1219:
inside the probe, water flows and is used directly as a regenerating fluid for a magnetic refrigerator operating with gadolinium. The GeoThermag system showed the ability to produce cold water even at 281.8 K in the presence of a heat load of 60 W. In addition, the system has shown the existence of an optimal frequency f AMR, 0.26 Hz, for which it was possible to produce cold water at 287.9 K with a thermal load equal to 190 W with a COP of 2.20. Observing the temperature of the cold water that was obtained in the tests, the GeoThermag system showed a good ability to feed the cooling radiant floors and a reduced capacity for feeding the fan coil systems.
802:
released by the refrigerant due to its loss of entropy. Thermal contact with the heat sink is then broken so that the system is insulated, and the magnetic field is switched off, increasing the heat capacity of the refrigerant, thus decreasing its temperature below the temperature of the heat sink. In practice, the magnetic field is decreased slowly in order to provide continuous cooling and keep the sample at an approximately constant low temperature. Once the field falls to zero or to some low limiting value determined by the properties of the refrigerant, the cooling power of the ADR vanishes, and heat leaks will cause the refrigerant to warm up.
20:
4227:
639:
124:) present in the material. If the material is isolated so that no energy is allowed to (re)migrate into the material during this time, (i.e., an adiabatic process) the temperature drops as the domains absorb the thermal energy to perform their reorientation. The randomization of the domains occurs in a similar fashion to the randomization at the
1153:
One year later, in
September 2018, at the 8th International Conference on Magnetic Refrigeration at Room Temperature (Thermag VIII]), Cooltech Applications presented a paper on a magnetocaloric prototype designed as a 15 kW proof-of-concept unit. This has been considered by the community as the
1142:
In
November 2015, at the Medica 2015 fair, Cooltech Applications presented, in collaboration with Kirsch medical GmbH, the world's first magnetocaloric medical cabinet. One year later, in September 2016, at the 7th International Conference on Magnetic Refrigeration at Room Temperature (Thermag VII)]
1009:
The development of this technology is very material-dependent and will likely not replace vapor-compression refrigeration without significantly improved materials that are cheap, abundant, and exhibit much larger magnetocaloric effects over a larger range of temperatures. Such materials need to show
1218:
presented a new refrigeration concept, GeoThermag, which is a combination of magnetic refrigeration technology with that of low-temperature geothermal energy. To demonstrate the applicability of the GeoThermag technology, they developed a pilot system that consists of a 100-m deep geothermal probe;
1005:
effect and can also be used as actuators, energy harvesting devices, and sensors. When the martensitic transformation temperature and the Curie temperature are the same (based on composition) the magnitude of the magnetic entropy change is the largest. In
February 2014, GE announced the development
1122:
applications available for decades. Magnetocaloric refrigeration systems are composed of pumps, motors, secondary fluids, heat exchangers of different types, magnets and magnetic materials. These processes are greatly affected by irreversibilities and should be adequately considered. At year-end,
755:
The basic operating principle of an adiabatic demagnetization refrigerator (ADR) is the use of a strong magnetic field to control the entropy of a sample of material, often called the "refrigerant". Magnetic field constrains the orientation of magnetic dipoles in the refrigerant. The stronger the
731:
The substance is returned to another adiabatic (insulated) condition so the total entropy remains constant. However, this time the magnetic field is decreased, the thermal energy causes the magnetic moments to overcome the field, and thus the sample cools, i.e., an adiabatic temperature change.
810:
The magnetocaloric effect (MCE) is an intrinsic property of a magnetic solid. This thermal response of a solid to the application or removal of magnetic fields is maximized when the solid is near its magnetic ordering temperature. Thus, the materials considered for magnetic refrigeration devices
48:
A magnetocaloric material warms up when a magnetic field is applied. The warming is due to changes in the internal state of the material releasing heat. When the magnetic field is removed, the material returns to its original state, reabsorbing the heat, and returning to original temperature. To
1092:
of the refrigerant atoms, rather than their electron configurations. Since these dipoles are of much smaller magnitude, they are less prone to self-alignment and have lower intrinsic minimum fields. This allows NDR to cool the nuclear spin system to very low temperatures, often 1 μK or below.
865:
that was about 50% larger than that reported for Gd metal, which had the largest known magnetic entropy change at the time. This giant magnetocaloric effect (GMCE) occurred at 270 K, which is lower than that of Gd (294 K). Since the MCE occurs below room temperature these materials would not be
801:
The operation of a standard ADR proceeds roughly as follows. First, a strong magnetic field is applied to the refrigerant, forcing its various magnetic dipoles to align and putting these degrees of freedom of the refrigerant into a state of lowered entropy. The heat sink then absorbs the heat
830:
systems but can be much larger for ferromagnets that undergo a magnetic phase transition. First order phase transitions are characterized by a discontinuity in the magnetization changes with temperature, resulting in a latent heat. Second order phase transitions do not have this latent heat
738:
The magnetic field is held constant to prevent the material from reheating. The material is placed in thermal contact with the environment to be refrigerated. Because the working material is cooler than the refrigerated environment (by design), heat energy migrates into the working material
1157:
At the same conference, Dr. Sergiu Lionte announced that, due to financial issues, Cooltech
Applications declared bankruptcy. Later on, in 2019 Ubiblue company, today named Magnoric, is formed by some of the old Cooltech Application's team members. The entire patent portfolio form Cooltech
385:
1001:(X = Ga, Co, In, Al, Sb) Heusler alloys are also promising candidates for magnetic cooling applications because they have Curie temperatures near room temperature and, depending on composition, can have martensitic phase transformations near room temperature. These materials exhibit the
76:(1927). The first working magnetic refrigerators were constructed by several groups beginning in 1933. Magnetic refrigeration was the first method developed for cooling below about 0.3 K (the lowest temperature attainable before magnetic refrigeration, by pumping on
120:. In that part of the refrigeration process, a decrease in the strength of an externally applied magnetic field allows the magnetic domains of a magnetocaloric material to become disoriented from the magnetic field by the agitating action of the thermal energy (
811:
should be magnetic materials with a magnetic phase transition temperature near the temperature region of interest. For refrigerators that could be used in the home, this temperature is room temperature. The temperature change can be further increased when the
4034:
Liu, Danmin; Yue, Ming; Zhang, Jiuxing; McQueen, T. M.; Lynn, Jeffrey W.; Wang, Xiaolu; Chen, Ying; Li, Jiying; Cava, R. J.; Liu, Xubo; Altounian, Zaven; Huang, Q. (26 January 2009). "Origin and tuning of the magnetocaloric effect in the magnetic refrigerant
1161:
In 2019, at the 5th Delft Days
Conference on Magnetocalorics, Dr. Sergiu Lionte presented Ubiblue's (former Cooltech Application) last prototype. Later, the magnetocaloric community acknowledged that Ubiblue had the most developed magnetocalorics prototypes.
1068:. An easily attainable 1 T magnetic field is generally required for initial magnetization. The minimum temperature attainable is determined by the self-magnetization tendencies of the refrigerant salt, but temperatures from 1 to 100 mK are accessible.
