180:
144:
790:
762:
109:
3400:
412:
774:
27:
4460:
450:, are thought to be responsible for spreading at mid-ocean ridges. Ridge push refers to the gravitational sliding of the ocean plate that is raised above the hotter asthenosphere, thus creating a body force causing sliding of the plate downslope. In slab pull the weight of a tectonic plate being subducted (pulled) below an overlying plate at a subduction zone drags the rest of the plate along behind it. The slab pull mechanism is considered to be contributing more than the ridge push.
3465:
1073:
5348:
5369:
3477:
1031:
1045:
431:
545:
96:, which is a spreading center that bisects the North and South Atlantic basins; hence the origin of the name 'mid-ocean ridge'. Most oceanic spreading centers are not in the middle of their hosting ocean basis but regardless, are traditionally called mid-ocean ridges. Mid-ocean ridges around the globe are linked by plate tectonic boundaries and the trace of the ridges across the ocean floor appears similar to the seam of a
4449:
5358:
1059:
505:) sea level to rise over very long timescales (millions of years). Increased seafloor spreading means that the mid-ocean ridge will then expand and form a broader ridge with decreased average depth, taking up more space in the ocean basin. This displaces the overlying ocean and causes sea levels to rise.
579:
Fast spreading rates will expand the mid-ocean ridge causing basalt reactions with seawater to happen more rapidly. The magnesium/calcium ratio will be lower because more magnesium ions are being removed from seawater and consumed by the rock, and more calcium ions are being removed from the rock and
315:
that lack connecting transform faults. The depth of the axis changes in a systematic way with shallower depths between offsets such as transform faults and overlapping spreading centers dividing the axis into segments. One hypothesis for different along-axis depths is variations in magma supply to
689:
concluded that there was an enormous mountain chain with a rift valley at its crest, running up the middle of the
Atlantic Ocean. Scientists named it the 'Mid-Atlantic Ridge'. Other research showed that the ridge crest was seismically active and fresh lavas were found in the rift valley. Also,
754:
It is estimated that along Earth's mid-ocean ridges every year 2.7 km (1.0 sq mi) of new seafloor is formed by this process. With a crustal thickness of 7 km (4.3 mi), this amounts to about 19 km (4.6 cu mi) of new ocean crust formed every year.
737:
Following the discovery of the worldwide extent of the mid-ocean ridge in the 1950s, geologists faced a new task: explaining how such an enormous geological structure could have formed. In the 1960s, geologists discovered and began to propose mechanisms for
746:
theory to be expanded so that it included the movement of oceanic crust as well as the continents. Plate tectonics was a suitable explanation for seafloor spreading, and the acceptance of plate tectonics by the majority of geologists resulted in a major
336:
at and near rifts along the ridge axes. The rocks making up the crust below the seafloor are youngest along the axis of the ridge and age with increasing distance from that axis. New magma of basalt composition emerges at and near the axis because of
216:
on a mid-ocean ridge, the depth of the seafloor is approximately 2,600 meters (8,500 ft). On the ridge flanks, the depth of the seafloor (or the height of a location on a mid-ocean ridge above a base-level) is correlated with its age (age of the
613:
Experiments show that most modern high-Mg calcite organisms would have been low-Mg calcite in past calcite seas, meaning that the Mg/Ca ratio in an organism's skeleton varies with the Mg/Ca ratio of the seawater in which it was grown.
693:
At first, the ridge was thought to be a feature specific to the
Atlantic Ocean. However, as surveys of the ocean floor continued around the world, it was discovered that every ocean contains parts of the mid-ocean ridge system. The
489:, pointing to action by the ridge push body force on these plates. Computer modeling of the plates and mantle motions suggest that plate motion and mantle convection are not connected, and the main plate driving force is slab pull.
252:
of appropriate iron-titanium oxides, magnetic field directions parallel to the Earth's magnetic field are recorded in those oxides. The orientations of the field preserved in the oceanic crust comprise a record of directions of the
706:
early in the twentieth century. Although the first-discovered section of the ridge system runs down the middle of the
Atlantic Ocean, it was found that most mid-ocean ridges are located away from the center of other ocean basins.
805:
332:. The oceanic crust is in a constant state of 'renewal' at the mid-ocean ridges by the processes of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics. New magma steadily emerges onto the ocean floor and intrudes into the existing
247:
is the rate at which an ocean basin widens due to seafloor spreading. Rates can be computed by mapping marine magnetic anomalies that span mid-ocean ridges. As crystallized basalt extruded at a ridge axis cools below
384:
fueled by magmatic and volcanic heat are a common feature at oceanic spreading centers. A feature of the elevated ridges is their relatively high heat flow values, of about 1–10 μcal/cms, or roughly 0.04–0.4 W/m.
617:
The mineralogy of reef-building and sediment-producing organisms is thus regulated by chemical reactions occurring along the mid-ocean ridge, the rate of which is controlled by the rate of sea-floor spreading.
1953:
Spiess, F. N.; Macdonald, K. C.; Atwater, T.; Ballard, R.; Carranza, A.; Cordoba, D.; Cox, C.; Garcia, V. M. D.; Francheteau, J. (1980-03-28). "East
Pacific Rise: Hot Springs and Geophysical Experiments".
241:(the colder, denser part of the mantle that, together with the crust, comprises the oceanic plates) thickens, and the density increases. Thus older seafloor is underlain by denser material and is deeper.
229:
A good approximation is that the depth of the seafloor at a location on a spreading mid-ocean ridge is proportional to the square root of the age of the seafloor. The overall shape of ridges results from
264:
Spreading rates range from approximately 10–200 mm/yr. Slow-spreading ridges such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge have spread much less far (showing a steeper profile) than faster ridges such as the
722:
in 1912. He stated: "the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... zone in which the floor of the
Atlantic, as it keeps spreading, is continuously tearing open and making space for fresh, relatively fluid and hot
2792:
Coggon, R. M.; Teagle, D. A. H.; Smith-Duque, C. E.; Alt, J. C.; Cooper, M. J. (2010-02-26). "Reconstructing Past
Seawater Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca from Mid-Ocean Ridge Flank Calcium Carbonate Veins".
168:
523:). Over very long timescales, however, it is the result of changes in the volume of the ocean basins which are, in turn, affected by rates of seafloor spreading along the mid-ocean ridges.
469:
to pull the tectonic plate along. Moreover, mantle upwelling that causes magma to form beneath the ocean ridges appears to involve only its upper 400 km (250 mi), as deduced from
276:
of up to 1,000 m (3,300 ft). By contrast, fast-spreading ridges (greater than 90 mm/yr) such as the East
Pacific Rise lack rift valleys. The spreading rate of the
473:
and observations of the seismic discontinuity in the upper mantle at about 400 km (250 mi). On the other hand, some of the world's largest tectonic plates such as the
2926:
Ries, Justin B. (2004-11-01). "Effect of ambient Mg/Ca ratio on Mg fractionation in calcareous marine invertebrates: A record of the oceanic Mg/Ca ratio over the
Phanerozoic".
726:
from depth". However, Wegener did not pursue this observation in his later works and his theory was dismissed by geologists because there was no mechanism to explain how
237:: close to the ridge axis, there is a hot, low-density mantle supporting the oceanic crust. As the oceanic plate cools, away from the ridge axis, the oceanic mantle
268:(gentle profile) for the same amount of time and cooling and consequent bathymetric deepening. Slow-spreading ridges (less than 40 mm/yr) generally have large
3019:
The history of science and technology : a browser's guide to the great discoveries, inventions, and the people who made them, from the dawn of time to today
316:
the spreading center. Ultra-slow spreading ridges form both magmatic and amagmatic (currently lack volcanic activity) ridge segments without transform faults.
2105:
Larson, R.L., W.C. Pitman, X. Golovchenko, S.D. Cande, JF. Dewey, W.F. Haxby, and J.L. La
Brecque, Bedrock Geology of the World, W.H. Freeman, New York, 1985.
