586:
with a territorial male who has already prepared a nesting site and performed a complex mating display. After she lays the initial clutch, both her and the territorial male assume primary care of the eggs. The major female lays on average 2 eggs per day and will spend a subsequent 15â90 minutes incubating, then will periodically leave the nest unattended to allow minor females to copulate with the territorial male and lay eggs in the nest. The male will often spend more time incubating the nest than the major female. An upwards of 18 different minor females will lay eggs in a single major females nest, resulting in an excess of eggs. Since both male and female Masai ostriches are only able to incubate 20â21 eggs at a time, so the major female will eject excess eggs. A reproductive advantage observed in major females is that they are able to recognize their own eggs and will eject minor female eggs in favor of theirs as a necessary way to reduce nest overcrowding.
603:
574:
45:
431:
244:
94:
31:
69:
471:
553:
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availability. Collection of ostrich eggs by both locals and tourists within protected areas has also poses a substantial negative impact on their population success. Interestingly, a 2009 study found that illegal hunting of ostrich meat did not significantly affect Masai ostrich population density within the
Serengeti National Park.
994:
Miller, Joshua M.; Hallager, Sara; Monfort, Steven L.; Newby, John; Bishop, Kelley; Tidmus, Scott A.; Black, Peter; Houston, Bill; Matthee, Conrad A.; Fleischer, Robert C. (April 2011). "Phylogeographic analysis of nuclear and mtDNA supports subspecies designations in the ostrich (Struthio camelus)".
652:
Alongside predation, human activity has been shown to have a negative impact on the success of wild Masai ostrich communities. Anthropogenic-induced ostrich population decline is believed to be attributed to rapid human expansion within Sub-Saharan Africa, resulting in reduced resources and territory
598:
The conspicuous size and color of the Masai ostrich eggs makes them an easy target for predation, particularly when major females abandon nests for upwards of two to three weeks prior to incubation. A 2008 study found the salient white egg coloration to be an evolutionary trade-off favoring a reduced
585:
behavior where a single (major) female incubates the eggs of several other (minor) females within a single nest. Only 1 out of 3 hens will become a major female, the remaining hens are considered minor females and will not incubate their own eggs. A nest is initiated when a single major female mates
560:
Masai ostrich breeding season begins around May or June. During this time, the pink hue on male Masai ostriches neck and leg skin intensifies as a form of mating display. Mature males begin to establish territories that are about 2â3 km in area and aggressively defend their domain against other
423:
Adult males are 2.1â2.7 m in height and can weigh up to 145 kg; females are typically slightly smaller in size. They have large eyes (50 mm across), long eyelashes, and exceptional vision. Their heads are relatively small compared to their body and are covered in degenerated feathers
594:
Masai ostrich eggs are large (grapefruit-sized) and white in color. They measure 14â16 cm and weigh between 1.0 and 1.6 kg. Egg hatching occurs during
October and November, when eastern Africa experiences brief periods of rainfall that generates edible plants that are the Masai ostriches
454:, which gives them a soft, downy appearance. Similar to other ostrich subspecies, they possess approximately 50â60 tail feathers, 16 primaries, 4 alular, and 20â23 secondary feathers. The wing and tail feathers have evolved to serve as decorative plumes for courtship display rather than flight.
1519:
Fritz, Julia; Hammer, Sven; Hebel, Christiana; Arif, Abdi; Michalke, Bernhard; Dittmann, Marie T.; MĂźller, Dennis W.H.; Clauss, Marcus (September 2012). "Retention of solutes and different-sized particles in the digestive tract of the ostrich (Struthio camelus massaicus), and a comparison with
457:
For males, the majority of the body is covered in black feathers. White feathers appear along the tips of the wings, tail, and form a small ring partway up the neck that separates the black body feathers from bare neck skin. The white tail feathers are often discolored from dirt and appear
478:
Unlike most avian species, male ostriches have a retractable penis that averages 20 cm in length and everts during defecation, urination, and copulation. The ostrich is the only bird to void urine separate from defecation due to the muscular sphincter-like folds located within the
364:
or âmiomboâ woodlands currently serves as a zoogeographic barrier separating northern and southern ostrich populations, it is theorized that this barrier was not as dense and effective throughout evolutionary time and once allowed for brief periods of intraspecific breeding between
381:
albeit a lack of any zoogeographic barrier, is thought to be due to the ecological differences in behavioral and reproductive cues between these populations. These differences were substantial enough to prevent intraspecific breeding throughout time. These same studies found
619:
subspecies, Masai ostriches are almost entirely herbivorous. Their diet consists mainly of grasses, bushes, herbs, succulents, and leaves. Occasionally they will consume flowers, fruits, seeds, and animal protein (e.g. lizards, insects, etc.), but to a lesser extent.