626:
1285:
Refrigerators based on the magnetocaloric effect have been demonstrated in laboratories, using magnetic fields starting at 0.6 T up to 10 T. Magnetic fields above 2 T are difficult to produce with permanent magnets and are produced by a
776:
with the heat sink. When the magnetic field is subsequently switched off, the heat capacity of the refrigerant rises again because the degrees of freedom associated with orientation of the dipoles are once again liberated, pulling their share of
2980:
1123:
Cooltech
Applications announced that its first commercial refrigeration equipment would enter the market in 2014. Cooltech Applications launched their first commercially available magnetic refrigeration system on 20 June 2016. At the 2015
3058:. Annual meeting of the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE), San Diego, CA (United States), 24-28 Jun 1995. US Department of Energy, Office of Scientific and Technical Information.
222:
797:
when the magnetic field is switched off, the process is adiabatic, i.e., the system can no longer exchange energy with its surroundings (the heat sink), and its temperature decreases below its initial value, that of the heat sink.
1087:
One variant of adiabatic demagnetization that continues to find substantial research application is nuclear demagnetization refrigeration (NDR). NDR follows the same principles, but in this case the cooling power arises from the
1210:
at 10 K. The anisotropy of the magnetic entropy change gives rise to a large rotating MCE offering the possibility to build simplified, compact, and efficient magnetic cooling systems by rotating it in a constant magnetic field.
1093:
Unfortunately, the small magnitudes of nuclear magnetic dipoles also makes them less inclined to align to external fields. Magnetic fields of 3 teslas or greater are often needed for the initial magnetization step of NDR.
1115:, claimed to have reached a milestone in their magnetic cooling research when they reported a temperature span of 8.7 K. They hoped to introduce the first commercial applications of the technology by 2010.
673:, but with increases and decreases in magnetic field strength instead of increases and decreases in pressure. It can be described at a starting point whereby the chosen working substance is introduced into a
2067:
Khovaylo, V. V.; Rodionova, V. V.; Shevyrtalov, S. N.; Novosad, V. (2014). "Magnetocaloric effect in "reduced" dimensions: Thin films, ribbons, and microwires of
Heusler alloys and related compounds".
422:
is the adiabatic change in temperature of the magnetic system around temperature T, H is the applied external magnetic field, C is the heat capacity of the working magnet (refrigerant) and M is the
1104:
Research and a demonstration proof of concept device in 2001 succeeded in applying commercial-grade materials and permanent magnets at room temperatures to construct a magnetocaloric refrigerator.
1096:
In NDR systems, the initial heat sink must sit at very low temperatures (10–100 mK). This precooling is often provided by the mixing chamber of a dilution refrigerator or a paramagnetic salt.
1072:
had for many years supplanted paramagnetic salt ADRs, but interest in space-based and simple to use lab-ADRs has remained, due to the complexity and unreliability of the dilution refrigerator.
630:
This implies that the absolute change in the magnet's entropy determines the possible magnitude of the adiabatic temperature change under a thermodynamic cycle of magnetic field variation. T
151:. Gadolinium's temperature increases when it enters certain magnetic fields. When it leaves the magnetic field, the temperature drops. The effect is considerably stronger for the gadolinium
721:, for example. The magnetic field is held constant to prevent the dipoles from reabsorbing the heat. Once sufficiently cooled, the magnetocaloric substance and the coolant are separated (
508:
1146:
In 2017, Cooltech
Applications presented a fully functional 500 liters' magnetocaloric cooled cabinet with a 30 kg (66 lb) load and an air temperature inside the cabinet of +2
3357:
Zimm, C.; Jastrab, A.; Sternberg, A.; Pecharsky, V.; Gschneidner, K.; Osborne, M.; Anderson, I. (1998). "Description and
Performance of a Near-Room Temperature Magnetic Refrigerator".
113:
phenomenon in which a temperature change of a suitable material is caused by exposing the material to a changing magnetic field. This is also known by low temperature physicists as
1282:
A major breakthrough came 2002 when a group at the
University of Amsterdam demonstrated the giant magnetocaloric effect in MnFe(P,As) alloys that are based on abundant materials.
818:
The magnitudes of the magnetic entropy and the adiabatic temperature changes are strongly dependent upon the magnetic ordering process. The magnitude is generally small in
474:
420:
2375:
Smith, A.; Bahl, C. R. H.; Bjørk, R.; Engelbrecht, K.; Nielsen, K. K.; Pryds, N. (2012). "Materials Challenges for High Performance Magnetocaloric Refrigeration Devices".
1279:. This event attracted interest from scientists and companies worldwide who started developing new kinds of room temperature materials and magnetic refrigerator designs.
3077:
Balli, M.; Jandl, S.; Fournier, P.; Gospodinov, M. M. (9 June 2014). "Anisotropy-enhanced giant reversible rotating magnetocaloric effect in HoMn2O5 single crystals".
1268:
696:. Since overall energy is not lost (yet) and therefore total entropy is not reduced (according to thermodynamic laws), the net result is that the substance is heated (
501:
2907:
Lionte, Sergiu; Risser, Michel; Muller, Christian (February 2021). "A 15kW magnetocaloric proof-of-concept unit: Initial development and first experimental results".
3662:
Clot, P.; Viallet, D.; Allab, F.; Kedous-Lebouc, A.; Fournier, J. M.; Yonnet, J. P. (2003). "A magnet-based device for active magnetic regenerative refrigeration".
677:, i.e., the magnetic flux density is increased. The working material is the refrigerant, and starts in thermal equilibrium with the refrigerated environment.
49:
achieve refrigeration, the material is allowed to radiate away its heat while in the magnetized hot state. Removing the magnetism, the material then cools to
1848:
866:
suitable for refrigerators operating at room temperature. Since then other alloys have also demonstrated the giant magnetocaloric effect. These include
1257:
2814:
1010:
significant temperature changes under a field of two tesla or less, so that permanent magnets can be used for the production of the magnetic field.
26:
alloy heats up inside the magnetic field and loses thermal energy to the environment, so it exits the field and becomes cooler than when it entered.
2285:
Balli, M.; Jandl, S.; Fournier, P.; Kedous-Lebouc, A. (2017-05-24). "Advanced materials for magnetic cooling: Fundamentals and practical aspects".
3304:
Tegus, O.; Brück, E.; de Boer, F. R.; Buschow, K. H. J. (2002). "Transition-metal-based magnetic refrigerants for room-temperature applications".
380:{\displaystyle \Delta T_{ad}=-\int _{H_{0}}^{H_{1}}\left({\frac {T}{C(T,H)}}\right)_{H}{\left({\frac {\partial M(T,H)}{\partial T}}\right)}_{H}dH}
4131:
2893:
2227:
205:) has such a strong magnetocaloric effect that it has allowed scientists to approach to within one millikelvin, one thousandth of a degree of
4014:
2831:
2894:"7th International Conference on Magnetic Refrigeration at Room Temperature (Thermag VII). Proceedings: Turin, Italy, September 11-14, 2016"
2511:"Integrating giant microwave absorption with magnetic refrigeration in one multifunctional intermetallic compound of LaFe11.6Si1.4C0.2H1.7"
1927:
on June 9, 1997. Since then, hundreds of peer-reviewed articles have been written describing materials exhibiting magnetocaloric effects.
