Medical imaging - Knowledge

679:, for the purpose of tissue characterization and implementation of new image processing techniques. The concepts of ultrasound differ from other medical imaging modalities in the fact that it is operated by the transmission and receipt of sound waves. The high frequency sound waves are sent into the tissue and depending on the composition of the different tissues; the signal will be attenuated and returned at separate intervals. A path of reflected sound waves in a multilayered structure can be defined by an input acoustic impedance (ultrasound sound wave) and the Reflection and transmission coefficients of the relative structures. It is very safe to use and does not appear to cause any adverse effects. It is also relatively inexpensive and quick to perform. Ultrasound scanners can be taken to critically ill patients in intensive care units, avoiding the danger caused while moving the patient to the radiology department. The real-time moving image obtained can be used to guide drainage and biopsy procedures. Doppler capabilities on modern scanners allow the blood flow in arteries and veins to be assessed. 894: 702:

tumours will often be harder than the surrounding tissue, and diseased livers are stiffer than healthy ones. There are several elastographic techniques based on the use of ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging and tactile imaging. The wide clinical use of ultrasound elastography is a result of the implementation of technology in clinical ultrasound machines. Main branches of ultrasound elastography include Quasistatic Elastography/Strain Imaging, Shear Wave Elasticity Imaging (SWEI), Acoustic Radiation Force Impulse imaging (ARFI), Supersonic Shear Imaging (SSI), and Transient Elastography. In the last decade, a steady increase of activities in the field of elastography is observed demonstrating successful application of the technology in various areas of medical diagnostics and treatment monitoring.

441:) of water molecules in human tissue, producing a detectable signal which is spatially encoded, resulting in images of the body. The MRI machine emits a radio frequency (RF) pulse at the resonant frequency of the hydrogen atoms on water molecules. Radio frequency antennas ("RF coils") send the pulse to the area of the body to be examined. The RF pulse is absorbed by protons, causing their direction with respect to the primary magnetic field to change. When the RF pulse is turned off, the protons "relax" back to alignment with the primary magnet and emit radio-waves in the process. This radio-frequency emission from the hydrogen-atoms on water is what is detected and reconstructed into an image. The resonant frequency of a spinning magnetic dipole (of which protons are one example) is called the 1537:

copyright is owned by employer (unless the radiographer is self-employed—though even then their contract might require them to transfer ownership to the hospital). This copyright owner can grant certain permissions to whoever they wish, without giving up their ownership of the copyright. So the hospital and its employees will be given permission to use such radiographic images for the various purposes that they require for medical care. Physicians employed at the hospital will, in their contracts, be given the right to publish patient information in journal papers or books they write (providing they are made anonymous). Patients may also be granted permission to "do what they like with" their own images.

1441:, "the Office will not register works produced by a machine or mere mechanical process that operates randomly or automatically without any creative input or intervention from a human author" including "Medical imaging produced by X-rays, ultrasounds, magnetic resonance imaging, or other diagnostic equipment." This position differs from the broad copyright protections afforded to photographs. While the Copyright Compendium is an agency statutory interpretation and not legally binding, courts are likely to give deference to it if they find it reasonable. Yet, there is no U.S. federal case law directly addressing the issue of the copyrightability of X-ray images. 575:

advancing the field of molecular imaging. In most other medical imaging modalities, energy is passed through the body and the reaction or result is read by detectors. In SPECT imaging, the patient is injected with a radioisotope, most commonly Thallium 201TI, Technetium 99mTC, Iodine 123I, and Gallium 67Ga. The radioactive gamma rays are emitted through the body as the natural decaying process of these isotopes takes place. The emissions of the gamma rays are captured by detectors that surround the body. This essentially means that the human is now the source of the radioactivity, rather than the medical imaging devices such as X-ray or CT.

640: 758:(CT), or Computed Axial Tomography (CAT) scan, is a helical tomography technique (latest generation), which traditionally produces a 2D image of the structures in a thin section of the body. In CT, a beam of X-rays spins around an object being examined and is picked up by sensitive radiation detectors after having penetrated the object from multiple angles. A computer then analyses the information received from the scanner's detectors and constructs a detailed image of the object and its contents using the mathematical principles laid out in the 729: 815:

Transthoracic ultrasound has been proven to be safe for patients of all ages, from infants to the elderly, without risk of harmful side effects or radiation, differentiating it from other imaging modalities. Echocardiography is one of the most commonly used imaging modalities in the world due to its portability and use in a variety of applications. In emergency situations, echocardiography is quick, easily accessible, and able to be performed at the bedside, making it the modality of choice for many physicians.

1450: 418: 47: 271: 378:, such as barium, iodine, and air are used to visualize internal organs as they work. Fluoroscopy is also used in image-guided procedures when constant feedback during a procedure is required. An image receptor is required to convert the radiation into an image after it has passed through the area of interest. Early on, this was a fluorescing screen, which gave way to an Image Amplifier (IA) which was a large vacuum tube that had the receiving end coated with 5624: 694: 1355:, which is any individually identifiable information relating to the past, present, or future physical or mental health of any individual. While there has not been any definitive legal decision in the matter, at least one study has indicated that medical imaging may contain biometric information that can uniquely identify a person, and so may qualify as PHI. 498:

T2-weighted (T2-MRI), diffusion weighted imaging (DWI-MRI), dynamic contrast enhancement (DCE-MRI), and spectroscopy (MRI-S). For example, imaging of prostate tumors is better accomplished using T2-MRI and DWI-MRI than T2-weighted imaging alone. The number of applications of mpMRI for detecting disease in various organs continues to expand, including

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bile duct and stone in the common bile duct. With the ability to visualize important structures in great detail, 3D visualization methods are a valuable resource for the diagnosis and surgical treatment of many pathologies. It was a key resource for the famous, but ultimately unsuccessful attempt by Singaporean surgeons to separate Iranian twins

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any nucleus with a net nuclear spin can be used, the proton of the hydrogen atom remains the most widely used, especially in the clinical setting, because it is so ubiquitous and returns a large signal. This nucleus, present in water molecules, allows the excellent soft-tissue contrast achievable with MRI.

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or science. The protection requires some sort of photographic technique being used, which includes digital cameras as well as holograms created by laser technique. The difference between the two types of work is the term of protection, which amounts to seventy years after the death of the author of a

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The copyright in a compilation or derivative work extends only to the material contributed by the author of such work, as distinguished from the preexisting material employed in the work, and does not imply any exclusive right in the preexisting material. The copyright in such work is independent of,

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are produced using a somewhat similar technique. In diagnosing disease of the viscera of the abdomen, ultrasound is particularly sensitive on imaging of biliary tract, urinary tract and female reproductive organs (ovary, fallopian tubes). As for example, diagnosis of gallstone by dilatation of common

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dose burden than projection radiography; repeated scans must be limited to avoid health effects. CT is based on the same principles as X-ray projections but in this case, the patient is enclosed in a surrounding ring of detectors assigned with 500–1000 scintillation detectors (fourth-generation X-ray

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is a recently developed hybrid biomedical imaging modality based on the photoacoustic effect. It combines the advantages of optical absorption contrast with an ultrasonic spatial resolution for deep imaging in (optical) diffusive or quasi-diffusive regime. Recent studies have shown that photoacoustic

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in pregnant women. Uses of ultrasound are much broader, however. Other important uses include imaging the abdominal organs, heart, breast, muscles, tendons, arteries and veins. While it may provide less anatomical detail than techniques such as CT or MRI, it has several advantages which make it ideal

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Fiduciary markers are used in a wide range of medical imaging applications. Images of the same subject produced with two different imaging systems may be correlated (called image registration) by placing a fiduciary marker in the area imaged by both systems. In this case, a marker which is visible in

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Because CT and MRI are sensitive to different tissue properties, the appearances of the images obtained with the two techniques differ markedly. In CT, X-rays must be blocked by some form of dense tissue to create an image, so the image quality when looking at soft tissues will be poor. In MRI, while

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Because of the large amount of medical imaging data, the transmission process becomes complicated in telemedicine applications. Thus, in order to adapt the data bit streams to the constraints related to the limitation of the bandwidths a reduction of the size of the data by compression of the images

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designates the technical aspects of medical imaging and in particular the acquisition of medical images. The radiographer (also known as a radiologic technologist) is usually responsible for acquiring medical images of diagnostic quality; although other professionals may train in this area, notably

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An imaging centre that is responsible for collecting the images, perform quality control and provide tools for data storage, distribution and analysis. It is important for images acquired at different time points are displayed in a standardised format to maintain the reliability of the evaluation.

