Art of Mathura - Knowledge

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phenomenon which is clearly visible in coin legends and made the script visually more similarly to Greek. In this new typeface, the letter were "neat and well-formed". The probable introduction of ink and pen writing, with the characteristic thickenned start of each stroke generated by the usage of ink, was reproduced in the calligraphy of stone inscriptions by the creation of a triangle-shaped form at the beginning of each stroke. This new writing style is particularly visible in the numerous dedicatory inscriptions made in Mathura, in association with devotional works of art. This new calligraphy of the Brahmi script was adopted in the rest of the subcontinent of the next half century. The "new-pen-style" initiated a rapid evolution of the script from the 1st century CE, with regional variations starting to emerge.

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form, least of all by human figure, without compromising the fundamental attitude of the worshipper to the all-pervasive power that was being propitiated. Such a change in the approach of the tightly-knit Vedic and even post-Vedic society, orchestrated as it was by orthodox priesthood, could not have come of itself. This was possible when such an urge was actually felt by the general masses and that feeling was intensified by the ideological impact of fresh ethnic influx into the Indian social pool.

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calm and serenity. The style becomes elegant and refined, with a very delicate rendering of the draping and a sort of radiance reinforced by the usage of pink sandstone. Artistic details tend to be less realistic, as seen in the symbolic shell-like curls used to render the hairstyle of the Buddha, and the ornate halos around the head of the Buddhas. The art of the Gupta is often considered as the pinnacle of Indian Buddhist art, achieving a beautiful rendering of the Buddhist ideal.

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during this period, such as the spituality of the sculptures, their elegant slimness and suppleness. As the country disintegrated, so did the arts, the artistic rendering becoming coarse, formal and stereotyped. Some decadent effects are obtained by the increase in ornament, the enlargement of crowns, the multiplication of arms and the profusion of attendant deities. The rendering of the human figure becomes rather artificial and highly stylized, relying heavily on the curbed

2308: 4367: 13069: 7038:"Soldier heads. During the Mauryan period, the military activity was more evidenced in the public life. Possibly, foreign soldiers frequently visited India and attracted Indian modellers with their ethnic features and uncommon uniform. From Mathura in Uttar Pradesh and Basarh in Bihar, some terracotta heads have been reported, which represent soldiers. Artistically, the Basarh terracotta soldier-heads are better, executed than those from Mathura." in 4182: 2104:(eight such inscriptions are known, often on sculptural works), and the fact that Sodasa is known through his coinage as well as through his relations with other Indo-Scythian rulers whose dates are known, means that Sodasa functions as a historic marker to ascertain the sculptural styles at Mathura during his rule, in the first half of the 1st century CE. These inscriptions also correspond to some of the first known epigraphical inscriptions in 3272: 3609: 3342: 3337: 3327: 3317: 3859: 1905: 4147: 4188: 4159: 3639: 3627: 3620: 3374: 2819: 2797: 2763: 2808: 2752: 2357: 5234: 4153: 3634: 3604: 3380: 3312: 2803: 2779: 2352: 2330: 658:

the Maurya Empire. The creation of terracotta figurines is thought to have been much easier than sculpting stone, and therefore became the mainstream form of artistic expression. In Mathura, the first statuette were found in strata dating to the late 4th-2nd centuries BCE, and their production, together with associated terracotta miniatures of votive tanks and shrines, seems to have continued for close to a thousand years.

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have been the object of a rural popular cult, but were rather produced in urban workshops and worshipped in shrines by an affluent urban community. Although few ancient Yaksha statues remain in good condition, the vigor of the style has been applauded, and expresses essentially Indian qualities. They are often pot-bellied, two-armed and fierce-looking. The

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from being benevolent, powerful deities at the center of worship, to becoming frightening demonic creatures acting as subsidiary attendants in the major religions of Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism. They also became much smaller in size as they were dethroned by the new religions, suggesting the continuation of a cult at the domestic level.

2692: 3214:. Various broken bases of Buddha statues with inscriptions have been attributed to the Kshatrapas. A fragment of such a stele was found with the mention of the name of the donor as a "Kshatrapa lady" named Naṃda who dedicated the Bodhisattva image "for the welfare and happiness of all sentient beings for the acceptance of the 1639:. It is at the same time one of the most artistically beautiful and earliest of the Yakshi sculptures, with detailed patterning contrasting with the smoothness of the skin, standing at the beginning of a long tradition of Yashi sculptures in Mathura and India as a whole. There are many similarities with the Yakshis found in 2921:. It is rather unassuming and not yet monumental compared to the Buddha sculptures of the following century, and may represent one of the first attempts to create a human icon, marking an evolution from the splendid aniconic tradition of Buddhist art in respect to the person of the Buddha, which can be seen in the art of 737: 7002:"Iranian Heads From Mathura, some terracotta male-heads were recovered, which portray the Iranian people with whom the Indians came into closer contact during the fourth and third centuries B.C. Agrawala calls them the representatives of Iranian people because their facial features present foreign ethnic affinities." 2983:, which is indeed the exact term used in most of the inscriptions of the statues found in Mathura. Only one or two statues of the Mathura type are known to mention the Buddha himself. This could be in conformity with an ancient Buddhist prohibition against showing the Buddha himself in human form, otherwise known as 1719: 2652: 5858: 554:(2nd millennium BCE), some of them suggesting anthropomorphological characteristics. Interpretations vary as to the exact signification of these artifacts, or even the culture and the periodization to which they belonged. Some examples of artistic expression also appear in abstract pottery designs during the 3734:, inscribed "4th year of Kanishka" and described as a Bodhisattva in its dedicatory inscription. Inscribed "Kapardin Bodhisattva" statues are unknown beyond "Year 39 of Kanishka" (166 CE), and after that time, the Gandharan type with monastic robe covering both shoulders would become prevalent well into the 3820: 2239: 5184:

The art of Mathura continued to become more sophisticated during the Gupta Empire, between the 4th and 6th centuries CE. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the Gupta period (4th to 6th century CE) to reach a very high fineness of execution and delicacy in the modeling, displaying

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has been found in the ruins of the Temple of Mat in Mathura. The statues are characterized by their frontality and martial stance, with Kanishka being shown holding firmly his sword and a huge mace. They are wearing heavy coats and heavy riding boots typical of the clothing of Central Asian nomads at

1489:. The Yakshas are a broad class of nature-spirits, usually benevolent, but sometimes mischievous or capricious, connected with water, fertility, trees, the forest, treasure and wilderness, and were the object of popular worship. Many of them were later incorporated into Buddhism, Jainism or Hinduism. 875:

Before the introduction of stone sculpture, there may have been an older tradition of using clay or wood to represent Indian deities, which, because of their inherent fragility, have not survived. Apart from the local terracotta figurines generally showing female fertility deities, there are no early

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We should do well to remember that the Aryans worshipped purely the elementary forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices, together with appropriate hymns. In this scheme of ritual it was not necessary, nor was it possible to substitute the object of exaltation so convincingly by any concrete

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In many ways, Gupta art had represented the zenith of the art of Mathura, with its beautiful and elegant creations. In the Medieval period, efforts were made at emulating Gupta art, but the technical level in sculpture decreased significantly. Many of the qualities found in Gupta art start to vanish

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to the end of the 1st century BCE. The Indo-Scythians, following their establishment in northern India introduced "revolutionary changes" in the way Brahmi was written. In the 1st century BCE, the shape of Brahmi characters became more angular, and the vertical segments of letters were equalized, a

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The two uninscribed male torsos that were discovered are both of high craftsmanship and in Indian style and costume. They are bare-chested but wear a thick necklace, as well as heavy hearrings. The two torsos that were found are similar with minor variations, suggesting they may have been part of a

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In the production of colossal Yaksha statues carved in the round, which can be found in several locations in northern India, the art of Mathura is considered as the most advanced in quality and quantity during this period. In later periods, from the turn of the millennium, Yashkas and Nagas evolved

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In the 2nd century BCE, Yakshas became the focus of the creation of colossal cultic images, typically around 2 meters or more in height, which are considered as probably the first Indian anthropomorphic productions in stone. The colossal size and quality of these statues shows that they cannot just

