invented by Mikulin, Tarasov, and Shkrebyonock
1095:discover superfluidity in helium-3 at 0.002 K.
775:condenses experimentally useful quantities of
232:New Experiments and Observations touching Cold
121:of Agrigentum in his 460 B.C. book On Nature).
1688:"New State of Matter Seen Near Absolute Zero"
1643:
1427:. New Delhi, India: PHI Learning. p. 3.
911:1920 – Edmund Copeland and Harry Edwards use
380:(Gas law, relating temperature and pressure).
1497:
1495:
728:patented equipment to liquefy air using the
168:publishes first clear diagram of thermoscope
54:
1947:"Cold Atom Laboratory Creates Atomic Dance"
1380:Mari and Karana: Two Old Babylonian Cities
348:(Gas law, relating volume and temperature)
144:. The principle of operation was known in
136:. But it is possible the invention was by
1868:
1850:
1729:
1492:
1367:
1219:by cooling these molecules a bit further.
673:installed a cold storage plant in France.
161:, put a numerical scale on a thermoscope.
1633:Vacuum Science & Technology Timeline
1338:
1222:2015 - A team of atomic physicists from
407:patented the first refrigerating machine
1939:
717:develops a refrigeration machine using
1982:
1816:"MIT team creates ultracold molecules"
627:patented a refrigeration system using
617:patented a refrigeration system using
1463:
1422:
1213:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
182:designed and built the world's first
140:or independently around same time by
1196:for all possible degrees in freedom.
1205:Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso
186:and created the world's first ever
13:
1706:"World record in low temperatures"
1599:A History of the Frozen Meat Trade
1425:Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
1341:Chemical and Petroleum Engineering
1211:2015 - Experimental physicists at
1128:high-temperature superconductivity
14:
2021:
1968:
1383:. Gorgias Press LLC. p. 91.
1174:Helsinki University of Technology
523:William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin
274:René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur
1658:10.1016/j.cryogenics.2021.103390
479:obtained the first patent for a
290:used a pump to create a partial
1885:
1826:
1808:
1786:
1775:from the original on 2008-02-18
1761:
1723:
1712:from the original on 2009-06-18
1698:
1680:
1637:
1626:
1605:
1590:
1569:
1558:
1540:
1162:
851:
730:Joule Thomson expansion process
481:vapor-compression refrigeration
398:vapor-compression refrigeration
363:
198:'s long-held supposition that '
1918:"Cold Atom Laboratory Mission"
1870:10.1103/PhysRevLett.114.143004
1769:"Low Temperature World Record"
1531:
1506:
1457:
1441:
1416:
1397:
1332:
650:— who in 1867 built the first
1:
1325:
1042:invents the principle of the
876:patents the basis for modern
835:1898 – James Dewar condenses
157:-1613 – Francesco Sagredo or
151:
106:
81:
60:
1924:. NASA. 2017. Archived from
1300:History of superconductivity
357:Adriaan Paets van Troostwijk
7:
1547:1844 – Charles Piazzi Smyth
1283:
1235:International Space Station
563:Clausius–Clapeyron relation
470:Clausius–Clapeyron relation
10:
2026:
1176:'s Low Temperature Lab in
1062:based on Penning discharge
1922:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
1730:Knuuttila, Tauno (2000).
1305:History of thermodynamics
1243:Bose Einstein Condensates
1199:2014 - Scientists in the
1194:thermodynamic temperature
1089:Robert Coleman Richardson
988:Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa
702:publishes and proposes a
680:discovers existence of a
546:simplistic foundation of
306:from the surrounding air.
267:Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
260:Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
55:Prior to the 19th century
1268:{\displaystyle 10^{-12}}
1144:, using a dilute gas of
1142:Bose–Einstein condensate
963:General Electric Company
634:1867 — French immigrant
500:proposes comfort cooling
1839:Physical Review Letters
1113:pulse tube refrigerator
915:in small refrigerators.
843:and his invention, the
761:William Soltau Davidson
658:— and with the help of
605:Alexander Carnegie Kirk
548:kinetic theory of gases
1690:. NIST. Archived from
1269:
1016:vacuum gauge known as
1002:using helium-4 at 2.2
885:Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
708:Van der Waals equation
636:Eugene Dominic Nicolle
565:from basic principles.