2460:
3791:
Aprea, C.; Greco, A.; Maiorino, A.; Masselli, C. (2016). "The energy performances of a rotary permanent magnet magnetic refrigerator".
3750:
3648:
3605:
3565:
761:
136:
overcome a decreasing external magnetic field while energy remains constant, instead of magnetic domains being disrupted from internal
4008:
3390:
Bohigas, X.; Molins, E.; Roig, A.; Tejada, J.; Zhang, X. X. (2000). "Room-temperature magnetic refrigerator using permanent magnets".
2617:
1242:
Major advances first appeared in the late 1920s when cooling via adiabatic demagnetization was independently proposed by chemistry
3697:
Shir, F.; Mavriplis, C.; Bennett, L. H.; Torre, E. D. (2005). "Analysis of room temperature magnetic regenerative refrigeration".
1981:
França, E.L.T.; dos Santos, A.O.; Coelho, A.A. (2016). "Magnetocaloric effect of the ternary Dy, Ho and Er platinum gallides".
1302:
Recent research has focused on near room temperature. Constructed examples of room temperature magnetic refrigerators include:
2790:"Magnetic Refrigerator Successfully Tested: Ames Laboratory developments help push boundaries of new refrigeration technology"
2789:
1150:°C. That proved that magnetic refrigeration is a mature technology, capable of replacing the classic refrigeration solutions.
3374:
2349:
4002:
1887:=0); L.B. = layered bed; P = permanent magnet; S = superconducting magnet; COP values under different operating conditions
3725:
3623:
3580:
3540:
4124:
1132:
732:
Energy (and entropy) transfers from thermal entropy to magnetic entropy, measuring the disorder of the magnetic dipoles.
4089:
2857:
1260:
in 1933 for cryogenic purposes when they reached 0.25 K. Between 1933 and 1997, advances in MCE cooling occurred.
3888:
Bouhani, H (2020). "Engineering the magnetocaloric properties of PrVO3 epitaxial oxide thin films by strain effects".
3426:
4268:
2269:
2207:
3496:
Richard, M. -A. (2004). "Magnetic refrigeration: Single and multimaterial active magnetic regenerator experiments".
3764:
Rowe, A.; Tura, A. (2006). "Experimental investigation of a three-material layered active magnetic regenerator".
3104:
Aprea, Ciro; Greco, Adriana; Maiorino, Angelo (November 2015). "GeoThermag: A geothermal magnetic refrigerator".
1897:
magnetic refrigerator near room temperature on February 20, 1997. He also announced the discovery of the GMCE in
1179:
1112:
3170:
Giauque, W. F.; MacDougall, D. P. (1933). "Attainment of Temperatures Below 1° Absolute by Demagnetization of Gd
1139:
presented the first cooling appliance. BASF claim of their technology a 35% improvement over using compressors.
4263:
4117:
3849:
Lucia, U (2008). "General approach to obtain the magnetic refrigeration ideal Coefficient of Performance COP".
1143:
held in Torino, Italy, Cooltech Applications presented the world's first magnetocaloric frozen heat exchanger.
4253:
4231:
684:
A magnetocaloric substance is placed in an insulated environment. The increasing external magnetic field (+
3937:"Elastocaloric-effect-induced adiabatic magnetization in paramagnetic salts due to the mutual interactions"
2811:
1962:
1158:
Applications was taken over by Magnoric since then, while publishing additional patents at the same time.
982:
alloys. Gadolinium and its alloys undergo second-order phase transitions that have no magnetic or thermal
4258:
4193:
2566:
Dunand, D. C.; Müllner, P. (2011). "Size Effects on Magnetic Actuation in Ni-Mn-Ga Shape-Memory Alloys".
2421:
Pecharsky, V. K.; Gschneidner, Jr., K. A. (1997). "Giant Magnetocaloric Effect in Gd_{5}(Si_{2}Ge_{2})".
1186:, much higher than current MR technology. Small domestic refrigerators are however much less efficient.
1108:
4208:
1936:
621:{\displaystyle \Delta S(T)=\int _{H_{0}}^{H_{1}}\left({\frac {\partial M(T,H')}{\partial T}}\right)dH'}
3229:
Pecharsky, V. K.; Gschneidner, K. A. Jr. (1999). "Magnetocaloric Effect and Magnetic Refrigeration".
1291:
1124:
773:
747:
Once the refrigerant and refrigerated environment are in thermal equilibrium, the cycle can restart.
2710:
Pecharsky, V. K.; Gschneidner Jr, K. A. (1999). "Magnetocaloric effect and magnetic refrigeration".
2235:
812:
4181:
4176:
446:
392:
2261:
2115:"Thirty years of near room temperature magnetic cooling: Where we are today and future prospects"
778:
4003:
Ames Laboratory news release, May 25, 1999, Work begins on prototype magnetic-refrigeration unit
2745:
Zu, H.; Dai, W.; de Waele, A.T.A.M. (2022). "Development of Dilution refrigerators – A review".
2509:
Song, N. N.; Ke, Y. J.; Yang, H. T.; Zhang, H.; Zhang, X. Q.; Shen, B. G.; Cheng, Z. H. (2013).
1089:
688:) causes the magnetic dipoles of the atoms to align, thereby decreasing the material's magnetic
1287:
1169:
problems remain to be solved for first-order phase transition materials that exhibit the GMCE.
772:) while the magnetic field is switched on, the refrigerant must lose some energy because it is
757:
2642:
483:
4171:
4140:
3992:
2356:
1957:
1952:
1272:
1069:
1002:
3464:
Hirano, N. (2002). "Development of magnetic refrigerator for room temperature application".
439:
a magnet with large changes in net magnetization vs. temperature, at constant magnetic field
4070:
3948:
3907:
3868:
3671:
3505:
3438:
3399:
3315:
3270:
3238:
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3018:
2943:
2881:
2719:
2676:
2575:
2522:
2475:
2430:
2384:
2304:
2164:
2076:
2030:
1990:
3997:
2621:
8:
4203:
4161:
1118:
As of 2013 this technology had proven commercially viable only for ultra-low temperature
1079:
or ferromagnetic, limiting the lowest temperature that can be reached using this method.
666:
143:
One of the most notable examples of the magnetocaloric effect is in the chemical element
4074:
3952:
3911:
3872:
3675:
3509:
3442:
3403:
3319:
3274:
3242:
3199:
3148:
3022:
2947:
2723:
2680:
2579:
2526:
2479:
2434:
2388:
2308:
2168:
2080:
2034:
1994:
4273:
4096:
4060:
3969:
3936:
3923:
3897:
3858:
3521:
3339:
3036:
2770:
2692:
2599:
2543:
2510:
2400:
2320:
2294:
2180:
2092:
2046:
1250:
1182:
units typically achieve performance coefficients of 60% of that of a theoretical ideal
794:
3289:
Gschneidner, K. A. Jr.; Pecharsky, V. K. (2002). Chandra, D.; Bautista, R. G. (eds.).
3250:
3221:
Gschneidner, K. A. Jr.; Pecharsky, V. K. (1997). Bautista, R. G.; et al. (eds.).