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The art of Mathura became extremely influential over the rest of India, and was "the most prominent artistic production center from the second century BCE". There is a remarkable unity in the style of artistic production across northern India during this early period, circa 150 BCE: the early style

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mace, and in the left hand the figure of a small standing devotee or child joining hands in prayer. It is often suggested that the style of the colossal Yaksha statuary had an important influence on the creation of later divine images and human figures in India. The female equivalent of the Yashas

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Stone art and architecture began being produced at Mathura at the time of "Indo-Greek hegemony" over the region. Some authors consider that Indo-Greek cultural elements are not particularly visible in these works, and Hellenistic influence is not more important than in other parts of India. Others

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Although no stone sculpture or architecture from the Mauryan period are known in Mathura, some relatively high quality terracotta statuettes have been recovered from the Mauryan strata in excavations. This would suggest that there was some level of artistic creation at Mathura during the period of

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To some extent, as the Kushans progressively adapted to life in India, their dress progressively became lighter, and representation less frontal and more natural, although they generally retained characteristic elements of their nomadic dress, such as the trousers and boots, the heavy tunics, and

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statues found in Mathura and dating to the 2nd and 1st century BCE, such as the sculpting in the round, or the clothing style, but the actual details of style and workmanship clearly belong to the time of Sodasa. The Vrishni statues also are not of the colossal type, as they would only have stood

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during this period. Several of these seem to represent foreign soldiers who visited India during the Mauryan period and influenced modellers in Mathura with their peculiar ethnic features and uniforms. One of the terracotta statuettes, a man nicknamed the "Persian nobleman" and dated to the 2nd

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It is thought that the images of Jain saints, which can be seen in Mathura from the 1st century BCE, were prototypes for the first Mathura images of the Buddha, since the attitudes are very similar, and the almost transparent very thin garment of the Buddha not much different visually from the

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from the North-West. The Persepolitan capitals with human-headed animal figures and volutes as well as the presence of the battlement motif as a decorative element point to Iranian affinities. These influences came partly as a result of the general saturation of foreign motifs in early Indian

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Only six Kushan coins of the Buddha are known in gold (the sixth one is the centerpiece of an ancient piece of jewellery, consisting of a Kanishka Buddha coin decorated with a ring of heart-shaped ruby stones). All these coins were minted in gold under Kanishka I, and are in two different

4524: 1538:, the hem of the dress in the monumental early Yaksha statues is derived from Greek art. Describing the drapery of one of these statues, John Boardman writes: "It has no local antecedents and looks most like a Greek Late Archaic mannerism", and suggests it is possibly derived from the 4980: 4030: 3472:

that time, irrespective of the warm climate of India. The coats are richly decorated with hundreds of pearls, which probably symbolize wealth. These grandiose displays of Kushan dynastic power were accompanied by surperlative regnal titles: the statue of Kanishka is inscribed in

4336:", who ruled circa 247–265 CE. The jewelry of these Bodhisattva statues includes heavy necklaces, ornate turbans, bejeweled armbands, a string across the chest with small reliquaries. The types of princely ornaments of these statues were adopted for the depiction of Hindu gods 5480:, showing Vishnu with a human head, again flanked by the muzzle of a boar the head of a lion, but with a multitude of beings on his aureole, symbol of the numerous creations and emanations resulting from his creative power. These sculptures can be dated to the 5th century CE. 4873: 3924:. In general, the representation of the Buddha on these coins is already highly symbolic, and quite distinct from the more naturalistic and Hellenistic images seen in early Gandhara sculptures. On several designs a mustache is apparent. The palm of his right hand bears the 12515:

English translation: "Towards the middle of the 6th century, the activity of the Mathura school abruptly ceased, undoubtedly following the ravages of the Huns who had invaded the Gupta empire around 455. It must have died with the art of Gandhara under the persecutions by

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The last known inscribed "Kapardin Bodhisattava" statue is dated to the year 39 of the era started by Kanishka (166 CE). From around that time, the art of Mathura adopted the image of the Buddha with the monastic robe covering both shoulders, a likely derivation from the

477:, which developed from the 1st century CE. In particular, there is a debate about the origin of the Buddha image and the role played by each school of art. Before the creation of an image of the Buddha, probably around the 1st century CE, Indian Buddhist art, as seen in 697: 2006:

which records events of the Indo-Scythian dynasty as well as their support of Buddhism. It is also an interesting example of the state of artistic attainment in the city of Mathura at the turn of our era. The capital portrays two lions reminiscent of the lions of the

5257: 1023:, was a logical practice for the Greeks, in order to appropriate the power of local deties: it "should not be regarded as a "conversion" to Hinduism, but rather as the result of a search for the most helpful local powers, upholding own traditions in a foreign garb." 926:, circa 180-190 BCE. The coins were probably issued in an area not far west of Mathura, if not in Mathura itself, since they depict Vāsudeva, whose cult was famous in Mathura, and employ the Brahmi script, which was in use in the region, rather than the northwestern 4456:

Specific Mathuran adaptations tend to reflect warmer climatic conditions, as they consist in a higher fluidity of the clothing, which progressively tend to cover only one shoulder instead of both. Also, facial types also tend to become more Indianized. Banerjee in

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on the obverse. Indo-Scythians are known to have sponsored Buddhism, but also other religions, as visible from their inscriptions and archaeological remains in northwestern and western India, as well as from their contributions to pre-Kushana sculpture in Mathura.

5766:"Towards the middle of the 6th century, the activity of the Mathura school abruptly ceased, undoubtedly following the ravages of the Huns who had invaded the Gupta empire around 455. It must have died with the art of Gandhara under the persecutions by Mihirakula." 8564: 4042: 1707: 11792:

There is strong archaeological evidence in favour of Mathura being a centre of Buddhist religious activities (and not Vaishnava worship) during the Gupta period. (...) In fact the Hindu images which appear at Mathura in the pre-Gupta days are very few in

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The famous "Katra Bodhisattava stele" is the only fully intact image of a "Kapardin" Bodhisattva remaining from the Kshatrapa period, and is considered as the foundation type of the "Kapardin" Buddha imagery, and is the "classical statement of the type".

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under the Kushans, whose reign began circa 127 CE. The sculptural styles at Mathura during the reign of Sodasa are quite distinctive, and significantly different from the style of the previous period circa 50 BCE, or the styles of the later period of the

7563:"Some Newly Discovered Inscriptions from Mathura : The Meghera Well Stone Inscription of Yavanarajya Year 160 Recently a stone inscription was acquired in the Government Museum, Mathura." India's ancient past, Shankar Goyal Book Enclave, 2004, p.189 6003: 12518:

French original: "Vers le milieu du VIe siécle, l'activité de l'école de Mathura cesse brusquement sans doute à la suite des ravages des Huns qui avaient envahi l'empire Gupta vers 455. Elle a dû mourir avec l'art du Gandhara sous les persécussions de

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grounds, is monumental at 2.59 meters high. An inscription says "Made by Gomitaka, a pupil of Kunika. Set up by eight brothers, members of the Manibhadra congregation ("puga")." This inscription thus indicates that the statue represents the Yaksa

721: 8873:"The hippocamps, the tritons, centaurs and other weird creatures, which certainly were borrowed from Western Art, occur at Gaya and other places, in the sculptures of the early period. Forms more or less similar occur at Mathura and Arnaravati." 2223: 682:

Several figures of foreigners also appear in the terracottas from the 4th and 3rd century BCE, which are either described simply as "foreigners" or Persian or Iranian because of their foreign features. These figurines might reflect the increased

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The depictions of Indian deities, as witnessed by the Indo-Greeks transferred on their coinage, are generally thought to refer to Balarama-Samkarshana and Vāsudeva-Krishna, shown together with their rather unambiguous attributes, especially the

5921: 3804: 6174: 3709:""Since it is not permitted to make an image of the Buddha's body, I pray that the Buddha will grant that I can make an image of the attendant Bodhisattva. Is that acceptable?" The Buddha answered: "You may make an image of the Bodhisattava"" 3002:""Since it is not permitted to make an image of the Buddha's body, I pray that the Buddha will grant that I can make an image of the attendant Bodhisattva. Is that acceptable?" The Buddha answered: "You may make an image of the Bodhisattava"" 652:

votive figurine from Mathura. The wide hips and fantastic floral headdress suggest a devotion towards fertility and abundance. She has lotus stalks in her head, and children clinging to her. Height: 25.7 cm (10.1 ″). Mathura, 3rd-2nd century

9328:"We have actually discovered in the excavations at the Mora shrine stone torsos representing the Vrishni Heroes (...) Their style closely follows that of the free-standing Yakshas in that they are carved in the round. They are dressed in a 4695:

started to develop from the 1st to the 2nd century CE, and there are only very few examples of artistic representation before that time. Almost all of the first known instances of Hindu art have been discovered in the areas of Mathura and

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scenes. Although inspired from the art of Gandhara, the portraiture of Herakles is not perfectly exact and may show a lack of understanding of the subject matter, as Herakles is shown already wearing the skin of the lion he is fighting.