1549:
Macdonald, Ken C. (1977). "Near-bottom magnetic anomalies, asymmetric spreading, oblique spreading, and tectonics of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge near lat 37°N".
580:
released into seawater. Hydrothermal activity at the ridge crest is efficient in removing magnesium. A lower Mg/Ca ratio favors the precipitation of low-Mg
453:
A process previously proposed to contribute to plate motion and the formation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges is the "mantle conveyor" due to deep
530:(144–65 Ma) is partly attributed to plate tectonics because thermal expansion and the absence of ice sheets only account for some of the extra sea level.
5088:
2653:
Muller, R. D.; Sdrolias, M.; Gaina, C.; Steinberger, B.; Heine, C. (2008-03-07). "Long-Term Sea-Level
Fluctuations Driven by Ocean Basin Dynamics".
773:
3230:
261:
in the ocean crust can be used as an indicator of age; given the crustal age and distance from the ridge axis, spreading rates can be calculated.
5078:
4137:
307:
oriented at right angles to the axis. The flanks of mid-ocean ridges are in many places marked by the inactive scars of transform faults called
3514:
3002:
2249:
1295:
50:. It typically has a depth of about 2,600 meters (8,500 ft) and rises about 2,000 meters (6,600 ft) above the deepest portion of an
576:, an isotope that accompanies volcanism from the mantle, is emitted by hydrothermal vents and can be detected in plumes within the ocean.
3311:
1592:
Macdonald, K. C. (1982). "Mid-Ocean Ridges: Fine Scale Tectonic, Volcanic and Hydrothermal Processes Within the Plate Boundary Zone".
400:
in the underlying mantle lithosphere cools and becomes more rigid. The crust and the relatively rigid peridotite below it make up the
1312:
Sclater, John G.; Anderson, Roger N.; Bell, M. Lee (1971-11-10). "Elevation of ridges and evolution of the central eastern Pacific".
135:, the longest continental mountain range), and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km (49,700 mi) long.
2851:
Morse, John W.; Wang, Qiwei; Tsio, Mai Yin (1997). "Influences of temperature and Mg:Ca ratio on CaCO3 precipitates from seawater".
761:
1116:
226:
203:
4994:
1145:
598:
Slow spreading at mid-ocean ridges has the opposite effect and will result in a higher Mg/Ca ratio favoring the precipitation of
288:
on the East Pacific Rise. Ridges that spread at rates <20 mm/yr are referred to as ultraslow spreading ridges (e.g., the
2754:
Stanley, S.M. and Hardie, L.A., 1999. Hypercalcification: paleontology links plate tectonics and geochemistry to sedimentology.
1358:
Parsons, Barry; Sclater, John G. (1977-02-10). "An analysis of the variation of ocean floor bathymetry and heat flow with age".
62:. The rate of seafloor spreading determines the morphology of the crest of the mid-ocean ridge and its width in an ocean basin.
5399:
5361:
4409:
4177:
2013:
Martin, William; Baross, John; Kelley, Deborah; Russell, Michael J. (2008-11-01). "Hydrothermal vents and the origin of life".
438:
The oceanic lithosphere is formed at an oceanic ridge, while the lithosphere is subducted back into the asthenosphere at ocean
789:
2637:
2280:
1937:
1912:
1844:
5409:
4641:
674:
179:
100:. The mid-ocean ridge system thus is the longest mountain range on Earth, reaching about 65,000 km (40,000 mi).
4130:
4531:
1781:
Macdonald, Ken C.; Fox, P. J. (1983). "Overlapping spreading centres: new accretion geometry on the East Pacific Rise".
434:
Oceanic crust is formed at an oceanic ridge, while the lithosphere is subducted back into the asthenosphere at trenches.
143:
5236:
4663:
4551:
3507:
3379:
870:
5083:
4354:
2978:
2739:
2593:
2355:
2085:
1271:
1224:
388:
Most crust in the ocean basins is less than 200 million years old, which is much younger than the 4.54 billion year
4541:
4501:
1097:
584:
131:
in the world. The continuous mountain range is 65,000 km (40,400 mi) long (several times longer than the
272:, sometimes as wide as 10–20 km (6.2–12.4 mi), and very rugged terrain at the ridge crest that can have
5271:
4257:
894: – Mid-oceanic ridge under the Arctic Ocean between the North American and Eurasian plates(Mid-Arctic Ridge)
3284:
2872:
5414:
5351:
4944:
4123:
3304:
3027:
2548:
2527:
Pitman, Walter C. (1978-09-01). "Relationship between eustacy and stratigraphic sequences of passive margins".
2225:
947:
667:, when the ocean floor was surveyed in more detail, that the full extent of mid-ocean ridges became known. The
257:
with time. Because the field has reversed directions at known intervals throughout its history, the pattern of
1570:
5404:
3500:
1722:
Dick, Henry J. B.; Lin, Jian; Schouten, Hans (November 2003). "An ultraslow-spreading class of ocean ridge".
804:
312:
3187:
2263:
Harff, Jan; Meschede, Martin; Petersen, Sven; Thiede, Jörn (2014). "Driving Forces: Slab Pull, Ridge Push".
4399:
2898:
681:, traversed the Atlantic Ocean, recording echo sounder data on the depth of the ocean floor. A team led by
632:
125:
5424:
3166:
Jacoby, W. R. (January 1981). "Modern concepts of earth dynamics anticipated by Alfred Wegener in 1912".
2115:
MĂĽller, R. Dietmar; Roest, Walter R.; Royer, Jean-Yves; Gahagan, Lisa M.; Sclater, John G. (1997-02-10).
1127:
4459:
645:
in the nineteenth century. Soundings from lines dropped to the seafloor were analyzed by oceanographers
187:
4596:
3633:
2065:
873: – Mid-ocean ridge in the South Atlantic between the South American Plate and the Antarctic Plate
5131:
4536:
4496:
3297:
3201:
254:
222:
207:
653:
and revealed a prominent rise in the seafloor that ran down the Atlantic basin from north to south.
5419:
5261:
4636:
4626:
4566:
4202:
4172:
2335:
695:
1676:
Wilson, Douglas S. (1996). "Fastest known spreading on the Miocene Cocos-Pacific Plate Boundary".
888: – Mid-oceanic ridge at a divergent tectonic plate boundary on the floor of the Pacific Ocean
848:
5394:
5298:
5281:
5118:
4611:
4476:
4414:
4404:
4297:
3424:
3374:
2723:
2717:
2577:
2571:
926: – A mid-ocean ridge on the bed of the south-west Indian Ocean and south-east Atlantic Ocean
897:
821:
650:
43:
20:
2713:
5293:
5231:
4658:
4344:
3444:
3389:
3384:
1000:
923:
917:
867: – Divergent plate boundary off the coast of the Pacific Northwest region of North America
646:
297:
5126:
5108:
4616:
4511:
4146:
3536:
642:
258:
172:
2209:
1417:
5313:
5146:
4849:
4706:
4571:
4282:
4103:
3939:
3399:
3334:
3175:
3130:
3075:
2935:
2860:
2801:
2662:
2536:
2475:
2428:
2385:
2172:
2128:
1963:
1790:
1731:
1685:
1640:
1601:
1558:
1499:
1448:
1413:
1367:
1321:
1092:
903:
669:
478:
474:
458:
377:
277:
108:
2899:"Hypercalcification: Paleontology Links Plate Tectonics and Geochemistry to Sedimentology"
861: – Tectonic spreading center off the northern coast of California and southern Oregon
8:
5308:
5193:
5188:
4914:
4586:
4546:
4262:
3828:
3661:
3429:
2217:
988:
678:
401:
392:. This fact reflects the process of lithosphere recycling into the Earth's mantle during
369:
350:
338:
3179:
3134:
3079:
2939:
2864:
2805:
2666:
2540:
2479:
2432:
2389:
2176:
2132:
1967:
1794:
1735:
1689:
1644:
1613:
1605:
1562:
1503:
1452:
1371:
1325:
1166:
5251:
4964:
4954:
4919:
4819:
4804:
4701:
3449:
3434:
3369:
3364:
3253:
3143:
3118:
3099:
2996:
2833:
2694:
2599:
2504:
2463:
2309:
2243:
2185:
2160:
2046:
1995:
1885:
1814:
1763:
1531:
1472:
1289:
1230:
1216:
1006:
994:
929:
864:
739:
520:
502:
498:
470:
191:
156:
93:
59:
55:
2419:
Richter, Frank M. (1973). "Convection and the large-scale circulation of the mantle".