461:
Females tend to be smaller than males and also possess bare skin on both the neck and legs, though their skin color appears more beige than pink. Adult females body feathers are a uniformly-distributed, monochromatic color scheme of brown.
564:
In July, adult female ostriches begin establishing breeding zones that span around 13 km. These breeding zones overlap with 5â7 male territories, in which males attempt to mate with any adult females that pass through his territory.
424:
that give the upper two-thirds of their elongated neck an almost naked appearance. The skin of the neck and thighs of male Masai ostriches is bare and pink in color, which intensifies to an almost reddish hue during mating season.
1607:
Magige, Flora John; Holmern, Tomas; Stokke, Sigbjørn; Mlingwa, Charles; Røskaft, Eivin (May 2009). "Does illegal hunting affect density and behaviour of
African grassland birds? A case study on ostrich (Struthio camelus)".
644:. Egg predation poses the greatest threat to the reproductive success of wild ostrich populations. Documented instances have attributed 90% of a single flock's chick mortality to be caused purely by predation.
1030:
Robinson, Terence J.; Matthee, Conrad A. (August 1999). "Molecular genetic relationships of the extinct ostrich, Struthio camelus syriacus: consequences for ostrich introductions into Saudi Arabia".
1194:
Warui, C. N.; Macharia, R. G.; Mwangi, D. K.; Macheru, P. W.; Moilo, J. (1998). "Observations on the morphology of the cloacal region of the
African ostrich (Struthio camelus massaicus)".
427:
Their large size prevents the capability of flight, but this is compensated by their exceptionally long and muscular legs, which allow for maximum running speeds of up to 60â70 km/h.
914:
McKeegan, D.E.F.; Deeming, D.C. (January 1997). "Effects of gender and group size on the time-activity budgets of adult breeding ostriches (Struthio camelus) in a farming environment".
628:
Masai ostriches are not the main prey items for key carnivores. Only lions are the central predator of adults in most areas, but many species prey on ostrich eggs including
402:
was determined to also be a red-necked form of ostrich based on historical evidence, similar analysis of mtDNA found the Masai ostrich to not be as close of a relative to
1416:
Magige, Flora John; Moe, Børge; Røskaft, Eivin (July 2008). "The white colour of the
Ostrich (Struthio camelus) egg is a trade-off between predation and overheating".
1089:
656:
During the 1990s, worldwide domestication and breeding of the Masai ostrich rose in popularity. The primary products of ostrich farming are meat and leather.
1554:
Okello, Moses
Makonjio, et al. "Population Status and trend of the Maasai ostrich in the mid-KenyaâTanzania borderland." Natural Resources 7.10 (2016): 558.
507:
promotes water retention in arid environments. Masai ostriches also possess salt-excreting nasal glands which allow for consumption of salt water from
1451:
Muwazi, R. T.; Baranga, Jonathan; Kayanja, Frederik I. B.; Schliemann, Harald (October 1982). "The oviduct of the ostrichStruthio camelus massaicus".
1254:
1846:
595:
primary food source. Hatchlings are about the size of a domestic chicken hen and are physically precocious, but still require parental care.
1317:
Kimwele, C. N.; Graves, J. A. (19 December 2002). "A molecular genetic analysis of the communal nesting of the ostrich (Struthio camelus)".
1951:
786:
Seddon, Philip J.; Soorae, Pritpal S. (February 1999). "Guidelines for
Subspecific Substitutions in Wildlife Restoration Projects".
1910:
1807:
675:
Ostrich eggs and feathers have been harvested for ornamental purposes throughout history, but are frequently utilized today by the
321:
The Masai ostrich is one of the three extant subspecies of ostrich currently inhabiting Africa, including the nominative ostrich (
1923:
1833:
602:
1928:
859:
1838:
539:. Despite this preference, they have been known to also inhabit desert, dense brush, and steep rocky mountain environments.
1971:
1746:
1644:
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risk of eggs overheating and occurrence of embryo mortality over increased predation during these periods of exposure.
