278:
590:...the research carried out by the Planning Committee's various teams created the know-how that was used after the state's establishment. An important part of the Planning Committee's plans and recommendations were implemented after the establishment of the State of Israel. The committee's first working premise - a rapid Jewish mass migration - was indeed implemented immediately after the establishment of Israel, as well as its recommendations concerning the setting up of immigrant camps and the request for compensation (reparations) from Germany. The Planning Committee's work also served as a basis for some of the State of Israel's initial plans and development projects such as the National Water Carrier and the first National Outline Plan. (
189:, which produced detailed recommendations for absorbing a significant population influx, particularly of Jews from Arab countries. Dr. Roy Kozlovsky notes that the prior existence of the One Million Plan suggests that "the concept of the ma'abara was in fact the precondition for, not the effect of, mass immigration". An important part of the One Million Plan Planning Committee's plans and recommendations were implemented following the creation of Israel; as well as the immigrant camps, the new country implemented rapid Jewish migration, requested reparations from Germany and projects such as the National Water Carrier and the National Outline Plan.
459:
556:
establishment… Camps were an integral part of the One
Million Plan… However, three years after its completion, the One Million Plan approached realisation following the Israeli declaration of independence in May 1948 and the decision to open the state's gates to Jewish immigration. As planned and anticipated, the camp had gradually become a central instrument in the absorption process. Several small immigrant camps operated before statehood in the centre of the country, and in accordance with the One Million Plan, about 30 additional camps opened in former British military facilities. (
432:
44:
569:"To contain the risks of mass immigration, Ben Gurion commissioned a group of experts to prepare the 'Million Plan,' which included a complete design for a system of camps to house the influx of refugees until they could be settled and employed. The plan was elaborated with great detail, even calculating the caloric value of the meals that were to be prepared in the camps' kitchens. The existence of the 'Million Plan' requires us to reevaluate the way in which the story of the
455:
resembled the profile of pre‑state immigration: a significantly lower percentage of the post‑1948 immigrants were in the primary wage earning group (only 50.4% in the 15–45 age group as compared to 66.8% in earlier immigration waves) and consequently fewer could participate in the work force of the new state. The newer immigrants had less education: 16% of those aged 15 and above had completed secondary education as compared to 34% among the earlier settlers."
232:
1595:
379:. Housing units earmarked for Oriental Jews were often reallocated to European Jewish immigrants, consigning Oriental Jews to the privations of ma'abarot for longer periods." 78% of residents in the ma'abarot were of Middle Eastern extraction, and unemployment rates ran as high as 90-96% in the worst camps. Those ma'abarot with a less dense population and an Ashkenazi majority, such as
170:
305:, already at capacity, were closed. Plans to provide immigrants with jobs requiring heavy physical labour, and with housing and plots of agricultural land in outlying areas, were generally unsuccessful, with many migrating back to camps near cities and towns on finding themselves ill-equipped or unprepared for the task. The camps were under the guidance of two religious parties,
634:"During the British mandate, the Yishuv had made considerable progress in this sphere, achieving one of the lowest rates of infant mortality in the world, twenty nine deaths per thousand. In the wake of the Great Aliyah, the figure rose to fifty-two per thousand. This did not reflect the rate in the immigrant camps, which was much higher than for the general population." (
368:
Israel's population, living in 123 or 125 ma'abarot. By the following year, 172,500 were registered as living in 111 canvas tents, and another 38,544 in provisory wooden shacks, the latter by 1953 were erected to cope with the housing needs of 70,000 immigrants in 42 of ma'abarot. The remaining 69 canvas tent ma'abarot held 108,850 residents.
329:
hospitals without the knowledge of their families, and parents encountered great difficulties in travelling from the ma'abarot to these distant facilities. Cases exist of parents arriving at hospitals only to be informed their child had died, occurrences which fed into what became a narrative of suspicion that the state putatively engaged
419:, and consisted of hundreds of asbestos huts inhabited by new immigrants from both North Africa and Eastern Europe. Most of the huts were dismantled in the 1960s and tenements were built in their stead. Two surviving pieces were slated for demolition in 2012, despite protests that they should be conserved as part of Israel's heritage.
337:
with flies." In one community it was reported that there were 350 people to each shower and in another 56 to each toilet. Infant mortality—the pre-state Yishuv had achieved one of the lowest rates in the world- was high, reaching 157 deaths per 1000 live births. All these facts generated harsh criticism.