2077:
1142: – Underwater vents or fissures in the Earth's surface from which magma can erupt
742:. The discovery of mid-ocean ridges and the process of seafloor spreading allowed for
572:, and other elements into the ocean, some of which are recycled into the ocean crust.
284:
region, it is 80–145 mm/yr. The highest known rate is over 200 mm/yr in the
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4894:
4829:
4809:
4799:
4681:
4369:
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3103:
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3033:
3023:
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2633:
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2401:
2351:
2313:
2276:
2231:
2221:
2190:
2081:
2038:
2030:
1987:
1979:
1933:
1908:
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1840:
1806:
1755:
1747:
1701:
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1653:
1628:
1574:
1523:
1515:
1464:
1425:
1383:
1337:
1277:
1267:
1234:
1220:
1207:
Macdonald, Ken C. (2019), "Mid-Ocean Ridge Tectonics, Volcanism, and Geomorphology",
1139:
885:
796:
719:
603:
588:
516:
512:
454:
381:
373:
342:
265:
2837:
2698:
2272:
1999:
1889:
1535:
411:
5288:
5256:
5226:
5035:
5020:
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4824:
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4058:
3954:
3823:
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3245:
3183:
3138:
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2727:
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2625:
2581:
2544:
2499:
2483:
2436:
2393:
2343:
2317:
2301:
2268:
2180:
2136:
2073:
2050:
2022:
1971:
1869:
1818:
1798:
1767:
1739:
1693:
1648:
1609:
1566:
1507:
1476:
1456:
1421:
1375:
1329:
1212:
1064:
1050:
935:
213:
74:
3279:
2629:
1975:
1511:
851:- an east-west trending mid-ocean ridge east of the eponymous islands between the
5093:
4989:
4904:
4864:
4756:
4726:
4576:
4526:
4436:
4394:
4327:
4252:
4212:
4028:
3949:
3934:
3888:
3555:
3231:"Trends and rhythms in global seafloor generation rate: SEAFLOOR GENERATION RATE"
3017:
1832:
1148:
hypothesis; explains relation of marine magnetic anomalies to seafloor spreading.
1106:
957:
909:
780:
731:
686:
539:
482:
425:
304:
97:
47:
2624:. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 879–887.
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2210:
481:
are in motion, yet only are being subducted in restricted locations such as the
26:
5203:
5198:
5103:
5098:
4934:
4874:
4869:
4601:
4491:
4312:
4247:
4222:
3873:
3570:
3469:
3439:
3349:
2305:
1439:
Vine, F. J.; Matthews, D. H. (1963). "Magnetic Anomalies Over Oceanic Ridges".
1404:
Davis, E.E; Lister, C. R. B. (1974). "Fundamentals of Ridge Crest Topography".
1121:
1078:
842:
748:
743:
723:
715:
699:
638:
508:
439:
128:
4448:
2462:
Coltice, Nicolas; Husson, Laurent; Faccenna, Claudio; Arnould, Maëlis (2019).
938: – Segment of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge north of Iceland in the Arctic Ocean
690:
crustal heat flow was higher here than elsewhere in the Atlantic Ocean basin.
5388:
5373:
5221:
5141:
5030:
4949:
4924:
4859:
4789:
4696:
4591:
4468:
4389:
4349:
4322:
4232:
4182:
3959:
3793:
3492:
3481:
3152:
3095:
2988:
2955:
2880:
2821:
2682:
2556:
2495:
2448:
2405:
2194:
2034:
1983:
1810:
1751:
1705:
1662:
1578:
1519:
1468:
1387:
1341:
1281:
1124:– first crewed submersible study of the rift valley of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
1111:
1086:
1036:
1012:
657:
607:
556:
system. Hydrothermal vents at spreading centers introduce various amounts of
462:
405:
333:
308:
231:
167:
86:
3037:
2813:
2674:
2440:
2397:
2235:
1873:
1379:
1333:
501:(i.e. the rate of expansion of the mid-ocean ridge) have caused the global (
120:
Ocean Ridge, a single global mid-oceanic ridge system that is part of every
5328:
5276:
5216:
5167:
5045:
5040:
5015:
4999:
4974:
4691:
4581:
4521:
4307:
4217:
4192:
3944:
3641:
3354:
2829:
2731:
2690:
2585:
2513:
2487:
2042:
1991:
1881:
1759:
1527:
906: – A north-south-trending mid-ocean ridge in the western Indian Ocean
891:
703:
664:
553:
396:. As the oceanic crust and lithosphere moves away from the ridge axis, the
389:
293:
289:
152:
2321:
1130:– discovery of black smokers hydrothermal systems on the East Pacific Rise
5318:
5050:
4979:
4844:
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4751:
4741:
4736:
4621:
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4516:
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4242:
3723:
3718:
3681:
3419:
3414:
3359:
3339:
3249:
2072:, Petrology of the Ocean Floor, vol. 33, Elsevier, pp. 51–139,
1133:
982:
976:
941:
858:
852:
833:
682:
592:
285:
269:
249:
238:
218:
148:
70:
51:
4115:
2026:
1860:
Michael, Peter; Cheadle, Michael (February 20, 2009). "Making a Crust".
1743:
1490:
Vine, F. J. (1966-12-16). "Spreading of the Ocean Floor: New Evidence".
533:
5136:
4984:
4959:
4854:
4834:
4761:
4746:
4731:
4721:
4686:
4606:
4426:
4421:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4272:
3924:
3843:
3671:
2620:
Miller, Kenneth G. (2009). "Sea Level Change, Last 250 Million Years".
876:
827:
527:
486:
443:
397:
393:
346:
329:
171:
A mid-ocean ridge, with magma rising from a chamber below, forming new
5368:
3476:
3464:
2376:
Richter, Frank M. (1973). "Dynamical models for sea floor spreading".
2141:
2116:
1697:
1072:
1030:
1015: – Ancient mid-ocean ridge between the Phoenix and Pacific plates
16:
Basaltic underwater mountain system formed by plate tectonic spreading
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5070:
5055:
4969:
4814:
4653:
4648:
4431:
4359:
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4207:
4197:
4154:
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3919:
3878:
3788:
3745:
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3587:
2947:
1802:
1460:
727:
599:
565:
447:
325:
183:
81:
at the linear weakness between the separating plates, and emerges as
1627:
Argus, Donald F.; Gordon, Richard G.; DeMets, Charles (2010-04-01).
430:
204:
Seafloor spreading § Seafloor global topography: cooling models
5303:
5025:
4884:
4776:
4766:
4711:
4187:
4038:
4002:
3992:
3883:
3565:
3527:
3289:
3087:
2771:
Lupton, J., 1998. Hydrothermal helium plumes in the Pacific Ocean.
1044:
573:
544:
466:
234:
66:
3763:
2161:"On the Relative Importance of the Driving Forces of Plate Motion"
979: – Extinct mid-ocean ridge in the far-northern Atlantic Ocean
5172:
5162:
4332:
4302:
3964:
3904:
3858:
3848:
3783:
3693:
3577:
3274:
2971:
Challenger at sea : a ship that revolutionized earth science
581:
569:
415:
Age of oceanic crust. Red is most recent, and blue is the oldest.