12549:"The art in the Gupta age had reached its zenith achieving the highest aim in harmonising the beauty with spirit. The Medieval artist for some time strived hard to follow the Gupta idiom but could not successfully handle the chisel" in 11184: 5653: 4860:, symbolically showing the genealogical relationship being the different deities. The depiction of Vāsudeva and later Vishnu was stylistically derived from the type of the ornate Bodhisattvas, with rich jewelry and ornate headdress. 1646:

Some other sculpted figures also are dated to circa 150 BCE, due to their similarity with equivalent figures in Bharhut. This is the case of a male Chauri-bearer with its sharp lines and stiff expression, held at the Mathura Museum.

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The earliest types of "Kapardin" statuary (named after the "kapardin", the characteristic tuft of coiled hair of the Buddha) showing the Buddha with attendants are thought to be pre-Kushan, dating to the time of the "Kshatrapas" or

2956:. Here the Buddha is not wearing the monastic robe which would become characteristic of many of the later Buddha images. The cross-legged sitting posture may have derived from earlier reliefs of cross-legged ascetics or teachers at 9894:"The Ayagapata which had been set up by Simhanddika, anterior to the reign of Kanishka, and which is assignable to a period not later than 1 A.D., is worth notice because of the typical pillars in the Persian-Achaemenian style" in 9659:"The Ayagapata which had been set up by Simhanddika, anterior to the reign of Kanishka, and which is assignable to a period not later than 1 A.D., is worth notice because of the typical pillars in the Persian-Achaemenian style" in 7337:"The folk art typifies an older plastic tradition in clay and wood which was now put in stone, as seen in the massive Yaksha statuary which are also of exceptional value as models of subsequent divine images and human figures." in 4378: 5839: 3788: 6150: 1763: 8290:"With respect to large-scale iconic statuary carved in the round (...) the region of Mathura not only rivaled other areas but surpassed them in overall quality and quantity throughout the second and early first century BCE." in 2536: 2463: 2259: 3989:

When inscribed, these standing statues mention the "Buddha" rather than the "Bodhisattva". Several are dated to the 2nd century CE, and became the prevalent Buddha type, displaying characteristics which would later be seen in

5177:, with Mathura school remaining the most important and the oldest. It is characterized by its usage of mottled red stone from Karri in the Mathura district, and its foreign influences, continuing the traditions of the art of 4503:. Sculptured Bacchanalian panels seem to have functioned as supporting pedestals for offering bowls, as seen from the circular indent carved in the middle of the top area. They were likely set up in or near Buddhist shrines. 6054: 549:

focused exclusively on the worship of purely "elementary forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves easily to anthropomorphological representations. Various artefacts may belong to the

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on the other side, is another example of the still hesitant handling of the human icon of the Buddha in the Buddhist art of Mathura. The Buddhist character of this architrave is clearly demonstrated by the depiction of the

2606:. They are all dated to the reign of Sodasa, circa 15 CE and constitute a secure dated artistic reference for the evaluation of datation of other Mathura sculptures. It has been suggested that the grapevine design had been 5949: 5618: 10195:"This aniconic tradition was shortly to disappear and the iconic types of the Buddha made their sudden appearance apparently simultaneously in the so-called Hellenic school of Gandhara and the Indian school of Mathura." 4572: 5596: 6070: 5471:, but never in the statuary of Mathura. Recent scholarship considers that these "Vishnu" statues still show the emanation Vāsudeva Krishna as the central human-shaped deity, rather than the Supreme God Vishnu himself. 3936:, formed by one, two or three lines, surrounds him. The full gown worn by the Buddha on the coins, covering both shoulders, suggests a Gandharan model rather than a Mathuran one, and the style is clearly Hellenistic. 5050: 1751: 1829:

sculpture. These reliefs show more depth, and a greater richness in their composition. These examples of narrative reliefs, although few remain, are as refined and intricate as the better known narrative reliefs of

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The early representation of the Buddha by the Kushans are those of the "Kapardin" Bodhisattva type, "Kapardin" referring to the coiled hair tuft on top of his head. The Buddha is shown with his appearance after

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wheel for the latter. The worship of these deities is known to have originated in Mathura before spreading to other areas of India, especially since Krishna and his brother Balarama were born in Mathura to the

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with a peculiar headdress, and are shown holding their attributes: a plow and a sort of mace for Balarama, and a mace and a wheel for Vāsudeva. A third smaller character is added, forming what can be called a

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Most of the early finds at Mathura correspond to what is called the "second period of urbanization" in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, after a gap of about a thousand years following the collapse of the

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were actually first depicted in Buddhist sculpture from the 2nd-1st century BCE, as attendants in scenes commemorating the life of the Buddha, even when the Buddha himself was not yet shown in human form

2512: 12358: 5399:, Mathura remained primarily a center of Buddhist artistic activity and worship, but a few Hindu sculptures started to appear. The first known creation of the Guptas relating to Hindu art at Mathura is 5131: 5553: 1871: 8686: 8640: 5758:. The art of Mathura suffered greatly from the destructions brought by the Hunas, as did the art of Gandhara in the northwest, and both schools of art were nearly wiped out under the rule of the Huna 1173:

in eastern India. This is now thought to be rather inadequate since the Sungas probably never ruled in Mathura: there is no literary, numismatic or epigraphic evidence of a Sunga presence in Mathura.

5961: 3939:

Kanishka also issued other types of Buddhist coinage, representation a "Shakyamuni Buddha" standing and walking, as well as a seated "Maitreya Buddha". It should be noted however that Maitreya is a

2403:", are numerous, and some of the earliest ones have been dated to circa 50-20 BCE. They were probably prototypes for the first known Mathura images of the Buddha. Many of them were found around the 1739: 5882: 5082: 4782:

until the 4th century CE. Statues dating to the 2nd and 3rd century show a possibly four-armed Vāsudeva standing with his attributes: the wheel, the mace and the conch, his right hand saluting in

2563: 1673: 12248:"Naigamesa was a popular deity in the Kushana period and we have at least eight figures of this god from Mathura assignable to c. 1st to 3rd century A.D. (GMM., E. 1, 15.909, 15, 1001, 15. 1046, 2917:. The symbolism of this early statue is still tentative, drawing heavily on the earlier, especially Jain, pictural traditions of Mathura, still far from the exuberant standardized designs of the 1200:, are thought to have been absent from Mathura, as no epigraphical remains or coins have been found, and to have been based to the east of the Mathura region. Coins of local Indian rulers of the 11199: 6937:"The largest number of mother-goddess figurines has been found in western Uttar Pradesh in Mathura, which in the Mauryan period became an important terracotta making centre outside Magadh." in 5097: 1852: 4892:, are absent from Mathura, suggesting the near absence of this cult in northern India down to the end of the Gupta period (6th century CE). The first major depictions of the legendary life of 570:. The anthropomorphic depiction of various deities apparently started in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, possibly as a consequence of the influx of foreign stimuli initiated with the 4082: 10258:"It has also been suggested that the early seated Buddha images owe something to the first-century BC representations of seated kings, as seen on coins of the northwest (nos 27 and 28)." 4809:

A few triads are known from Mathura, dated to the 1st-2nd century CE, showing Vāsudeva and Saṃkarṣaṇa with their attributes, together with a female standing in the middle, thought to be