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Elastography is a relatively new imaging modality that maps the elastic properties of soft tissue. This modality emerged in the last two decades. Elastography is useful in medical diagnoses, as elasticity can discern healthy from unhealthy tissue for specific organs/growths. For example, cancerous

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A number of different pulse sequences can be used for specific MRI diagnostic imaging (multiparametric MRI or mpMRI). It is possible to differentiate tissue characteristics by combining two or more of the following imaging sequences, depending on the information being sought: T1-weighted (T1-MRI),

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copyright protection) and lasts only for 50 years after image creation, if not published within 50 years, or for 50 years after the first legitimate publication. The letter of the law grants this right to the "Lichtbildner", i.e. the person who created the image. The literature seems to uniformly

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Nuclear medicine encompasses both diagnostic imaging and treatment of disease, and may also be referred to as molecular medicine or molecular imaging and therapeutics. Nuclear medicine uses certain properties of isotopes and the energetic particles emitted from radioactive material to diagnose or

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is a 3D tomographic technique that uses gamma camera data from many projections and can be reconstructed in different planes. A dual detector head gamma camera combined with a CT scanner, which provides localization of functional SPECT data, is termed a SPECT-CT camera, and has shown utility in

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The amount of data obtained in a single MR or CT scan is very extensive. Some of the data that radiologists discard could save patients time and money, while reducing their exposure to radiation and risk of complications from invasive procedures. Another approach for making the procedures more

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Medical images created in the United Kingdom will normally be protected by copyright due to "the high level of skill, labour and judgement required to produce a good quality X-ray, particularly to show contrast between bones and various soft tissues". The Society of Radiographers believe this

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Two forms of radiographic images are in use in medical imaging. Projection radiography and fluoroscopy, with the latter being useful for catheter guidance. These 2D techniques are still in wide use despite the advance of 3D tomography due to the low cost, high resolution, and depending on the

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A "derivative work" is a work based upon one or more preexisting works, such as a translation... art reproduction, abridgment, condensation, or any other form in which a work may be recast, transformed, or adapted. A work consisting of editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other

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imaging to create pictures of the heart and visualize the blood flowing through each of the four heart valves. Echocardiography is widely used in an array of patients ranging from those experiencing symptoms, such as shortness of breath or chest pain, to those undergoing cancer treatments.

490:. However, there are well-identified health risks associated with tissue heating from exposure to the RF field and the presence of implanted devices in the body, such as pacemakers. These risks are strictly controlled as part of the design of the instrument and the scanning protocols used. 282:

or "clinical imaging". "Visible light" medical imaging involves digital video or still pictures that can be seen without special equipment. Dermatology and wound care are two modalities that use visible light imagery. Interpretation of medical images is generally undertaken by a physician

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to optimize the image reconstruction involved with positron imaging. This is performed on the same equipment without physically moving the patient off of the gantry. The resultant hybrid of functional and anatomic imaging information is a useful tool in non-invasive diagnosis and patient

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treat various pathology. Different from the typical concept of anatomic radiology, nuclear medicine enables assessment of physiology. This function-based approach to medical evaluation has useful applications in most subspecialties, notably oncology, neurology, and cardiology.

1223:(a characteristic that is objectively measured by an imaging technique, which is used as an indicator of pharmacological response to a therapy) and surrogate endpoints have shown to facilitate the use of small group sizes, obtaining quick results with good statistical power. 195:

As of 2010, 5 billion medical imaging studies had been conducted worldwide. Radiation exposure from medical imaging in 2006 made up about 50% of total ionizing radiation exposure in the United States. Medical imaging equipment is manufactured using technology from the

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and is therefore not associated with the same health hazards. For example, because MRI has only been in use since the early 1980s, there are no known long-term effects of exposure to strong static fields (this is the subject of some debate; see 'Safety' in

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Standard is used globally to store, exchange, and transmit medical images. The DICOM Standard incorporates protocols for imaging techniques such as radiography, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound, and radiation therapy.

591:, creating F18-fluorodeoxyglucose, which can be used as a marker of metabolic utilization. Images of activity distribution throughout the body can show rapidly growing tissue, like tumor, metastasis, or infection. PET images can be viewed in comparison to 453:) static magnetic field to polarize the hydrogen nuclei, called the primary field; gradient fields that can be modified to vary in space and time (on the order of 1 kHz) for spatial encoding, often simply called gradients; and a spatially homogeneous 1226:

Imaging is able to reveal subtle change that is indicative of the progression of therapy that may be missed out by more subjective, traditional approaches. Statistical bias is reduced as the findings are evaluated without any direct patient contact.

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techniques have been developed to enable CT, MRI and ultrasound scanning software to produce 3D images for the physician. Traditionally CT and MRI scans produced 2D static output on film. To produce 3D images, many scans are made and then

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Medical imaging systems produce increasingly accurate images with improved quality using higher spatial resolutions and color bit-depth. Such improvements increase the amount of information that needs to be stored, processed, and

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scans of the entire brain can accurately assess the rate of hippocampal atrophy, while PET scans can measure the brain's metabolic activity by measuring regional glucose metabolism, and beta-amyloid plaques using tracers such as

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imaging technique. Modern MRI instruments are capable of producing images in the form of 3D blocks, which may be considered a generalization of the single-slice, tomographic, concept. Unlike CT, MRI does not involve the use of

810:. Echocardiography allows detailed structures of the heart, including chamber size, heart function, the valves of the heart, as well as the pericardium (the sac around the heart) to be seen. Echocardiography uses 2D, 3D, and 991:

efficient is based on utilizing additional constraints, e.g., in some medical imaging modalities one can improve the efficiency of the data acquisition by taking into account the fact the reconstructed density is positive.

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depending on the context: Research and development in the area of instrumentation, image acquisition (e.g., radiography), modeling and quantification are usually the preserve of biomedical engineering, medical physics, and

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Medical imaging techniques produce very large amounts of data, especially from CT, MRI and PET modalities. As a result, storage and communications of electronic image data are prohibitive without the use of compression.

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PACS. A recent article by Applied Radiology said, "As the digital-imaging realm is embraced across the healthcare enterprise, the swift transition from terabytes to petabytes of data has put radiology on the brink of

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or outcomes are used to determine whether the therapy is safe and effective. Once a patient reaches the endpoint, he or she is generally excluded from further experimental interaction. Trials that rely solely on

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standard for storage and transmission of medical images. The cost and feasibility of accessing large image data sets over low or various bandwidths are further addressed by use of another DICOM standard, called

3326: 289:; however, this may be undertaken by any healthcare professional who is trained and certified in radiological clinical evaluation. Increasingly interpretation is being undertaken by non-physicians, for example 1286:

Certain specialised imaging contract research organizations provide end to end medical imaging services, from protocol design and site management through to data quality assurance and image analysis.

2343: 318:; Research into the application and interpretation of medical images is usually the preserve of radiology and the medical sub-discipline relevant to medical condition or area of medical science ( 1837:

Banerjee R, Pavlides M, Tunnicliffe EM, Piechnik SK, Sarania N, Philips R, Collier JD, Booth JC, Schneider JE, Wang LM, Delaney DW, Fleming KA, Robson MD, Barnes E, Neubauer S (January 2014).

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consider the medical doctor, dentist or veterinary physician as the rights holder, which may result from the circumstance that in Germany many X-rays are performed in ambulatory settings.

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In the United States, as estimate as of 2015 places the US market for imaging scans at about $ 100b, with 60% occurring in hospitals and 40% occurring in freestanding clinics, such as the

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A realistic imaging protocol. The protocol is an outline that standardizes (as far as practically possible) the way in which the images are acquired using the various modalities (

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CT scanner geometry). Previously in older generation scanners, the X-ray beam was paired by a translating source and detector. Computed tomography has almost completely replaced

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shrinkage is a commonly used surrogate endpoint in solid tumour response evaluation. This allows for faster and more objective assessment of the effects of anticancer drugs. In

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points in bone. Images are acquired after collimated photons are detected by a crystal that gives off a light signal, which is in turn amplified and converted into count data.

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are taken internally, for example, intravenously or orally. Then, gamma cameras capture and form two-dimensional images from the radiation emitted by the radiopharmaceuticals.

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Medical imaging may possibly be included in the scope of "photography", similarly to a U.S. statement that "MRI images, CT scans, and the like are analogous to photography."