539:, Victoria, Australia.
200:Nature abhors a vacuum
132:builds a first modern
1975:Refrigeration History
1514:"1803 – Thomas Moore"
1478:10.3406/rhs.1952.2972
1295:Liquefaction of gases
1270:
1203:collaboration at the
1120:Karl Alexander Müller
1048:1955 – Willi Becker
1044:dilution refrigerator
956:Willem Hendrik Keesom
949:Einstein refrigerator
192:Magdeburg hemispheres
99:was coupled with the
1990:Technology timelines
1796:. INFN Press Release
1249:
1231:Cold Atom Laboratory
1111:1983 - Orifice-type
1010:Frans Michel Penning
861:obtains pure liquid
841:regenerative cooling
755:Bell-Coleman machine
744:Louis Paul Cailletet
734:regenerative cooling
706:model named later a
695:compression machine.
570:Carl Wilhelm Siemens
527:Joule–Thomson effect
519:James Prescott Joule
498:Charles Piazzi Smyth
488:Jean-Charles Peltier
325:Pierre-Simon Laplace
294:over a container of
1953:. 26 September 2014
1861:2015PhRvL.114n3004K
1224:Stanford University
1050:turbomolecular pump
830:Hampson–Linde cycle
654:using this idea in
625:Thaddeus S. C. Lowe
587:James Clerk Maxwell
420:to ice by using an
45:statistical physics
16:The following is a
2000:Cooling technology
1552:2012-02-10 at the
1403:T.D. McGee (1988)
1377:(1 January 2002).
1353:10.1007/BF01146769
1277:quantum mechanical
1265:
1012:invents a type of
958:solidifies helium.
920:Baltzar von Platen
828:protection of the
783:Zygmunt Wróblewski
773:Zygmunt Wróblewski
561:, as well derives
559:degrees of freedom
249:Guillaume Amontons
114:Hero of Alexandria
1743:978-951-22-5208-4
1434:978-81-203-3915-6
1390:978-1-931956-02-4
1290:List of timelines
1186:degree of freedom
1140:create the first
1100:Linear compressor
896:superconductivity
609:Air cycle machine
321:Antoine Lavoisier
251:first calculates
180:Otto von Guericke
166:Giuseppe Biancani
159:Santorio Santorio
138:Santorio Santorio
93:food preservation
2017:
2005:Industrial gases
1962:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1934:
1933:
1914:
1908:
1907:
1905:
1904:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1872:
1854:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1812:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1780:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1755:
1746:. Archived from
1727:
1721:
1720:
1718:
1717:
1702:
1696:
1695:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1641:
1635:
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1624:
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1621:
1619:
1609:
1603:
1594:
1588:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1573:
1567:
1565:1851 John Gorrie
1562:
1556:
1544:
1538:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1526:
1525:
1516:. Archived from
1510:
1504:
1499:
1490:
1489:
1461:
1455:
1447:William Cullen,
1445:
1439:
1438:
1420:
1414:
1401:
1395:
1394:
1375:Stephanie Dalley
1371:
1365:
1364:
1336:
1274:
1272:
1271:
1266:
1264:
1263:
1124:J. Georg Bednorz
1093:Douglas Osheroff
878:air conditioning
811:Marcel Audiffren
691:built his first
383:1803 – Domestic
378:Gay-Lussac's law
353:Martin van Marum
156:
153:
142:Cornelis Drebbel
111:
108:
86:
83:
65:
62:
2025:
2024:
2020:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2015:
2014:
1980:
1979:
1971:
1966:
1965:
1956:
1954:
1945:
1944:
1940:
1931:
1929:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1902:
1900:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1831:
1827:
1822:. 10 June 2015.