1170:
1137:
1851:
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serves as an ideal alternative meat source due to its large size and notably tender meat. The greater occurrence of
491:
Several physiological adaptations have evolved to allow the Masai ostrich to live in the extreme arid conditions of
1966:
1673:
233:
890:
The ecology and behaviour of the Masai
Ostrich (Struthio camelus massaicus) in the Serengeti Ecosystem, Tanzania
1961:
556:
A male Masai ostrich in
Naboisho Conservancy, Kenya, showing the characteristic pink hue of a breeding male.
573:
1755:
742:
1773:
93:
672:
systems in numerous muscle groups in this subspecies are believed to attribute to this tenderness.
561:
breeding males. They will also construct scrape nests in prior to the arrival of breeding females.
1760:
1225:"Renal function, respiration, heart rate and thermoregulation in the ostrich (Struthio camelus)"
1708:
715:
360:, despite habitat overlap. Explanations for these counterintuitive findings are that while the
212:
44:
1248:
757:
329:
323:
1861:
1571:"Severe decline of large birds in the Northern Sahel of West Africa: a long-term assessment"
1794:
1369:
1281:
1360:
Bertram, Brian C. R. (May 1979). "Ostriches recognise their own eggs and discard others".
8:
1224:
719:
535:. Denser populations are often found in the semi-arid, open grassy plains of the African
352:(mtDNA) found the Masai ostrich, though genetically distinct, is most closely related to
58:
1674:"Post-mortem analysis in three muscles of red neck ostrich (Struthio camelus massaicus)"
1373:
1285:
582:
1976:
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1625:
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492:
88:
1522:
Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology
927:
581:
Similar to other ostrich subspecies, the Masai ostrich nests in groups and engages in
1956:
1897:
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1334:
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300:. It is one of the largest birds in the world, second only to its sister subspecies
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155:
1645:"Egg production of Red and Blue Neck ostriches under European farming conditions"
950:"Phylogeographic Patterns in Mitochondrial DNA of the Ostrich (Struthio camelus)"
661:
398:
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243:
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1533:
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189:
1621:
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1429:
1223:
Louw, Gideon N., Belonje, Peter C. & Coetzee Hendrik J. (1 January 1972).
1008:
1945:
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495:. Their feathers have specialized to work as efficient insulators for proper
430:
229:
165:
145:
78:
73:
1541:
1504:
1487:
1338:
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333:). It is considered one of the two red-necked forms of ostrich, along with
1147:
356:, despite their geographical separation, and least genetically related to
1820:
1740:
1389:
669:
500:
305:
297:
897:
758:"Struthio camelus massaicus (African Ostrich (North African)) - Avibase"
30:
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Cloudsley-Thompson, J. L.; Mohamed, El Rasid Musa (December 1967).
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125:
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populations. Conversely, the genetic divergence observed between
175:
1799:
633:
629:
524:
480:
361:
115:
1450:
695:, wild ostrich populations are acknowledged to be in decline.
474:
Example of male Masai ostrich everting penis to excrete liquid
327:) found across northern Africa and the South African ostrich (
1671:
528:
1672:
Velotto, S.; Varricchio, E.; Vitale, C.; Crasto, A. (2010).
503:
release and use of mucus in place of water for excretion of
637:
135:
1606:
1193:
993:
1267:
1161:
Brown, Leslie; Urban, Emil K.; Newman, Kenneth (1982).
1486:
Wilson, H.R.; Eldred, A.R.; Wilcox, C.J. (July 1997).
1229:
Scientific Papers of the Namib Desert Research Station
714:
1518:
849:
691:
is listed as a species of âleast concernâ under the
1485:
743:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T45020636A132189458.en
1943:
1415:
1160:
948:Freitag, Stefanie; Robinson, Terence J. (1993).
465:
1642:
1029:
947:
913:
679:as source of food and as a vessel for liquids.
1316:
499:during both hot and cold climates. Increased
1253:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
909:
907:
785:
486:
1488:"Storage Time and Ostrich Egg Hatchability"
518:
348:Comparative restriction-enzyme analysis of
337:, as opposed to the two blue-necked forms (
1127:
577:Major Female Masai ostrich incubating eggs
292:is a red-necked subspecies variety of the
242:
67:
43:
29:
1586:
1503:
1293:
1207:
965:
904:
854:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
741:
647:
386:to significantly differ genetically from
1568:
1087:
601:
572:
551:
523:Wild Masai ostriches are located across
469:
429:
1359:
542:
450:The feathers of the Masai ostrich lack
1944:
1667:
1665:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1132:. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.