390:, more commonly known as X-rays, are often used to determine the type and extent of a fracture as well as for detecting pathological changes in the lungs. With the use of 3103: 2409:

Perera Molligoda Arachchige, Arosh S.; Svet, Afanasy (2021-09-10). "Integrating artificial intelligence into radiology practice: undergraduate students' perspective".

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In a derivative of a medical image created in the U.S., added annotations and explanations may be copyrightable, but the medical image itself remains public domain.

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that contain data about the measurement locations. In a limited comparison, these technologies can be considered forms of medical imaging in another discipline of

3357:* Scholarly legal literature:(Schulze, in: Dreier/Schulze, 2013, §72 Rdnr. 6 w. reference to Schricker/Vogel §72 Rdnr. 18 and Wandtke/Bullinger/Thum §72 Rdnr. 10 1094:

Many medical imaging software applications are used for non-diagnostic imaging, specifically because they do not have an FDA approval and not allowed to use in

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is administered to the patient. Isotopes are often preferentially absorbed by biologically active tissue in the body, and can be used to identify tumors or

2348: 1688: 3389: 4482: 3588: 3385:, a federal regulation about the protection against damages by X-rays, which in §28 Abs. 5 twice mentions the "Urheber" (author/creator) of X-ray images 1348: 1787:"SpinTech MRI Announces FDA 510(k) Clearance and Availability for STAGE 2.0 with CROWN Noise Reduction for Faster Brain Scans and Greater Image Clarity" 2205:

Ophir J, Céspedes I, Ponnekanti H, Yazdi Y, Li X (April 1991). "Elastography: a quantitative method for imaging the elasticity of biological tissues".

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imaging can be used in vivo for tumor angiogenesis monitoring, blood oxygenation mapping, functional brain imaging, and skin melanoma detection, etc.

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states: "Pictures can be protected as photographic works or as photographic pictures. The former requires a higher level of originality; the latter

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the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention, as well as visual representation of the function of some organs or tissues (

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are used in e.g. scintigraphy, SPECT and PET to detect regions of biologic activity that may be associated with a disease. Relatively short-lived

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or T. Hillegeist: Rechtliche Probleme der elektronischen Langzeitarchivierung wissenschaftlicher Primärdaten. Universitätsverlag Göttingen, 2012

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The UK General Medical Council's ethical guidelines indicate that the Council does not require consent prior to secondary uses of X-ray images.

5298: 4982: 3684: 262:" is used to denote a procedure where no instrument is introduced into a patient's body, which is the case for most imaging techniques used. 82: 78: 1366:

Organizations in the medical imaging industry include manufacturers of imaging equipment, freestanding radiology facilities, and hospitals.

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Medical imaging has become a major tool in clinical trials since it enables rapid diagnosis with visualization and quantitative assessment.

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and does not affect or enlarge the scope, duration, ownership, or subsistence of, any copyright protection in the preexisting material.

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is used in order to capture the video signal from the medical device and relay it to a computer for further processing and operations.

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has also been used in experimental circumstances to allow people (especially disabled persons) to control outside devices, acting as a

856: 570: 4724: 3364: 398:, they can also be used to visualize the structure of the stomach and intestines – this can help diagnose ulcers or certain types of 445:

and is determined by the strength of the main magnetic field and the chemical environment of the nuclei of interest. MRI uses three

184:(ECG), and others, represent other technologies that produce data susceptible to representation as a parameter graph versus time or 5560: 893: 5090: 3832: 3581: 2502: 3100: 30:

This article is about imaging techniques and modalities for the human body. For imaging of non-human animals in research, see

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The global market for manufactured devices was estimated at $ 5 billion in 2018. Notable manufacturers as of 2012 included

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are not associated with any risk for the mother or the fetus, and are the imaging techniques of choice for pregnant women.

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Scialpi M, Reginelli A, D'Andrea A, Gravante S, Falcone G, Baccari P, Manganaro L, Palumbo B, Cappabianca S (April 2016).

4936: 259: 1811: 5648: 5488: 5367: 5107: 5016: 4594: 4537: 4143: 3619: 3574: 1936: 1478: 1462: 622: 141:). Medical imaging seeks to reveal internal structures hidden by the skin and bones, as well as to diagnose and treat 4946: 3500: 2897:

Matthews PM, Rabiner I, Gunn R (October 2011). "Non-invasive imaging in experimental medicine for drug development".

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Kahn CE, Carrino JA, Flynn MJ, Peck DJ, Horii SC (September 2007). "DICOM and radiology: past, present, and future".

931: 791:(MRI) commonly produces tomographic images of cross-sections of the body. (See separate MRI section in this article.) 697:

3D tactile image (C) is composed from 2D pressure maps (B) recorded in the process of tissue phantom examination (A).

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range that are reflected by tissue to varying degrees to produce (up to 3D) images. This is commonly associated with

4931: 4926: 4809: 2612:"RNS-Based FPGA Accelerators for High-Quality 3D Medical Image Wavelet Processing Using Scaled Filter Coefficients" 675:. Ultrasound is also used as a popular research tool for capturing raw data, that can be made available through an 482:) and therefore there is no limit to the number of scans to which an individual can be subjected, in contrast with 5011: 4994: 4148: 2388:

Nemirovsky J, Shimron E (2015). "Utilizing Bochners Theorem for Constrained Evaluation of Missing Fourier Data".

1188:. Cloud computing offers the imaging department of the future the tools to manage data much more intelligently." 1033: 468:, MRI traditionally creates a two-dimensional image of a thin "slice" of the body and is therefore considered a 5372: 5219: 5119: 5102: 3386: 3363:

Legal commentaries: K. Hartung, E. Ludewig, B. Tellhelm: Röntgenuntersuchung in der Tierarztpraxis. Enke, 2010

3176:, Accessed October 1, 2014. None of the aforementioned sources are legally binding and court outcomes may vary. 663:

in numerous situations, in particular that it studies the function of moving structures in real-time, emits no

583:(PET) uses coincidence detection to image functional processes. Short-lived positron emitting isotope, such as 61: 5315: 1409:. In 2016, the manufacturing industry was characterized as oligopolistic and mature; new entrants included in 5498: 5352: 4951: 4826: 4818: 4717: 3856: 1068: 676: 2827:

Willmann JK, van Bruggen N, Dinkelborg LM, Gambhir SS (July 2008). "Molecular imaging in drug development".

5609: 5543: 5475: 5465: 5443: 5214: 5182: 4813: 4138: 3358: 1580: 1512: 1352: 1267: 1231: 1063: 913: 877:, along with the lack of signal decrease with tissue depth. MPI has been used in medical research to image 774: 614: 579: 621:(MRI). Similarly, fiducial points established during MRI can be correlated with brain images generated by 5273: 5241: 5224: 3825: 1558:

photographic work as opposed to fifty years, from the year in which the photographic picture was taken."

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the images produced by both imaging modalities must be used. By this method, functional information from

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or S.C. Linnemann: Veröffentlichung "anonymisierter" Röntgenbilder. Dent Implantol 17, 2, 132-134 (2013)

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have been shown to cut down the time required to confirm whether a drug has clinical benefits. Imaging

1023: 939: 927: 830: 788: 618: 457:(RF) field for manipulation of the hydrogen nuclei to produce measurable signals, collected through an 412: 208: 2551:"Treating Medical Ailments in Real Time Using Epiphan DVI2USB | Solutions | Epiphan Systems" 5668: 5658: 5588: 5256: 5246: 3891: 947: 860: 850: 755: 659: 236: 2946: 5663: 5653: 5627: 5578: 5357: 5236: 5209: 4970: 4755: 4710: 3916: 3911: 3876: 3841: 3460: 3339: 1088: 951: 882: 811: 386: 339: 89: 2984:

Comley RA, Kallend D (February 2013). "Imaging in the cardiovascular and metabolic disease area".

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Hargreaves RJ (February 2008). "The role of molecular imaging in drug discovery and development".

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modifications which, as a whole, represent an original work of authorship, is a "derivative work".

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application, lower radiation dosages with 2D technique. This imaging modality uses a wide beam of

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imaging, capturing the image produced by a medical imaging device is required for archiving and

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Clinical sites that recruit patients to generate the images to send back to the imaging centre.

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Some of these techniques are still at a research stage and not yet used in clinical routines.

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some radiological interventions performed by radiologists are done so without a radiographer.