4255: 6106:. When it was attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni, "all the idols" were burnt and destroyed during a period of twenty days, gold and silver was smelted for booty, and the city was burnt down. 1661: 5909: 5937: 4058: 6135: 3674:. The Kushans adopted the anthropomorphic image of the Buddha, and developed it into a standardized mode of representation, using "confident and powerful imagery" on a grand scale. 5004: 5894: 1998:

Some works of art dated to the end of the 1st century BCE show very delicate workmanship, such as the sculptures of Yakshis. A the very end of this period the Indo-Scythian ruler

1798:

By 100 BCE, the reliefs represent more complex scenes, defining, according to Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, an age of "iconic diversification and narrative maturation", as shown by the

8183:"We have no way of knowing whether there was any direct association between the cult of the Yashas and Dionysos during the Indo-Greek era, but this is a distinct possibility" in 5223:

The Gupta art of Mathura was very influential throughout northern India, accompanied by a reducing of foreign influences. It was also extremely influential in the development of

443:

flourished in India. Mathura "was the first artistic center to produce devotional icons for all the three faiths", and the pre-eminent center of religious artistic expression in

4210: 3502: 671:

describes such figurines as "broad-hipped, of smooth breast-region and slender waisted" and suggests that they are personifications of the earth, especially the earth goddesses

6109:

Despite the destructions, some level of artistic production continued afterward, as some Jain statues for example are dated to several decades after the 1018 sack of the city.

5668: 4686:

on top. The back of the statue shows the trunk of a tree with branches, thus highlighting the genealogical relationship between the divinities. 2nd century CE, Mathura Museum.

4070: 3125:

were actually first depicted in Buddhist sculpture, as attendants in scenes commemorating the life of the Buddha, even when the Buddha himself was not yet shown in human form

2500: 3994:, especially with the ever thinner monastic dress seemingly sticking to the body of the Buddha. These statues of the Buddha display characteristics and attitudes seen in the 1783: 6198: 8254:"Perhaps the Bactrian Greek invaders of northern India were the first actively to foster a syncretism involving Dionysos and his bacchants with Kubera and his Yakshas." in 4700:. Still, Hindu images from the pre-Gupta period are very few at Mathura, and archaeological evidence suggest that Mathura remained mainly a center of Buddhist, rather than 11154:

Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 3: The Western Ch'in in Kansu in the Sixteen Kingdoms Period and Inter-relationships with the Buddhist Art of Gandh?ra

10974:

Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 3: The Western Ch'in in Kansu in the Sixteen Kingdoms Period and Inter-relationships with the Buddhist Art of Gandh?ra

4398:

The Mathura sculptures incorporate many Hellenistic elements, such as the general idealistic realism, and key design elements such as the curly hair, and folded garment:

2968:. It has also been suggested that the cross-legged Buddhas may have derived from the depictions of seated Scythian kings from the northwest, as visible in the coinage of 2428: 9971:

Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the First International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 23rd-24th March, 2017

9128:

Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the First International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 23rd-24th March, 2017

6847:"The relatively high quality of terracotta sculptures recovered from Maurya strata at Mathura suggests some level of artistic activity prior to the second century BCE." 6210: 3113:

only started to develop fully from the 1st to the 2nd century CE, and there are only very few examples of artistic representation before that time. The three Vedic gods

2909:

are other candidates), the "Isapur Buddha" is also dated on stylistic grounds to the reign of Sodasa, circa 15 CE; he is shown on a relief in a canonical scene known as

1204:, their names ending in "-mitra", but not using any regnal title such as "King", are also known from the same period and general area (150-50 BCE, mostly in the area of 7929: 7435: 6019: 3730:. The Bala Boddhisattva is also nearly identical in style with other known statues from Mathura but definitely dated with its inscription. This is also the case of the 2614:

rulers. These designs may also be the result of the work of northern artists in Mathura. The grapevine designs of Gandhara are generally considered as originating from

2076: 2064: 2052: 10259: 391: 4968: 2683: 10922: 6657:

These are ample reasons to believe that the aniconism of early Buddhist art was rooted in Vedism in which the highest Gods were conceived as impersonal forces and

3886:

on a coin, and actually one of the first known representations of the Buddha that can be dated precisely, in this case, to the reign of Kanishka (127–150 CE). The

3486: 2934: 5325: 5112: 4591: 3138: 3005: 7159:

Indology's Pulse Arts in Context, Doris Meth Srinivasan Festschrift Volume, Eds. Corinna Wessels Mevissen and Gerd Mevissen with Assistance of Vinay Kumar Gupta

3726:

is thought to have been transported from the workshops of Mathura. The statue clearly embodies the state of artistic attainment under the rule of Kushan ruler

3236:

In conclusion, the canonical type of the seated Bodhisattva with attendants commonly known as the "Kapardin" type, seems to have developed during the time the

2040: 12379: 993:. Although the style is generally Indian, the boots or the scabbards may have been added by the Indo-Greeks. The heads of the deities are also adorned with 5188:

Gupta art is also characterized by an expansion of the Buddhist pantheon, with a high importance given to the Buddha himself and to new deities, including

3069:

is also characteristically Buddhist. The Buddha already has the attributes, if not the style, of the later "Kapardin" statues, except for the absence of a

3012:

the Buddha's enlightenment, and therefore probably represent the Buddha rather than his younger self as a Bodhisattava, or a simple attendant Bodhisattva.

5535: 4495:

The numerous Bacchanalian scenes with wine drinking and amorous carrousal, also echo similar scenes in the art of Gandhara, and seem to be related to the

3776: 6117: 5581: 661:

Terracottas generally showed what appears to be female deities or mother goddesses, and from the 2nd century women in elaborate headdress. The ancient

876:

remains of such representations of Indian deities. Probably the earliest known Indian depiction of these Mathuran deities is a rock painting found at

10263: 1627:

pose, with a long double braid of hair descending down to the girdle. The sculpture probably used to adorn the railing of a sacred site, such as a

5463:), two of his most important and ancient avatars, laid out upon his aureole. A fourth avatar is sometimes shown in the back of the sculptures of 1651:

considered the early reliefs of Mathura and Bharhut as part of the same tradition, calling it the "Bharhut-Mathura School", while the reliefs of

6094:, laid waste to the city of Mathura, which was "ruthlessly sacked, ravaged, desecrated and destroyed". In particular, Al-utbi mentioned in work 5035: 5817: 5569: 4884:, but even its interpretation is contested, and the date may be attributable to the post-Gupta period. During this time, statues pertaining to 3432: 3427:

of Gandhara appears to have fully developed around this time too, also under the rule of the Kushans, following on earlier imagery such as the

2859: 1154: 103: 8146:

Costumes & Ornaments As Depicted in the Early Sculpture of Gwalior Museum By Sulochana Ayyar, Mittal Publications, 1 December 1987, p. 29

4828:(the "four emanations of Vāsudeva") are appearing. The famous "Caturvyūha" statue in Mathura Museum is an attempt to show in one composition 2714: 2208:, which are well attested in Jain texts. In fact, the cult of the Vrishnis may have been cross-sectarian, much like the cult of the Yakshas. 3955: 3585: 5388:) with a multitude of beings on his aureole, symbol of the emanations resulting from his creative power. 5th century CE, Bhankari, Mathura. 4117: 10754:"Documents épigraphiques kouchans (V). Buddha et Bodhisattva dans l'art de Mathura : deux Bodhisattvas inscrits de l'an 4 et l'an 8" 3530: 1799: 2200:. The statue fragments are thought to represent some of the five Vrishni heroes, possibly ancient kings of Mathura later assimilated to 1034: 1807: 4461:

describes "the mixed character of the Mathura School in which we find on the one hand, a direct continuation of the old Indian art of

5169:(r.c. 335/350-375 CE), the art of Mathura continued to prosper and evolve. The Mathura school became one of the two major schools of 975:. It is thought that local Indian images, predating the coins but now lost, may have served as models to the engravers. According to 10679: 9055: 7613:"During the time of Indo-Greek hegemony, art and architecture in the medium of stone began to be produced in the Mathura region" in 4024:

From this period, the quality of the sculptures starts to decrease, possibly owing to the progressive decline of the Kushan Empire.