328:
The early ma'abarot consisted of tents, one for each family. In those conditions, infants were separated from their mothers and placed in children's housing where nursing personnel had almost exclusive control and parental access was highly restricted. On occasion, these children were transferred to
422:
The prefabricated structures used in the ma'abarot were imported from Canada, the United States, Finland, Sweden and Japan, which was costly, but the government faced a political dilemma: to adjust the pace of immigration to the building industry's capacity to building permanent homes or accelerate
336:
Eventually, hut-shaped canvas tents were added, followed by tin or wooden shacks. Sanitary conditions were dismal. According to a journalist who visited the Migdal Gad maabara, "in the whole camp there were two faucets for everyone. About a thousand people. The toilets had no roof and were infested
210:
rates reached 70%. Of the 5,000 Yemenite Jews trapped for years in the Geula transit camp near Aden, 80% had symptoms of malaria. Given the urgency of the situation, and the incapacity of foreign hospitals to cope with the large numbers of aged and ill, plans to treat such populations before making
367:
took a different approach: "I don't accept this pampering with respect to people not living in tents. We are spoiling them. People can live for years in tents. Anyone who doesn't want to live in them needn't bother coming here." By the end of 1951, there were 227,000 people, close to one-sixth of
192:
Dr. Piera
Rossetto described the debate around the conditions of the Ma'abarot, stating that in her opinion "the most controversial issue in this respect is not the outcome (e.g. the ma'abarot) of the choice, rather the choice in itself to bring to Israel so many thousands of immigrants, following
604:
Nonetheless, I am of the opinion that the most controversial issue in this respect is not the outcome (e.g. the ma'abarot) of the choice, rather the choice in itself to bring to Israel so many thousands of immigrants, following the idea of the "One
Million Plan" unveiled by Ben Gurion in 1944. (
454:
survivor population was usually older and contained fewer children. On the other hand, the Jews from developing countries in Asia and Africa tended to have a large number of children but a smaller elderly population. The
European immigrants were generally better educated. Neither group however,
555:
These camps did not merely appear due to a state of emergency of the increasing stream of immigrants; instead, they were a product of an existing detailed plan, the One
Million Plan, consolidated between 1942 and 1945 in order to absorb one million Jewish immigrants a few years before Israel's
205:
was mainly composed of
Holocaust survivors from displaced-persons camps in Germany, Austria, and Italy, and British detention camps in Cyprus. In the coming years, the number of Jews from North Africa and the Middle East increased. Health problems, particularly evident among Mizrachi, aroused
603:
It could be argued that the State of Israel, before and immediately after its declaration, was going through such hardships that there were no many other options to "absorb" so many thousands of immigrants arriving to the
Country than by placing them in these precarious hosting facilities.
255:
I propose that we dismantle the immigrant camps and put up immigrant housing throughout the length and breadth of the country, beside every settlement from Dan to Nir-Am that has some foothold in the economy. We will establish sixty neighbourhoods for up to 1,000 persons. The
469:
Over time, the ma'abarot metamorphosed into
Israeli towns, or were absorbed as neighbourhoods of the towns they were attached to, and residents were provided with permanent housing. The number of people housed in Ma'abarot began to decline from 1952 onwards.
351:
was responsible for providing utilities such as water, electricity and sanitation. After this responsibility was transferred to the local authorities, the Jewish Agency claimed it could no longer oversee maintenance due to financial and manpower constraints.
268:
Eshkol's proposal aimed to make immigrants independent of the Agency, provide them with housing and jobs, and position them so that they could be integrated into the pre-existing economy by residential contiguity with Israel's towns and villages.
647:
One former resident of this predominantly
Yemenite community would recall that this ma'abarot, "was a fenced-in pen of hundreds of hungry people, while all around were orchards with oranges and tangerines and fields of vegetables"
224:(Immigration Gate) camp, where they underwent health checkups before dispersal, while a smaller number were housed in immigrant housing consisting of wooden huts built along the lines of military barracks, and known as
206:
considerable concern among
Israeli authorities who worried about the risks of contagion. 20% of the North African Jewish immigrants vetted at Marseilles required long and intensive hospitalization and
1437:"Space of Transit, Place of Memory: Ma'abarah and Literary Landscapes of Arab Jews; in Memory and Forgetting among Jews from the Arab-Muslim Countries. Contested Narratives of a Shared Past"
340:
A considerable numbers of immigrant transit camps and ma'abarot were established in former British military bases transferred or sold to Israel. Some of these bases were also allocated to
313:. Violent confrontations broke out over issues of forced secularization, which were opposed by Yemeni Jews, and several people were shot dead or died during these clashes, variously at
617:
According to Yael Allweil, one of the purposes of ma'abarot was to assert Israeli sovereignty by subtracting immigration from the control of both the Jewish Agency and the
277:
220:
935:
395:, police reports described ethnic tensions along an Ashkenazi/Mizrachi divide as explosive, but infra-communal rifts also occurred, for example between
144:'transit'). Ma'abarot (plural) were meant to be temporary communities for the new arrivals. Immigrants housed in these communities were
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During the first years after Israel's independence, the largest group of immigrants arriving in Israel at this time—over 100,000—hailed from
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Settlement Department, responded to the pressure on the Agency's budget due to the size of the influx by making a 'revolutionary proposal'.