1814:
1813:
1809:
1799:
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1792:
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1787:
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1715:
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1703:
1699:
1686:
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1681:
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1638:
1631:
1627:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1610:
1606:
1595:
1591:
1581:
1579:
1577:"Patent Images"
1575:
1574:
1570:
1563:
1559:
1554:Wayback Machine
1545:
1541:
1536:
1532:
1523:
1521:
1512:
1511:
1507:
1500:
1493:
1462:
1458:
1446:
1442:
1435:
1421:
1417:
1402:
1398:
1391:
1372:
1368:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1286:
1256:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1217:state of matter
1165:
1067:Kleemenko cycle
981:William Giauque
941:Albert Einstein
931:Fernand Holweck
854:
837:liquid hydrogen
719:sulphur dioxide
671:Charles Tellier
664:Augustus Morris
648:Sir Thomas Mort
615:Charles Tellier
594:Ferdinand Carré
555:Rudolf Clausius
505:Michael Faraday
466:Émile Clapeyron
460:Émile Clapeyron
441:
436:Michael Faraday
366:
329:ice-calorimeter
217:on this design.
154:
130:Galileo Galilei
109:
84:
63:
57:
25:technology and
23:low-temperature
12:
11:
5:
2023:
2013:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1978:
1977:
1970:
1969:External links
1967:
1964:
1963:
1938:
1909:
1897:Science | AAAS
1884:
1845:(14): 143004.
1825:
1807:
1785:
1760:
1742:
1722:
1697:
1694:on 2010-06-01.
1679:
1636:
1625:
1604:
1589:
1568:
1557:
1539:
1530:
1505:
1491:
1472:(4): 359–367.
1456:
1440:
1433:
1415:
1396:
1389:
1366:
1347:(5): 470–472.
1330:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1323:
1322:
1320:Industrial gas
1317:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1285:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1262:
1259:
1255:
1227:
1220:
1209:
1197:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1152:
1149:
1130:
1116:
1109:
1102:
1096:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1063:
1056:
1053:
1046:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1024:Manne Siegbahn
1020:
1006:
984:
977:
974:Dirty Thirties
966:
959:
952:
937:
927:
916:
909:
907:Diffusion pump
903:Wolfgang Gaede
899:
892:
881:
874:Willis Carrier
870:
859:Carl von Linde
853:
850:
849:
848:
833:
822:Carl von Linde
818:
807:
797:
792:develops the "
790:Loftus Perkins
786:
779:
769:
757:
751:
736:
726:Carl von Linde
722:
711:
696:
689:Carl von Linde
685:
682:critical point
678:Thomas Andrews
674:
667:
632:
629:carbon dioxide
621:
619:dimethyl ether
611:
601:
598:gas absorption
590:
583:
580:Julius Plücker
576:
566:
551:
540:
533:James Harrison
529:
515:
508:
501:
494:
492:Peltier effect
490:discovers the
484:
473:
462:
452:
442:
439:
432:
429:Avogadro's law
425:
408:
401:
390:
387:
381:
374:
365:
362:
361:
360:
349:
342:
339:sulfur dioxide
331:
317:
315:William Cullen
307:
288:William Cullen
284:
281:Anders Celsius
277:
270:
263:
256:
245:
235:
228:
218:
203:
176:
169:
162:
149:
146:Ancient Greece
126:
122:
104:
79:
64: 1700 BC
56:
53:
41:thermodynamics
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2022:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1952:
1948:
1942:
1928:on 2013-03-29
1927:
1923:
1919:
1913:
1898:
1894:
1888:
1880:
1876:
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1858:
1853:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1829:
1821:
1817:
1811:
1795:
1789:
1774:
1770:
1764:
1750:on 2001-04-28
1749:
1745:
1739:
1735:
1734:
1726:
1711:
1707:
1701:
1693:
1689:
1683:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1640:
1634:
1629:
1614:
1608:
1601:
1600:
1593:
1578:
1572:
1566:
1561:
1555:
1551:
1548:
1543:
1534:
1520:on 2016-03-04
1519:
1515:
1509:
1503:
1498:
1496:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1460:
1453:
1450:
1444:
1436:
1430:
1426:
1419:
1413:
1412:0-471-62767-4