2731:
2042:
764:. If the refrigerant is kept at a constant temperature through thermal contact with a
756:
magnetic field, the more aligned the dipoles are, corresponding to lower entropy and
642:
Analogy between magnetic refrigeration and vapor cycle or conventional refrigeration.
3974:
3927:
3744:
3642:
3599:
3559:
3525:
3370:
3331:
3059:
3040:
2968:
2774:
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2758:
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2345:
2324:
2265:
2203:
2096:
2050:
125:
115:
3343:
3282:
2934:
Kitanovski, Andrej (March 2020). "Energy Applications of Magnetocaloric Materials".
2696:
2404:
2184:
4078:
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3915:
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3804:
3800:
3777:
3773:
3710:
3706:
3679:
3513:
3469:
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3407:
3362:
3323:
3306:
3278:
3246:
3203:
3152:
3117:
3113:
3086:
3026:
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2920:
2916:
2797:
2754:
2727:
2684:
2603:
2583:
2538:
2530:
2483:
2438:
2392:
2312:
2172:
2130:
2126:
2084:
2038:
1998:
1894:
1264:
1022:
815:
of the phase transition changes strongly within the temperature range of interest.
3366:
834:
In the late 1990s Pecharksy and Gschneidner reported a magnetic entropy change in
16:
Phenomenon in which a suitable material can be cooled by a changing magnetic field
4027:
4019:
2818:
2339:
2176:
1347:
1276:
1243:
1236:
819:
133:
73:
65:
3880:
2442:
986:. However, the use of rare earth elements makes these materials very expensive.
429:
From the equation we can see that the magnetocaloric effect can be enhanced by:
4082:
3960:
3729:
3723:
Zimm C, Paper No. K7.003 Am. Phys. Soc. Meeting, March 4, Austin, Texas (2003)
3627:
3584:
3544:
2002:
1947:
1036:
782:
674:
137:
3998:
What is magnetocaloric effect and what materials exhibit this effect the most?
3578:
Wu W., Paper No. K7.004 Am. Phys. Soc. Meeting, March 4, Austin, Texas (2003)
3538:
Zimm C, Paper No K7.003 Am. Phys. Soc. Meeting, March 4, Austin, Texas (2003)
2835:
4247:
4186:
4095:
Lucia, Umberto (2010). Exergy analysis of magnetic refrigeration (Preprint).
3683:
3156:
2766:
1189:
In 2014 giant anisotropic behavior of the magnetocaloric effect was found in
1019:
693:
423:
206:
129:
110:
4011:
Terry Heppenstall's notes, University of Newcastle upon Tyne (November 2000)
4166:
3978:
3621:
Hirano N., Paper No. K7.002 Am. Phys. Soc. Meeting March 4, Austin, Texas,
3335:
3207:
3031:
3006:
2955:
2595:
2587:
2552:
2495:
2396:
2088:
1232:
1228:
1183:
1076:
670:
186:
61:
57:
42:
3225:. Warrendale, PA: The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society. p. 209.
1042:
In a paramagnetic salt ADR, the heat sink is usually provided by a pumped
2147:
Weiss, Pierre; Piccard, Auguste (1917). "Le phénomène magnétocalorique".
1246:
823:
217:
The magnetocaloric effect can be quantified with the following equation:
69:
38:
4109:
3293:. Warrendale, PA: The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society. p. 9.
2969:
Dr. Sergiu Lionte's speech at Thermag VIII conference as invited speaker
3843:
Experimental Techniques in Condensed Matter Physics at Low Temperatures
1173:
1166:
983:
827:
144:
23:
19:
4020:
Executive Summary: A Continuous Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator
3993:
Cooling by adiabatic demagnetization - The Feynman Lectures on Physics
3919:
3517:
3473:
3450:
3411:
3090:
2534:
2316:
1256:
It was first demonstrated experimentally by Giauque and his colleague
3819:"Российские инженеры создали высокоэффективный магнитный холодильник"
2487:
1119:
1029:
3327:
3258:
3132:
3063:
2664:
2114:
3902:
2299:
2155:
Smith, Anders (2013). "Who discovered the magnetocaloric effect?".
2066:
1942:
1065:
786:
77:
4101:
4065:
3863:
3425:
Lee, S. J.; Kenkel, J. M.; Pecharsky, V. K.; Jiles, D. C. (2002).
2021:
Brück, E. (2005). "Developments in magnetocaloric refrigeration".
2643:"Your next fridge could keep cold more efficiently using magnets"
1032:
760:
because the material has (effectively) lost some of its internal
689:
638:
477:
105:
2344:(illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 99.
2225:
2284:
2016:
2014:
2012:
1026:
790:
769:
718:
476:, can be seen to be related to the magnet's change in magnetic
190:
148:
121:
99:
2663:
Gschneidnerjr, K. A.; Pecharsky, V. K.; Tsokol, A. O. (2005).
1075:
At a low enough temperature, paramagnetic salts become either
3661:
3356:
1227:
The effect was discovered first observed by German physicist
1128:
1035:. The active magnetic dipoles in this case are those of the
152:
3076:
2662:
2370:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2226:
Karl Gschneidner Jr. & Kerry Gibson (December 7, 2001).
2009:
56:
The effect was first observed in 1881 by a German physicist
4023:
3818:
3486:
Rowe A.M. and Barclay J.A., Adv. Cryog. Eng. 47 995 (2002).
3054:
Sand, J. R.; Vineyard, E. A.; Bohman, R. H. (2012-08-31) .
2832:"Premiere of cutting-edge magnetocaloric cooling appliance"
1853:
1136:
765:
3790:
2338:
Casquilho, João Paulo; Teixeira, Paulo Ivo Cortez (2014).
1893:
In one example, Prof. Karl A. Gschneidner, Jr. unveiled a
3696:
3056:
Improving the energy efficiency of refrigerators in India
2812:
Milestone in magnetic cooling, Risø News, August 20, 2007
2420:
2374:
2361:
3303:
3291:
Fundamentals of Advanced Materials for Energy Conversion
3124:
1883:=0); maximum temperature span at zero cooling capacity (
3424:
3389:
2709:
1879:
maximum cooling power at zero temperature difference (Δ
3427:"Permanent magnet array for the magnetic refrigerator"
2454:
2452:
1980:
37:. This technique can be used to attain extremely low
3851:
Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications
3223:
Rare Earths: Science, Technology and Applications III
2458:
511:
486:
449:
395:
225:
3288:
3256:
3228:
3220:
2112:
68:
in 1917. The fundamental principle was suggested by
2794:
INSIDER Newsletter for employees of Ames Laboratory
2449:
1006:of a functional Ni-Mn-based magnetic refrigerator.
4033:
3836:Experimental Principles and Methods Below 1 K
3103:
3053:
2906:
2461:"Caloric materials near ferroic phase transitions"
620:
495:
468:
414:
379:
4091:Magnetic technology revolutionizes refrigeration]
3257:Gschneidner, K. A. Jr.; Pecharsky, V. K. (2000).
3169:
3007:"Energy Applications of Magnetocaloric Materials"
2665:"Recent developments in magnetocaloric materials"
2459:Moya, X.; Kar-Narayan, S.; Mathur, N. D. (2014).