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https://www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacy/hipaa/administrative/combined/hipaa-simplification-201303.pdf

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musical arrangement, dramatization, fictionalization, motion picture version, sound recording

1575: 1255:(PiB). Historically less use has been made of quantitative medical imaging in other areas of 1252: 1038: 919: 446: 639: 433:) imaging" scanner as it was originally known, uses powerful magnets to polarize and excite 334:, etc.) under investigation. Many of the techniques developed for medical imaging also have 5604: 5293: 5231: 5053: 4661: 4552: 4376: 4326: 4234: 4219: 4163: 4128: 4024: 3921: 3896: 3734: 3173: 2623: 2253: 1669:(Press release). National Council on Radiation Protection & Measurements. March 5, 2009 1667:"Medical Radiation Exposure Of The U.S. Population Greatly Increased Since The Early 1980s" 1378: 1185: 3461:"Laser Bones: Copyright Issues Raised by the Use of Information Technology in Archaeology" 8: 5550: 5428: 5251: 4987: 4641: 4396: 4331: 4168: 4029: 3979: 3974: 3810: 3774: 3752: 1275: 1238:(MRI) are routinely used in oncology and neuroscience areas. For example, measurement of 1016:

in 2003. The 3D equipment was used previously for similar operations with great success.

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Nagornov, Nikolay N.; Lyakhov, Pavel A.; Valueva, Maria V.; Bergerman, Maxim V. (2022).

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are very costly as they have long durations and tend to need large numbers of patients.

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is the imaging by sections or sectioning. The main such methods in medical imaging are:

382:, and a mirror at the opposite end. Eventually the mirror was replaced with a TV camera. 301:

As a field of scientific investigation, medical imaging constitutes a sub-discipline of

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for image acquisition and is the first imaging technique available in modern medicine.

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Winkler SA, Schmitt F, Landes H, de Bever J, Wade T, Alejski A, Rutt BK (March 2018).

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scans to determine an anatomic correlate. Modern scanners may integrate PET, allowing

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Sadek, Rowayda A. (May 2012). "An improved MRI segmentation for atrophy assessment".

2914: 2879: 2844: 2801: 2764: 2742: 2696: 2673:"ROI-Based Compression Strategy of 3D MRI Brain Datasets for Wireless Communications" 2653: 2641: 2592: 2470: 2446: 2434: 2426: 2312: 2271: 2222: 2218: 2187: 2135: 2086: 2065:"Correlation of single photon emission CT with MR image data using fiduciary markers" 2043: 1969: 1917: 1868: 1766: 1714:

James AP, Dasarathy BV (2014). "Medical Image Fusion: A survey of state of the art".

1648: 1394: 1298:

Medical imaging can lead to patient and healthcare provider harm through exposure to

1282:). It covers the specifics in which images are to be stored, processed and evaluated. 1209: 1204: 1099: 1095: 370:

produces real-time images of internal structures of the body in a similar fashion to

161:

can be performed for medical reasons, such procedures are usually considered part of

73: 3407: 3342: 2967:

International Journal of Signal Processing, Image Processing and Pattern Recognition

2856: 2813: 2324: 2064: 1839:"Multiparametric magnetic resonance for the non-invasive diagnosis of liver disease" 1745: 1482: 5204: 5063: 4835: 4787: 4686: 4671: 4666: 4646: 4497: 4472: 4436: 4431: 4366: 4300: 4204: 4108: 4098: 4072: 4019: 3946: 3886: 3861: 3757: 3742: 3704: 3597: 3141: 3133: 3072: 3064: 2993: 2906: 2836: 2793: 2730: 2684: 2631: 2584: 2418: 2302: 2261: 2214: 2177: 2169: 2125: 2117: 2076: 1961: 1951: 1907: 1899: 1858: 1850: 1733: 1638: 1328: 1256: 999: 959: 901: 801: 728: 523: 507: 442: 315: 278:

In the clinical context, "invisible light" medical imaging is generally equated to

228: 158: 4113: 3188:"Want Fries With That? A Brief History Of Medical MRI, Starting With A McDonald's" 121: 27:

Technique and process of creating visual representations of the interior of a body

5413: 4865: 4831: 4804: 4799: 4691: 4631: 4542: 4467: 4411: 4361: 4004: 3679: 3644: 3530: 3393: 3107: 2997: 2503:"FDA: Statistical Guidance for Clinical Trials of Non Diagnostic Medical Devices" 2464: 2460: 2371: 2156:

Sarvazyan A, Hall TJ, Urban MW, Fatemi M, Aglyamov SR, Garra BS (November 2011).

1760: 1737: 1466: 1344: 1180: 970:

than what are associated with fetal harm. At higher dosages, effects can include

759: 458: 454: 306: 240: 232: 154: 2636: 2611: 2554: 1449: 417: 168:

Measurement and recording techniques that are not primarily designed to produce

5555: 4656: 4621: 4562: 4517: 4416: 4401: 4295: 4270: 4224: 4178: 4173: 4009: 3941: 3375: 3020: 2910: 2688: 2588: 2422: 2173: 1956: 1903: 1854: 1643: 1626: 1520: 1386: 1200: 878: 807: 546: 375: 244: 46: 3557: 66: 5642: 5187: 5156: 5144: 5139: 4897: 4792: 4616: 4502: 4426: 4391: 4371: 4275: 4239: 4093: 4077: 4062: 3866: 3624: 3606: 3137: 2963:"Regional atrophy analysis of MRI for early detection of alzheimer's disease" 2645: 2430: 1374: 1125: 1043: 1008: 967: 935: 905: 838: 379: 270: 216: 3566: 2797: 1627:"Radiation-reduction strategies in cardiac computed tomographic angiography" 293:

frequently train in interpretation as part of expanded practice. Diagnostic

5570: 5423: 5418: 5325: 5149: 5134: 5068: 4651: 4611: 4532: 4512: 4477: 4462: 4356: 4351: 4321: 4199: 3789: 3629: 3345: 3155: 3086: 3032: 3005: 2962: 2918: 2883: 2848: 2805: 2596: 2438: 2275: 2191: 2139: 2121: 1973: 1921: 1872: 1652: 1516: 1121: 1084: 1028: 975: 870: 688: 672: 563: 558: 531: 503: 450: 399: 391: 319: 290: 247:

devices. As of 2015, annual shipments of medical imaging chips amount to 46

153:

to make it possible to identify abnormalities. Although imaging of removed

95: 2316: 2226: 2090: 1689:"Medical Imaging Chip Global Unit Volume To Soar Over the Next Five Years" 5493: 5048: 4880: 4870: 4850: 4840: 4782: 4777: 4746: 4636: 4584: 4522: 4492: 4421: 4346: 4316: 4254: 4209: 1523:. This protection does not require creativity (as would be necessary for 1500: 971: 584: 537: 426: 371: 366: 351: 294: 285: 220: 115: 108: 1965: 5129: 4892: 4887: 4855: 4507: 4285: 4249: 4244: 3994: 3799: 3689: 3664: 3654: 2291:"Non-invasive optical spectroscopy and imaging of human brain function" 1759:

Brown RW, Cheng YC, Haacke EM, Thompson MR, Venkatesan R (2 May 2014).

1220: 1117: 1007:

to produce a 3D model, which can then be manipulated by the physician.

867: 748: 733: 469: 331: 327: 323: 224: 150: 138: 2870:

McCarthy TJ (August 2009). "The role of imaging in drug development".

5456: 5392: 4845: 4589: 4557: 4158: 4133: 4014: 3999: 3614: 2013:"scintigraphy – definition of scintigraphy in the Medical dictionary" 1164: 1151: 923: 655: 651: 643:

Ultrasound image showing the liver, gallbladder and common bile duct.

279: 162: 3120:

Shamir L, Ling S, Rahimi S, Ferrucci L, Goldberg IG (January 2009).

2840: 2826: 2734: 1934: 1262:

An imaging-based trial will usually be made up of three components:

5479: 3984: 3762: 3694: 3659: 3379: 2394: 2242:"Imaging the elastic properties of tissue: the 20 year perspective" 1836: 1762:

Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Physical Principles and Sequence Design

1370: 806:

When ultrasound is used to image the heart it is referred to as an

550: 511: 434: 310: 4702: 2344:"Guidelines for Diagnostic Imaging During Pregnancy and Lactation" 2106:"Medical ultrasound: imaging of soft tissue strain and elasticity" 1728: 5508: 4911: 4457: 3969: 3669: 2671:

Dhouib, D.; Naït-Ali, A.; Olivier, C.; Naceur, M.S. (June 2021).