149:
108:
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81:
in the 1950s, constituting one of the largest public projects planned by the state to implement its sociospatial and housing policies.
1146:
Davidovich, Nadav; Shvarts, Shifra (Summer 2004). "Health and Hegemony: Preventive Medicine, Immigrants and the Israeli Melting Pot".
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aliyah or subject them for medical selection, as suggested by the Jewish Agency, were dropped in favour of transporting all potential
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Allweil, Yael (Spring 2012). "Israeli Housing and Nation Building: Establishment of the State-Citizen Contract 1948-1953".
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had 70,000 immigrants shifted into the ma'abarot, and by the following year a further 50,000 were relocated in them as the
260:
will be employed in afforestation, fruit-tree planting, reclamation, terracing and landscape clearing. In this manner, the
100:; 58% of Mizrahi Jews who had immigrated up to that point had been sent to Ma'abarot, compared to 18% of European Jews.
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will be dispersed all over the country and a wide sector of the population will shoulder the burden of their care.'
1615:
156:. Though such camps were set up early in 1950, the word only entered official usage in the spring of that year.
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1625:
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irrespective of their health, to Israel, creating a critical burden for the nascent state's health system.
111:; according to Dalia Gavriely-Nuri, the memory of these camps has been largely erased from Israeli memory.
107:. The last ma'abara was dismantled in 1963. The ma'abarot became the most enduring symbol of the plight of
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415:), named after the former Arab village on the site, was one of two large ma'abarot established in
84:
The ma'abarot were meant to provide accommodation for the large influx of Jewish refugees and new
447:. The rest were from Europe, including more than 270,000 from different parts of Eastern Europe.
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396:
392:
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According to scholars Emma Murphy and Clive Jones, the "housing policies weighted in favour of
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Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and Its Repercussions in the 1950s and After
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1411:
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1340:
1289:"Camp evolution and Israel's creation: between 'state of emergency' and 'emergence of state'"
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522:(1964). The film was nominated for an Academy Award and is regarded as an Israeli classic.
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or tent cities. In 1951 there were 127 Ma'abarot housing 250,000 Jews, of which 75% were
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The ma'abarot began to empty by the mid-1950s, and many formed the basis for Israel's
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1314:"Temporal States of Architecture: Mass Immigration and Provisional Housing in Israel"
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186:
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43:
1435:
Rossetto, Piera (November 2012). Semi, Emanuela Trevisan; Rossetto, Piera (eds.).
92:) arriving to the newly independent State of Israel, replacing the less habitable
1620:
1318:
Modernism and the Middle East: Architecture and Politics in the Twentieth Century
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130:
66:
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The Mizrahi Era of Rebellion: Israel's Forgotten Civil Rights Struggle 1948-1966
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518:
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412:
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360:
298:
1187:"Why Have Transit Camps for Mizrahi Jews Been Written Out of Israeli History?"
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protested the poor conditions in the ma'abarot, calling them a "holy horror."
297:, became functional in May 1950 when 150 families were settled there. In July
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1494:"Conflicts of Quarantine The Case of Jewish Immigrants to the Jewish State"
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621:, bodies acting as a state within a state and responsive to world Jewry. (
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was in fact the precondition for, not the effect of, mass immigration." (
1124:
Foreign Language Films and the Oscar: The Nominees and Winners, 1948-2017
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380:
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55:
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Quest. Issues in Contemporary Jewish History. Journal of Fondazione CDEC
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936:"The use of former British military bases during and after the 1948 war"
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One Hundred Years of Kibbutz Life: A Century of Crises and Reinvention
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Politics and Education in Israel: Comparisons with the United States
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Jonathan Kaplan offers a demographic profile of the ma'abarot: "The
193:
the idea of the "One Million Plan" unveiled by Ben Gurion in 1944".
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236:
231:
207:
185:
According to Dr. Irit Katz, the camps were the product of the 1944
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916:
863:
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387:, had better employment opportunities. In ma'abarot camps like
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in having the missing children adopted out to childless couples
85:
78:
1342:
Country on the Move: Migration to and within Israel, 1948–1995
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has been told, since it now appears that the concept of the
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first influx of Jews after the 1948 establishment of Israel
169:
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immigration and bridge the gap with temporary structures.