1083:
1081:
887:
710:
708:
1707:
1706:
1681:Israel Journal of Veterinary Medicine
1569:Thiollay, Jean-Marc (December 2006).
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396:Although the now extinct subspecies
1952:IUCN Red List least concern species
1662:
1595:
1492:Journal of Applied Poultry Research
852:The Ostrich Communal Nesting System
729:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
705:
610:
568:
13:
1643:HorbaĂączuk, J.; Sales, J. (2001).
1557:
1404:
1261:
1130:Grzimek's Animal life encyclopedia
1104:
1058:
1044:10.1111/j.1469-1795.1999.tb00062.x
664:as well as high concentrations of
14:
1988:
982:
934:
876:
814:
774:
662:type I compared to type II fibres
1331:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2003.01727.x
916:Applied Animal Behaviour Science
800:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.97414.x
92:
1636:
1575:Bird Conservation International
1548:
1512:
1479:
1444:
1353:
1310:
1216:
1187:
1154:
434:Male and female Masai ostrich (
1270:"Water Economy of the Ostrich"
1023:
750:
413:
1:
1610:Biodiversity and Conservation
1128:Grzimek, Bernhard (1972â75).
928:10.1016/S0168-1591(96)01096-9
850:Bertram, Brian C. R. (2014).
698:
466:Reproductive/Excretory organs
316:
623:
7:
1972:Taxa named by Oscar Neumann
1088:Hurxthal, Lewis M. (1986).
888:Magige, Flora John (2008).
547:
311:
10:
1993:
1761:Struthio_camelus_massaicus
1747:Struthio camelus massaicus
1717:Struthio camelus massaicus
1534:10.1016/j.cbpa.2012.05.184
1165:. London: Academic Press.
722:Struthio camelus massaicus
606:Example of an ostrich nest
445:
418:
285:Struthio camelus massaicus
222:Struthio camelus massaicus
1872:
1715:
1622:10.1007/s10531-008-9481-6
1588:10.1017/S0959270906000487
1430:10.1007/s10336-008-0273-2
1090:"Our gang, ostrich style"
1009:10.1007/s10592-010-0149-x
682:
487:Environmental adaptations
304:. Today it is farmed for
250:
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218:
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89:Scientific classification
87:
65:
56:
51:
42:
37:
28:
23:
1652:Archiv fĂźr GeflĂźgelkunde
1453:Journal fĂźr Ornithologie
519:Distribution and habitat
302:Struthio camelus camelus
1967:Birds described in 1898
1520:mammals and reptiles".
589:
438:side-by-side comparison
1418:Journal of Ornithology
1196:The Kenya Veterinarian
716:BirdLife International
648:Relationship to humans
607:
578:
557:
475:
442:
308:, meat, and feathers.
997:Conservation Genetics
605:
576:
555:
473:
433:
288:), also known as the
1962:Birds of East Africa
1505:10.1093/japr/6.2.216
1241:10520/AJA0000008_220
788:Conservation Biology
543:Behavior and ecology
379:S. c. molybdophanes,
290:East African ostrich
204:S. c. massaicus
1374:1979Natur.279..233B
1286:1967Natur.216.1040C
1163:The birds of Africa
1032:Animal Conservation
762:avibase.bsc-eoc.org
358:S. c. molybdophanes
343:S. c. molybdyphanes
59:Conservation status
1874:Struthio massaicus
1465:10.1007/BF01643275
608:
579:
558:
493:Sub-Saharan Africa
476:
443:
296:and is endemic to
262:Masai subspecies (
16:Subspecies of bird
1939:
1938:
1709:Taxon identifiers
1368:(5710): 233â234.
1319:Molecular Ecology
1295:10.1038/2161040a0
861:978-1-4008-6314-3
350:mitochondrial DNA
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689:Struthio camelus
617:Struthio camelus
611:Food and feeding
569:Communal nesting
515:when necessary.
497:thermoregulation
436:S. c. massaicus)
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156:Struthioniformes
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658:S. c. massaicus
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458:reddish-brown.
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384:S. c. massaicus
375:S. c. massaicus
371:S. c. australis
367:S. c. massaicus
354:S. c. australis
339:S. c. australis
330:S. c. australis
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264:S. c. massaicus
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1581:(4): 353â365.
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1498:(2): 216â220.
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1459:(4): 425â433.