12891: 6102:, writing an "History of Hindustan" in the 16th-17th century, the city of Mathura was the richest in India, and was consecrated to 3243:

were still ruling in Mathura, before the arrival of the Kushans. This type continued during the Kushan period, down to the time of

12474:; Quote: " Lakshmi is associated with wealth, good fortune, and prosperity, and is considered the embodiment of all these things." 7216:

Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia

2979:

There has been a recurring debate about the exact identity of these Mathura statues, some claiming that they are only statues of

1940:(r.c.10 BCE to 10 CE, bottom) discovered together in a mound in Mathura. The coins of Rajuvula were derived from those of Strato. 1363: 684: 571: 82: 4472:

In some cases however, a clear influence from the art of Gandhara can also be felt, as in the case of the Hellenistic statue of

7020:"Mathura has also yielded a special class of terracotta heads in which the facial features present foreign ethnic affinities." 4329: 4317:

Kushan devotees around bejeweled Bodhisattva. Statue pedestal inscribed "Year 22 of Vaskushana", thought to be Kushan Emperor

3247:, before being overtaken by fully-dressed types of Buddha statuary depicting the Buddha wearing the monastic coat "Samghati". 2602:

in a similar chronological and religious context. The decoration of these and many similar doorjambs from Mathura consists in

2161:(15 CE) is associated with three statue remains and a decorated doorjamb, all thought to be related to a temple built for the 1643:, although the Mehrauli Yakshi has rounder volumes, characteristic of the Mathura style and technical proficiency in carving. 1188:

until approximately 60 BCE, with the Sungas remaining eastward of Mathura. An inscription in Mathura discovered in 1988, the "

12824: 12746: 12715: 12688: 12644: 12596: 12562: 12455: 12428: 12145: 12118: 12091: 12064: 12037: 11816: 11785: 11755: 11613: 11535: 11162: 10982: 10794: 10279: 10208: 10024: 9997: 9539: 9512: 9458: 9308: 9281: 8745: 8546: 8519: 8103: 8071: 8022: 7997: 7774: 7626: 7509: 7458: 7377: 7319: 7254: 7224: 7190: 6922: 6811: 6691: 6650: 6438: 4013:

In many respect, the standing Buddha of Mathura seems to be a combination of the local sculptural tradition initiated by the

12461: 763: 2722: 1570:. They may have promoted a syncretic art which conflated Hellenistic Dionysiac imagery with the local cult of the Yakshas. 1477:

seem to have been the object of an important cult in the early periods of Indian history, many of them being known such as

420: 398: 279: 11983:

Couture, André; Schmid, Charlotte (2001). "The Harivaṃśa, the Goddess Ekānaṃśā, and the Iconography of the Vṛṣṇi Triads".

5380:: Vishnu as three-headed cosmic creator, showing Vishnu with a human head, flanked by his avatars (the head of a lion for 1617:

in the cultural area of Mathura. The high-relief and skillfully carved sculpture shows a female nature divinity, called a

979:, the parasol-like headdress of these deities is actually a misrepresentation of a shaft with a half-moon parasol on top ( 3746: 2020: 1920: 1213: 10929: 4566:

A Mathura relief showing the complete life of the Buddha, from birth to death. The clothing is Gandharan. 2nd Century CE

3670:

Buddhism and Buddhist art are already gained prominence in Mathura during the 1st century CE under the patronage of the

2217:

about 1.22 meters complete. The Mora Vrishnis function as an artistic benchmark for in-the-round statues of the period.

1196:)", suggesting the presence of the Indo-Greeks in the 2nd-1st century BC in Mathura down to 57 BC. On the contrary, the 13098: 12763:

Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".

12180:

Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".

11832:

Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".

11709:

Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".

11636:

Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".

10689: 10458:

Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".

9027:

Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".

7270:

Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".

6597:

Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".

6570:

Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".

6494:

Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".

6454:

Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".

4608:, Mathura ca. 2nd century CE. On the reverse are sculpted scenes of the life of the Buddha, wearing the monastic dress. 3760:

Apart from the seated Buddha triads of Mathura, several seated Buddha triads in an elaborate style are also known from

1000: 828:

The anthropomorphic depiction of various deities apparently started to appear in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE.

5426:

seems to have been much more important than that of Vishnu. With the Gupta period, statues focusing on the worship of

4778:

continued to be produced during the period, the worship of this Mathuran deity being much more important than that of

4366: 4328:

A later type of ornate Bodhisattvas is known, seen in seated or standing statuary, which seems closely related to the

12849: 12803: 12415:"By about the 3rd/4th century CE, Shri Lakshmi was absorbed into the Vaishnava pantheon as the consort of Vishnu" in 12342: 12306: 11255: 11228: 10821: 10735: 10637: 10417: 10379: 10240: 10177: 10122: 10052: 9949: 9861: 9833: 9720: 9693: 9632: 9598: 9485: 9417: 9254: 9215: 9181: 9154: 9083: 8958: 8930: 8903: 8858: 8831: 8804: 8772: 8715: 8670: 8624: 8580: 8481: 8436: 8409: 8382: 8331: 8303: 8131: 7959: 7892: 7864: 7836: 7805: 7747: 7716: 7653: 7587: 7539: 7411: 7130: 7068: 6984: 6950: 6892: 6860: 6775: 6748: 6721: 6551: 4285: 3411:

are mass-produced around this time, possibly encouraged by doctrinal changes in Buddhism allowing to depart from the

2718: 11480:

Carter, Martha L. (1982). "The Bacchants of Mathura: New Evidence of Dionysiac Yaksha Imagery from Kushan Mathura".

8256:

Carter, Martha L. (1982). "The Bacchants of Mathura: New Evidence of Dionysiac Yaksha Imagery from Kushan Mathura".

8220:

Carter, Martha L. (1982). "The Bacchants of Mathura: New Evidence of Dionysiac Yaksha Imagery from Kushan Mathura".

4754: 4332:

seen in the art of Gandhara. A dated statue of this type bears an inscription in the "Year 28 of the Kushan Emperor

3020: 2675: 2607: 4792:

himself start to appear, using the same iconography as the statues of Vāsudeva, but with the right hand holding a

3179: 12863: 5977: 4632: 2015:

symbol, further confirming the involvement of Indo-Scythian rulers with Buddhism. The triratna is contained in a

8173:"A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12 the century" by Upinder Singh p.365 3518: 2890:

pathway. This artistic device ended with the sudden appearance of the Buddha, probably rather simultaneously in

12816:

Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages

7689: 2212:

series, which is coherent with the Vrishni interpretation. They share some sculptural characteristics with the

1967:

culture in India". Little is known precisely from that period on terms of artistic creation. The Indo-Scythian

1434: 1184:, when they invaded India, occupied the area of Mathura for about a century from circa 160 BCE and the time of 914:

The "earliest unambiguous" images of these deities, is an indirect testimony appearing with the coinage of the

5269: 5200:

inspiration, and less focus on the events of the life of the Buddha which were abundantly illustrated through

1216:

appears in the liveliness and the realistic details of the figures (an evolution compared to the stiffness of

10722:"The Buddhist Triad, from Haryana or Mathura, Year 4 of Kaniska (ad 82). Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth." in 10143: 4006:, the clothing covers both shoulders, the left hand hold the gown of the Buddha while the other hand form an 3084:

in the center of each side, dated 50-100 CE, before the Kushan period. The Buddha is attended by Vedic deity

2598:, also mentions the rule of Sodasa, and has similar carving to the Mora doorjamb, found in relation with the 2389: 2292: 1535: 10862:

Rhi, Ju-Hyung (1994). "From Bodhisattva to Buddha: The Beginning of Iconic Representation in Buddhist Art".

10333:

Rhi, Ju-Hyung (1994). "From Bodhisattva to Buddha: The Beginning of Iconic Representation in Buddhist Art".

10295:

Rhi, Ju-Hyung (1994). "From Bodhisattva to Buddha: The Beginning of Iconic Representation in Buddhist Art".