1414: 1410: 1402: 1398: 1390: 1382: 1351:(HIPAA) sets restrictions for health care providers on utilizing 955: 897: 863:) is a developing diagnostic imaging technique used for tracking 782: 600: 588: 542: 335: 212: 146: 142: 134: 103: 52: 2158:"Overview of elastography–an emerging branch of medical imaging" 374:, but employs a constant input of X-rays, at a lower dose rate. 5503: 3794: 3784: 3779: 3714: 3709: 3674: 3639: 3561: 2872:

The Quarterly Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging

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One frame of an MRI scan of the head showing the eyes and brain

395: 358: 1624: 5530: 4741: 3964: 3719: 3699: 2365:

Waste not, want not: Getting the most from imaging procedures

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goes through multiple phases and can take up to eight years.

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and Thum, in: Wandtke/Bullinger, UrhG, 32009, §72, Rn. 15.)

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Roobottom CA, Mitchell G, Morgan-Hughes G (November 2010).

1313: 1160: 201: 3840: 2411:

European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging

3989: 3724: 3212: 3053:"Gradient and shim technologies for ultra high field MRI" 1247: 829:

FNIR Is a relatively new non-invasive imaging technique.

777:(PET) also used in conjunction with computed tomography, 479: 430: 185: 3381:), which mentions copyright in X-ray images, and by the 3174:

http://www.gmc-uk.org/guidance/ethical_guidance/7840.asp

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International Journal of Computer Science Issues (IJCSI)

2155: 1758: 1191: 1175:

There has been growing trend to migrate from on-premise

833:(near infrared spectroscopy) is used for the purpose of 818: 145:. Medical imaging also establishes a database of normal 3168:

Recordings for which separate consent is not required,

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studies are not designed for patient diagnosis anyway.

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protects all types of photographs, also the ones taken

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Indirectly by a ruling of a German 2nd-level court: (

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Digital Imaging and Communication in Medicine (DICOM)

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compared with the (not tomographic) projected image P

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can be related to anatomical information provided by

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American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists

966:

exposure, but have with a few exceptions much lower

587:, is incorporated with an organic substance such as 3283:"The Future of Imaging Diagnostic Centers in China" 2896: 1892:

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Clinics of North America

1349:

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act

985: 3378:Aachen, Urteil v. 16. Oktober 1985, Az. 7 S 90/85 2707: 2239: 1335:to prevent external disturbance of image quality. 3509: 3234:"Top ten diagnostic imaging device manufacturers" 2526:"Genes Now Tell Doctors Secrets They Can't Utter" 2387: 1343:Medical imaging are generally covered by laws of 736:: superposition free tomographic cross sections S 5640: 2288: 2033: 2031: 2029: 1144: 1019:Other proposed or developed techniques include: 934:or an acquired disease in pregnancy, or routine 3099:HIPAA 45 CFR Part 160.103 (2013). Available at 3027:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, 1885: 1461:is given by the United States Copyright Act in 1170: 562:("scint") is a form of diagnostic test wherein 1713: 4718: 3826: 3596: 3582: 3490: 3307:Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office practices 3018: 2983: 2026: 1888:"Multiparametric MR Imaging of Breast Cancer" 1752: 1439:Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices 406: 3122:"Biometric identification using knee X-rays" 3021:"Radiology Patient Safety and Communication" 2577:Journal of the American College of Radiology 2062: 844: 3528: 3019:Emmerson, Benjamin; Young, Michael (2023), 2459: 4725: 4711: 3833: 3819: 3589: 3575: 2783: 2758: 2103: 2015:. Medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com 1293: 1112:Picture archiving and communication system 1105: 857:superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles 625:to localize the source of brain activity. 3423:The law of photography and digital images 3145: 3076: 2945: 2754: 2752: 2635: 2393: 2306: 2265: 2181: 2129: 2080: 1955: 1911: 1862: 1727: 1707: 1642: 1519:images are protected by (copyright-like) 1079: 425:A magnetic resonance imaging instrument ( 5561:Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging 3420: 2869: 2713: 2240:Parker KJ, Doyley MM, Rubens DJ (2011). 2069:AJNR. American Journal of Neuroradiology 1886:Rahbar H, Partridge SC (February 2016). 1809: 1659: 1448: 1347:. For example, in the United States the 892: 727: 705: 692: 638: 416: 269: 55:of the chest showing the heart and lungs 3468:Harvard Journal of Law & Technology 2960: 2338: 2336: 2334: 2289:Villringer A, Chance B (October 1997). 2151: 2149: 2110:Journal of the Royal Society, Interface 1163:, to enable efficient streaming of the 14: 5641: 2786:Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 2749: 2523: 2489:FDA: Device Approvals and Clearances, 2037: 1937:"Pancreatic tumors imaging: An update" 1098:for patient diagnosis. Note that many 4706: 3814: 3570: 2931: 2097: 1521:related rights or neighbouring rights 1338: 1192:Use in pharmaceutical clinical trials 825:Functional near-infrared spectroscopy 819:Functional near-infrared spectroscopy 283:specialising in radiology known as a 3512:A Patient's Guide to Medical Imaging 2453: 2331: 2146: 2104:Wells PN, Liang HD (November 2011). 1591: 1457:An extensive definition of the term 995:Creation of three-dimensional images 873:. The primary advantage is the high 712:Photoacoustic imaging in biomedicine 514:disruption agents on cancer tumors. 449:: a very strong (typically 1.5 to 3 4732: 3210: 3185: 3126:International Journal of Biometrics 2961:Rowayda, A. Sadek (February 2013). 2042:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience. 1215:In contrast to clinical endpoints, 1124:applications. In most scenarios, a 795: 517: 429:), or "nuclear magnetic resonance ( 24: 5368:Sestamibi parathyroid scintigraphy 3510:Eisenberg RL, Margulis AR (2011). 3491:Cho ZH, Jones JP, Singh M (1993). 3483: 837:and has been widely accepted as a 25: 5680: 3551: 2063:Erickson BJ, Jack CR (May 1993). 1531: 1154:image compression is used by the 781:, and magnetic resonance imaging 274:Plain X-ray of the wrist and hand 5623: 5622: 3069:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.11.033 2759:Hajnal JV, Hill DL (June 2001). 2524:Kolata, Gina (August 25, 2012). 1944:International Journal of Surgery 1432: 986:Maximizing imaging procedure use 133:is the technique and process of 45: 5125:Cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) 3453: 3439: 3414: 3400: 3351: 3332: 3312: 3299: 3275: 3251: 3226: 3204: 3179: 3162: 3113: 3093: 3044: 3012: 2977: 2954: 2925: 2899:Current Opinion in Pharmacology 2890: 2863: 2820: 2777: 2664: 2603: 2568: 2543: 2517: 2495: 2483: 2402: 2381: 2357: 2282: 2246:Physics in Medicine and Biology 2233: 2198: 2162:Current Medical Imaging Reviews 2056: 2005: 1980: 1928: 1598: 1034:Electrical impedance tomography 888: 682: 510:, and assessing the effects of 5373:Radioactive iodine uptake test 3535:(Second ed.). CRC Press. 3493:Foundations of medical imaging 2829:Nature Reviews. Drug Discovery 1879: 1830: 1803: 1779: 1681: 1618: 1444: 1316:is the main material used for 1259:although interest is growing. 962:imaging result some degree of 345: 13: 1: 5353:Radionuclide ventriculography 4827:Lower gastrointestinal series 4819:Upper gastrointestinal series 3857:Biological data visualization 3319:Craigslist Inc. v. 3Taps Inc. 2553:. Epiphan.com. Archived from 2308:10.1016/s0166-2236(97)01132-6 1611: 1145:Compression of medical images 1069:Scanning laser ophthalmoscopy 859:, magnetic particle imaging ( 723: 677:ultrasound research interface 628: 5544:Optical coherence tomography 5466:Myocardial perfusion imaging 5054:Dental panoramic radiography 3529:Udupa JK, Herman GT (1999). 3421:Michalos, Christina (2004). 3383:Röntgenverordnung of Germany 2998:10.1016/j.drudis.2012.09.008 2267:10.1088/0031-9155/57/16/5359 2219:10.1016/0161-7346(91)90079-W 1738:10.1016/j.inffus.2013.12.002 1581:Radiologists Without Borders 1427: 1353:protected health information 1232:positron emission tomography 1171:Medical imaging in the cloud 1064:Optical coherence tomography 914:Medical imaging in pregnancy 775:Positron emission tomography 771:in X-ray tomography imaging. 615:positron emission tomography 580:Positron emission tomography 165:instead of medical imaging. 7: 3514:. Oxford University Press. 2637:10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3151361 2469:(2nd ed.). CRC Press. 1564: 1361: 1230:Imaging techniques such as 875:sensitivity and specificity 209:power semiconductor devices 10: 5685: 5348:Ventilation/perfusion scan 4823:Small-bowel follow-through 3897:Mathematical visualization 3329:; accessed Sept. 25, 2014. 3110:, Accessed Sept. 17, 2014. 2911:10.1016/j.coph.2011.04.009 2761:Medical image registration 2689:10.1016/j.irbm.2020.05.001 2589:10.1016/j.jacr.2007.06.004 2423:10.1007/s00259-021-05558-y 2174:10.2174/157340511798038684 1957:10.1016/j.ijsu.2015.12.053 1904:10.1016/j.mric.2015.08.012 1855:10.1016/j.jhep.2013.09.002 1818:. Sperling Prostate Center 1816:sperlingprostatecenter.com 1644:10.1016/j.crad.2010.04.021 1494: 1437:As per chapter 300 of the 1325:magnetic resonance imaging 1320:against scattered X-rays. 1236:magnetic resonance imaging 1109: 1024:Diffuse optical tomography 940:Magnetic resonance imaging 911: 848: 822: 799: 789:Magnetic resonance imaging 709: 686: 632: 619:magnetic resonance imaging 521: 413:Magnetic resonance imaging 410: 407:Magnetic resonance imaging 349: 29: 5649:Image processing software 5618: 5597: 5589:Dynamic angiothermography 5569: 5525: 5474: 5451: 5441: 5406: 5333: 5323: 5314: 5257:Abdominal ultrasonography 5165: 5081: 5041: 4960: 4919: 4910: 4763: 4754: 4740: 4575: 4445: 4309: 4263: 4187: 4086: 4055: 4048: 3955: 3892:Information visualization 3877:Educational visualization 3849: 3733: 3605: 1990:. Snm.org. Archived from 1540: 948:obstetric ultrasonography 851:Magnetic particle imaging 845:Magnetic particle imaging 756:X-ray computed tomography 237:digital signal processors 227:, and processors such as 114: 102: 88: 72: 60: 44: 39: 5579:Non-contact thermography 5358:Radionuclide angiography 5210:Doppler echocardiography 4068:Charles-René de Fourcroy 3917:Scientific visualization 3844:of technical information 3408:"§ 72 UrhG - Einzelnorm" 3263:healthcare-in-europe.com 3138:10.1504/IJBM.2009.024279 2714:Shrestha RB (May 2011). 2038:Dhawan, Atam P. (2003). 1131: 1089:brain computer interface 952:Projectional radiography 908:to the developing fetus. 904:in this case) confers a 394:contrast media, such as 387:Projectional radiographs 265: 5363:Radioisotope renography 3425:. Sweet & Maxwell. 3170:General Medical Council 2798:10.1038/sj.clpt.6100467 2295:Trends in Neurosciences 1294:Risks and safety issues 1167:compressed image data. 1106:Archiving and recording 980:intellectual disability 928:pregnancy complications 918:Medical imaging may be 835:functional neuroimaging 190:medical instrumentation 5398:Gastric emptying study 4488:Christopher R. Johnson 4040:Technical illustration 3927:Software visualization 3650:FMRIB Software Library 3532:3D Imaging in Medicine 3344:like "simple images" ( 2716:"Imaging on the cloud" 2492:. Retrieved 2012-31-08 2466:3D Imaging in Medicine 2122:10.1098/rsif.2011.0054 2040:Medical Image Analysis 1492: 1476: 1454: 1318:radiographic shielding 1080:Non-diagnostic imaging 1014:Ladan and Laleh Bijani 909: 769:focal plane tomography 745: 698: 644: 623:magnetoencephalography 447:electromagnetic fields 422: 303:biomedical engineering 275: 198:semiconductor industry 178:magnetoencephalography 174:electroencephalography 5059:X-ray motion analysis 4942:X-ray microtomography 4861:Hysterosalpingography 4768:Pneumoencephalography 4382:Lawrence J. Rosenblum 4195:Edward Walter Maunder 4119:Charles Joseph Minard 3937:User interface design 3912:Product visualization 1843:Journal of Hepatology 1693:Silicon Semiconductor 1576:Medical image sharing 1487: 1471: 1452: 1310:, and other hazards. 1253:Pittsburgh compound B 1110:Further information: 1005:combined by computers 896: 885:, and cell tracking. 