2337:
4245:
789:, thereby lowering the overall temperature of a
2508:
2142:
2140:
1154:largest magnetocaloric prototype ever created.
793:with decreased energy. Since the system is now
4125:
2781:
2744:
2658:
2656:
2565:
2113:Gschneidner, K. A.; Pecharsky, V. K. (2008).
717:) by a fluid or gas — gaseous or liquid
2146:
2137:
436:a magnet material with a small heat capacity
2712:Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials
2228:"Magnetic Refrigerator Successfully Tested"
1983:Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials
1297:
4226:
4132:
4118:
4015:XRS Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator
3617:
3615:
3004:
2933:
2653:
1267:magnetic refrigerator was demonstrated by
1082:
4139:
4100:
4064:
3968:
3901:
3862:
3030:
2542:
2298:
1263:In 1997, the first near room-temperature
1231:in 1881 Subsequently by French physicist
1099:
3934:
3763:
2416:
2414:
2197:
1306:Room temperature magnetic refrigerators
1018:The original proposed refrigerant was a
637:
92:
18:
3887:
3612:
3495:
3130:
2108:
2106:
1501:Sichuan Inst. Tech./Nanjing University
41:, as well as the ranges used in common
4246:
3793:International Journal of Refrigeration
3766:International Journal of Refrigeration
3749:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
3699:International Journal of Refrigeration
3647:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
3604:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
3564:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
3463:
3106:International Journal of Refrigeration
2909:International Journal of Refrigeration
2787:
2255:
2221:
2219:
2119:International Journal of Refrigeration
2062:
2060:
831:associated with the phase transition.
713:This added heat can then be removed (-
633:
4113:
4094:
3848:
3468:. Vol. 613. pp. 1027–1034.
2411:
2154:
2023:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
2020:
1013:
646:= externally applied magnetic field;
443:The adiabatic change in temperature,
97:The magnetocaloric effect (MCE, from
33:is a cooling technology based on the
2882:first magnetocaloric medical cabinet
2103:
1837:Gd 0.600 mm spherical particles
1290:(1 T is about 20.000 times the
805:
750:
2341:Introduction to Statistical Physics
2216:
2200:Temperatures very low and very high
2057:
1376:Mater. Science Institute Barcelona
1133:Astronautics Corporation of America
13:
3828:
594:
566:
512:
487:
450:
396:
351:
328:
226:
14:
4285:
3986:
3359:Advances in Cryogenic Engineering
2234:. Ames Laboratory. Archived from
1874:Gd bricks of two types, cascaded
1748:Victoria, British Columbia Canada
1638:Lab. d’Electrotechnique Grenoble
1431:Victoria, British Columbia Canada
1353:Ames, Iowa/Madison, Wisconsin, US
661:= adiabatic temperature variation
4225:
2759:10.1016/j.cryogenics.2021.103390
1172:One potential application is in
3811:
3784:
3757:
3717:
3690:
3655:
3572:
3532:
3489:
3480:
3457:
3418:
3383:
3350:
3297:
3283:10.1146/annurev.matsci.30.1.387
3214:
3163:
3097:
3070:
3047:
2998:
2973:
2962:
2927:
2900:
2886:
2875:
2850:
2824:
2805:
2788:Gibson, Kerry (November 2001).
2738:
2703:
2635:
2610:
2559:
2502:
2331:
2202:. New York: Dover. p. 50.
2157:The European Physical Journal H
1180:Vapor-compression refrigeration
1113:Technical University of Denmark
711:Isomagnetic enthalpic transfer:
60:, followed by French physicist
3805:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2015.09.005
3778:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2006.07.012
3711:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2004.08.015
3664:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics
3392:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics
3118:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2015.07.014
2921:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2020.09.019
2669:Reports on Progress in Physics
2278:
2249:
2191:
2131:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2008.01.004
1974:
1127:in Las Vegas, a consortium of
1090:magnetic dipoles of the nuclei
736:Isomagnetic entropic transfer:
589:
572:
524:
518:
346:
334:
303:
291:
1:
3367:10.1007/978-1-4757-9047-4_222
3251:10.1016/S0304-8853(99)00397-2
2732:10.1016/S0304-8853(99)00397-2
1968:
1664:George Washington University
469:{\displaystyle \Delta T_{ad}}
415:{\displaystyle \Delta T_{ad}}
3133:"Magnetische Untersuchungen"
2821:. Retrieved August 28, 2007.
2232:Ames Laboratory News Release
1963:Thermoacoustic refrigeration
665:The cycle is performed as a
7:
3881:10.1016/j.physa.2008.02.026
3005:Kitanovski, Andrej (2020).
2443:10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.4494
2043:10.1088/0022-3727/38/23/R01
1930:
1039:of the paramagnetic atoms.
212:
10:
4290:
4209:Thermoacoustic heat engine
4083:10.1103/PhysRevB.79.014435
3961:10.1038/s41598-021-88778-4
3498:Journal of Applied Physics
3466:AIP Conference Proceedings
3431:Journal of Applied Physics
3259:"Magnetocaloric Materials"
2817:September 5, 2007, at the
2689:10.1088/0034-4885/68/6/R04
2198:Zemansky, Mark W. (1981).
2177:10.1140/epjh/e2013-40001-9
2003:10.1016/j.jmmm.2015.10.138
1937:Coefficient of performance
1222:
729:Adiabatic demagnetization:
671:Carnot refrigeration cycle
53:its original temperature.
4221:
4194:Immersive virtual reality
4154:
4147:
3011:Advanced Energy Materials
2936:Advanced Energy Materials
2618:"GE Global Research Live"
2377:Advanced Energy Materials
1878:
1125:Consumer Electronics Show
669:that is analogous to the
4269:Condensed matter physics
4177:Digital scent technology
3845:, Addison Wesley (1988).
3838:, Academic Press (1974).
3684:10.1109/TMAG.2003.816253
3157:10.1002/andp.18812490510
2258:Nature's Building Blocks
2151:. 5th Ser. (7): 103–109.
1298:Room temperature devices
1269:Karl A. Gschneidner, Jr.
1109:Risø National Laboratory
1107:On August 20, 2007, the
682:Adiabatic magnetization:
496:{\displaystyle \Delta S}
3890:Applied Physics Letters
3131:Warburg, E. G. (1881).
3079:Applied Physics Letters
2423:Physical Review Letters
2287:Applied Physics Reviews
2262:Oxford University Press
2069:Physica Status Solidi B
1745:University of Victoria
1589:Chubu Electric/Toshiba
1543:Chubu Electric/Toshiba
1428:University of Victoria
1402:Chubu Electric/Toshiba
1083:Nuclear demagnetization
433:a large field variation
4199:Magnetic refrigeration
3841:Richardson and Smith,
3361:. pp. 1759–1766.