9246:

Epigraphical Hybrid Sanskrit: Its Rise, Spread, Characteristics and Relationship to Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit

4674:

is fittingly in the center with his heavy decorated mace on the side and holding a conch, his elder brother

2179:

Several examples of in-the-round statuary have been found from the period of Sodasa, such as the torsos of "

922:, who issued coins with the image of Indian deities in Indian style, together with legends in the Greek and 12884: 9969: 9126: 6285: 6280: 4509: 4003: 3749:, very little in Hellenistic style, if anything at all, can be seen in this type of statue. Especially the 3070: 1521:, often associated with trees and children, and whose voluptuous figures became omnipresent in Indian art. 337: 264: 226: 221: 8451:"Dhanabhuti of the Mathura inscription, as held by scholars, belonged to the royal family of Bharhut." in 2858:

The "Isapur Buddha", probably the earliest known representation of the Buddha (possibly together with the

13050: 11965: 10271:

The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan

5445:

Other statues of Vishnu show him as three-headed (possibly with an implied fourth head in the back), the

5358: 4402:"The second strong element of Mathura art is the free use of the Hellenistic motifs and themes; e.g, the 4108: 2679: 868:

and Vāsudeva-Krishna seems to have originated in Mathura, where they were revered as members of the five

504:

of the 4th to 6th centuries, if not beyond. After this time much of the sculpture was of Hindu figures.

269: 17: 12974: 8538:

Material Life of Northern India: Based on an Archaeological Study, 3rd Century B.C. to 1st Century B.C.

7122:

Material Life of Northern India: Based on an Archaeological Study, 3rd Century B.C. to 1st Century B.C.

7060:

Material Life of Northern India: Based on an Archaeological Study, 3rd Century B.C. to 1st Century B.C.

6976:

Material Life of Northern India: Based on an Archaeological Study, 3rd Century B.C. to 1st Century B.C.

6275: 3731: 3567: 2741: 555: 231: 5233: 4036:"Maholi Buddha": an early experiment with the "Samghati" type, using a checkered design, circa 150 CE. 12979: 6265: 4644: 3745:

statues, usually dated to a few centuries earlier. On the contrary, despite other known instances of

3683: 2906: 2631: 2591: 935: 662: 567: 559: 546: 534: 236: 186: 8974: 5997:

Jain art continued to be quite active during the period, with several known and dated works of art.

3455:

The Kushans vigorously promoted royal portraiture, as can be seen in their dynastic sculptures from

3407:(90-100 CE) and then became the southern capital of the Kushan Empire. Free-standing statues of the 3137:. These Vedic deities appear in Buddhist reliefs at Mathura from around the 1st century CE, such as 1566:

in northern India, the Greeks had identified local devotional practices as similar to their cult of

1285: 1243: 7554:

Published in "L'Indo-Grec Menandre ou Paul Demieville revisite," Journal Asiatique 281 (1993) p.113

7083:"The figure of a Persian youth (35.2556) wearing coat, scarf, trousers and turban is a rare item." 4853: 4442:, were strictly classical subjects but rendered in Mathura art with admirable insight and freedom." 3874:

From his capital of Mathura or alternatively from the capital of his territories of the northwest,

4297: 4221:" (153 CE). The remains of the statue were found in Govindnagar, on the outskirts of Mathura. The 1810:

representing Brahmins with pots in a sacred precinct. Another relief from the same period shows a

1165:

The period after 180 BCE has generally been called the "Sunga period", from the name of the Hindu

12989: 12877: 11569: 11185:"The Inscription on the Kuṣān Image of Amitābha and the Charakter of the Early Mahāyāna in India" 11032: 9984:"Honeysuckle, grapevine, triton and acanthus mouldings are some of the Hellenistic features." in 9171: 8876: 8597: 8353: 8157: 6801: 3950: 3560: 2165:. Left: torso said to be probably a figure of one of the five Vrishni heroes, Mora, circa 15 CE, 1332:

mace in the right hand, and had a small standing devotee or child in the left hand, the Fire God

1201: 1189: 1016: 302: 259: 12617: 12163:"Kinsman of the Sun: An Early Buddha Image in the Asian Art Museum, Berlin, and Solar Symbolism" 10541: 10095: 9381: 2735: 1305: 1220:), the use of perspective from 150 BCE, iconographical details such as the knot and the club of 13030: 12502: 12398: 11928: 11896: 11552: 10753: 10433: 6129:

was going through a lower period of activity, with comparatively fewer remaining works of art.

5816:

became largely prevalent in the art of Mathura and India as a whole. It was accompanied by the

5793: 3983: 2523: 2415: 1543: 691:

Terracotta figurine production evolved with the adoption of moulds in the 3rd-2nd century BCE.

424: 12634: 12586: 12552: 12418: 12332: 12296: 12272: 12216: 12135: 12108: 12081: 12054: 12027: 11806: 11745: 11525: 11418: 11336:

Kuraishi, Mohammad Hamid; Kak, Ram Chandra; Chanda, Ramaprasad; Marshall, John Hubert (1922).

11271:

Kuraishi, Mohammad Hamid; Kak, Ram Chandra; Chanda, Ramaprasad; Marshall, John Hubert (1922).

11218: 10811: 10784: 10627: 10407: 10369: 10230: 10167: 10042: 10014: 9939: 9851: 9823: 9710: 9683: 9622: 9588: 9559: 9529: 9475: 9448: 9407: 9361: 9298: 9271: 9244: 9205: 9144: 9073: 9011: 8948: 8735: 8705: 8660: 8399: 8172: 8093: 7987: 7882: 7795: 7764: 7737: 7706: 7603: 7448: 7309: 7244: 7214: 7180: 7120: 6974: 6912: 6681: 6541: 5864:

Sarvatobhadra Shiva Linga Representing Brahma Vishnu Maheshwar and Surya, Circa 9th Century CE

2183:", discovered in Mora, about 7 kilometers west of Mathura. These statues are mentioned in the 12984: 12705: 12535: 12233: 11775: 11603: 11406: 11394: 11152: 11050: 10153: 8920: 8893: 8848: 8821: 8794: 8762: 8614: 8570: 8536: 8509: 8426: 8372: 8321: 8293: 8121: 7949: 7854: 7826: 7643: 7616: 7058: 6850: 6428: 6235: 5447: 5337: 4725: 4721: 3691: 3130: 3126: 2984: 2883: 2882:, scenes of the life of the Buddha, or sometimes of his previous lives, had been illustrated 2659: 2599: 2438: 2184: 2154: 2144: 1806:

worshipping a Jain stupa, the dance of Nilanjana, and the renunciation of Rsabhanata, or the

1004: 919: 803: 274: 12793: 11430: 11417:

History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE by Sonya Rhie Quintanilla

11383: 11015: 10957:

Identifying Several Visual Types of Gandharan Buddha Images. Archives of Asian Art 58 (2008)

8471: 7577: 7529: 7499: 6882: 6765: 6738: 6711: 6640: 13108: 13072: 11586: 11315: 10972: 8991: 6260: 6098:, that Mahmud Ghaznavi destroyed a "great and magnificent temple" in Mathura. According to 5369: 4707:

Hindu art found its first inspiration in the Buddhist art of Mathura. The three Vedic gods

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scene. A man in Scythian/ Kushan costume appears behind Kubera in this scene (on the right)

4439: 2671: 2296: 2003: 1993: 1909: 1613:

The "Mehrauli Yakshi", one of the highest quality work among early sculpture, was found in

1019:, such acts of devotion towards foreign gods, as can also be seen in the dedication of the 551: 538: 522: 11289: 11105:

Myer, Prudence R. (1986). "Bodhisattvas and Buddhas: Early Buddhist Images from Mathurā".

11062:

Myer, Prudence R. (1986). "Bodhisattvas and Buddhas: Early Buddhist Images from Mathurā".

10998: 10560:

Myer, Prudence R. (1986). "Bodhisattvas and Buddhas: Early Buddhist Images from Mathurā".

10494:

Myer, Prudence R. (1986). "Bodhisattvas and Buddhas: Early Buddhist Images from Mathurā".

9974:. The Classical Art Research Centre. Archaeopress. University of Oxford. pp. 142–143. 9779:

Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2000). "Āyāgapaṭas: Characteristics, Symbolism, and Chronology".

9736:

Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2000). "Āyāgapaṭas: Characteristics, Symbolism, and Chronology".

6384:

Myer, Prudence R. (1986). "Bodhisattvas and Buddhas: Early Buddhist Images from Mathurā".

6351: 6308:

Myer, Prudence R. (1986). "Bodhisattvas and Buddhas: Early Buddhist Images from Mathurā".