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Nationalizing Judaism: Zionism as a Theological Ideology
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Israel: Challenges to Identity, Democracy, and the State
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1269:(in Hebrew). Israeli Center for Educational Technology.
1227:"Last Vestiges of Jerusalem Transit Camp Bite the Dust"
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Newly arrived people were generally quarantined in the
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produced a satirical film about the Ma'abarot called
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The last Ma'abarot were closed sometime around 1963.
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347:When the ma'abarot plan was first implemented, the
344:. Eventually most of these bases were demolished.
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32:This article is about the 1950s refugee camps for
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289:, built atop the emptied Palestinian village of
1316:. In Isenstadt, Sandy; Rizvi, Kishwar (eds.).
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29:Israeli refugee absorption camps housing olim
1102:Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review
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1276:"The Mass Migration to Israel of the 1950s"
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109:Jewish immigrants from Arab lands in Israel
36:. For the kibbutz called "Ma'abarot", see
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1185:Gavriely-Nuri, Dalia (18 April 2015).
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281:Moving into a new home in the ma'abara
196:
75:immigrant and refugee absorption camps
1565:Swirski, Shlomo (11 September 2002).
1492:Seidelman, Rhona D. (February 2012).
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1384:
1363:
1347:Springer Science & Business Media
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1631:Populated places established in 1949
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1240:Jones, Clive; Murphy, Emma (2004) .
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476:Most of the camps transformed into
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1641:Words and phrases in Modern Hebrew
1274:Kaplan, Jonathan (27 April 2015).
25:
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1499:American Journal of Public Health
462:Children and nannies at Ma'abara
272:
123:(singular) derives from the word
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154:Holocaust survivors from Europe
1322:University of Washington Press
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435:Milk distribution at Ma'abara
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13:
1:
923:Davidovich & Shvarts 2004
882:Davidovich & Shvarts 2004
870:Davidovich & Shvarts 2004
1571:. Routledge. pp. 114–.
1364:Ohana, David (5 June 2017).
1305:10.1016/j.polgeo.2016.09.003
1225:Hasson, Nir (5 March 2012).
1121:Barrett, Michael S. (2018).
659:
150:Middle East and North Africa
114:
7:
934:Arnon Golan, Amiram Oren,
525:
356:Conditions and demographics
325:in the first half of 1950.
125:
10:
1657:
1339:Lipshitz, Gabriel (1998).
1265:Kaczanski, Miriam (1986).
1092:
159:
31:
1548:Weidenfeld & Nicolson
1418:Syracuse University Press
1208:Syracuse University Press
508:Media and popular culture
1512:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300476
1162:10.2979/ISR.2004.9.2.150
542:
537:Immigrant camps (Israel)
165:Development and planning
1636:Refugee camps in Israel
1470:1949 the First Israelis
1410:Roby, Bryan K. (2015).
1312:Kozlovsky, Roy (2011).
1200:Hacohen, Dvora (2003).
1129:McFarland & Company
1000:Jones & Murphy 2004
285:The first ma'abara, in
1616:1963 disestablishments
1385:Palgi, Michal (2017).
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54:celebration, Ma'abara
942:, 24:2, 2018, 221-239
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1626:Jewish Iraqi history
1602:at Wikimedia Commons
1451:on 26 September 2019
1324:. pp. 139–160.
619:Jewish National Fund
1420:. pp. 86–109.
1370:. Lexington Books.
1293:Political Geography
1287:Katz, Irit (2016).
1074:, pp. 181–182.
884:, pp. 166–168.
848:, pp. 135–136.
797:, pp. 243–252.
773:, pp. 139–140.
532:Austerity in Israel
411:Beit Mazmil (today
391:, Pardes Hanna and
197:Initial immigration
1475:Simon and Schuster
708:Gavriely-Nuri 2015
467:
441:
397:Iraqi Kurdish Jews
283:
241:
183:
60:
1598:Media related to
1578:978-1-135-58242-5
1557:978-1-780-22739-9
1543:Israel: A History
1484:978-1-982-10207-4
1427:978-0-815-65345-5
1402:978-1-351-50166-8
1377:978-1-4985-4361-3
1356:978-0-792-34850-4
1331:978-0-295-80030-1
1257:978-0-415-27088-5
1138:978-1-476-67420-9
990:, pp. 93–94.
860:, pp. 88–92.
836:, pp. 86–87.