3208:10.1103/PhysRev.43.768
3032:10.1002/aenm.201903741
2956:10.1002/aenm.201903741
2862:BASF New Business GmbH
2834:. BASF. Archived from
2588:10.1002/adma.201002753
2397:10.1002/aenm.201200167
2089:10.1002/pssb.201451217
1816:University of Salerno
1711:Gd and GdEr spheres /
1693:Madison, Wisconsin, US
1478:Madison, Wisconsin, US
1323:Max. cooling power (W)
1292:Earth's magnetic field
1288:superconducting magnet
1100:Commercial development
1070:Dilution refrigerators
1053:(about 1.2 K) or
662:
622:
497:
470:
416:
381:
132:material, except that
31:Magnetic refrigeration
27:
4264:Statistical mechanics
4172:Cloak of invisibility
4141:Emerging technologies
4009:Refrigeration Systems
3935:de Souza, M. (2021).
3263:Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci
2858:"Solid state cooling"
2256:Emsley, John (2001).
1958:Electrocaloric effect
1953:Dilution refrigerator
1273:Iowa State University
1165:Thermal and magnetic
1003:magnetic shape memory
768:sink (usually liquid
641:
623:
498:
471:
417:
382:
93:Magnetocaloric effect
35:magnetocaloric effect
22:
4254:Thermodynamic cycles
3231:J. Magn. Magn. Mater
2896:. 11 September 2016.
1235:and Swiss physicist
509:
484:
447:
426:of the refrigerant.
393:
223:
140:as energy is added.
64:and Swiss physicist
4204:Phased-array optics
4162:Acoustic levitation
4075:2009PhRvB..79a4435L
3953:2021NatSR..11.9431S
3912:2020ApPhL.117g2402B
3873:2008PhyA..387.3477L
3676:2003ITM....39.3349C
3510:2004JAP....95.2146R
3443:2002JAP....91.8894L
3404:2000ITM....36..538B
3320:2002Natur.415..150T
3275:2000AnRMS..30..387G
3243:1999JMMM..200...44P
3200:1933PhRv...43..768G
3149:1881AnP...249..141W
3023:2020AdEnM..1003741K
2948:2020AdEnM..1003741K
2724:1999JMMM..200...44P
2681:2005RPPh...68.1479G
2580:2011AdM....23..216D
2527:2013NatSR...3E2291S
2480:2014NatMa..13..439M
2435:1997PhRvL..78.4494P
2389:2012AdEnM...2.1288S
2309:2017ApPRv...4b1305B
2169:2013EPJH...38..507S
2081:2014PSSBR.251.2104K
2035:2005JPhD...38R.381B
1995:2016JMMM..401.1088F
1307:
1064:(about 0.3 K)
667:refrigeration cycle
634:Thermodynamic cycle
558:
276:
4259:Cooling technology
3941:Scientific Reports
3137:Annalen der Physik
2802:(Vol. 112, No.10 )
2568:Advanced Materials
2515:Scientific Reports
2357:Extract of page 99
1856:and Moscow, Russia
1481:September 18, 2001
1333:Magnetic field (T)
1305:
1251:William F. Giauque
1014:Paramagnetic salts
762:degrees of freedom
663:
618:
530:
493:
466:
412:
377:
248:
28:
4241:
4240:
4217:
4216:
4053:Physical Review B
3920:10.1063/5.0021031
3857:(14): 3477–3479.
3518:10.1063/1.1643200
3474:10.1063/1.1472125
3451:10.1063/1.1451906
3412:10.1109/20.846216
3376:978-1-4757-9049-8
3314:(6868): 150–152.
3091:10.1063/1.4880818
2535:10.1038/srep02291
2351:978-1-107-05378-6
2317:10.1063/1.4983612
2238:on March 23, 2010
2029:(23): R381–R391.
1891:
1890:
1862:High speed rotary
1522:Gd spheres and Gd
1356:February 20, 1997
1336:Solid refrigerant
1317:Announcement date
1111:(Denmark) at the
806:Working materials
751:Applied technique
650:= heat quantity;
601:
358:
307:
126:curie temperature
4281:
4229:
4228:
4152:
4151:
4134:
4127:
4120:
4111:
4110:
4106:
4104:
4086:
4068:
3982:
3972:
3931:
3905:
3884:
3866:
3823:
3822:
3815:
3809:
3808:
3788:
3782:
3781:
3761:
3755:
3754:
3748:
3740:
3738:
3737:
3728:. Archived from
3721:
3715:
3714:
3694:
3688:
3687:
3659:
3653:
3652:
3646:
3638:
3636:
3635:
3626:. Archived from
3619:
3610:
3609:
3603:
3595:
3593:
3592:
3583:. Archived from
3576:
3570:
3569:
3563:
3555:
3553:
3552:
3543:. Archived from
3536:
3530:
3529:
3504:(4): 2146–2150.
3493:
3487:
3484:
3478:
3477:
3461:
3455:
3454:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3387:
3381:
3380:
3354:
3348:
3347:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3286:
3254:
3226:
3218:
3212:
3211:
3167:
3161:
3160:
3128:
3122:
3121:
3101:
3095:
3094:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3051:
3045:
3044:
3034:
3002:
2996:
2995:
2993:
2992:
2977:
2971:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2931:
2925:
2924:
2904:
2898:
2897:
2890:
2884:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2870:
2868:
2854:
2848:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2828:
2822:
2809:
2803:
2801:
2796:. Archived from
2785:
2779:
2778:
2742:
2736:
2735:
2707:
2701:
2700:
2660:
2651:
2650:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2629:
2620:. Archived from
2614:
2608:
2607:
2563:
2557:
2556:
2546:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2488:10.1038/NMAT3951
2468:Nature Materials
2465:
2456:
2447:
2446:
2418:
2409:
2408:
2372:
2359:
2355:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2302:
2282:
2276:
2275:
2253:
2247:
2246:
2244:
2243:
2223:
2214:
2213:
2195:
2189:
2188:
2152:
2149:J. Phys. (Paris)
2144:
2135:
2134:
2110:
2101:
2100:
2064:
2055:
2054:
2018:
2007:
2006:
1978:
1926:
1925:
1924:
1916:
1915:
1907:
1906:
1895:proof of concept
1807:
1806:
1805:
1797:
1796:
1786:
1785:
1784:
1776:
1775:
1740:
1739:
1738:
1730:
1729:
1721:
1720:
1641:Grenoble, France
1629:
1628:
1627:
1619:
1618:
1583:
1582:
1581:
1573:
1572:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1459:
1458:
1379:Barcelona, Spain
1308:
1304:
1265:proof of concept
1258:D. P. MacDougall
1209:
1208:
1207:
1199:
1198:
1149:
1063:
1061:
1060:
1052:
1050:
1049:
1000:
998:
997:
981:
980:
979:
969:
968:
955:
954:
953:
943:
942:
934:
933:
922:
921:
909:
908:
907:
899:
898:
887:
886:
876:
875:
864:
862:
861:
853:
852:
844:
843:
820:antiferromagnets
781:energy from the
627:
625:
624:
619:
617:
606:
602:
600:
592:
588:
564:
557:
556:
555:
545:
544:
543:
502:
500:
499:
494:
475:
473:
472:
467:
465:
464:
421:
419:
418:
413:
411:
410:
386:
384:
383:
378:
370:
369:
364:
363:
359:
357:
349:
326:
318:
317:
312:
308:
306:
283:
275:
274:
273:
263:
262:
261:
241:
240:
204:
203:
202:
184:
182:
181:
173:
172:
164:
163:
147:and some of its
134:magnetic dipoles
87:
85:
84:
4289:
4288:
4284:
4283:
4282:
4280:
4279:
4278:
4244:
4243:
4242:
4237:
4213:
4143:
4138:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4038:
3989:
3831:
3829:Further reading
3826:
3817:
3816:
3812:
3789:
3785:
3762:
3758:
3742:
3741:
3735:
3733:
3726:"Archived copy"
3724:
3722:
3718:
3695:
3691:
3660:
3656:
3640:
3639:
3633:
3631:
3624:"Archived copy"
3622:
3620:
3613:
3597:
3596:
3590:
3588:
3581:"Archived copy"
3579:
3577:
3573:
3557:
3556:
3550:
3548:
3541:"Archived copy"
3539:
3537:
3533:
3494:
3490:
3485:
3481:
3462:
3458:
3423:
3419:
3388:
3384:
3377:
3355:
3351:
3328:10.1038/415150a
3302:
3298:
3287:
3255:
3227:
3219:
3215:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3168:
3164:
3129:
3125:
3102:
3098:
3075:
3071:
3052:
3048:
3003:
2999:
2990:
2988:
2979:
2978:
2974:
2967:
2963:
2932:
2928:
2905:
2901:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2880:
2876:
2866:
2864:
2856:
2855:
2851:
2841:
2839:
2830:
2829:
2825:
2819:Wayback Machine
2810:
2806:
2786:
2782:
2743:
2739:
2708:
2704:
2661:
2654:
2641:
2640:
2636:
2627:
2625:
2616:
2615:
2611:
2564:
2560:
2507:
2503:
2463:
2457:
2450:
2419:
2412:
2373:
2362:
2352:
2336:
2332:
2283:
2279:
2272:
2264:. p. 342.