5754:

circa 460-530 CE, and an ensuing disorganization of society. These events mark the end of

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can be found in Mathura, dating to approximately 150-100 BCE. A dedicatory inscription by

888:. This rock painting is dated to the 3rd-2nd century BCE, based on the paleography of the 644: 8: 13093: 7912: 7431: 6126: 4407: 2740:

A sample of the new calligraphic style introduced by the Indo-Scythians: fragment of the

1559: 976: 938:

tradition of representing deities through symbols only, rather than in human form, since

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and some types of ornaments as found on the Yaksha figures, their right hand is held in

7342:

Indian Art: A history of Indian art from the earliest times up to the third century A. D

6103: 5492:, which had been an independent Goddess of prosperity and luck, was incorporated in the 5452: 5431: 5423: 5308: 3443:. In 2008 a second sculpture in the distinctive Mathura red sandstone was excavated at 3036:

The Buddhist "Indrasala architrave", dated 50-100 CE, with a scene of the Buddha at the

743:"Persian Nobleman clad in coat dupatta trouser and turban", Mathura, c. 2nd Century BCE. 489:, avoiding representation of the Buddha, but rather relying on its symbols, such as the 13035: 12919: 12780: 12197: 12008: 11849: 11726: 11691: 11653: 11497: 11459: 11130: 11087: 10887: 10585: 10519: 10475: 10350: 10312: 9804: 9761: 9345:

Indian Art: A history of Indian art from the earliest times up to the third century A.D

9036: 8273: 8237: 8202: 7287: 6614: 6579: 6503: 6463: 6409: 6333: 6270: 5438:("Four-Armed"), use the attributes and the iconography of Vāsudeva-Krishna, but add an 5213: 5161:

Following the decline of the Kushan Empire and the occupation of northern India by the

4605: 4423: 4049: 4018: 3995: 3979: 3975: 3750: 3575: 3424: 3076: 2285: 1595: 1406: 1371: 792: 470: 370: 312: 206: 11951: 3810:

The "Anyor Buddha": one of the two known "Kapardin" statues mentioning "the Buddha": "

3738:, inscriptions now being made in the name of the Buddha, rather than the Bodhisattva. 3303:, from the Māt sanctuary in Mathura. An inscription runs along the bottom of the coat: 2473:, the "Vasu Śilāpaṭa" ayagapata, 1st century CE, excavated from Kankali Tila, Mathura. 1263: 12845: 12820: 12799: 12772: 12742: 12711: 12684: 12640: 12592: 12558: 12451: 12424: 12420:

A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century

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A history of fine art in India and Ceylon, from the earliest times to the present day

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A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century

12033: 12000: 11841: 11812: 11781: 11751: 11718: 11683: 11645: 11609: 11531: 11489: 11451: 11251: 11224: 11158: 11122: 11079: 10978: 10879: 10817: 10790: 10731: 10685: 10633: 10577: 10511: 10467: 10413: 10375: 10275: 10236: 10204: 10173: 10118: 10048: 10020: 9993: 9945: 9857: 9829: 9796: 9753: 9716: 9689: 9628: 9594: 9535: 9508: 9481: 9454: 9413: 9304: 9277: 9273:

A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century

9250: 9211: 9177: 9150: 9131:. The Classical Art Research Centre. Archaeopress. University of Oxford. p. 143. 9079: 8954: 8926: 8899: 8854: 8827: 8800: 8768: 8741: 8737:

A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century

8711: 8666: 8620: 8576: 8542: 8515: 8477: 8432: 8405: 8378: 8327: 8299: 8265: 8229: 8194: 8127: 8099: 8095:

A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century

8067: 8018: 7993: 7955: 7888: 7860: 7832: 7801: 7770: 7743: 7712: 7685: 7649: 7622: 7583: 7535: 7505: 7454: 7407: 7373: 7315: 7311:

A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century

7279: 7250: 7220: 7186: 7182:

A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century

7126: 7064: 6980: 6946: 6942:

Terracotta Art of Rajasthan: From Pre-Harappan and Harappan Times to the Gupta Period

6918: 6914:

A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century

6888: 6856: 6807: 6771: 6744: 6717: 6687: 6646: 6606: 6547: 6434: 6401: 6325: 5088: 4311: 2938: 2543: 2519: 2435: 2008: 1899: 1648: 1077: 1020: 963: 907: 201: 11382:

Aspects of Indian Art, by J.E. Van Lohuizen-De Leuve, published by Pratapaditya Pal

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This statue appears in Fig.51 as one of the statues excavated in the Mora mound, in

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from princely life, after having abandoned his turban and his jewellery, but before

1582: 13103: 13020: 12841: 12837:

Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art

11992: 11940: 11908: 11114: 11071: 10871: 10765: 10569: 10503: 10342: 10304: 9788: 9745: 9477:

Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art

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Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art

6393: 6317: 6091: 6087: 6025: 5986: 5346: 4579: 3719: 3671: 3240: 3211: 3199: 3174: 2611: 2188: 2135: 1948: 1563: 64: 11674:

Srinivasan, Doris (1979). "Early Vaiṣṇava Imagery: Caturvyūha and Variant Forms".

11245: 10705: 1667:

Crossbar medallion with elephant and riders, Gayatri Tila, Mathura, circa 150 BCE.

12835: 12814: 12736: 12678: 12661: 12445: 12255: 10725: 10607: 10269: 10268:

Errington, Elizabeth; Trust, Ancient India and Iran; Museum, Fitzwilliam (1992).

10198: 10112: 9987: 9896: 9879: 9661: 9502: 9343: 8454: 8061: 7401: 7397: 7340: 7086: 7041: 7023: 7005: 6940: 5755: 5525: 5411: 4214: 4131: 3840: 3766: 3718:, to year 39 (129-166 CE). One dated example of statuary from that period is the 3296: 2698: 2615: 1539: 1422: 284: 7103: 5725: 5720: 4823: 4658: 4130:

inscription: inscribed pedestal with the first known occurrence of the name of "

3192: 1180:

in eastern India, numismatic, literary and epigraphic evidence suggest that the

600:

Mathura seems to have been a comparatively unimportant city of central northern

67:, end of 1st century CE. This is the finest and best preserved of the so-called 42: 13040: 13015: 12900: 9648: 9575: 7436:

Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence

6240: 5849: 5809: 5712: 5434:. Many of the statues of Vishnu appearing from the 4th century CE, such as the 5193: 5148: 5057: 4893: 4885: 4729: 4385: 4064:"Anyor Buddha" in Gandhara style, with inscription "year 51" (178 CE). Mathura. 3967: 3887: 3493: 3464: 3428: 3404: 3391: 3142: 3134: 3102: 3089: 3066: 3037: 3025: 2902: 2710: 2643: 2554: 2442: 2419: 2180: 2166: 2162: 2016: 1964: 1506:. The Yashas are often depicted with weapons or attributes, such as the Yaksha 1367: 1345: 1250: 1208:), and were possibly engaged in a tributary relationship with the Indo-Greeks. 1170: 898: 869: 526: 459: 360: 355: 196: 7369: 3282: 3167: 3152: 13087: 12776: 12193: 12004: 11845: 11722: 11687: 11649: 11493: 11455: 11316:"A neglected Aspect of the Iconography of Viṣṇu and other Gods and Goddesses" 11126: 11083: 10908:

The Date of Kanishka since 1960 (Indian Historical Review, 2017, 44(1), 1-41)

10883: 10581: 10515: 10471: 9800: 9757: 8269: 8233: 8198: 7283: 6610: 6405: 6329: 6095: 6010: 5801: 5659: 5501: 5430:

start to appear, in the form of an evolution based on the earlier statues of

5316: 4917: 4484: 4435: 4230: 4139: 3741:

The style of these statues is somewhat reminiscent of the earlier monumental

3714:

Statues of the "Kapardin" type inscribed with dates range from the year 2 of

3541: 3473: 3440: 3436: 3400: 3237: 2918: 2867: 2863: 2842: 2838: 2246: 2230: 2114: 2097: 1945: 1933: 1713:

Crossbar with female head in lotus medallion, circa 2nd Century BCE, Mathura.