731: 717:Photoacoustic imaging 706:Photoacoustic imaging 696: 642: 437:nuclei (i.e., single 420: 273: 18:Medical visualization 5584:Contact thermography 5294:Emergency ultrasound 5232:Transcranial Doppler 4983:Abdominal and pelvis 4662:Scientific modelling 4637:Information graphics 4377:Clifford A. Pickover 4327:William S. Cleveland 4235:Henry Norris Russell 4220:Howard G. Funkhouser 4164:Florence Nightingale 4129:Francis Amasa Walker 4025:Statistical graphics 3947:Volume visualization 3922:Social visualization 2986:Drug Discovery Today 2463:, Herman GT (2000). 1950:(Suppl 1): S142-55. 1379:Siemens Healthineers 1186:information overload 1039:Optoacoustic imaging 932:pre-existing disease 671:that can be used in 650:uses high frequency 5551:Confocal microscopy 5429:Indium-111 WBC scan 5252:Echoencephalography 4988:Virtual colonoscopy 4642:Information science 4605:in computer science 4397:Sheelagh Carpendale 4332:George G. Robertson 4169:Karl Wilhelm Pohlke 4104:André-Michel Guerry 3980:Graph of a function 3975:Engineering drawing 3495:. New York: Wiley. 3447:Cyber Law in Sweden 2628:2022IEEEA..1019215N 2376:Diagnostic Imaging. 2258:2012PMB....57.5359P 1547:Cyber Law in Sweden 1244:Alzheimer's disease 1217:surrogate endpoints 944:MRI contrast agents 762:. It has a greater 732:Basic principle of 654:sound waves in the 593:computed tomography 182:electrocardiography 32:Preclinical imaging 5539:Optical tomography 5388:Dacryoscintigraphy 5383:Immunoscintigraphy 5022:Whole body imaging 4773:Dental radiography 4682:Volume cartography 4446:Early 21st century 4342:Catherine Plaisant 4337:Bruce H. McCormick 4291:Mary Eleanor Spear 4281:Arthur H. Robinson 4215:Arthur Lyon Bowley 4188:Early 20th century 4035:Technical drawings 3907:Molecular graphics 3882:Flow visualization 3872:Data visualization 3392:2014-12-22 at the 3106:2015-06-12 at the 2530:The New York Times 2370:2012-04-02 at the 2207:Ultrasonic Imaging 1716:Information Fusion 1695:. 8 September 2016 1631:Clinical Radiology 1586:Confocal endoscopy 1571:Biological imaging 1509:medical ultrasound 1455: 1339:Privacy protection 1333:magnetic shielding 1304:iodinated contrast 1300:ionizing radiation 1210:clinical endpoints 1205:Clinical endpoints 1116:Used primarily in 1059:Corneal topography 964:ionizing radiation 910: 764:ionizing radiation 746: 699: 665:ionizing radiation 648:Medical ultrasound 645: 635:Medical ultrasound 475:ionizing radiation 423: 276: 251:million units and 205:integrated circuit 5636: 5635: 5598:Target conditions 5521: 5520: 5517: 5516: 5437: 5436: 5378:Bone scintigraphy 5343:Scintimammography 5338:Cholescintigraphy 5183:contrast-enhanced 5077: 5076: 5037: 5036: 5027:Full-body CT scan 4927:General operation 4906: 4905: 4876:Angiocardiography 4700: 4699: 4677:Visual perception 4627:Graphic organizer 4600:Computer graphics 4571: 4570: 4553:Martin Wattenberg 4528:Hanspeter Pfister 4483:Martin Krzywinski 4407:Jock D. Mackinlay 4387:Thomas A. DeFanti 4310:Late 20th century 4230:Ejnar Hertzsprung 3932:Technical drawing 3808: 3807: 3542:978-0-84-933179-4 3521:978-0-19-972991-3 3432:978-0-421-76470-5 3213:"Medical Imaging" 2770:978-1-4200-4247-4 2723:Applied Radiology 2476:978-0-8493-3179-4 2417:(13): 4133–4135. 2049:978-0-471-45131-0 1810:Sperling, MD, D. 1772:978-1-118-63397-7 1592:Explanatory notes 1395:Carestream Health 1100:clinical research 1096:clinical research 865:superparamagnetic 660:imaging the fetus 508:pancreatic tumors 128: 127: 16:(Redirected from 5676: 5669:Nuclear medicine 5659:Image processing 5626: 5625: 5449: 5448: 5331: 5330: 5321: 5320: 5205:Echocardiography 5064:Hounsfield scale 4917: 4916: 4836:Cholecystography 4761: 4760: 4752: 4751: 4727: 4720: 4713: 4704: 4703: 4687:Volume rendering 4672:Visual analytics 4667:Spatial analysis 4647:Misleading graph 4498:David McCandless 4473:Gordon Kindlmann 4437:Alfred Inselberg 4432:Leland Wilkinson 4367:Michael Friendly 4301:Howard T. Fisher 4264:Mid 20th century 4205:W. E. B. Du Bois 4109:William Playfair 4099:Adolphe Quetelet 4073:Joseph Priestley 4056:Pre-19th century 4053: 4052: 4020:Skeletal formula 3887:Geovisualization 3862:Chemical imaging 3835: 3828: 3821: 3812: 3811: 3598:Image processing 3591: 3584: 3577: 3568: 3567: 3546: 3525: 3506: 3477: 3475: 3465: 3457: 3451: 3443: 3437: 3436: 3418: 3412: 3411: 3404: 3398: 3355: 3349: 3336: 3330: 3324: 3316: 3310: 3303: 3297: 3296: 3294: 3293: 3279: 3273: 3272: 3270: 3269: 3255: 3249: 3248: 3246: 3245: 3238:Verdict Hospital 3230: 3224: 3223: 3221: 3219: 3211:Russell, Bobby. 3208: 3202: 3201: 3199: 3198: 3186:Kincaid, Ellie. 3183: 3177: 3166: 3160: 3159: 3149: 3117: 3111: 3097: 3091: 3090: 3080: 3048: 3042: 3041: 3040: 3039: 3016: 3010: 3009: 2981: 2975: 2974: 2958: 2952: 2951: 2949: 2929: 2923: 2922: 2894: 2888: 2887: 2867: 2861: 2860: 2824: 2818: 2817: 2781: 2775: 2774: 2756: 2747: 2746: 2720: 2711: 2705: 2704: 2668: 2662: 2661: 2639: 2607: 2601: 2600: 2572: 2566: 2565: 2563: 2562: 2547: 2541: 2540: 2538: 2536: 2521: 2515: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2499: 2493: 2487: 2481: 2480: 2457: 2451: 2450: 2406: 2400: 2399: 2397: 2385: 2379: 2361: 2355: 2353: 2340: 2329: 2328: 2310: 2286: 2280: 2279: 2269: 2237: 2231: 2230: 2202: 2196: 2195: 2185: 2153: 2144: 2143: 2133: 2101: 2095: 2094: 2084: 2060: 2054: 2053: 2035: 2024: 2023: 2021: 2020: 2009: 2003: 2002: 2000: 1999: 1984: 1978: 1977: 1959: 1941: 1932: 1926: 1925: 1915: 1883: 1877: 1876: 1866: 1834: 1828: 1827: 1825: 1823: 1807: 1801: 1800: 1798: 1797: 1783: 1777: 1776: 1756: 1750: 1749: 1731: 1711: 1705: 1704: 1702: 1700: 1685: 1679: 1678: 1676: 1674: 1663: 1657: 1656: 1646: 1622: 1605: 1602: 1553:by amateurs, or 1329:MRI RF shielding 1257:drug development 1000:Volume rendering 960:nuclear medicine 802:Echocardiography 796:Echocardiography 524:Nuclear medicine 518:Nuclear medicine 443:Larmor frequency 316:computer science 254: 250: 241:media processors 229:microcontrollers 124: 98: 49: 37: 36: 21: 5684: 5683: 5679: 5678: 5677: 5675: 5674: 5673: 5664:Medical physics 5654:Medical imaging 5639: 5638: 5637: 5632: 5614: 5593: 5565: 5513: 5499:PET mammography 5470: 5433: 5419:Gallium-67 scan 5414:Octreotide scan 5402: 5310: 5161: 5073: 5033: 4956: 4937:High-resolution 4902: 4866:Skeletal survey 4832:Cholangiography 4745: 4736: 4734:Medical imaging 4731: 4701: 4696: 4692:Information art 4632:Imaging science 4577: 4567: 4548:Fernanda Viégas 4543:Moritz Stefaner 4468:Jessica Hullman 4441: 4412:Alan MacEachren 4362:Ben Shneiderman 4305: 4259: 4183: 4082: 4044: 3957: 3951: 3902:Medical imaging 3845: 3839: 3809: 3804: 3729: 3601: 3595: 3558:Medical imaging 3554: 3549: 3543: 3522: 3503: 3486: 3484:Further reading 3481: 3480: 3463: 3459: 3458: 3454: 3444: 3440: 3433: 3419: 3415: 3406: 3405: 3401: 3394:Wayback Machine 3356: 3352: 3337: 3333: 3325:"). Available 3322: 3317: 3313: 3304: 3300: 3291: 3289: 3281: 3280: 3276: 3267: 3265: 3257: 3256: 3252: 3243: 3241: 3232: 3231: 3227: 3217: 3215: 3209: 3205: 3196: 3194: 3184: 3180: 3172:, Available at 3167: 3163: 3118: 3114: 3108:Wayback Machine 3098: 3094: 3049: 3045: 3037: 3035: 3017: 3013: 2992:(3–4): 185–92. 2982: 2978: 2959: 2955: 2947:10.1.1.402.1227 2930: 2926: 2895: 2891: 2868: 2864: 2841:10.1038/nrd2290 2825: 2821: 2782: 2778: 2771: 2757: 2750: 2735:10.37549/AR1820 2718: 2712: 2708: 2669: 2665: 2622:: 19215–19231. 2608: 2604: 2573: 2569: 2560: 2558: 2549: 2548: 2544: 2534: 2532: 2522: 2518: 2508: 2506: 2501: 2500: 2496: 2488: 2484: 2477: 2458: 2454: 2407: 2403: 2386: 2382: 2378:March 19, 2010. 2372:Wayback Machine 2362: 2358: 2342: 2341: 2332: 2287: 2283: 2238: 2234: 2203: 2199: 2154: 2147: 2116:(64): 1521–49. 2102: 2098: 2061: 2057: 2050: 2036: 2027: 2018: 2016: 2011: 2010: 2006: 1997: 1995: 1986: 1985: 1981: 1939: 1933: 1929: 1884: 1880: 1835: 1831: 1821: 1819: 1808: 1804: 1795: 1793: 1785: 1784: 1780: 1773: 1757: 1753: 1712: 1708: 1698: 1696: 1687: 1686: 1682: 1672: 1670: 1665: 1664: 1660: 1623: 1619: 1614: 1609: 1608: 1603: 1599: 1594: 1567: 1555:within medicine 1543: 1534: 1497: 1459:derivative work 1447: 1435: 1430: 1415:Neusoft Medical 1364: 1345:medical privacy 1341: 1308:magnetic fields 1296: 1194: 1173: 1147: 1134: 1114: 1108: 1082: 997: 988: 916: 902:volume rendered 891: 853: 847: 827: 821: 804: 798: 760:Radon transform 743: 739: 726: 714: 708: 691: 685: 667:, and contains 637: 631: 526: 520: 455:radio-frequency 415: 409: 354: 348: 307:medical physics 268: 252: 248: 233:microprocessors 131:Medical imaging 120: 96:003952 D 003952 94: 56: 51:One frame of a 40:Medical imaging 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5682: 5672: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5634: 5633: 5631: 5630: 5619: 5616: 5615: 5613: 5612: 5607: 5601: 5599: 5595: 5594: 5592: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5575: 5573: 5567: 5566: 5564: 5563: 5558: 5556:Endomicroscopy 5553: 5548: 5547: 5546: 5535: 5533: 5523: 5522: 5519: 5518: 5515: 5514: 5512: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5485: 5483: 5472: 5471: 5469: 5468: 5462: 5460: 5446: 5439: 5438: 5435: 5434: 5432: 5431: 5426: 5421: 5416: 5410: 5408: 5404: 5403: 5401: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5334: 5328: 5318: 5312: 5311: 5309: 5308: 5307: 5306: 5301: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5270: 5269: 5264: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5228: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5202: 5201: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5171: 5169: 5163: 5162: 5160: 5159: 5154: 5153: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5116: 5115: 5105: 5100: 5099: 5098: 5087: 5085: 5079: 5078: 5075: 5074: 5072: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5045: 5043: 5039: 5038: 5035: 5034: 5032: 5031: 5030: 5029: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5008: 5007: 5002: 4992: 4991: 4990: 4980: 4979: 4978: 4973: 4964: 4962: 4958: 4957: 4955: 4954: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4923: 4921: 4914: 4908: 4907: 4904: 4903: 4901: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4884: 4883: 4878: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4829: 4816: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4796: 