512:Israeli satirist
478:development towns
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105:development towns
86:Jewish immigrants
38:Ma'abarot, Israel
16:(Redirected from
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1048:Kozlovsky 2011
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911:Kaczanski 1986
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896:, p. 226.
886:
874:
872:, p. 166.
862:
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838:
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809:, p. 151.
799:
795:Seidelman 2012
787:
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763:
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527:
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509:
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413:Kiryat HaYovel
408:
405:
361:Eliyahu Dobkin
357:
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299:Giora Yoseftal
274:
273:Early Ma'abara
271:
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235:Ma'abara near
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624:
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502:Migdal HaEmek
499:
495:
491:
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483:
482:Kiryat Shmona
480:, among them
479:
474:
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446:
438:
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424:
420:
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386:
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378:
377:Oriental Jews
374:
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362:
353:
350:
349:Jewish Agency
345:
343:
338:
334:
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326:
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320:
316:
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308:
307:Agudat Israel
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249:Jewish Agency
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152:, as well as
151:
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82:
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48:Yemenite Jews
45:
39:
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19:
18:Ma'abara
1567:
1542:
1503:
1497:
1469:
1453:. Retrieved
1449:the original
1444:
1440:
1412:
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1341:
1317:
1296:
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1230:
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1190:
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1123:
1108:(2): 51–67.
1105:
1101:
1084:Barrett 2018
1079:
1067:
1055:
1043:
1031:
1019:
1007:
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983:
971:
959:
952:Hacohen 2003
947:
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930:
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894:Shapira 2014
889:
877:
865:
853:
846:Hacohen 2003
841:
829:
822:Allweil 2012
807:Hacohen 2003
802:
790:
778:
771:Hacohen 2003
766:
759:Hacohen 2003
754:
747:Hacohen 2003
742:
715:
689:Swirski 2002
667:
643:
636:Hacohen 2003
630:
623:Allweil 2012
613:
599:
586:
574:
570:
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517:
511:
475:
472:
468:
449:
442:
427:Demographics
421:
410:
370:
359:
346:
339:
335:
327:
323:Pardes Hanna
302:
295:Judean Hills
284:
267:
261:
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242:
225:
219:
217:
212:
200:
191:
184:
174:
148:mainly from
120:
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98:Mizrahi Jews
89:
83:
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61:
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1299:: 144–155.
1267:"Ma'abarot"
1036:Hasson 2012
735:Kaplan 2015
490:Beit She'an
407:Dismantling
385:Even Yehuda
381:Kfar Vitkin
245:Levi Eshkol
71:מַעְבָּרוֹת
56:Rosh HaAyin
1610:Categories
1465:Segev, Tom
1455:12 October
1072:Palgi 2017
1060:Segev 2018
592:Ohana 2017
464:Kiryat Ono
389:Emek Hefer
315:Ein Shemer
303:batei olim
226:batei olim
179:Pardesiyya
52:Tu BiShvat
1600:Ma'abarot
1467:(2018) .
1393:Routledge
1248:Routledge
1178:143536692
1024:Roby 2015
1012:Roby 2015
988:Roby 2015
976:Roby 2015
858:Roby 2015
834:Roby 2015
783:Roby 2015
720:Roby 2015
660:Citations
650:Roby 2015
571:ma'abaras
558:Katz 2016
498:Or Yehuda
452:Holocaust
417:Jerusalem
373:Ashkenazi
181:, in 1950
173:Ma'abara
115:Etymology
63:Ma'abarot
1540:(2014).
1530:22390439
1170:30245633
1114:41758895
575:ma'abara
526:See also
439:, c.1950
437:Tel Mond
393:Caesarea
319:Beit Lid
311:Mizrachi
237:Nahariya
208:trachoma
175:Beit Lid
121:Ma'abara
1521:3484001
1232:Haaretz
1192:Haaretz
1093:Sources
494:Yokneam
293:in the
287:Kesalon
177:, near
160:History
142:
126:ma'avar
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1621:Aliyah
1575:
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342:MALBEN
239:, 1952
131:Hebrew
79:Israel
67:Hebrew
58:, 1950
1174:S2CID
1166:JSTOR
1110:JSTOR
543:Notes
291:Kasla
50:at a
1573:ISBN
1552:ISBN
1526:PMID
1479:ISBN
1457:2019
1422:ISBN
1397:ISBN
1372:ISBN
1351:ISBN
1326:ISBN
1252:ISBN
1212:ISBN
1133:ISBN
500:and
445:Iraq
399:and
383:and
321:and
309:and
262:olim
258:olim
213:olim
201:The
140:lit.
135:מעבר
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34:Olim
1516:PMC
1508:doi
1504:102
1301:doi
1158:doi
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