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1424:(3): 323â328.
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1325:(1): 229â236.
1309:
1280:(5119): 1040.
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1038:(3): 165â171.
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1003:(2): 423â431.
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399:S. c. syriacus
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294:common ostrich
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409:
408:S. c. camelus
405:
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394:
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389:
388:S. c. camelus
385:
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368:
363:
359:
355:
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344:
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335:S. c. camelus
332:
331:
326:
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324:S. c. camelus
309:
307:
303:
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280:Masai ostrich
268:
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258:
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166:Struthionidae
164:
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146:Palaeognathae
144:
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137:
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117:
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111:
110:
107:
104:
101:
100:
95:
90:
86:
80:
75:
74:Least Concern
64:
60:
55:
50:
46:
41:
36:
32:
27:
22:
19:
1873:
1716:
1684:
1680:
1655:
1651:
1638:
1613:
1609:
1578:
1574:
1550:
1528:(1): 56â65.
1525:
1521:
1514:
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1456:
1452:
1446:
1421:
1417:
1365:
1361:
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1249:cite journal
1232:
1228:
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1199:
1195:
1189:
1162:
1156:
1129:
1100:: 34â41, 94.
1097:
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957:
953:
919:
915:
898:11250/244464
889:
851:
791:
787:
765:. Retrieved
761:
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640:, and other
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406:compared to
403:
397:
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362:Brachystegia
357:
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289:
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263:
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198:Subspecies:
188:
176:
142:Infraclass:
18:
1821:iNaturalist
1741:Wikispecies
1209:11295/65982
670:calpastatin
615:Like other
501:aldosterone
414:Description
298:East Africa
1946:Categories
1889:Q109563502
892:(Thesis).
767:2019-12-05
699:References
513:soda lakes
390:subspecies
317:Subspecies
1977:Ostriches
1202:: 53â55.
870:884012871
624:Predators
505:uric acid
184:Species:
112:Kingdom:
106:Eukaryota
1957:Struthio
1883:Wikidata
1732:Q3976168
1726:Wikidata
1693:35805650
1542:22609929
1473:42620338
1438:25321892
1347:32020136
1339:12492891
1052:85959044
1017:28575743
808:84578693
718:(2018).
583:crŃching
548:Breeding
533:Tanzania
312:Taxonomy
177:Struthio
162:Family:
126:Chordata
122:Phylum:
116:Animalia
102:Domain:
79:IUCN 3.1
1929:1000328
1916:9117841
1852:1608625
1813:6175926
1800:1298638
1769:Avibase
1630:3149903
1398:4236729
1370:Bibcode
1304:4278385
1282:Bibcode
1181:8982298
976:4088425
954:The Auk
687:Though
666:calpain
634:hyaenas
630:jackals
537:savanna
446:Plumage
419:Anatomy
230:Neumann
172:Genus:
152:Order:
132:Class:
77: (
52:Female
1862:275142
1859:uBio:
1839:696089
1826:322201
1691:
1628:
1540:
1471:
1436:
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1390:440431
1388:
1362:Nature
1345:
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1274:Nature
1179:
1169:
1148:425737
1146:
1136:
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1015:
974:
868:
858:
806:
683:Status
677:Maasai
525:Uganda
509:saline
481:cloaca
260:
1903:536PX
1787:5LC43
1689:S2CID
1677:(PDF)
1648:(PDF)
1626:S2CID
1469:S2CID
1434:S2CID
1394:S2CID
1343:S2CID
1300:S2CID
1048:S2CID
1013:S2CID
972:JSTOR
804:S2CID
638:lions
529:Kenya
452:barbs
38:Male
1924:ITIS
1911:GBIF
1847:NCBI
1834:ITIS
1808:GBIF
1538:PMID
1386:PMID
1335:PMID
1255:link
1233:1972
1177:OCLC
1167:ISBN
1144:OCLC
1134:ISBN
866:OCLC
856:ISBN
734:2018
590:Eggs
531:and
511:and
377:and
369:and
341:and
306:eggs
278:The
234:1898
136:Aves
1898:CoL
1795:EoL
1782:CoL
1756:AFD
1618:doi
1583:doi
1530:doi
1526:163
1500:doi
1461:doi
1457:123
1426:doi
1422:149
1378:doi
1366:279
1327:doi
1290:doi
1278:216
1237:hdl
1204:hdl
1040:doi
1005:doi
962:doi
958:110
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894:hdl
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