281:
273:
160:
1089: – Geological depression caused by the Afar Triple Junction
4879:
4292:
4088:
4073:
4068:
4033:
4007:
3987:
3909:
3863:
3853:
3768:
3740:
3730:
3708:
3651:
3623:
3618:
3592:
3280:
Mid-Oceanic ridge, like baseball seam (The Dynamic Earth, USGS)
2338:, in Engel, A. E. J.; James, Harold L.; Leonard, B. F. (eds.),
561:
365:
357:
3066:
Shand, S. J. (1949-01-01). "Rocks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge".
2652:
5241:
5060:
4839:
4794:
4063:
4053:
4043:
3914:
3833:
3813:
3778:
3773:
3735:
3713:
3698:
3688:
3666:
3646:
3613:
3582:
3550:
3523:
1952:
654:
132:
121:
78:
77:
upwelling in response to plate separation. The melt rises as
2461:
4673:
4083:
3997:
3703:
3676:
3656:
3560:
3285:
Ridge2000, Studying Mid-Ocean Ridges from Mantle to Microbe
2873:
10.1130/0091-7613(1997)025<0085:IOTAMC>2.3.CO;2
2262:
557:
82:
3119:"The Flow of Heat through the Floor of the Atlantic Ocean"
2791:
2549:
10.1130/0016-7606(1978)89<1389:RBEASS>2.0.CO;2
2300:(in English and English), vol. 18, pp. 559–606,
900: – Tectonic plate boundary in the South Pacific Ocean
710:
4048:
3818:
3022:. Hellemans, Alexander, 1946–. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
2622:
Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Environments
2012:
1927:
1571:
10.1130/0016-7606(1977)88<541:NMAASO>2.0.CO;2
552:
Seafloor spreading on mid-ocean ridges is a global scale
116:
The mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form
845: – Mid-ocean ridge west of British Columbia, Canada
225:
can be modeled by the cooling of a lithosphere plate or
3188:
10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<25:MCOEDA>2.0.CO;2
2114:
1102:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1017:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
962:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
952:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
881:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
838:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
457:(see image). However, some studies have shown that the
163:
of the ocean floors with the system of mid-ocean ridges
2267:(2014 ed.). Springer Netherlands. pp. 1–6.
1159:
534:
Impact on seawater chemistry and carbonate deposition
1026:
920: – Mid-ocean ridge in the southern Indian Ocean
879: – Submarine oceanic ridge in the Pacific Ocean
303:
The spreading center or axis commonly connects to a
2897:Hardie, Lawrence; Stanley, Steven (February 1999).
2342:, Geological Society of America, pp. 599–620,
1311:
985: – Major volcanic ridge under the Arctic Ocean
779:Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the
548:
Magnesium/calcium ratio changes at mid-ocean ridges
311:. At faster spreading rates the axes often display
2208:Turcotte, Donald Lawson; Schubert, Gerald (2002).
1902:
1003: – Spreading ridge during the Late Cretaceous
190:, Iceland. The island is a sub-aerial part of the
5089:North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
1626:
970:
944: – Geographical region in the Atlantic basin
5386:
3053:Seismicity of the Earth and Associated Phenomena
3050:
2207:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1136: – Type of gap in a subducted oceanic plate
1100: – Links to Knowledge articles on landforms
633:Plate tectonics § Development of the theory
5079:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
3015:
2154:
2152:
1831:
1721:
932: – Atlantic Ocean tectonic plate boundary
660:confirmed this in the early twentieth century.
637:The first indications that a ridge bisects the
465:) is too plastic (flexible) to generate enough
3522:
2892:
2890:
2787:
2785:
2615:
2613:
2117:"Digital isochrons of the world's ocean floor"
1859:
1585:
1357:
1353:
1351:
1307:
1305:
1167:"What is the longest mountain range on earth?"
960: – Atlantic Ocean tectonic plate boundary
526:The 100 to 170 meters higher sea level of the
404:, which sits above the less rigid and viscous
92:The first discovered mid-ocean ridge was the
4131:
3508:
3305:
3224:
3222:
2896:
2850:
2569:
1594:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
1257:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1185:
492:
30:Mid-ocean ridge cross-section (cut-away view)
2921:
2919:
2748:
2722:. San Diego : Academic Press. pp.
2158:
2149:
2121:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
2066:"Chapter 2 The World's Oceanic Ridge System"
1780:
1717:
1715:
1438:
1399:
1397:
356:The crystallized magma forms a new crust of
349:upwelling solid mantle material exceeds the
3228:
2887:
2782:
2610:
1403:
1348:
1302:
997: – Mid-ocean ridge in the Labrador Sea
815:
734:, and the theory became largely forgotten.
641:basin came from the results of the British
4138:
4124:
3515:
3501:
3312:
3298:
3275:An explanation of relevant tectonic forces
3219:
3116:
3001:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2248:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1905:Petrology of igneous and metamorphic rocks
1294:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1240:
4145:
3229:Cogné, Jean-Pascal; Humler, Eric (2006).
3142:
2916:
2714:"Sea Level Variations over Geologic Time"
2503:
2184:
2140:
1928:Blatt, Harvey & Robert Tracy (1996).
1712:
1652:
1591:
1548:
1394:
1206:
954:Ridge (between Greenland and Spitsbergen)
767:Oceanic ridge and deep sea vent chemistry
2063:
1117:Petrological Database of the Ocean Floor
543:
429:
410:
178:
166:
142:
112:World distribution of mid-oceanic ridges
107:
25:
19:For broader coverage of this topic, see
2773:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
2418:
2375:
711:Impact of discovery: seafloor spreading
5387:
4410:one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
3165:
3117:Day, A.; Bullard, E. C. (1961-12-01).
3051:Gutenberg, B.; Richter, C. F. (1954).
2711:
2619:
2526:
2295:
1675:
1551:Geological Society of America Bulletin
1261:
4119:
3496:
3293:
3065:
3055:. Princeton Univ. Press. p. 309.
2159:Forsyth, D.; Uyeda, S. (1975-10-01).
419:
5357:
3319:
3238:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
2925:
2570:Church, J.A.; Gregory, J.M. (2001).
2333:
2216:(2nd ed.). Cambridge. pp.
1629:"Geologically current plate motions"
1489:
830: – Rift portion in Gulf of Aden
810:A demonstration of magnetic striping
698:traced the mid-ocean ridge from the
511:can be attributed to other factors (
2968:
1614:10.1146/annurev.ea.10.050182.001103
1406:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
13:
5237:National Oceanographic Data Center
4664:World Ocean Circulation Experiment
4552:Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
3144:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1961.tb06820.x
2265:Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences
2186:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1975.tb00631.x
1217:10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.11065-6
602:and high-Mg calcite polymorphs of
14:
5436:
5084:Global Sea Level Observing System
3268:
3123:Geophysical Journal International
2298:Radioactivity and Earth Movements
2165:Geophysical Journal International
1633:Geophysical Journal International
280:is ~ 25 mm/yr, while in the
5367:
5356:
5347:
5346:
4542:Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
4458:
4447:
3475:
3463:
3398:
2064:Hekinian, R., ed. (1982-01-01),
1654:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2009.04491.x
1071:
1057:
1043:
1029:
836: – Pacific volcanic hotspot
803:
788:
772:
760:
675:Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory
364:for mid-ocean ridge basalt, and
324:Mid-ocean ridges exhibit active
175:that spreads away from the ridge
103:
5272:Ocean thermal energy conversion
4995:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
3194:
3159:
3110:
3059:
3044:
3009:
2962:
2844:
2765:
2705:
2646:
2563:
2520:
2455:
2421:Journal of Geophysical Research
2412:
2369:
2327:
2289:
2273:10.1007/978-94-007-6644-0_105-1
2256:
2201:
2108:
2099:
2057:
2006:
1946:
1921:
1896:
1853:
1825:
1774:
1669:
1620:
1360:Journal of Geophysical Research
1314:Journal of Geophysical Research
991: – Ancient mid-ocean ridge
2969:HsĂĽ, Kenneth J. (2014-07-14).
2719:Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences
2573:Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences
2464:"What drives tectonic plates?"
1839:. London: Chapman & Hall.
1542:
1483:
1432:
1211:, Elsevier, pp. 405–419,
1209:Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences
1009: – Former mid-ocean ridge
971:List of ancient oceanic ridges
871:South American–Antarctic Ridge
372:. Mid-ocean ridge basalt is a
221:where depth is measured). The
138:
89:and lithosphere upon cooling.
1:
5400:Coastal and oceanic landforms
2630:10.1007/978-1-4020-4411-3_206
2296:Holmes, A. (1 January 1931),
2078:10.1016/S0422-9894(08)70944-9
1976:10.1126/science.207.4438.1421
1907:(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
1512:10.1126/science.154.3755.1405
1152:
313:overlapping spreading centers
197:
4532:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
4502:Craik–Leibovich vortex force
4258:Luke's variational principle
2070:Elsevier Oceanography Series
1678:Geophysical Research Letters
1426:10.1016/0012-821X(74)90180-0
1262:Searle, Roger (2013-09-19).
912: – Tectonic plate ridge
626:
319:
7:
5410:Oceanographical terminology
3206:National Geographic Society
2348:10.1130/petrologic.1962.599
2015:Nature Reviews Microbiology
1903:Hyndman, Donald W. (1985).
1022:
10:
5441:
4597:Ocean dynamical thermostat
4445:
4101:
2306:10.1144/TRANSGLAS.18.3.559
849:Galapagos Spreading Center
819:
630:
621:
537:
493:Impact on global sea level
423:
201:
18:
5342:
5181:
5155:
5132:Ocean acoustic tomography
5117:
5069:
5008:
4945:Mohorovičić discontinuity
4903:
4775:
4672:
4537:General circulation model
4467:
4173:Benjamin–Feir instability
4153:
4097:
4016:
3978:
3897:
3802:
3754:
3632:
3601:
3543:
3534:
3458:
3407:
3396:
3327:
3129:(Supplement_1): 282–292.
2973:. Princeton, New Jersey.
2336:"History of Ocean Basins"
1932:(2nd ed.). Freeman.
1098:List of oceanic landforms
950: – Russian zoologist
730:could plow through ocean
208:Seafloor depth versus age
5262:Ocean surface topography
4637:Thermohaline circulation
4627:Subsurface ocean current
4567:Hydrothermal circulation
4400:Wave–current interaction
4178:Boussinesq approximation
3380:South American-Antarctic
3016:Bunch, Bryan H. (2004).
816:List of mid-ocean ridges
751:in geological thinking.
696:German Meteor expedition
188:Ăžingvellir National Park
60:divergent plate boundary
54:. This feature is where
44:seafloor mountain system
5299:Sea surface temperature
5282:Outline of oceanography
4477:Atmospheric circulation
4415:shallow water equations
4405:Waves and shallow water
4298:Significant wave height
2814:10.1126/science.1182252
2675:10.1126/science.1151540
2441:10.1029/JB078i035p08735
2398:10.1029/RG011i002p00223
1874:10.1126/science.1169556
1418:1974E&PSL..21..405D
1380:10.1029/jb082i005p00803
1334:10.1029/jb076i032p07888
898:Pacific-Antarctic Ridge
718:proposed the theory of
663:It was not until after
651:Charles Wyville Thomson
353:temperature and melts.
21:Undersea mountain range
5294:Sea surface microlayer
4659:Wind generated current
3068:The Journal of Geology
2732:10.1006/rwos.2001.0255
2586:10.1006/rwos.2001.0268
2488:10.1126/sciadv.aax4295
1001:Pacific-Farallon Ridge
924:Southwest Indian Ridge
918:Southeast Indian Ridge
647:Matthew Fontaine Maury
549:
435:
416:
298:Southwest Indian Ridge
255:Earth's magnetic field
194:
176:
164:
113:
65:The production of new
31:
5415:Physical oceanography
5127:Deep scattering layer
5109:World Geodetic System
4617:Princeton Ocean Model
4497:Coriolis–Stokes force
4147:Physical oceanography
2779:(C8), pp.15853-15868.
2712:Kominz, M.A. (2001).
2378:Reviews of Geophysics
643:Challenger expedition
547:
433:
424:Further information:
414:
378:incompatible elements
339:decompression melting
259:geomagnetic reversals
182:
170:
146:
111:
29:
5405:Geological processes
5147:Underwater acoustics
4707:Perigean spring tide
4572:Langmuir circulation
4283:Rossby-gravity waves
4104:Geographical feature
3940:Volcanic crater lake
3250:10.1029/2005GC001148
3202:"seafloor spreading"
2334:Hess, H. H. (1962),
1837:Igneous petrogenesis
1146:Vine-Matthews-Morely
1093:Geography of Iceland
904:Central Indian Ridge
479:South American plate
475:North American Plate
278:North Atlantic Ocean
159:(1977), showing the
58:takes place along a
5309:Science On a Sphere
4915:Convergent boundary
4587:Modular Ocean Model
4547:Geostrophic current
4263:Mild-slope equation
3180:1981Geo.....9...25J
3135:1961GeoJ....4..282B
3080:1949JG.....57...89S
2940:2004Geo....32..981R
2865:1997Geo....25...85M
2806:2010Sci...327.1114C
2800:(5969): 1114–1117.
2667:2008Sci...319.1357M
2661:(5868): 1357–1362.
2541:1978GSAB...89.1389P
2480:2019SciA....5.4295C
2433:1973JGR....78.8735R
2390:1973RvGSP..11..223R
2177:1975GeoJ...43..163F
2133:1997JGR...102.3211M
2027:10.1038/nrmicro1991
1968:1980Sci...207.1421S
1962:(4438): 1421–1433.
1795:1983Natur.302...55M
1744:10.1038/nature02128
1736:2003Natur.426..405D
1690:1996GeoRL..23.3003W
1645:2010GeoJI.181....1D
1606:1982AREPS..10..155M
1563:1977GSAB...88..541M
1504:1966Sci...154.1405V
1498:(3755): 1405–1415.
1453:1963Natur.199..947V
1372:1977JGR....82..803P
1326:1971JGR....76.7888S
989:Kula-Farallon Ridge
679:Columbia University
515:, ice melting, and
497:Increased rates of
483:Lesser Antilles Arc
402:oceanic lithosphere
370:lower oceanic crust
173:oceanic lithosphere
5425:Volcanic landforms
4965:Seafloor spreading
4955:Outer trench swell
4920:Divergent boundary
4820:Continental margin
4805:Carbonate platform
4702:Lunitidal interval
3470:Geology portal
2340:Petrologic Studies
1007:Pacific-Kula Ridge
995:Mid-Labrador Ridge
964:(south of Iceland)
930:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
865:Juan de Fuca Ridge
740:seafloor spreading
550:
521:dynamic topography
499:seafloor spreading
471:seismic tomography
436:
420:Driving mechanisms
417:
382:Hydrothermal vents
341:in the underlying
227:mantle half-space.
223:depth-age relation
195:
192:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
177:
165:
157:Heinrich C. Berann
114:
94:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
56:seafloor spreading
32:
5382:
5381:
5374:Oceans portal
5334:World Ocean Atlas
5324:Underwater glider
5267:Ocean temperature
4930:Hydrothermal vent
4895:Submarine volcano
4830:Continental shelf
4810:Coastal geography
4800:Bathymetric chart
4682:Amphidromic point
4370:Wave nonlinearity
4228:Infragravity wave
4113:
4112:
4024:Artificial island
3930:Submarine volcano
3839:Continental shelf
3806:coastal landforms
3602:Continental plain
3537:List of landforms
3490:
3489:
3482:Oceans portal
3425:Antarctic-Phoenix
3375:Pacific-Antarctic
2639:978-1-4020-4551-6
2427:(35): 8735–8745.
2282:978-94-007-6644-0
2142:10.1029/96JB01781
2127:(B2): 3211–3214.
1939:978-0-7167-2438-4
1914:978-0-07-031658-4
1868:(5917): 1017–18.
1846:978-0-412-53310-5
1730:(6965): 405–412.
1698:10.1029/96GL02893
1684:(21): 3003–3006.
1447:(4897): 947–949.
1320:(32): 7888–7915.
1140:Submarine volcano
886:East Pacific Rise
797:magnetic striping
720:continental drift
604:calcium carbonate
589:calcium carbonate
528:Cretaceous Period
517:mantle convection
513:thermal expansion
442:. Two processes,
374:tholeiitic basalt
266:East Pacific Rise
5432:
5372:
5371:
5360:
5359:
5350:
5349:
5289:Pelagic sediment
5227:Marine pollution
5021:Deep ocean water
4890:Submarine canyon
4825:Continental rise
4717:Rule of twelfths
4632:Sverdrup balance
4562:Humboldt Current
4487:Boundary current
4462:
4451:
4268:Radiation stress
4238:Iribarren number
4213:Equatorial waves
4168:Ballantine scale
4163:Airy wave theory
4140:
4133:
4126:
4117:
4116:
4059:Land reclamation
3955:Volcanic plateau
3517:
3510:
3503:
3494:
3493:
3480:
3479:
3468:
3467:
3445:Pacific-Farallon
3402:
3390:Southwest Indian
3385:Southeast Indian
3321:Mid-ocean ridges
3314:
3307:
3300:
3291:
3290:
3262:
3261:
3235:
3226:
3217:
3216:
3214:
3213:
3198:
3192:
3191:
3163:
3157:
3156:
3146:
3114:
3108:
3107:
3063:
3057:
3056:
3048:
3042:
3041:
3013:
3007:
3006:
3000:
2992:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2948:10.1130/g20851.1
2923:
2914:
2913:
2903:
2894:
2885:
2884:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2789:
2780:
2769:
2763:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2709:
2703:
2702:
2650:
2644:
2643:
2617:
2608:
2607:
2567:
2561:
2560:
2535:(9): 1389–1403.
2524:
2518:
2517:
2507:
2474:(10): eaax4295.
2468:Science Advances
2459:
2453:
2452:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2373:
2367:
2366:
2365:
2364:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2293:
2287:
2286:
2260:
2254:
2253:
2247:
2239:
2215:
2205:
2199:
2198:
2188:
2156:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2112:
2106:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2095:
2094:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2010:
2004:
2003:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1925:
1919:
1918:
1900:
1894:
1893:
1857:
1851:
1850:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1803:10.1038/302055a0
1778:
1772:
1771:
1719:
1710:
1709:
1673:
1667:
1666:
1656:
1624:
1618:
1617:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1487:
1481:
1480:
1461:10.1038/199947a0
1436:
1430:
1429:
1401:
1392:
1391:
1355:
1346:
1345:
1309:
1300:
1299:
1293:
1285:
1264:Mid-ocean ridges
1259:
1238:
1237:
1204:
1183:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1163:
1103:
1081:
1076:
1075:
1067:
1065:Geography portal
1062:
1061:
1060:
1053:
1051:Volcanoes portal
1048:
1047:
1039:
1034:
1033:
1018:
963:
953:
936:Kolbeinsey Ridge
882:
855:and Cocos plates
839:
807:
792:
776:
764:
673:, a ship of the
368:below it in the
214:spreading center
124:, making it the
5440:
5439:
5435:
5434:
5433:
5431:
5430:
5429:
5420:Plate tectonics
5385:
5384:
5383:
5378:
5366:
5338:
5177:
5151:
5113:
5094:Sea-level curve
5065:
5004:
4990:Transform fault
4940:Mid-ocean ridge
4906:
4899:
4865:Oceanic plateau
4771:
4757:Tidal resonance
4727:Theory of tides
4668:
4577:Longshore drift
4527:Ekman transport
4463:
4457:
4456:
4455:
4454:
4453:
4452:
4443:
4395:Wave turbulence
4328:Trochoidal wave
4253:Longshore drift
4149:
4144:
4114:
4109:
4106:
4093:
4029:Artificial reef
4012:
3974:
3950:Volcanic island
3935:Volcanic crater
3893:
3889:Volcanic island
3869:Mid-ocean ridge
3805:
3798:
3750:
3628:
3597:
3539:
3530:
3521:
3491:
3486:
3474:
3462:
3454:
3403:
3394:
3323:
3318:
3271:
3266:
3265:
3233:
3227:
3220:
3211:
3209:
3200:
3199:
3195:
3164:
3160:
3115:
3111:
3064:
3060:
3049:
3045:
3030:
3014:
3010:
2994:
2993:
2981:
2967:
2963:
2924:
2917:
2901:
2895:
2888:
2849:
2845:
2790:
2783:
2770:
2766:
2753:
2749:
2742:
2710:
2706:
2651:
2647:
2640:
2618:
2611:
2596:
2568:
2564:
2525:
2521:
2460:
2456:
2417:
2413:
2374:
2370:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2332:
2328:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2261:
2257:
2241:
2240:
2228:
2206:
2202:
2157:
2150:
2113:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2092:
2090:
2088:
2062:
2058:
2021:(11): 805–814.
2011:
2007:
1951:
1947:
1940:
1926:
1922:
1915:
1901:
1897:
1858:
1854:
1847:
1833:Marjorie Wilson
1830:
1826:
1789:(5903): 55–58.
1779:
1775:
1720:
1713:
1674:
1670:
1625:
1621:
1590:
1586:
1547:
1543:
1488:
1484:
1437:
1433:
1402:
1395:
1356:
1349:
1310:
1303:
1287:
1286:
1274:
1260:
1241:
1227:
1205:
1186:
1176:
1174:
1165:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1107:Ocean chemistry
1101:
1077:
1070:
1063:
1058:
1056:
1049:
1042:
1035:
1028:
1025:
1016:
973:
961:
958:Reykjanes Ridge
951:
910:Carlsberg Ridge
880:
837:
824:
820:Main category:
818:
811:
808:
799:
793:
784:
781:plate tectonics
777:
768:
765:
713:
635:
629:
624:
542:
540:Ocean chemistry
536:
509:Sealevel change
495:
428:
426:Plate tectonics
422:
322:
305:transform fault
210:
200:
141:
106:
85:, creating new
48:plate tectonics
36:mid-ocean ridge
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5438:
5428:
5427:
5422:
5417:
5412:
5407:
5402:
5397:
5395:Oceanic ridges
5380:
5379:
5377:
5376:
5364:
5354:
5343:
5340:
5339:
5337:
5336:
5331:
5326:
5321:
5316:
5314:Stratification
5311:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5285:
5284:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5254:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5206:
5204:Color of water
5201:
5199:Benthic lander
5196:
5191:
5185:
5183:
5179:
5178:
5176:
5175:
5170:
5165:
5159:
5157:
5153:
5152:
5150:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5134:
5129:
5123:
5121:
5115:
5114:
5112:
5111:
5106:
5104:Sea level rise
5101:
5099:Sea level drop
5096:
5091:
5086:
5081:
5075:
5073:
5067:
5066:
5064:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5012:
5010:
5006:
5005:
5003:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4972:
4967:
4962:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4935:Marine geology
4932:
4927:
4922:
4917:
4911:
4909:
4901:
4900:
4898:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4877:
4875:Passive margin
4872:
4870:Oceanic trench
4867:
4862:
4857:
4852:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4787:
4781:
4779:
4773:
4772:
4770:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4678:
4676:
4670:
4669:
4667:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4645:
4644:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4602:Ocean dynamics
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4534:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4492:Coriolis force
4489:
4484:
4479:
4473:
4471:
4465:
4464:
4446:
4444:
4442:
4441:
4440:
4439:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4418:
4417:
4412:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4341:
4340:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4313:Stokes problem
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4248:Kinematic wave
4245:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4159:
4157:
4151:
4150:
4143:
4142:
4135:
4128:
4120:
4111:
4110:
4108:
4107:
4098:
4095:
4094:
4092:
4091:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4020:
4018:
4014:
4013:
4011:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3984:
3982:
3976:
3975:
3973:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3901:
3899:
3895:
3894:
3892:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3874:Oceanic trench
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3810:
3808:
3800:
3799:
3797:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3760:
3758:
3752:
3751:
3749:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3727:
3726:
3721:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3685:
3684:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3638:
3636:
3630:
3629:
3627:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3605:
3603:
3599:
3598:
3596:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3574:
3573:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3547:
3545:
3541:
3540:
3535:
3532:
3531:
3520:
3519:
3512:
3505:
3497:
3488:
3487:
3485:
3484:
3472:
3459:
3456:
3455:
3453:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3440:Osbourn Trough
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3411:
3409:
3405:
3404:
3397:
3395:
3393:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3335:Central Indian
3331:
3329:
3325:
3324:
3317:
3316:
3309:
3302:
3294:
3288:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3270:
3269:External links
3267:
3264:
3263:
3218:
3193:
3158:
3109:
3088:10.1086/625580
3058:
3043:
3028:
3008:
2979:
2961:
2915:
2886:
2843:
2781:
2764:
2747:
2740:
2704:
2645:
2638:
2609:
2594:
2562:
2519:
2454:
2411:
2384:(2): 223–287.
2368:
2356:
2326:
2288:
2281:
2255:
2226:
2200:
2171:(1): 163–200.
2148:
2107:
2098:
2086:
2056:
2005:
1945:
1938:
1920:
1913:
1895:
1852:
1845:
1824:
1773:
1711:
1668:
1619:
1600:(1): 155–190.
1584:
1541:
1482:
1431:
1412:(4): 405–413.
1393:
1366:(5): 803–827.
1347:
1301:
1272:
1239:
1225:
1184:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1143:
1137:
1131:
1125:
1122:Project FAMOUS
1119:
1114:
1109:
1104:
1095:
1090:
1083:
1082:
1079:Geology portal
1068:
1054:
1040:
1024:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1010:
1004:
998:
992:
986:
980:
972:
969:
968:
967:
966:
965:
955:
945:
939:
927:
921:
915:
914:
913:
901:
895:
889:
883:
874:
868:
862:
856:
846:
843:Explorer Ridge
840:
831:
822:Oceanic ridges
817:
814:
813:
812:
809:
802:
800:
794:
787:
785:
778:
771:
769:
766:
759:
749:paradigm shift
716:Alfred Wegener
712:
709:
700:South Atlantic
639:Atlantic Ocean
631:Main article:
628:
625:
623:
620:
608:aragonite seas
538:Main article:
535:
532:
494:
491:
421:
418:
376:and is low in
343:Earth's mantle
321:
318:
309:fracture zones
245:Spreading rate
199:
196:
140:
137:
129:mountain range
105:
102:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5437:
5426:
5423:
5421:
5418:
5416:
5413:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5392:
5390:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5363:
5355:
5353:
5345:
5344:
5341:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5283:
5280:
5279:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5222:Marine energy
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5212:
5207:
5205:
5202:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5189:Acidification
5187:
5186:
5184:
5180:
5174:
5171:
5169:
5166:
5164:
5161:
5160:
5158:
5154:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5142:SOFAR channel
5140:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5124:
5122:
5120:
5116:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5077:
5076:
5074:
5072:
5068:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5039:
5037:
5034:
5032:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5013:
5011:
5007:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4953:
4951:
4950:Oceanic crust
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4931:
4928:
4926:
4925:Fracture zone
4923:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4912:
4910:
4908:
4902:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4860:Oceanic basin
4858:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4790:Abyssal plain
4788:
4786:
4783:
4782:
4780:
4778:
4774:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4697:Internal tide
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4679:
4677:
4675:
4671:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4643:
4640:
4639:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4592:Ocean current
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4474:
4472:
4470:
4466:
4461:
4450:
4438:
4435:
4434:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4407:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4390:Wave shoaling
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4350:Ursell number
4348:
4346:
4343:
4339:
4336:
4335:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4233:Internal wave
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4183:Breaking wave
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4160:
4158:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4141:
4136:
4134:
4129:
4127:
4122:
4121:
4118:
4105:
4100:
4099:
4096:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4021:
4019:
4015:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3985:
3983:
3981:
3977:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3960:Volcanic plug
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3902:
3900:
3896:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3811:
3809:
3807:
3801:
3795:
3794:Tunnel valley
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3761:
3759:
3757:
3753:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3716:
3715:
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1997:
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1273:9781107017528
1269:
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1258:
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1248:
1246:
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1226:9780128130827
1222:
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1199:
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1129:
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1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1112:Oceanic crust
1110:
1108:
1105:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1087:Afar Triangle
1085:
1084:
1080:
1074:
1069:
1066:
1055:
1052:
1046:
1041:
1038:
1037:Oceans portal
1032:
1027:
1014:
1013:Phoenix Ridge
1011:
1008:
1005:
1002:
999:
996:
993:
990:
987:
984:
981:
978:
975:
974:
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708:
705:
701:
697:
691:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
671:
666:
661:
659:
658:echo sounders
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
634:
619:
615:
611:
609:
605:
601:
596:
594:
590:
586:
583:
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571:
567:
563:
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541:
531:
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518:
514:
510:
506:
504:
500:
490:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
463:asthenosphere
460:
456:
451:
449:
445:
441:
432:
427:
413:
409:
407:
406:asthenosphere
403:
399:
395:
391:
386:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
354:
352:
348:
344:
340:
335:
331:
327:
317:
314:
310:
306:
301:
299:
295:
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287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
262:
260:
256:
251:
246:
242:
240:
236:
233:
228:
224:
220:
215:
209:
205:
193:
189:
185:
181:
174:
169:
162:
158:
155:, painted by
154:
150:
145:
136:
134:
130:
127:
123:
119:
110:
104:Global system
101:
99:
95:
90:
88:
87:oceanic crust
84:
80:
76:
73:results from
72:
68:
63:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
28:
22:
5329:Water column
5277:Oceanography
5252:Observations
5247:Explorations
5217:Marginal sea
5210:
5168:OSTM/Jason-2
5000:Volcanic arc
4975:Slab suction
4939:
4692:Head of tide
4582:Loop Current
4522:Ekman spiral
4308:Stokes drift
4218:Gravity wave
4193:Cnoidal wave
3945:Volcanic dam
3868:
3642:Alluvial fan
3450:Pacific-Kula
3435:Mid-Labrador
3370:Mid-Atlantic
3365:Juan de Fuca
3345:East Pacific
3320:
3241:
3237:
3210:. Retrieved
3208:. 2015-06-08
3205:
3196:
3174:(1): 25–27.
3171:
3167:
3161:
3126:
3122:
3112:
3074:(1): 89–92.
3071:
3067:
3061:
3052:
3046:
3018:
3011:
2970:
2964:
2931:
2927:
2909:
2905:
2856:
2852:
2846:
2797:
2793:
2776:
2772:
2767:
2762:(2), pp.1–7.
2759:
2755:
2750:
2718:
2707:
2658:
2654:
2648:
2621:
2572:
2565:
2532:
2529:GSA Bulletin
2528:
2522:
2471:
2467:
2457:
2424:
2420:
2414:
2381:
2377:
2371:
2361:, retrieved
2339:
2329:
2297:
2291:
2264:
2258:
2211:
2203:
2168:
2164:
2124:
2120:
2110:
2101:
2091:, retrieved
2069:
2059:
2018:
2014:
2008:
1959:
1955:
1948:
1929:
1923:
1904:
1898:
1865:
1861:
1855:
1836:
1827:
1786:
1782:
1776:
1727:
1723:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1636:
1632:
1622:
1597:
1593:
1587:
1554:
1550:
1544:
1495:
1491:
1485:
1444:
1440:
1434:
1409:
1405:
1363:
1359:
1317:
1313:
1266:. New York.
1263:
1208:
1175:. Retrieved
1170:
1161:
1128:RISE project
892:Gakkel Ridge
753:
736:
714:
704:Indian Ocean
692:
687:Bruce Heezen
668:
665:World War II
662:
636:
616:
612:
597:
593:calcite seas
578:
554:ion-exchange
551:
525:
507:
496:
459:upper mantle
452:
437:
390:age of Earth
387:
361:
355:
323:
302:
294:Arctic Ocean
290:Gakkel Ridge
270:rift valleys
263:
250:Curie points
244:
243:
211:
153:Bruce Heezen
117:
115:
91:
69:and oceanic
64:
39:
35:
33:
5319:Thermocline
5036:Mesopelagic
5009:Ocean zones
4980:Slab window
4845:Hydrography
4785:Abyssal fan
4752:Tidal range
4742:Tidal power
4737:Tidal force
4622:Rip current
4557:Gulf Stream
4517:Ekman layer
4507:Downwelling
4482:Baroclinity
4469:Circulation
4365:Wave height
4355:Wave action
4338:megatsunami
4318:Stokes wave
4278:Rossby wave
4243:Kelvin wave
4223:Green's law
3804:Oceanic and
3544:Mountainous
2934:(11): 981.
2576:. pp.
2212:Geodynamics
1639:(1): 1–80.
1171:Ocean Facts
1134:Slab window
983:Alpha Ridge
977:Aegir Ridge
942:Mohns Ridge
859:Gorda Ridge
834:Cocos Ridge
683:Marie Tharp
334:ocean crust
239:lithosphere
219:lithosphere
149:Marie Tharp
139:Description
71:lithosphere
52:ocean basin
5389:Categories
5257:Reanalysis
5156:Satellites
5137:Sofar bomb
4985:Subduction
4960:Ridge push
4855:Ocean bank
4835:Contourite
4762:Tide gauge
4747:Tidal race
4732:Tidal bore
4722:Slack tide
4687:Earth tide
4607:Ocean gyre
4427:Wind setup
4422:Wind fetch
4385:Wave setup
4380:Wave radar
4375:Wave power
4273:Rogue wave
4203:Dispersion
4102:See also:
4017:Artificial
3925:Lava field
3844:Coral reef
3672:Floodplain
3244:(3): n/a.
3212:2017-04-14
3029:0618221239
2363:2019-09-11
2227:0521661862
2093:2020-10-27
1557:(4): 541.
1177:17 October
1153:References
877:Chile Rise
828:Aden Ridge
728:continents
585:polymorphs
487:Scotia Arc
455:convection
444:ridge-push
398:peridotite
394:subduction
347:isentropic
330:seismicity
202:See also:
198:Morphology
46:formed by
5119:Acoustics
5071:Sea level
4970:Slab pull
4907:tectonics
4815:Cold seep
4777:Landforms
4654:Whirlpool
4649:Upwelling
4432:Wind wave
4360:Wave base
4288:Sea state
4208:Edge wave
4198:Cross sea
4079:Reservoir
3970:Wall rock
3920:Lava dome
3879:Peninsula
3789:Ice field
3746:Waterfall
3609:Ice sheet
3588:Tableland
3528:landforms
3258:128900649
3153:0956-540X
3104:131014204
3096:0022-1376
2997:cite book
2989:889252330
2956:0091-7613
2912:(2): 1–7.
2906:GSA Today
2881:0091-7613
2859:(1): 85.
2822:0036-8075
2756:GSA today
2724:2605–2613
2683:0036-8075
2604:129689280
2578:2599–2604
2557:0016-7606
2496:2375-2548
2449:2156-2202
2406:1944-9208
2322:Q61783012
2314:122872384
2244:cite book
2195:0956-540X
2035:1740-1526
1984:0036-8075
1930:Petrology
1811:1476-4687
1752:1476-4687
1706:1944-8007
1663:0956-540X
1579:0016-7606
1520:0036-8075
1469:0028-0836
1388:2156-2202
1342:2156-2202
1290:cite book
1282:842323181
1235:264225475
948:Knipovich
795:Seafloor
744:Wegener's
702:into the
627:Discovery
600:aragonite
566:manganese
519:creating
448:slab pull
360:known as
326:volcanism
320:Volcanism
184:Rift zone
5352:Category
5304:Seawater
5031:Littoral
5026:Deep sea
4885:Seamount
4767:Tideline
4712:Rip tide
4642:shutdown
4612:Overflow
4345:Undertow
4188:Clapotis
4039:Building
4003:Sandhill
3993:Dry lake
3898:Volcanic
3884:Seamount
3566:Mountain
3350:Explorer
3038:54024134
2838:22739139
2830:20133522
2699:23334128
2691:18323446
2514:31693727
2318:Wikidata
2236:48194722
2043:18820700
2000:28363398
1992:17779602
1890:43281390
1882:19229024
1835:(1993).
1760:14647373
1536:44362406
1528:17821553
1023:See also
574:Helium-3
503:eustatic
467:friction
440:trenches
296:and the
235:isostasy
98:baseball
67:seafloor
5362:Commons
5232:Mooring
5182:Related
5173:Jason-3
5163:Jason-1
5046:Pelagic
5041:Oceanic
5016:Benthic
4333:Tsunami
4303:Soliton
3980:Aeolian
3965:Volcano
3905:Caldera
3859:Isthmus
3849:Estuary
3829:Channel
3784:Glacier
3756:Glacial
3694:Meander
3662:Channel
3634:Fluvial
3578:Plateau
3328:Present
3176:Bibcode
3168:Geology
3131:Bibcode
3076:Bibcode
2936:Bibcode
2928:Geology
2861:Bibcode
2853:Geology
2802:Bibcode
2794:Science
2663:Bibcode
2655:Science
2537:Bibcode
2505:6821462
2476:Bibcode
2429:Bibcode
2386:Bibcode
2173:Bibcode
2129:Bibcode
2051:1709272
1964:Bibcode
1956:Science
1862:Science
1819:4358534
1791:Bibcode
1768:4376557
1732:Bibcode
1686:Bibcode
1641:Bibcode
1602:Bibcode
1559:Bibcode
1500:Bibcode
1492:Science
1477:4296143
1449:Bibcode
1414:Bibcode
1368:Bibcode
1322:Bibcode
622:History
582:calcite
570:silicon
351:solidus
292:in the
286:Miocene
282:Pacific
212:At the
147:Map of
126:longest
42:) is a
5051:Photic
4880:Seabed
4293:Seiche
4089:Tunnel
4074:Quarry
4069:Polder
4034:Bridge
4008:Tundra
3988:Desert
3910:Geyser
3864:Lagoon
3854:Island
3769:Cirque
3741:Valley
3731:Strait
3709:Rapids
3682:island
3652:Canyon
3624:Tundra
3619:Steppe
3593:Valley
3408:Former
3355:Gakkel
3256:
3151:
3102:
3094:
3036:
3026:
2987:
2977:
2954:
2879:
2836:
2828:
2820:
2738:
2697:
2689:
2681:
2636:
2602:
2592:
2555:
2512:
2502:
2494:
2447:
2404:
2354:
2320:
2312:
2279:
2234:
2224:
2193:
2084:
2049:
2041:
2033:
1998:
1990:
1982:
1936:
1911:
1888:
1880:
1843:
1817:
1809:
1783:Nature
1766:
1758:
1750:
1724:Nature
1704:
1661:
1577:
1534:
1526:
1518:
1475:
1467:
1441:Nature
1386:
1340:
1280:
1270:
1233:
1223:
1173:. NOAA
783:theory
562:sulfur
366:gabbro
358:basalt
345:. The
274:relief
206:, and
161:relief
75:mantle
5242:Ocean
5211:Alvin
5061:Swash
4905:Plate
4850:Knoll
4840:Guyot
4795:Atoll
4674:Tides
4437:model
4323:Swell
4155:Waves
4064:Levee
4054:Ditch
4044:Canal
3915:Guyot
3834:Coast
3814:Atoll
3779:Fjord
3774:Esker
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