1409:
1406:
1400:
1392:
1386:
1382:
1381:
1376:
1370:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1335:
1331:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1287:
1278:
1260:
1257:
1253:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1225:
1221:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1166:
1157:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1114:
1110:
1107:
1106:Laser cooling
1103:
1101:
1097:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1064:
1061:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1028:Siegbahn pump
1025:
1021:
1019:
1018:Penning gauge
1015:
1011:
1007:
1005:
1001:
1000:superfluidity
997:
993:
992:John F. Allen
989:
985:
982:
978:
975:
971:
967:
964:
960:
957:
953:
950:
946:
942:
938:
936:
932:
928:
925:
921:
917:
914:
910:
908:
904:
900:
897:
893:
890:
886:
882:
879:
875:
871:
868:
864:
860:
856:
855:
846:
842:
838:
834:
831:
827:
823:
819:
816:
812:
808:
806:
802:
798:
795:
791:
787:
784:
780:
778:
777:liquid oxygen
774:
770:
768:
767:
762:
758:
756:
752:
749:
745:
741:
737:
735:
731:
727:
723:
720:
716:
712:
709:
705:
701:
700:Van der Waals
697:
694:
690:
686:
683:
679:
675:
672:
668:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
630:
626:
622:
620:
616:
612:
610:
606:
602:
599:
595:
591:
588:
584:
581:
577:
575:
574:Siemens cycle
571:
567:
564:
560:
556:
552:
549:
545:
544:August Krönig
541:
538:
534:
530:
528:
524:
520:
516:
513:
509:
506:
502:
499:
495:
493:
489:
485:
482:
478:
477:Jacob Perkins
474:
471:
467:
463:
461:
457:
456:Ideal gas law
453:
451:
447:
443:
437:
433:
430:
426:
423:
419:
416:
413:
409:
406:
405:Jacob Perkins
402:
399:
395:
391:
388:
386:
382:
379:
375:
372:
368:
367:
358:
354:
350:
347:
346:Charles's law
343:
340:
336:
335:Gaspard Monge
332:
330:
326:
322:
318:
316:
312:
311:refrigeration
308:
305:
301:
298:, which then
297:
296:diethyl ether
293:
289:
285:
282:
278:
275:
271:
268:
264:
261:
257:
254:
253:absolute zero
250:
246:
244:
240:
236:
233:
229:
227:
223:
219:
216:
212:
208:
204:
201:
197:
193:
190:known as the
189:
185:
181:
177:
174:
170:
167:
163:
160:
150:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
120:
115:
105:
102:
98:
94:
90:
85: 500 BC
80:
77:
73:
69:
59:
58:
52:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
33:refrigeration
30:
28:
24:
20:
2010:Refrigerants
1955:. Retrieved
1950:
1941:
1930:. Retrieved
1926:the original
1921:
1912:
1901:. Retrieved
1899:. 2017-09-05
1896:
1887:
1842:
1838:
1828:
1819:
1810:
1798:. Retrieved
1788:
1777:. Retrieved
1763:
1752:. Retrieved
1748:the original
1732:
1725:
1714:. Retrieved
1700:
1692:the original
1682:
1649:
1645:
1639:
1628:
1616:. Retrieved
1607:
1598:
1592:
1580:. Retrieved
1571:
1560:
1542:
1533:
1522:. Retrieved
1518:the original
1508:
1469:
1465:
1459:
1451:
1448:
1443:
1424:
1418:
1404:
1399:
1379:
1369:
1344:
1340:
1334:
1239:microgravity
1170:Nuclear spin
1163:21st century
1134:Eric Cornell
1040:Heinz London
1014:cold cathode
935:Holweck pump
924:Carl Munters
852:20th century
845:vacuum flask
765:
740:Raoul Pictet
715:Raoul Pictet
698:c.a. 1873 –
662:politician,
652:freezerworks
607:invents the
596:– The first
450:Carnot Cycle
438:liquefied Cl
394:Oliver Evans
364:19th century
302:, absorbing
243:safety valve
231:
211:Robert Hooke
207:Robert Boyle
194:to disprove
173:Robert Fludd
110: 60 AD
17:
15:
1146:Rubidium-87
1138:Carl Wieman
996:Don Misener
947:invent the
945:Leó Szilárd
815:Cistercian
813:, a French
805:Dewar flask
801:James Dewar
512:John Gorrie
446:Sadi Carnot
412:John Leslie
371:John Dalton
327:invent the
239:Denis Papin
226:vacuum pump
222:Boyle's law
184:vacuum pump
155: 1611
134:thermoscope
49:calorimetry
37:thermometry
1995:Cryogenics
1984:Categories
1957:2015-05-21
1932:2016-12-22
1903:2017-09-24
1800:21 October
1779:2008-02-11
1754:2008-02-11
1716:2009-05-05
1646:Cryogenics
1524:2008-09-06
1326:References
913:iso-butane
887:liquifies
824:files for
684:in fluids.