2254:
2250:
2241:
2239:
2224:
2217:
2210:
2196:
2192:
2153:
2145:
2138:
2111:
2104:
2065:
2058:
2019:
2010:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1933:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1918:
1914:
1911:
1910:
1909:
1905:
1902:
1901:
1900:
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1804:
1801:
1800:
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1795:
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1779:
1778:
1774:
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1770:
1769:
1767:
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1728:
1725:
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1719:
1716:
1715:
1714:
1712:
1626:
1623:
1622:
1621:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1592:Yokohama, Japan
1580:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1568:
1567:
1566:
1564:
1549:October 5, 2002
1546:Yokohama, Japan
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1461:
1457:
1454:
1453:
1452:
1450:
1405:Yokohama, Japan
1348:Ames Laboratory
1300:
1277:Ames Laboratory
1244:Nobel Laureates
1237:Auguste Piccard
1225:
1206:
1203:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1194:
1193:
1192:
1190:
1147:
1102:
1085:
1059:
1057:
1056:
1055:
1054:
1048:
1046:
1045:
1044:
1043:
1037:electron shells
1016:
996:
993:
992:
991:
989:
978:
973:
972:
971:
967:
961:
960:
959:
957:
952:
947:
946:
945:
941:
938:
937:
936:
932:
926:
925:
924:
920:
915:
914:
913:
911:
906:
903:
902:
901:
897:
891:
890:
889:
885:
880:
879:
878:
874:
871:
870:
869:
867:
860:
857:
856:
855:
851:
848:
847:
846:
842:
839:
838:
837:
835:
813:order-parameter
808:
779:equipartitioned
753:
706:
660:
636:
610:
593:
581:
565:
563:
559:
551:
547:
546:
539:
535:
534:
510:
507:
506:
485:
482:
481:
457:
453:
448:
445:
444:
403:
399:
394:
391:
390:
365:
350:
327:
325:
321:
320:
319:
313:
287:
282:
278:
277:
269:
265:
264:
257:
253:
252:
233:
229:
224:
221:
220:
215:
201:
198:
197:
196:
194:
180:
177:
176:
175:
171:
168:
167:
166:
162:
159:
158:
157:
155:
118:demagnetization
109:) is a magneto-
95:
83:
81:
80:
79:
78:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4287:
4277:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4239:
4238:
4236:
4235:
4222:
4219:
4218:
4215:
4214:
4212:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4190:
4189:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4158:
4156:
4149:
4145:
4144:
4137:
4136:
4129:
4122:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4092:
4087:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4031:
4017:
4012:
4006:
4000:
3995:
3988:
3987:External links
3985:
3984:
3983:
3947:(9461): 9431.
3932:
3885:
3846:
3839:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3824:
3810:
3783:
3756:
3716:
3689:
3654:
3611:
3571:
3531:
3488:
3479:
3456:
3417:
3382:
3375:
3349:
3296:
3269:(1): 387–429.
3237:(1–3): 44–56.
3213:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3162:
3143:(5): 141–164.
3123:
3096:
3069:
3046:
2997:
2972:
2961:
2926:
2899:
2885:
2874:
2849:
2823:
2804:
2800:on 2010-05-27.
2780:
2737:
2718:(1–3): 44–56.
2702:
2652:
2634:
2609:
2558:
2501:
2448:
2410:
2360:
2350:
2330:
2277:
2270:
2248:
2215:
2208:
2190:
2163:(4): 507–517.
2136:
2102:
2056:
2008:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1932:
1929:
1921:
1912:
1903:
1889:
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1876:
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1872:
1869:
1866:
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1857:
1851:
1845:
1844:
1841:
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1826:
1823:
1820:
1819:Salerno, Italy
1817:
1813:
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1781:
1772:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1755:
1752:
1749:
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1735:
1726:
1717:
1709:
1706:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1687:
1686:
1683:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1665:
1661:
1660:
1657:
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1651:
1648:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1635:
1634:
1631:
1624:
1615:
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1599:
1596:
1593:
1590:
1586:
1585:
1578:
1569:
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1559:
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1547:
1544:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1504:Nanjing, China
1502:
1498:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1472:
1471:
1464:
1455:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1435:
1432:
1429:
1425:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1409:
1406:
1403:
1399:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1377:
1373:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1350:/Astronautics
1344:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1299:
1296:
1249:in 1926 and
1224:
1221:
1214:In 2015 Aprea
1204:
1195:
1101:
1098:
1084:
1081:
1058:
1047:
1015:
1012:
994:
974:
962:
948:
939:
927:
916:
904:
892:
881:
872:
858:
849:
840:
807:
804:
752:
749:
745:
744:
733:
726:
708:
704:
675:magnetic field
658:
635:
632:
616:
613:
609:
605:
599:
596:
591:
587:
584:
580:
577:
574:
571:
568:
562:
554:
550:
542:
538:
533:
529:
526:
523:
520:
517:
514:
492:
489:
463:
460:
456:
452:
441:
440:
437:
434:
409:
406:
402:
398:
376:
373:
368:
362:
356:
353:
348:
345:
342:
339:
336:
333:
330:
324:
316:
311:
305:
302:
299:
296:
293:
290:
286:
281:
272:
268:
260:
256:
251:
247:
244:
239:
236:
232:
228:
214:
211:
199:
178:
169:
160:
138:ferromagnetism
94:
91:
82:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4286:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4251:
4249:
4234:
4233:
4224:
4223:
4220:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4188:
4187:Plasma window
4185:
4184:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4159:
4157:
4153:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4135:
4130:
4128:
4123:
4121:
4116:
4115:
4112:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4059:(1): 014435.