4795: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4764: 4758: 4749: 4738: 4737: 4730: 4729: 4722: 4715: 4707: 4698: 4697: 4695: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4657:Patent drawing 4654: 4649: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4622:Graphic design 4619: 4614: 4609: 4608: 4607: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4581: 4579: 4573: 4572: 4569: 4568: 4566: 4565: 4563:Hadley Wickham 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4518:Tamara Munzner 4515: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4449: 4447: 4443: 4442: 4440: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4417:David Goodsell 4414: 4409: 4404: 4402:Cynthia Brewer 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4324: 4319: 4313: 4311: 4307: 4306: 4304: 4303: 4298: 4296:Edgar Anderson 4293: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4271:Jacques Bertin 4267: 4265: 4261: 4260: 4258: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4225:John B. Peddle 4222: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4197: 4191: 4189: 4185: 4184: 4182: 4181: 4179:Francis Galton 4176: 4174:Toussaint Loua 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4154:Georg von Mayr 4151: 4146: 4144:Matthew Sankey 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4096: 4090: 4088: 4084: 4083: 4081: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4059: 4057: 4050: 4046: 4045: 4043: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4010:Sankey diagram 4007: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3961: 3959: 3953: 3952: 3950: 3949: 3944: 3942:Visual culture 3939: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3914: 3909: 3904: 3899: 3894: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3853: 3851: 3847: 3846: 3838: 3837: 3830: 3823: 3815: 3806: 3805: 3803: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3771: 3770: 3765: 3760: 3755: 3750: 3745: 3739: 3737: 3731: 3730: 3728: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3687: 3682: 3677: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3657: 3652: 3647: 3642: 3637: 3632: 3627: 3622: 3617: 3611: 3609: 3603: 3602: 3594: 3593: 3586: 3579: 3571: 3565: 3564: 3553: 3552:External links 3550: 3548: 3547: 3541: 3526: 3520: 3507: 3501: 3487: 3485: 3482: 3479: 3478: 3452: 3438: 3431: 3413: 3399: 3397: 3396: 3372: 3350: 3331: 3311: 3298: 3274: 3250: 3225: 3203: 3178: 3161: 3132:(3): 365–370. 3112: 3092: 3043: 3011: 2976: 2953: 2924: 2889: 2862: 2835:(7): 591–607. 2819: 2776: 2769: 2748: 2706: 2683:(3): 146–153. 2663: 2602: 2567: 2542: 2516: 2494: 2482: 2475: 2452: 2401: 2380: 2356: 2330: 2301:(10): 435–42. 2281: 2232: 2197: 2168:(4): 255–282. 2145: 2096: 2055: 2048: 2025: 2004: 1979: 1927: 1898:(1): 223–238. 1878: 1829: 1802: 1778: 1771: 1751: 1706: 1680: 1658: 1637:(11): 859–67. 1616: 1615: 1613: 1610: 1607: 1606: 1596: 1595: 1593: 1590: 1589: 1588: 1583: 1578: 1573: 1566: 1563: 1542: 1539: 1533: 1532:United Kingdom 1530: 1496: 1493: 1479:17 U.S.C. 1463:17 U.S.C. 1446: 1443: 1434: 1431: 1429: 1426: 1363: 1360: 1340: 1337: 1295: 1292: 1291: 1290: 1287: 1283: 1201:clinical trial 1193: 1190: 1172: 1169: 1146: 1143: 1133: 1130: 1107: 1104: 1081: 1078: 1074: 1073: 1072: 1071: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1041: 1036: 1031: 1026: 1009:3D ultrasounds 996: 993: 987: 984: 968:absorbed doses 942:(MRI) without 912:Main article: 906:radiation dose 890: 887: 883:neuroperfusion 879:cardiovascular 849:Main article: 846: 843: 823:Main article: 820: 817: 808:echocardiogram 800:Main article: 797: 794: 793: 792: 786: 772: 741: 737: 725: 722: 710:Main article: 707: 704: 687:Main article: 684: 681: 633:Main article: 630: 627: 606: 605: 576: 567: 522:Main article: 519: 516: 411:Main article: 408: 405: 404: 403: 383: 376:Contrast media 350:Main article: 347: 344: 342:applications. 267: 264: 245:system-on-chip 219:(particularly 126: 125: 118: 112: 111: 106: 100: 99: 92: 86: 85: 76: 70: 69: 64: 58: 57: 50: 42: 41: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5681: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5646: 5644: 5629: 5621: 5620: 5617: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5602: 5600: 5596: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5576: 5574: 5572: 5568: 5562: 5559: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5545: 5542: 5541: 5540: 5537: 5536: 5534: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5467: 5464: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5440: 5430: 5427: 5425: 5424:Ga-68-DOTATOC 5422: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5411: 5409: 5405: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5335: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5313: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5296: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5259: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5237:Intravascular 5235: 5233: 5230: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5207: 5206: 5203: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5175: 5173: 5172: 5170: 5168: 5164: 5158: 5157:Synthetic MRI 5155: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5138: 5137: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5114: 5111: 5110: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5097: 5094: 5093: 5092: 5089: 5088: 5086: 5084: 5080: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5046: 5044: 5040: 5028: 5025: 5024: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4997: 4996: 4993: 4989: 4986: 4985: 4984: 4981: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4968: 4966: 4965: 4963: 4959: 4953: 4950: 4948: 4947:Electron beam 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4924: 4922: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4909: 4899: 4898:Orbital x-ray 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4873: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4794: 4793:Bronchography 4791: 4790: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4765: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4753: 4750: 4748: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4728: 4723: 4721: 4716: 4714: 4709: 4708: 4705: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4645: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4617:Graph drawing 4615: 4613: 4610: 4606: 4603: 4602: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4582: 4580: 4574: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4538:Claudio Silva 4536: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4503:Mauro Martino 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4450: 4448: 4444: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4427:Michael Maltz 4425: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4415: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4392:George Furnas 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4372:Howard Wainer 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4315: 4314: 4312: 4308: 4302: 4299: 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Lorenz 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4198: 4196: 4193: 4192: 4190: 4186: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4149:Charles Booth 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4124:Luigi Perozzo 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4114:August Kekulé 4112: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4095: 4094:Charles Dupin 4092: 4091: 4089: 4085: 4079: 4078:Gaspard Monge 4076: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4066: 4064: 4063:Edmond Halley 4061: 4060: 4058: 4054: 4051: 4047: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3993: 3991: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3962: 3960: 3954: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3935: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3918: 3915: 3913: 3910: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3883: 3880: 3878: 3875: 3873: 3870: 3868: 3867:Crime mapping 3865: 3863: 3860: 3858: 3855: 3854: 3852: 3848: 3843: 3842:Visualization 3836: 3831: 3829: 3824: 3822: 3817: 3816: 3813: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3772: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3761: 3759: 3756: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3740: 3738: 3736: 3732: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3678: 3676: 3673: 3671: 3668: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3653: 3651: 3648: 3646: 3643: 3641: 3638: 3636: 3633: 3631: 3628: 3626: 3625:CellCognition 3623: 3621: 3618: 3616: 3613: 3612: 3610: 3608: 3604: 3599: 3592: 3587: 3585: 3580: 3578: 3573: 3572: 3569: 3563: 3559: 3556: 3555: 3544: 3538: 3534: 3533: 3527: 3523: 3517: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3502:0-471-54573-2 3498: 3494: 3489: 3488: 3473: 3469: 3462: 3456: 3449: 3448: 3442: 3434: 3428: 3424: 3417: 3409: 3403: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3384: 3380: 3377: 3373: 3371: 3368: 3365: 3362: 3361: 3359: 3354: 3347: 3343: 3341: 3335: 3328: 3320: 3315: 3309: 3308: 3302: 3288: 3284: 3278: 3264: 3260: 3254: 3239: 3235: 3229: 3214: 3207: 3193: 3189: 3182: 3175: 3171: 3165: 3157: 3153: 3148: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3116: 3109: 3105: 3102: 3096: 3088: 3084: 3079: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3047: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3015: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2980: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2957: 2948: 2943: 2940:(3): 569–74. 2939: 2935: 2928: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2893: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2866: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2823: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2792:(2): 349–53. 2791: 2787: 2780: 2772: 2766: 2763:. 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