638:dissolved
119:Empedocles
95:. Often a
72:ice houses
29:technology
1951:NASA News
1852:1407.6995
1674:244005391
1666:0011-2275
1361:110774259
1258:−
1188:– a
1126:discover
1085:David Lee
998:discover
839:by using
525:discover
503:c.1850 –
431:a gas law
213:built an
196:Aristotle
76:Euphrates
74:near the
68:Zimri-Lim
27:cryogenic
1879:25910118
1773:Archived
1710:Archived
1618:15 March
1613:"app-a1"
1582:15 March
1550:Archived
1486:23905084
1284:See also
1060:ion pump
970:Icy Ball
867:nitrogen
704:real gas
215:air pump
101:yakhchal
89:yakhchal
19:timeline
1857:Bibcode
1229:2017 -
1190:quantum
1182:Finland
1168:2000 -
1156:rhodium
1132:1995 –
1118:1986 –
1104:1978 –
1098:1973 –
1083:1972 –
1065:1959 –
1052:concept
1038:1951 –
1022:1944 –
1008:1937 –
986:1937 –
979:1933 –
961:1926 –
954:1926 –
939:1926 –
929:1924 –
918:1922 –
901:1915 –
883:1908 –
872:1906 –
857:1905 –
820:1895 –
809:1894 -
799:1892 –
788:1888 –
781:1885 –
771:1883 –
766:Dunedin
759:1882 –
753:1879 –
738:1877 –
724:1876 –
713:1875 -
693:ammonia
687:1871 –
676:1869 –
669:1869 –
656:Balmain
640:ammonia
623:1867 -
613:1864 –
603:1862 –
592:1859 –
585:1859 –
578:1858 –
568:1857 –
553:1857 –
542:1856 –
537:Geelong
531:1856 –
517:1852 –
510:1851 –
496:1844 –
486:1834 –
483:system.
475:1834 –
464:1834 –
454:1834 –
444:1824 –
434:1823 –
427:1811 –
422:airpump
415:freezes
410:1810 –
403:1809 –
392:1805 –
385:ice box
376:1802 –
369:1802 –
351:1799 –
344:1787 –
333:1784 –
319:1782 –
286:1755 -
279:1742 –
272:1730 –
265:1724 –
258:1714 –
247:1702 –
237:1679 –
220:1662 –
205:1656 –
178:1650 –
171:1638 –
164:1617 –
128:1593 –
1877:
1740:
1672:
1664:
1484:
1431:
1410:
1387:
1359:
1208:volume
1158:metal.
1026:, the
994:, and
933:– the
905:– the
889:helium
863:oxygen
826:patent
794:Arktos
748:oxygen
572:, the
448:– the
400:cycle.
300:boiled
292:vacuum
188:vacuum
97:badgir
87:– The
1847:arXiv
1670:S2CID
1482:JSTOR
1357:S2CID
1201:CUORE
1178:Espoo
644:water
418:water
1875:PMID
1802:2014
1738:ISBN
1662:ISSN
1620:2015
1584:2015
1429:ISBN
1408:ISBN
1385:ISBN
1136:and
1122:and
1091:and
943:and
922:and
865:and
742:and
732:and
521:and
355:and
323:and
304:heat
209:and
47:and
1865:doi
1843:114
1654:doi
1650:121
1474:doi
1349:doi
660:NSW
642:in
458:by
313:by
21:of
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1920:.
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1494:^
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1452:in
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990:,
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152:c.
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31:(
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