4058:
4054:
4032:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4010:
4007:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3990:
3980:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3896:(7): 072402.
3895:
3891:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3847:
3844:
3840:
3837:
3833:
3832:
3820:
3814:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3787:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3760:
3752:
3746:
3732:on 2004-02-29
3731:
3727:
3720:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3693:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3658:
3650:
3644:
3630:on 2004-02-29
3629:
3625:
3618:
3616:
3607:
3601:
3587:on 2004-02-29
3586:
3582:
3575:
3567:
3561:
3547:on 2004-02-29
3546:
3542:
3535:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3492:
3483:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3460:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3421:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3386:
3378:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3353:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3308:
3300:
3292:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3224:
3217:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3166:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3127:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3100:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3073:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3050:
3042:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3001:
2986:
2982:
2976:
2970:
2965:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2930:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2903:
2895:
2889:
2883:
2878:
2863:
2859:
2853:
2838:on 2015-01-06
2837:
2833:
2827:
2820:
2816:
2813:
2808:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2784:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2741:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2706:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2659:
2657:
2649:. 2014-02-14.
2648:
2644:
2638:
2624:on 2015-02-18
2623:
2619:
2613:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2574:(2): 216–32.
2573:
2569:
2562:
2554:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2505:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2474:(5): 439–50.
2473:
2469:
2462:
2455:
2453:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2417:
2415:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2371:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2358:
2353:
2347:
2343:
2342:
2334:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2293:(2): 021305.
2292:
2288:
2281:
2273:
2271:0-19-850341-5
2267:
2263:
2259:
2252:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2222:
2220:
2211:
2209:0-486-24072-X
2205:
2201:
2194:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2150:
2143:
2141:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2109:
2107:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2063:
2061:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1989:: 1088–1092.
1988:
1984:
1977:
1973:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1928:
1896:
1886:
1882:
1877:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1846:
1842:
1839:
1836:
1833:
1830:
1827:
1824:
1821:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1754:Reciprocating
1753:
1750:
1747:
1744:
1743:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1690:Astronautics
1689:
1688:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1673:Reciprocating
1672:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1662:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1647:Reciprocating
1646:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1636:
1632:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1595:March 4, 2003
1594:
1591:
1588:
1587:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1552:Reciprocating
1551:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1510:Reciprocating
1509:
1507:23 April 2002
1506:
1503:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1492:
1489:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1475:Astronautics
1474:
1473:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1439:
1437:Reciprocating
1436:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1411:Reciprocating
1410:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1396:
1393:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1367:
1364:
1361:
1359:Reciprocating
1358:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1339:Quantity (kg)
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1310:
1309:
1303:
1295:
1293:
1289:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1259:
1254:
1252:
1248:
1245:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1220:
1217:
1212:
1187:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1175:
1170:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1144:
1140:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1121:
1116:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1080:
1078:
1073:
1071:
1067:
1040:
1038:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1024:
1021:
1011:
1007:
1004:
987:
985:
977:
966:
951:
931:
919:
896:
884:
832:
829:
825:
821:
816:
814:
803:
799:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
758:heat capacity
748:
742:
737:
734:
730:
727:
724:
720:
716:
712:
709:
703:
699:
695:
694:heat capacity
691:
687:
683:
680:
679:
678:
676:
672:
668:
657:
654:= pressure; Δ
653:
649:
645:
640:
631:
628:
614:
611:
607:
603:
597:
585:
582:
578:
575:
569:
560:
552:
548:
540:
536:
531:
527:
521:
515:
504:
490:
479:
461:
458:
454:
438:
435:
432:
431:
430:
427:
425:
424:magnetization
407:
404:
400:
387:
374:
371:
366:
360:
354:
343:
340:
337:
331:
322:
314:
309:
300:
297:
294:
288:
284:
279:
270:
266:
258:
254:
249:
245:
242:
237:
234:
230:
218:
210:
208:
207:absolute zero
192:
189:alloyed with
188:
154:
150:
146:
141:
139:
135:
131:
130:ferromagnetic
127:
123:
119:
117:
112:
111:thermodynamic
108:
107:
102:
101:
90:
88:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
54:
52:
46:
44:
43:refrigerators
40:
36:
32:
25:
21:
4230:
4198:
4167:Anti-gravity
4056:
4052:
4028:Google cache
3944:
3940:
3893:
3889:
3854:
3850:
3842:
3835:
3813:
3796:
3792:
3786:
3769:
3765:
3759:
3734:. Retrieved
3730:the original
3719:
3702:
3698:
3692:
3667:
3663:
3657:
3632:. Retrieved
3628:the original
3589:. Retrieved
3585:the original
3574:
3549:. Retrieved
3545:the original
3534:
3501:
3497:
3491:
3482:
3465:
3459:
3437:(10): 8894.
3434:
3430:
3420:
3395:
3391:
3385:
3358:
3352:
3311:
3305:
3299:
3290:
3266:
3262:
3234:
3230:
3222:
3216:
3191:
3187:
3165:
3140:
3136:
3126:
3109:
3105:
3099:
3082:
3078:
3072:
3055:
3049:
3014:
3010:
3000:
2989:. Retrieved
2984:
2975:
2964:
2939:
2935:
2929:
2912:
2908:
2902:
2888:
2877:
2865:. Retrieved
2861:
2852:
2840:. Retrieved
2836:the original
2826:
2807:
2798:the original
2793:
2783:
2750:
2746:
2740:
2715:
2711:
2705:
2672:
2668:
2646:
2637:
2626:. Retrieved
2622:the original
2612:
2571:
2567:
2561:
2518:
2514:
2504:
2471:
2467:
2429:(23): 4494.
2426:
2422:
2383:(11): 1288.
2380:
2376:
2340:
2333:
2290:
2286:
2280:
2257:
2251:
2240:. Retrieved
2236:the original
2231:
2199:
2193:
2160:
2156:
2148:
2122:
2118:
2075:(10): 2104.
2072:
2068:
2026:
2022:
1986:
1982:
1976:
1892:
1884:
1880:
1327:
1301:
1284:
1281:
1262:
1255:
1241:
1233:Pierre Weiss
1229:Emil Warburg
1226:
1215:
1213:
1188:
1184:Carnot cycle
1178:
1171:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1145:
1141:
1117:
1106:
1103:
1095:
1086:
1074:
1041:
1020:paramagnetic
1017:
1008:
988:
975:
964:
949:
929:
917:
894:
882:
833:
824:ferrimagnets
817:
809:
800:
774:equilibrated
754:
746:
740:
735:
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55:
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3799:(1): 1–11.
3772:(8): 1286.
3670:(5): 3349.
2981:"DDMC 2019"
2915:: 256–265.
2675:(6): 1479.
1948:Curie's law
1496:Gd spheres
1423:Gd spheres
1408:Summer 2000
1371:Gd spheres
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1077:diamagnetic
72:(1926) and
4248:Categories
3903:2008.09193
3736:2006-06-12
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1843:0.5 - 2.5
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1174:spacecraft
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