923: 821:. These are considered as "the earliest unambiguous" images of these deities. 605: 327: 13045: 11944: 11912: 10769: 4872:

scenes, are extremely rare or possibly inexistent during the Kushan period:

4093: 3982:, dating to the 1st-2nd century CE, have been found in Mathura, such as the 1842:. The centaurs appearing in the Mathura reliefs, as in other places such as 1322:

These colossal statues are about 2 meters tall. Many have known attributes:

829: 12966: 12939: 6045: 6041: 5990: 5744: 5694: 5674: 5396: 5224: 5189: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5144: 5041: 4921: 4881: 4857: 4833: 4784: 4743:

Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations

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is usually dated to 50 CE, but with less certainty than the Kanishka coin.

3704: 3696: 3679: 3215: 2997: 2989: 2980: 2663: 2603: 2577: 2490: 2404: 2170: 2034:, attests to the presence of northwestern artists at that time in Mathura. 1858: 1730: 1623: 1602:

at Mathura records the donation of railings and a gateway to the Buddhists

1530: 1498: 1426: 1225: 1177: 1166: 542: 490: 332: 168: 56: 8979:. Vol. 23. Bishop's College Press. 1854. pp. 689–691 Plate XXXV. 8038: 7931:

Archaeological Survey Of India Annual Report 1911-12. Excavations at Bhita

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Indian Numismatic Studies K. D. Bajpai, Abhinav Publications, 2004, p.105

6827: 4213:

of a standing Bodhisattva with the first known occurrence of the name of "

4010:, and the folds in the clothing are more typical of the Gandharan styles. 3221:

One of these early examples shows the Buddha being worshipped by the Gods

562:(1200-600 BCE), with finds in a wide area, including the area of Mathura. 12924: 10724:

Museum (Singapore), Asian Civilisations; Krishnan, Gauri Parimoo (2007).

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Art History 5th Edition CH 10 Art Of South And Southeast Asia Before 1200

9647:

The Jain stûpa and other antiquities of Mathurâ by Smith, Vincent Arthur

9574:

The Jain stûpa and other antiquities of Mathurâ by Smith, Vincent Arthur

6250: 6061: 5751: 5738: 5690: 5625: 5297: 5118: 5103: 4837: 4798: 4765: 4587: 4477: 4431: 4048:

The Buddha in checkered monastic dress in the "Subjugation of Nalagiri",

3940: 3914: 3903: 3476:

with the sentence "The Great King, King of Kings, Son of God, Kanishka".

3008:(dated 50-100 CE), refer to events which are considered to have happened 2941: 2546: 2307: 2250: 1814:

inside a railing on platform and under a pipal tree, being worshipped by

1547: 1525: 1442: 1430: 1217: 1132: 1126: 986: 947: 931: 865: 807: 769: 621: 617: 613: 609: 595: 455: 191: 49: 12784: 12201: 11853: 11730: 11695: 11657: 11501: 10479: 9040: 8277: 8241: 7358:"Achaemenids and Mauryans: Emergence of Coins and Plastic Arts in India" 7291: 6618: 6583: 6507: 6467: 5747:

was accompanied by the invasions and the wide-scale destructions of the

5455:

is shown with a human head, flanked by the muzzle of a boar (his avatar

4829: 4775: 4760: 4671: 4663: 2635: 2595: 2011:, but in a much cruder style. It also displays at its center a Buddhist 1971:, ruler of Mathura, created coins which were copies of the contemporary 1916:

and his relatives, as well as their sponsorship of Buddhism. 2 BCE-6 CE.

849: 811: 773: 13005: 12929: 12520: 11514:

The Art of the Kushans, Rosenfield, University of California Press 1967

11463: 11134: 11091: 10891: 10589: 10523: 10354: 10328: 10326: 10316: 9808: 9765: 8206: 6413: 6337: 6255: 6230: 5759: 5730: 5602: 5476: 5468: 5376: 5197: 5073: 4955: 4841: 4469:

and on the other hand, the classical influence derived from Gandhara".

3715: 3468: 3292: 3256: 3218:", and it is considered as contemporary with the famous "Katra stele". 3081: 3050: 3045: 2573: 2470: 2027: 1972: 1925: 1726: 1599: 1503: 1494: 1486: 1482: 1323: 1270: 1254: 1185: 1181: 927: 915: 799: 688:

century BCE, can be seen wearing a coat, scarf, trousers and a turban.

649: 620:

and architecture flourished during that period in other cities such as

533:

Some very early depictions of deities seem to appear in the art of the

494: 416: 241: 211: 128: 52: 12012: 11342:. Calcutta, Superintendent Government Printing, India. pp. 29–32. 11277:. Calcutta, Superintendent Government Printing, India. pp. 29–32. 7730: 7728: 7333: 7331: 3608: 3341: 3336: 3326: 3316: 2610:

in the northwest, and maybe associated with the northern taste of the

2388:

religion, with numerous relief showing devotional scenes, such as the

2295:

or "Amohini relief", inscribed "in the reign of Sodasa", circa 15 CE.

1176:

Following the demise of the Mauryan Empire and its replacement by the

892:

inscription accompanying it. Here, the deities are depicted wearing a

880:, around 170 kilometers south of Mathura, on the road from Mathura to 12949: 12934: 10727:

The Divine Within: Art & Living Culture of India & South Asia

7238: 7236: 6303: 6301: 6245: 6216: 5825: 5813: 5587: 5493: 5460: 5381: 5350: 5156: 4991: 4868:

On the other hands, reliefs depicting the life story of Krishna, the

4849: 4845: 4820:, "Doctrine of the emanations") was starting to emerge, as images of 4816:

Some sculptures during this period suggest that the "Vyūha doctrine"

4810: 4788:. Only with the Gupta period, did statues focusing on the worship of 4701: 4692: 4683: 4679: 4551: 4181: 4146: 3858: 3735: 3412: 3110: 3054: 2965: 2945: 2730: 2550: 2527: 2411: 2400: 2393: 2196: 2012: 1976: 1952: 1929: 1904: 1843: 1839: 1815: 1791: 1631:. She is dated to 150 BCE, and prefigures by more than a century the 1473:

of earth divinities that have been dated to the 2nd-1st century BCE.

1470: 1460: 1450: 1008: 939: 902: 841: 833: 777: 633: 501: 448: 365: 216: 153: 12162: 11118: 11075: 10906: 10875: 10573: 10507: 10346: 10323: 10308: 9913: 9792: 9749: 9103: 9005: 9003: 7906: 7904: 7357: 7154: 6397: 6321: 6112: 4291:

Ornate seated Bodhisattva, with abundant jewelry. Mathura, 2nd c. CE

3951:

Buddha statues in "Samghati" monastic dress (mid-2nd century onward)

3271: 2807: 2751: 2356: 13010: 12944: 11996: 10955: 10652: 7725: 7475: 7328: 6141: 6099: 5845: 5789: 5217: 5178: 5019: 4995: 4987: 4877: 4697: 4675: 4583: 4496: 4473: 4427: 4357: 4333: 4318: 4262: 4246: 4218: 4206: 4187: 4158: 4152: 4135: 4127: 3999: 3920: 3879: 3875: 3867: 3845: 3795: 3761: 3754: 3727: 3659: 3656: 3638: 3633: 3626: 3619: 3603: 3509: 3379: 3373: 3311: 3244: 2912: 2891: 2818: 2802: 2796: 2778: 2762: 2351: 2329: 2204:

and his avatars, or, equally possible, the five Jain heroes led by

2109: 2105: 2101: 2031: 1999: 1968: 1960: 1937: 1913: 1819: 1803: 1770: 1618: 1614: 1567: 1555: 1454: 1292: 1221: 972: 861: 748: 672: 625: 579: 486: 474: 440: 432: 163: 158: 11769: 11767: 10067:

Buddhist art of Mathurā, Ramesh Chandra Sharma, Agam, 1984 Page 26

7233: 6298: 5474:

A further variation is Vishnu as three-headed cosmic creator, the

4171: 3367: 3362: 2886:, except for some of his symbols such as the empty throne, or the 2784: 2756: 2335: 1655:

were a second tradition, calling it the "Malwa School of Sanchi".

12869: 12795:

History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE

11294:. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 69, and Plate XXIII, d. 11220: