4449:
4074:
expensive, sophisticated tutoring of the sort that wealthy gentry families specialized in providing their talented sons. In practice, 90 percent of the population was ineligible due to lack of education, but the upper 10 percent had equal chances for moving to the top. To be successful young men had to have extensive, expensive training in classical
Chinese, the use of Mandarin in spoken conversation, calligraphy, and had to master the intricate poetic requirements of the eight-legged essay. Not only did the traditional gentry dominated the system, they also learned that conservatism and resistance to new ideas was the path to success. For centuries critics had pointed out these problems, but the examination system only became more abstract and less relevant to the needs of China. The consensus of scholars is that the eight-legged essay can be blamed as a major cause of "China's cultural stagnation and economic backwardness." However Benjamin Ellman argues there were some positive features, since the essay form was capable of fostering "abstract thinking, persuasiveness, and prosodic form" and that its elaborate structure discouraged a wandering, unfocused narrative".
5100:
3972:
Surveillance. Starting in the 1420s, eunuchs began taking over these ladies' positions until only the Bureau of
Apparel with its four subsidiary offices remained. Hongwu had his eunuchs organized into the Directorate of Palace Attendants, but as eunuch power at court increased, so did their administrative offices, with eventual twelve directorates, four offices, and eight bureaus. The dynasty had a vast imperial household, staffed with thousands of eunuchs, who were headed by the Directorate of Palace Attendants. The eunuchs were divided into different directorates in charge of staff surveillance, ceremonial rites, food, utensils, documents, stables, seals, apparel, and so on. The offices were in charge of providing fuel, music, paper, and baths. The bureaus were in charge of weapons, silverwork, laundering, headgear, bronze work, textile manufacture, wineries, and gardens. At times, the most influential eunuch in the Directorate of Ceremonial acted as a
2798:
5045:
3213:(1572–82) built up an effective network of alliances with senior officials. However, there was no one after him skilled enough to maintain the stability of these alliances; officials soon banded together in opposing political factions. Over time Wanli grew tired of court affairs and frequent political quarreling amongst his ministers, preferring to stay behind the walls of the Forbidden City and out of his officials' sight. Scholar-officials lost prominence in administration as eunuchs became intermediaries between the aloof emperor and his officials; any senior official who wanted to discuss state matters had to persuade powerful eunuchs with a bribe simply to have his demands or message relayed to the emperor. There were several military campaigns, which included the
5026:
5017:
5008:
4999:
3326:
4174:
merit-based) and
Confucian values that dictated those who chose the profession of violence (wu) over the cultured pursuits of knowledge (wen). Although seen as less prestigious, military officers were not excluded from taking civil service examinations, and after 1478 the military even held their own examinations to test military skills. In addition to taking over the established bureaucratic structure from the Yuan period, the Ming emperors established the new post of the travelling military inspector. In the early half of the dynasty, men of noble lineage dominated the higher ranks of military office; this trend was reversed during the latter half of the dynasty as men from more humble origins eventually displaced them.
4058:
4445:. They drew upon the techniques, styles, and complexity in painting achieved by their Song and Yuan predecessors, but added techniques and styles. Well-known Ming artists could make a living simply by painting due to the high prices they demanded for their artworks and the great demand by the highly cultured community to collect precious works of art. The artist Qiu Ying was once paid 2.8 kg (100 oz) of silver to paint a long handscroll for the eightieth birthday celebration of the mother of a wealthy patron. Renowned artists often gathered an entourage of followers, some who were amateurs who painted while pursuing an official career and others who were full-time painters.
3238:
1162:
3994:
2998:
4070:
extreme cases, officials would be dismissed or punished. Only capital officials of grade 4 and above were exempt from the scrutiny of recorded evaluation, although they were expected to confess any of their faults. There were over 4,000 school instructors in county and prefectural schools who were subject to evaluations every nine years. The Chief
Instructor on the prefectural level was classified as equal to a second-grade county graduate. The Supervisorate of Imperial Instruction oversaw the education of the heir apparent to the throne; this office was headed by a Grand Supervisor of Instruction, who was ranked as first class of grade three.
4112:
4964:
5685:
2933:
106:
4403:
4010:(581–618). Theoretically the system of exams allowed anyone to join the ranks of imperial officials (although it was frowned upon for merchants to join); in reality the time and funding needed to support the study in preparation for the exam generally limited participants to those already coming from the landholding class. However, the government did exact provincial quotas while drafting officials. This was an effort to curb monopolization of power by landholding gentry who came from the most prosperous regions, where education was the most advanced. The expansion of the
4042:", a departure from basing essays off progressing literary trends. The exams increased in difficulty as the student progressed from the local level, and appropriate titles were accordingly awarded successful applicants. Officials were classified in nine hierarchic grades, each grade divided into two degrees, with ranging salaries (nominally paid in piculs of rice) according to their rank. While provincial graduates who were appointed to office were immediately assigned to low-ranking posts like the county graduates, those who passed the palace examination were awarded a
2514:
4952:, re-established in 1604. These conservatives wanted a revival of orthodox Confucian ethics. Conservatives such as Gu Xiancheng (1550–1612) argued against Wang's idea of innate moral knowledge, stating that this was simply a legitimization for unscrupulous behavior such as greedy pursuits and personal gain. These two strands of Confucian thought, hardened by Chinese scholars' notions of obligation towards their mentors, developed into pervasive factionalism among the ministers of state, who used any opportunity to impeach members of the other faction from court.
698:
4103:
These lesser functionaries performed clerical and technical tasks for government agencies. Yet they should not be confused with lowly lictors, runners, and bearers; lesser functionaries were given periodic merit evaluations like officials and after nine years of service might be accepted into a low civil service rank. The one great advantage of the lesser functionaries over officials was that officials were periodically rotated and assigned to different regional posts and had to rely on the good service and cooperation of the local lesser functionaries.
4383:
121:
3825:". Hence, the Censorate was reinstalled and first staffed with investigating censors, later with censors-in-chief. By 1453, the grand coordinators were granted the title vice censor-in-chief or assistant censor-in-chief and were allowed direct access to the emperor. As in prior dynasties, the provincial administrations were monitored by a travelling inspector from the Censorate. Censors had the power to impeach officials on an irregular basis, unlike the senior officials who were to do so only in triennial evaluations of junior officials.
5521:
5170:
4083:
4903:
3095:
3961:
2687:
90:
4019:
4820:
4202:
3838:
5200:
4565:
5720:(r. 1464–87) was roughly 75 million, despite mid-Ming census figures hovering around 62 million. While prefectures across the empire in the mid-Ming period were reporting either a drop in or stagnant population size, local gazetteers reported massive amounts of incoming vagrant workers with not enough good cultivated land for them to till, so that many would become drifters, conmen, or wood-cutters that contributed to deforestation. The
5355:
3284:. He ordered temples built in his honor throughout the Ming Empire, and built personal palaces created with funds allocated for building the previous emperor's tombs. His friends and family gained important positions without qualifications. Wei also published a historical work lambasting and belittling his political opponents. The instability at court came right as natural calamity, pestilence, rebellion, and foreign invasion came to a peak. The
4220:
3448:
3146:(1398–1457) gained control of the Ming armed forces. Holding the Zhengtong Emperor in captivity was a useless bargaining chip for the Oirats as long as another sat on his throne, so they released him back into Ming China. The former emperor was placed under house arrest in the palace until the coup against the Jingtai Emperor in 1457 known as the "Wresting the Gate Incident". The former emperor retook the throne under the new era name
2914:
4348:
3395:. Famine, alongside tax increases, widespread military desertions, a declining relief system, and natural disasters such as flooding and inability of the government to properly manage irrigation and flood-control projects caused widespread loss of life and normal civility. The central government, starved of resources, could do very little to mitigate the effects of these calamities. Making matters worse, a widespread epidemic, the
3307:
2598:
or reject it. Hongwu emphasised that he was not conquering territory from the Yuan dynasty but rather from the rebel warlords. He used this line of argument to attempt to persuade Yuan loyalists to join his cause. The Ming used the tribute they received from former Yuan vassals as proof that the Ming had taken over the Yuan's legitimacy. Tribute missions were regularly celebrated with music and dance in the Ming court.
3673:
4663:
5424:
3194:
4363:(1568–1610) used travel literature to express his desires for individualism as well as autonomy from and frustration with Confucian court politics. Yuan desired to free himself from the ethical compromises that were inseparable from the career of a scholar-official. This anti-official sentiment in Yuan's travel literature and poetry was actually following in the tradition of the Song dynasty poet and official
482:
3437:
5345:(1548–1620) in Europe. In addition to publishing his works on music, he was able to publish his findings on the calendar in 1597. A year earlier, the memorial of Xing Yunlu suggesting a calendar improvement was rejected by the Supervisor of the Astronomical Bureau due to the law banning private practice of astronomy; Xing would later serve with Xu Guangqi in reforming the calendar (Chinese:
5650:
3763:
3253:
participated in matters of appointment and promotion of officials. Yongle put 75 eunuchs in charge of foreign policy; they traveled frequently to vassal states including Annam, Mongolia, the Ryukyu
Islands, and Tibet and less frequently to farther-flung places like Japan and Nepal. In the later 15th century, however, eunuch envoys generally only traveled to Korea.
4926:
Chinese thought and spurred new interest in Taoism and
Buddhism. Furthermore, people began to question the validity of the social hierarchy and the idea that the scholar should be above the farmer. Wang Yangming's disciple and salt-mine worker Wang Gen gave lectures to commoners about pursuing education to improve their lives, while his follower He Xinyin (
2585:
as continued request for Korean concubines and eunuchs, Mongol-style hereditary military institutions, Mongol-style clothing and hats, promoting archery and horseback riding, and having large numbers of
Mongols serve in the Ming military. Until the late 16th century Mongols still constituted one-in-three officers serving in capital forces like the
4448:
5705:, Ho Ping-ti suggests revising the 1393 census to 65 million people, noting that large areas of North China and frontier areas were not counted in that census. Brook states that the population figures gathered in the official censuses after 1393 ranged between 51 and 62 million, while the population was in fact increasing. Even the
5382:(1020–1101)—he associated all of them with the decadence of Mongol rule and had them destroyed. This was described in full length by the Divisional Director of the Ministry of Works, Xiao Xun, who also carefully preserved details on the architecture and layout of the Yuan dynasty palace. Later, European Jesuits such as Matteo Ricci and
2652:. Roughly half a million more Chinese settlers came in later periods; these migrations caused a major shift in the ethnic make-up of the region, since formerly more than half of the population were non-Han peoples. Resentment over such massive changes in population and the resulting government presence and policies sparked more
4375:. Yet even gentry and scholar-officials were affected by the new popular romantic literature, seeking gejis as soulmates to re-enact the heroic love stories that arranged marriages often could not provide or accommodate.During the Ming Dynasty, some gentry dated well-educated gejis outside of marriage and the concubine system.
5681:. The practice is well documented in China, going back over two thousand years, and it was described as "rampant" and "practiced by almost every family" by contemporary authors. However, the dramatically skewed sex ratios, which many counties reported exceeding 2:1 by 1586, cannot likely be explained by infanticide alone.
5333:, the Ming Directorate of Astronomy failed to periodically readjust it; this was perhaps due to their lack of expertise since their offices had become hereditary in the Ming and the Statutes of the Ming prohibited private involvement in astronomy. A sixth-generation descendant of the Hongxi Emperor, the "Prince"
2952:(r. 1398–1402) after Hongwu's death in 1398. The most powerful of Hongwu's sons, Zhu Di, then the militarily mighty disagreed with this, and soon a political showdown erupted between him and his nephew Jianwen. After Jianwen arrested many of Zhu Di's associates, Zhu Di plotted a rebellion that sparked a
5074:
A variety of occupations could be chosen or inherited from a father's line of work. This would include – but was not limited to – coffin makers, ironworkers and blacksmiths, tailors, cooks and noodle-makers, retail merchants, tavern, teahouse, or winehouse managers, shoemakers, seal cutters, pawnshop
4131:
Eunuchs gained unprecedented power over state affairs during the Ming dynasty. One of the most effective means of control was the secret service stationed in what was called the
Eastern Depot at the beginning of the dynasty, later the Western Depot. This secret service was overseen by the Directorate
4102:
Scholar-officials who entered civil service through examinations acted as executive officials to a much larger body of non-ranked personnel called lesser functionaries. They outnumbered officials by four to one; Charles Hucker estimates that they were perhaps as many as 100,000 throughout the empire.
3828:
Although decentralization of state power within the provinces occurred in the early Ming, the trend of central government officials delegated to the provinces as virtual provincial governors began in the 1420s. By the late Ming dynasty, there were central government officials delegated to two or more
3573:
In 1640, masses of
Chinese peasants who were starving, unable to pay their taxes, and no longer in fear of the frequently defeated Chinese army, began to form into huge bands of rebels. The Chinese military, caught between fruitless efforts to defeat the Manchu raiders from the north and huge peasant
2584:
The Hongwu
Emperor issued many edicts forbidding Mongol practices and proclaiming his intention to purify China of barbarian influence. However, he also sought to use the Yuan legacy to legitimize his authority in China and other areas ruled by the Yuan. He continued policies of the Yuan dynasty such
5700:
The number of people counted in the census of 1381 was 59,873,305; however, this number dropped significantly when the government found that some 3 million people were missing from the tax census of 1391. Even though underreporting figures was made a capital crime in 1381, the need for survival
4654:
have also been identified as Muslim by Hui scholars, though this is doubted by non-Muslim sources. Regardless, the presence of Muslims in the armies that drove the Mongols northwards caused a gradual shift in the Chinese perception of Muslims, transitioning from "foreigners" to "familiar strangers".
3979:
Although the imperial household was staffed mostly by eunuchs and palace ladies, there was a civil service office called the Seal Office, which cooperated with eunuch agencies in maintaining imperial seals, tallies, and stamps. There were also civil service offices to oversee the affairs of imperial
5419:
over which a pointer circulated, similar to European models of the time. This sand-driven wheel clock was improved upon by Zhou Shuxue (fl. 1530–58) who added a fourth large gear wheel, changed gear ratios, and widened the orifice for collecting sand grains since he criticized the earlier model for
5132:
and fired pots, and weaving mats and baskets. In the north traveling by horse and carriage was most common, while in the south the myriad of rivers, canals, and lakes provided cheap and easy water transport. Although the south had the characteristic of the wealthy landlord and tenant farmers, there
5095:
to burn at ancestral sacrifices, specialized luxury goods, headgear, fine cloth, teas, and others. Smaller communities and townships too poor or scattered to support shops and artisans obtained their goods from periodic market fairs and traveling peddlers. A small township also provided a place for
2774:
origin, was ordered to lead an expedition to the mouth of the Amur to pacify the Wild Jurchens. After the death of Yongle Emperor, the Nurgan Regional Military Commission was abolished in 1435, and the Ming court ceased to have substantial activities there, although the guards continued to exist in
2753:
in Manchuria by the Mongols, yet it created a norm of organization that would ultimately serve as the main instrument for the relations with peoples along the northeast frontiers. By the end of the Hongwu reign, the essentials of a policy toward the Jurchens had taken shape. Most of the inhabitants
2597:
Hongwu insisted that he was not a rebel, and he attempted to justify his conquest of the other rebel warlords by claiming that he was a Yuan subject and had been divinely-appointed to restore order by crushing rebels. Most Chinese elites did not view the Yuan's Mongol ethnicity as grounds to resist
5735:
Even with the Jiajing reforms to document migrant workers and merchants, by the late Ming era the government census still did not accurately reflect the enormous growth in population. Gazetteers across the empire noted this and made their own estimations of the overall population in the Ming, some
5676:
reported a population of 378,167 males and 226,982 females in 1502. The government attempted to revise the census figures using estimates of the expected average number of people in each household, but this did not solve the widespread problem of tax registration. Some part of the gender imbalance
5060:
writes that the distinction between what was town and country was blurred in Ming China, since suburban areas with farms were located just outside and in some cases within the walls of a city. Not only was the blurring of town and country evident, but also of socioeconomic class in the traditional
4925:
were wary of Wang's heterodoxy, the increasing number of his disciples while he was still in office, and his overall socially rebellious message. To curb his influence, he was often sent out to deal with military affairs and rebellions far away from the capital. Yet his ideas penetrated mainstream
4620:
The Yongle Emperor and later emperors strongly patronised Tibetan Buddhism by supporting construction, printing of sutras, ceremonies etc., to seek legitimacy among foreign audiences. Yongle tried to portray himself as a Buddhist ideal king, a cakravartin. There is evidence that this portrayal was
4250:
of various types flourished during the Ming dynasty, especially in the economically prosperous lower Yangzi valley. Although short fiction had been popular as far back as the Tang dynasty (618–907), and the works of contemporaneous authors such as Xu Guangqi, Xu Xiake, and Song Yingxing were often
4173:
Like scholar-officials, military generals were ranked in a hierarchic grading system and were given merit evaluations every five years (as opposed to three years for officials). However, military officers had less prestige than officials. This was due to their hereditary service (instead of solely
3640:
Despite the loss of Beijing and the death of the emperor, the Ming were not yet totally destroyed. Nanjing, Fujian, Guangdong, Shanxi, and Yunnan were all strongholds of Ming resistance. However, there were several pretenders for the Ming throne, and their forces were divided. These scattered Ming
3545:
mutinied with his fellow soldiers in western Shaanxi in the early 1630s after the Ming government failed to ship much-needed supplies there. In 1634 he was captured by a Ming general and released only on the terms that he return to service. The agreement soon broke down when a local magistrate had
3387:
equaled an ounce of silver; by 1640 that sum could fetch half an ounce; and, by 1643 only one-third of an ounce. For peasants this meant economic disaster, since they paid taxes in silver while conducting local trade and crop sales in copper. Historians have debated the validity of the theory that
2593:
were also prominent. He frequently wrote to Mongol, Japanese, Korean, Jurchen, Tibetan, and Southwest frontier rulers offering advice on their governmental and dynastic policy, and insisted on leaders from these regions visiting the Ming capital for audiences. He resettled 100,000 Mongols into his
2488:
River Valley and cementing his power in the south. After the dynastic head of the Red Turbans suspiciously died in 1367 while a guest of Zhu, there was no one left who was remotely capable of contesting his march to the throne, and he made his imperial ambitions known by sending an army toward the
5055:
Wang Gen was able to give philosophical lectures to many commoners from different regions because—following the trend already apparent in the Song dynasty—communities in Ming society were becoming less isolated as the distance between market towns was shrinking. Schools, descent groups, religious
3971:
The imperial household was staffed almost entirely by eunuchs and ladies with their own bureaus. Female servants were organized into the Bureau of Palace Attendance, Bureau of Ceremonies, Bureau of Apparel, Bureau of Foodstuffs, Bureau of the Bedchamber, Bureau of Handicrafts, and Office of Staff
3179:
against the Mongols and the Oirats, the constant threat of Oirat incursions prompted the Ming authorities to fortify the Great Wall from the late 15th century to the 16th century; nevertheless, John Fairbank notes that "it proved to be a futile military gesture but vividly expressed China's siege
5671:
notes that the Ming government census figures are dubious since fiscal obligations prompted many families to underreport the number of people in their households and many county officials to underreport the number of households in their jurisdiction. Children were often underreported, especially
2274:
into its modern form. Wide-ranging censuses of the entire empire were conducted decennially, but the desire to avoid labor and taxes and the difficulty of storing and reviewing the enormous archives at Nanjing hampered accurate figures. Estimates for the late-Ming population vary from 160 to 200
4014:
enhanced the spread of knowledge and number of potential exam candidates throughout the provinces. For young schoolchildren there were printed multiplication tables and primers for elementary vocabulary; for adult examination candidates there were mass-produced, inexpensive volumes of Confucian
3291:
The eunuchs built their own social structure, providing and gaining support to their birth clans. Instead of fathers promoting sons, it was a matter of uncles promoting nephews. The Heishanhui Society in Peking sponsored the temple that conducted rituals for worshiping the memory of Gang Tie, a
2741:
of the former Yuan dynasty). He grew strong in the northeast, with forces large enough (numbering hundreds of thousands) to threaten invasion of the newly founded Ming dynasty in order to restore the Mongols to power in China. The Ming decided to defeat him instead of waiting for the Mongols to
4069:
The maximum tenure in office was nine years, but every three years officials were graded on their performance by senior officials. If they were graded as superior then they were promoted, if graded adequate then they retained their ranks, and if graded inadequate they were demoted one rank. In
2435:
as a result of the abandonment of irrigation projects. Consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles, and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dykes of the Yellow River. A number of Han groups revolted, including the
5309:
in China, another important work in Chinese trigonometry would not be published again until 1607 with the efforts of Xu Guangqi and Matteo Ricci. Ironically, some inventions which had their origins in ancient China were reintroduced to China from Europe during the late Ming; for example, the
4073:
Historians debate whether the examination system expanded or contracted upward social mobility. On the one hand, the exams were graded without regard to a candidate's social background, and were theoretically open to everyone. In actual practice, the successful candidates had years of a very
3708:
in 1127, the Song court established four semi-autonomous regional command systems based on territorial and military units, with a detached service secretariat that would become the provincial administrations of the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties. Copied on the Yuan model, the Ming provincial
3252:
The Hongwu Emperor forbade eunuchs to learn how to read or engage in politics. Whether or not these restrictions were carried out with absolute success in his reign, eunuchs during the Yongle Emperor's reign (1402–1424) and afterwards managed huge imperial workshops, commanded armies, and
3483:
in the 1590s. Ming officials declined the offer, but granted him the title of dragon-tiger general for his gesture. Recognizing the weakness of Ming authority in Manchuria at the time, he consolidated power by co-opting or conquering surrounding territories. In 1616 he declared himself
5628:
in the title refers to the synonyms of each name. Inoculation, although it can be traced to earlier Chinese folk medicine, was detailed in Chinese texts by the sixteenth century. Throughout the Ming dynasty, around fifty texts were published on the treatment of smallpox. In regards to
4936:
even taught that women were the intellectual equals of men and should be given a better education; both Li and He eventually died in prison, jailed on charges of spreading "dangerous ideas". Yet these "dangerous ideas" of educating women had long been embraced by some mothers and by
4165:
was enthroned, he continued his nephew's policy of disarming his brothers and moved their fiefs away from the militarized northern border. Although princes served no organ of state administration, the princes, consorts of the imperial princesses, and ennobled relatives did staff the
4371:(1570–1623), were the founders of the Gong'an School of letters. This highly individualistic school of poetry and prose was criticized by the Confucian establishment for its association with intense sensual lyricism, which was also apparent in Ming vernacular novels such as the
4046:('presented scholar') degree and assured a high-level position. In 276 years of Ming rule and ninety palace examinations, the number of doctoral degrees granted by passing the palace examinations was 24,874. Ebrey states that "there were only two to four thousand of these
5736:
guessing that it had doubled, tripled, or even grown fivefold since 1368. Fairbank estimates that the population was perhaps 160 million in the late Ming dynasty, while Brook estimates 175 million, and Ebrey states perhaps as large as 200 million. However,
5386:
would briefly mention indigenous Chinese clockworks that featured drive wheels. However, both Ricci and Trigault were quick to point out that 16th-century European clockworks were far more advanced than the common time keeping devices in China, which they listed as
5709:(r. 1487–1505) remarked that the daily increase in subjects coincided with the daily dwindling number of registered civilians and soldiers. William Atwell states that around 1400 the population of China was perhaps 90 million people, citing Heijdra and Mote.
5701:
pushed many to abandon the tax registration and wander from their region, where Hongwu had attempted to impose rigid immobility on the populace. The government tried to mitigate this by creating their own conservative estimate of 60,545,812 people in 1393. In his
2956:. Under the pretext of rescuing the young Jianwen from corrupting officials, Zhu Di personally led forces in the revolt; the palace in Nanjing was burned to the ground, along with Jianwen himself, his wife, mother, and courtiers. Zhu Di assumed the throne as the
4608:
fell from favor, and the early Ming emperors particularly favored Taoism, granting its practitioners many positions in the state's ritual offices. The Hongwu Emperor curtailed the cosmopolitan culture of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, and the prolific Prince of Ning
4881:), gaining understanding through careful and rational investigation of things and events, Wang argued that universal concepts would appear in the minds of anyone. Therefore, he claimed that anyone—no matter their pedigree or education—could become as wise as
2180:
1368–1398), attempted to create a society of self-sufficient rural communities ordered in a rigid, immobile system that would guarantee and support a permanent class of soldiers for his dynasty: the empire's standing army exceeded one million troops and the
3950:
had charge of government construction projects, hiring of artisans and laborers for temporary service, manufacturing government equipment, the maintenance of roads and canals, standardization of weights and measures, and the gathering of resources from the
2484:, Zhu's force of 200,000 Ming sailors were able to defeat a Han rebel force over triple their size, claimed to be 650,000-strong. The victory destroyed the last opposing rebel faction, leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in uncontested control of the bountiful
2862:
The Ming sporadically sent armed forays into Tibet during the 14th century, which the Tibetans successfully resisted. Several scholars point out that unlike the preceding Mongols, the Ming dynasty did not garrison permanent troops in Tibet. The
5123:
and citrus were grown as basic crops. Some people in the mountainous southwest made a living by selling lumber from hard bamboo. Besides cutting down trees to sell wood, the poor also made a living by turning wood into charcoal, and by burning
4889:
had been and that their writings were not sources of truth but merely guides that might have flaws when carefully examined. A peasant with a great deal of experience and intelligence would then be wiser than an official who had memorized the
4750:
in 1625 also permitted Christianity to be treated as an old and established faith, rather than as a new and dangerous cult. However, there were strong disagreements about the extent to which converts could continue to perform rituals to the
5940:
until 1683. Zhu Shugui proclaimed that he acted in the name of the deceased Yongli Emperor. The Qing eventually sent the 17 Ming princes still living in Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives. In 1725, the
2360:. The value of silver rapidly increased because of a disruption in the supply of imported silver from Spanish and Portuguese sources, making it impossible for Chinese farmers to pay their taxes. Combined with crop failure, floods, and
3180:
mentality." Yet the Great Wall was not meant to be a purely defensive fortification; its towers functioned rather as a series of lit beacons and signalling stations to allow rapid warning to friendly units of advancing enemy troops.
3696:, the Ming emperors took over the provincial administration system of the Yuan dynasty, and the thirteen Ming provinces are the precursors of the modern provinces. Throughout the Song dynasty, the largest political division was the
3605:. This occurred shortly after he learned about the fate of the capital and an army of Li Zicheng marching towards him; weighing his options of alliance, he decided to side with the Manchus. The Eight Banners under the Manchu Prince
3802:, and the Chief Military Commission and personally took charge of the Six Ministries and the regional Five Military Commissions. Thus a whole level of administration was cut out and only partially rebuilt by subsequent rulers. The
3341:
in 1516. Following the Ming Emperor's decision to ban direct trade with Japan, Portuguese traders acted as an intermediary between China and Japan by buying Chinese silks from China and selling it to Japan for silver. After some
3865:
Governmental institutions in China conformed to a similar pattern for some two thousand years, but each dynasty installed special offices and bureaus, reflecting its own particular interests. The Ming administration utilized
5146:
hats. Women could not use ornaments made from gold, jade, pearl or emerald. Merchants and their families were further banned from using silk. However, these laws were no longer enforced from the middle Ming period onwards.
4529:
Connoisseurship in the late Ming period centered on these items of refined artistic taste, which provided work for art dealers and even underground scammers who themselves made imitations and false attributions. The Jesuit
2854:
at court. Others argue that the significant religious nature of the relationship with Tibetan lamas is underrepresented in modern scholarship. Others note the Ming need for Central Asian horses and the need to maintain the
4001:
The Hongwu emperor from 1373 to 1384 staffed his bureaus with officials gathered through recommendations only. After that the scholar-officials who populated the many ranks of bureaucracy were recruited through a rigorous
4963:
3882:
and were considered part of the imperial authority, not the ministerial one (hence being at odds with both the emperor and ministers at times). The Secretariat operated as a coordinating agency, whereas the Six
3382:
through Spanish ports. People began hoarding precious silver as there was progressively less of it, forcing the ratio of the value of copper to silver into a steep decline. In the 1630s a string of one thousand
2452:
was a penniless peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352; he soon gained a reputation after marrying the foster daughter of a rebel commander. In 1356, Zhu's rebel force captured the city of
5557:
There were many advances and new designs in gunpowder weapons during the beginning of the dynasty, but by the mid to late Ming the Chinese began to frequently employ European-style artillery and firearms. The
2501:, and Zhu declared the founding of the Ming dynasty after razing the Yuan palaces in Dadu to the ground; the city was renamed Beiping in the same year. Zhu Yuanzhang took Hongwu, or "Vastly Martial", as his
3256:
The eunuchs developed their own bureaucracy that was organized parallel to but was not subject to the civil service bureaucracy. Although there were several dictatorial eunuchs throughout the Ming, such as
2783:) in Manchuria, but these were probably only nominal offices and did not necessarily imply political control. By the late Ming period, Ming's political presence in Manchuria has declined significantly.
5554:(1562–1633) took an interest in irrigation, fertilizers, famine relief, economic and textile crops, and empirical observation of the elements that gave insight into early understandings of chemistry.
5337:(1536–1611), submitted a proposal to fix the calendar in 1595, but the ultra-conservative astronomical commission rejected it. This was the same Zhu Zaiyu who discovered the system of tuning known as
5572:
sometime before the latter's death on 16 May 1375 (with a preface added by Jiao in 1412), featured many types of cutting-edge gunpowder weaponry for the time. This includes hollow, gunpowder-filled
5115:
engaged in intensive rice cultivation and had lakes and ponds where ducks and fish could be raised. The cultivation of mulberry trees for silkworms and tea bushes could be found mostly south of the
3997:
Painting that depicts the career of a civil servant. The career path starts with passing the civil service examinations (left side) and progresses to a high position in the government (right side).
3578:—and deserted the capital without much of a fight. On 25 April 1644, Beijing fell to a rebel army led by Li Zicheng when the city gates were opened by rebel allies from within. During the turmoil,
3333:
During the last years of the Wanli era and those of his two successors, an economic crisis developed that was centered on a sudden widespread lack of the empire's chief medium of exchange: silver.
2275:
million, but necessary revenues were squeezed out of smaller and smaller numbers of farmers as more disappeared from the official records or "donated" their lands to tax-exempt eunuchs or temples.
3391:
Famines became common in northern China in the early 17th century because of unusually dry and cold weather that shortened the growing season—effects of a larger ecological event now known as the
5692:(r. 1425–35); he stated in 1428 that his populace was dwindling due to palace construction and military adventures. But the population was rising under him, a fact noted by Zhou Chen—governor of
3156:
proved to be a troubled time and Mongol forces within the Ming military structure continued to be problematic. On 7 August 1461, the Chinese general Cao Qin and his Ming troops of Mongol descent
2805:
of Guhyasamaja Akshobhyavajra; the Ming dynasty court gathered various tribute items that were native products of Tibet (such as thangkas), and in return granted gifts to Tibetan tribute-bearers.
3045:, but these missions were unprecedented in grandeur and scale. To service seven different tributary voyages, the Nanjing shipyards constructed two thousand vessels from 1403 to 1419, including
2640:, who was appointed Governor of Yunnan, were resettled in the region as part of a colonization effort. By the end of the 14th century, some 200,000 military colonists settled some 2,000,000
2573:
and assumed this role as chief executive and emperor, a precedent mostly followed throughout the Ming period. With a growing suspicion of his ministers and subjects, Hongwu established the
4526:. The writing materials in a scholar's private study, including elaborately carved brush holders made of stone or wood, were designed and arranged ritually to give an aesthetic appeal.
5505:
used in gunpowder compositions—illustrating how ore was piled up with coal briquettes in an earthen furnace with a still-head that sent over sulfur as vapor that would solidify and
4255:, those with rudimentary education—such as women in educated families, merchants, and shop clerks—became a large potential audience for literature and performing arts that employed
5099:
4132:
of Ceremonial, hence this state organ's often totalitarian affiliation. Eunuchs had ranks that were equivalent to civil service ranks, only theirs had four grades instead of nine.
3936:
was in charge of the appointments, promotions, and demotions of military officers, the maintenance of military installations, equipment, and weapons, as well as the courier system.
3160:
out of fear of being next on his purge-list of those who aided him in the Wresting the Gate Incident. Cao's rebel force managed to set fire to the western and eastern gates of the
10349:
8919:: "Inoculation had been a popular folk practice ... in all, some fifty texts on the treatment of smallpox are known to have been published in China during the Ming dynasty."
3929:
was in charge of state ceremonies, rituals, and sacrifices; it also oversaw registers for Buddhist and Daoist priesthoods and even the reception of envoys from tributary states.
9246:
2980:, the palatial residence of the emperor and his family. By 1553, the Outer City was added to the south, which brought the overall size of Beijing to 6.5 by 7 kilometres (4 by
4514:
wares displayed intricate scenes similar in complexity to those in painting. These items could be found in the homes of the wealthy, alongside embroidered silks and wares in
4379:
culture of the Ming Dynasty reshaped the purely sexual relationship with prostitutes into a cultural relationship, and men could even become friends with like-minded gejis.
4281:, published in 1610, although incorporating earlier material, marks the trend toward independent composition and concern with psychology. In the later years of the dynasty,
4251:
technical and encyclopedic, the most striking literary development was the vernacular novel. While the gentry elite were educated enough to fully comprehend the language of
11256:
4534:
while staying in Nanjing wrote that Chinese scam artists were ingenious at making forgeries and huge profits. However, there were guides to help the wary new connoisseur;
3292:
powerful eunuch of the Yuan dynasty. The Temple became an influential base for highly placed eunuchs, and continued in a somewhat diminished role during the Qing dynasty.
4022:
Candidates who had taken the civil service examinations would crowd around the wall where the results were posted; detail from a handscroll in ink and color on silk, by
4135:
Descendants of the first Ming emperor were made princes and given (typically nominal) military commands, annual stipends, and large estates. The title used was "king" (
10023:
668:
654:
640:
626:
612:
598:
573:
11888:
3209:(1572–1620). In the beginning of his reign, Wanli surrounded himself with able advisors and made a conscientious effort to handle state affairs. His Grand Secretary
2668:(1472–1529) suppressed another rebellion in the region, he advocated single, unitary administration of Chinese and indigenous ethnic groups in order to bring about
2423:(1271–1368) ruled before the establishment of the Ming dynasty. Explanations for the demise of the Yuan include institutionalized ethnic discrimination against the
5366:
When the Ming founder Hongwu came upon the mechanical devices housed in the Yuan dynasty's palace at Khanbaliq—such as fountains with balls dancing on their jets,
4542:(1426–1435) bronze work could be authenticated by judging its sheen; porcelain wares from the Yongle era (1402–1424) could be judged authentic by their thickness.
3806:, at the beginning a secretarial institution that assisted the emperor with administrative paperwork, was instituted, but without employing grand counselors, or
5580:
that used a complex trigger mechanism of falling weights, pins, and a steel wheellock to ignite the train of fuses, naval mines, fin-mounted winged rockets for
4613:
even composed one encyclopedia attacking Buddhism as a foreign "mourning cult", deleterious to the state, and another encyclopedia that subsequently joined the
4504:, Chuimei Ho estimates that about 16% of late Ming era Chinese ceramic exports were sent to Europe, while the rest were destined for Japan and South East Asia.
2594:
territory, with many serving as guards in the capital. The emperor also strongly advertised the hospitality and role granted to Chinggisid nobles in his court.
13821:
3817:) the region; in 1421 the Yongle Emperor commissioned 26 officials to travel the empire and uphold similar investigatory and patrimonial duties. By 1430 these
2819:
in 1739—states that the Ming established itinerant commanderies overseeing Tibetan administration while also renewing titles of ex-Yuan dynasty officials from
11871:
4779:—and a return by the Jesuits to presenting themselves as educated scholars in the Confucian mold restored their fortunes. However, by the end of the Ming the
4659:
of Islam and the prophet Muhammad. The Ming Emperors strongly sponsored the construction of mosques and granted generous liberties for the practice of Islam.
3138:. The Oirats held the Zhengtong Emperor for ransom. However, this scheme was foiled once the emperor's younger brother assumed the throne under the era name
2835:
in favor of bolstering the Ming emperor's prestige and reputation at all costs obfuscates the nuanced history of Sino-Tibetan relations during the Ming era.
2624:, after serving the Ming in campaigns against aboriginal tribes. In 1381, the Ming dynasty annexed the areas of the southwest that had once been part of the
2321:
9931:
5297:
system in their writing; it was not until 1865 that Catholic missionaries in China sponsored the heliocentric model as their Protestant peers did. Although
4344:
printing. The new literary field of the moral guide to business ethics was developed during the late Ming period, for the readership of the merchant class.
3922:
was in charge of gathering census data, collecting taxes, and handling state revenues, while there were two offices of currency that were subordinate to it.
11145:, A collaborative project that makes available translations (from Chinese to English) of portions of the 明史 Mingshi (Official History of the Ming Dynasty).
2972:. Construction of a new city there lasted from 1407 to 1420, employing hundreds of thousands of workers daily. At the center was the political node of the
5672:
female children, as shown by skewed population statistics throughout the Ming. Even adult women were underreported; for example, the Daming Prefecture in
5477:
encyclopedia of 1637. This includes mechanical and hydraulic powered devices for agriculture and irrigation, nautical technology such as vessel types and
13826:
3794:(202 BCE – 220 CE), the Ming administration had only one department, the Secretariat, that controlled the six ministries. Following the execution of the
2883:
sect. By the late 16th century, the Mongols proved to be successful armed protectors of the Yellow Hat Dalai Lama after their increasing presence in the
2329:
5096:
simple schooling, news and gossip, matchmaking, religious festivals, traveling theater groups, tax collection, and bases of famine relief distribution.
11908:
10319:——— (2000), "Banditry and the Subversion of State Authority in China: The Capital Region during the Middle Ming Period (1450–1525)",
3546:
thirty-six of his fellow rebels executed; Li's troops retaliated by killing the officials and continued to lead a rebellion based in Rongyang, central
9518:
2960:(r. 1402–24); his reign is universally viewed by scholars as a "second founding" of the Ming dynasty since he reversed many of his father's policies.
11635:
5716:
of Ming China for clues that would show consistent growth in population. Using the gazetteers, Brook estimates that the overall population under the
5140:
in Chinese history. It was illegal for commoners to wear fine silk or dress in bright red, dark green or yellow colors; nor could they wear boots or
3738:
3172:
3164:(doused by rain during the battle) and killed several leading ministers before his forces were finally cornered and he was forced to commit suicide.
5056:
associations, and other local voluntary organizations were increasing in number and allowing more contact between educated men and local villagers.
4157:, the princes did not serve any administrative function, and they partook in military affairs only during the reigns of the first two emperors. The
105:
2856:
3745:縣), overseen by a magistrate. Besides the provinces, there were also two large areas that belonged to no province, but were metropolitan areas (
3613:; the Prince of Shun's army fled the capital on the fourth of June. On 6 June, the Manchus and Wu entered the capital and proclaimed the young
12628:
13786:
12115:
11517:
3649:, the Yongli Emperor, was captured and executed. Despite the Ming defeat, smaller loyalist movements continued until the proclamation of the
3130:(r. 1435–49) to lead a force personally to face the Oirats after a recent Ming defeat; the emperor left the capital and put his half-brother
10427:
Schafer, Edward H. (1956), "The Development of Bathing Customs in Ancient and Medieval China and the History of the Floriate Clear Palace",
3463:
Originally a Ming vassal who officially considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of imperial Ming power,
13771:
10575:"6 To catch a tiger The Eupression of the Yang Yinglong Miao uprising (1578–1600) as a case study in Ming military and borderlands history"
5071:), since artisans sometimes worked on farms in peak periods, and farmers often traveled into the city to find work during times of dearth.
5035:
3829:
provinces as supreme commanders and viceroys, a system which reined in the power and influence of the military by the civil establishment.
3637:. One report says his death was a suicide; another states that he was beaten to death by peasants after he was caught stealing their food.
11176:
Chan, Hok-Lam (1988), "The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-shi, and Hsuan-te reigns, 1399–1435", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.),
4806:
caused by Kaifeng's Ming governor devastated the community, which lost five of its twelve families, its synagogue, and most of its Torah.
4708:—who employed new western science and technology in their arguments for conversion. They were educated in Chinese language and culture at
11767:
11338:
10554:
Sperling, Elliot (2003), "The 5th Karma-pa and some aspects of the relationship between Tibet and the Early Ming", in McKay, Alex (ed.),
9226:
8120:
David M. Robinson; Dora C. Y. Ching; Chu Hung-Iam; Scarlett Jang; Joseph S. C. Lam; Julia K. Murray; Kenneth M. Swope (2008). "7 and 8".
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revolts in the provinces, essentially fell apart. Unpaid and unfed, the army was defeated by Li Zicheng—now self-styled as the Prince of
3480:
3134:
in charge of affairs as temporary regent. On 8 September, Esen routed Zhengtong's army, and Zhengtong was captured—an event known as the
2797:
2325:
10370:
10209:
Perdue, Peter C. (2000), "Culture, History, and Imperial Chinese Strategy: Legacies of the Qing Conquests", in van de Ven, Hans (ed.),
8170:
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owners, brothel heads, and merchant bankers engaging in a proto-banking system involving notes of exchange. Virtually every town had a
3399:, spread across China from Zhejiang to Henan, killing an unknown but large number of people. The deadliest earthquake of all time, the
2078:
2018:
5881:, whose regimes are collectively called the Southern Ming in historiography, ruled southern China until 1662. The Ming loyalist state
5810:
2344:
and was no longer trusted. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, the
13806:
11920:
4011:
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were on average many more owner-cultivators north of the Huai River due to harsher climate, living not far above subsistence level.
4030:
As in earlier periods, the focus of the examination was classical Confucian texts, while the bulk of test material centered on the
2868:
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and later appointed as top officials of agencies and Grand Preceptor, a top-ranking, non-functional civil service post, under the
13811:
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5142:
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revolts in 1464 to 1466, which were crushed by an army of 30,000 Ming troops (including 1,000 Mongols) joining the 160,000 local
10034:
4538:(died 1637) wrote a book printed in 1635 that told his readers how to spot fake and authentic pieces of art. He revealed that a
3533:
and forced Joseon to become a Qing tributary. Shortly after, the Koreans renounced their long-held loyalty to the Ming dynasty.
3443:
along the Great Wall, the gate where the Manchus were repeatedly repelled before being finally let through by Wu Sangui in 1644.
3244:
teacups, from the Nantoyōsō Collection in Japan; the Tianqi Emperor was heavily influenced and largely controlled by the eunuch
12066:
11973:
10172:
Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic
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Atwell, William S. (2002), "Time, Money, and the Weather: Ming China and the 'Great Depression' of the Mid-Fifteenth Century",
5800:
5464:
4124:
1708:
163:
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was in charge of appointments, merit ratings, promotions, and demotions of officials, as well as granting of honorific titles.
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12963:
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Mote, Frederick W. (1988), "The Ch'eng-hua and Hung-chih reigns, 1465–1505", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.),
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in the 12th century. Ming era examinations were perhaps more difficult to pass since the 1487 requirement of completing the "
3943:
was in charge of judicial and penal processes, but had no supervisory role over the Censorate or the Grand Court of Revision.
3396:
2361:
2008:
9923:
Tibet and Imperial China: A Survey of Sino-Tibetan Relations Up to the End of the Manchu Dynasty in 1912: Occasional Paper 7
5885:
on Taiwan lasted until 1683, but it was not ruled by the Zhu clan and thus usually not considered part of the Southern Ming.
2968:
Yongle demoted Nanjing to a secondary capital and in 1403 announced the new capital of China was to be at his power base in
13776:
12011:
11866:
7195:
The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1, by Denis C. Twitchett, John K. Fairbank, p. 29
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3919:
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3783:
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were embraced by the court and the Chinese literati at large, although the direct line of his school was destroyed by the
11681:
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10518:
5732:(r. 1521–67) finally had officials register migrants wherever they had moved or fled in order to bring in more revenues.
3964:
3034:
2759:
2611:
2050:
1212:
10852:
Wills, John E. Jr. (1998), "Relations with Maritime Europe, 1514–1662", in Twitchett, Denis; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.),
5748:
noted more than half the population fell ill that year and that 90% of the local populace in one area was dead by 1642.
5592:
before igniting a swarm of smaller rockets issuing forth from the end of the missile (shaped like a dragon's head), and
5044:
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12633:
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in official appointments. He rewarded his eunuch supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian
1202:
522:
10001:
12277:
11510:
11395:
9618:
6866:
5233:, the Ming dynasty perhaps saw fewer advancements in science and technology compared to the pace of discovery in the
5025:
5016:
5007:
4998:
3771:
2115:
1879:
10290:——— (1999), "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China: Mongols and the Abortive Coup of 1461",
5435:
The Chinese were intrigued with European technology, but so were visiting Europeans of Chinese technology. In 1584,
3645:. Each bastion of resistance was individually defeated by the Qing until 1662, when the last Southern Ming emperor,
12146:
11170:
10154:
Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics
10068:
Development Centre Studies The World Economy Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective and Volume 2: Historical Statistics
5969:, and the title passed on through twelve generations of Ming descendants until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1912.
5111:
Farming villagers in the north spent their days harvesting crops like wheat and millet, while farmers south of the
5079:
where female and male prostitutes could be had. Male catamites fetched a higher price than female concubines since
4426:
3933:
3896:
3709:
bureaucracy contained three commissions: one civil, one military, and one for surveillance. Below the level of the
3676:
Administrative Divisions and Military Protectorates of the Ming dynasty in 1427; note that the exact nature of the
11114:
4359:
In contrast to Xu Xiake, who focused on technical aspects in his travel literature, the Chinese poet and official
3325:
13259:
11701:
11412:
10921:"5 From Woman's Fertility to Masculine Authority: The Story of the White Emperor Heavenly Kings in Western Hunan"
10605:
9970:
9550:
Euclid in China: The Genesis of the First Translation of Euclid's Elements in 1607 & Its Reception Up to 1723
4057:
3530:
3515:(modern Shenyang), which had been made their capital in 1625. Hong Taiji also adopted the Chinese imperial title
3057:
2477:
1633:
12421:
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3280:(r. 1620–1627) and had his political rivals tortured to death, mostly the vocal critics from the faction of the
13801:
13796:
13791:
13781:
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10735:
Wang, Gungwu (1998), "Ming Foreign Relations: Southeast Asia", in Twitchett, Denis; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.),
10058:
9252:
5785:
2071:
2023:
1049:
841:
9981:
Langlois, John D. Jr. (1988), "The Hung-wu reign, 1368–1398", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.),
7005:
4763:: Ricci had been very accommodating and an attempt by his successors to backtrack from this policy led to the
3049:
measuring 112 to 134 m (367 to 440 ft) in length and 45 to 54 m (148 to 177 ft) in width.
13697:
12193:
11915:
8171:"The Ming Court as Patron of the Chinese Islamic Architecture: The Case Study of the Daxuexi Mosque in Xi'an"
4642:, there were still several prominent Muslim figures early on, including the Yongle Emperor's powerful eunuch
4639:
4635:
4631:
4551:
3787:
3697:
3650:
2045:
1971:
1906:
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910:
89:
35:
10902:
The History of Tibet: Volume 2, The Medieval Period: c. AD 850–1895, the Development of Buddhist Paramountcy
10556:
The History of Tibet: Volume 2, The Medieval Period: c. AD 850–1895, the Development of Buddhist Paramountcy
10145:
Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering
9611:
Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule
9471:
5637:
had a primitive toothbrush of a twig frayed at the end, but the Chinese were the first to invent the modern
4468:
The period was also renowned for ceramics and porcelains. The major production center for porcelain was the
3496:. In 1618 he openly renounced the Ming overlordship and effectively declared war against the Ming with the "
13831:
13692:
13576:
12173:
11951:
11819:
11789:
11503:
11477:
9706:
Hargett, James M. (1985), "Some Preliminary Remarks on the Travel Records of the Song Dynasty (960–1279)",
5953:, Zhu Zhilian, who received a salary from the Qing government and whose duty was to perform rituals at the
5825:
5805:
5611:
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became much more common than in earlier periods. Urban shops and retailers sold a variety of goods such as
4977:
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4709:
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dynasties, the vast majority of the brick and stone Great Wall seen today is a product of the Ming dynasty.
2399:
1981:
513:
171:
120:
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drawn from his own palace guard. Some 100,000 people were executed in a series of purges during his rule.
95:
13816:
13766:
13702:
12739:
12183:
12168:
11903:
11535:
10531:
6856:
5763:
5758:
5238:
5237:. In fact, key advances in Chinese science in the late Ming were spurred by contact with Europe. In 1626
5164:
4760:
4701:
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at any given time, on the order of one out of 10,000 adult males." This was in comparison to the 100,000
3493:
3042:
2525:
Hongwu made an immediate effort to rebuild state infrastructure. He built a 48 km (30 mi) long
2393:
2033:
1790:
1171:
17:
11431:
5452:
3993:
2997:
11994:
11716:
11615:
10228:
Peterson, Willard J. (1986). "Calendar Reform Prior to the Arrival of Missionaries at the Ming Court".
5795:
5160:
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4387:
3730:
3684:
Described as "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history" by
3583:
3317:(1494–1552); excessive luxury and decadence marked the late Ming period, spurred by the enormous state
2922:
2248:
2190:
2038:
1028:
11752:
10128:
Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth
9668:
Geiss, James (1988), "The Cheng-te reign, 1506–1521", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.),
3343:
3269:
increased their rights over the civil bureaucracy and granted them power to collect provincial taxes.
3142:(r. 1449–57); the Oirats were also repelled once the Jingtai Emperor's confidant and defense minister
2364:, the dynasty collapsed in 1644 as Li Zicheng's rebel forces entered Beijing. Li then established the
2356:'s initially successful reforms proved devastating when a slowdown in agriculture was produced by the
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The Economy of Lower Yangzi Delta in Late Imperial China: Connecting Money, Markets, and Institutions
9932:"Prince Chu Tsai-Yü's Life and Work: A Re-Evaluation of His Contribution to Equal Temperament Theory"
9735:
Hartwell, Robert M. (1982), "Demographic, Political, and Social Transformations of China, 750–1550",
5962:
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remnants in southern China after 1644 were collectively designated by 19th-century historians as the
3489:
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2681:
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2001:
1966:
1539:
1235:
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591:
9472:"Political, Social, and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China"
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innovated with vernacular short fiction. Theater scripts were equally imaginative. The most famous,
4111:
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10163:
Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 2: Agriculture
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9293:
Chen, Gilbert (2 July 2016). "Castration and Connection: Kinship Organization among Ming Eunuchs".
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Wade, Geoff (2008), "Engaging the South: Ming China and Southeast Asia in the Fifteenth Century",
10479:. Routledge studies – China in transition. Vol. 13 (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press.
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4704:
also disappeared. During the later Ming a new wave of Christian missionaries arrived—particularly
4330:. The first reference to the publishing of private newspapers in Beijing was in 1582; by 1638 the
3350:
as their permanent trade base in China. Their role in providing silver was gradually surpassed by
2464:
crumbling, competing rebel groups began fighting for control of the country and thus the right to
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11565:
11344:
Swope, Kenneth M. "Manifesting Awe: Grand Strategy and Imperial Leadership in the Ming Dynasty."
10006:
5770:
5471:(1587–1666) documented a wide array of technologies, metallurgic and industrial processes in his
5306:
5286:
4656:
4300:
4196:
3400:
3161:
2973:
2607:
1961:
8916:
4771:
and forced the others out of public life for six years. A series of spectacular failures by the
4469:
3770:, the official imperial household of the Ming and Qing dynasties from 1420 until 1924, when the
3205:
There were many problems—fiscal or other—facing Ming China that started during the reign of the
3064:, from the initial invasion in 1406 until the Ming withdrawal in 1427 as a result of protracted
2758:, were at peace with China. In 1409, under the Yongle Emperor, the Ming Dynasty established the
13707:
13608:
13603:
13291:
13239:
13159:
13092:
12996:
12981:
12874:
12641:
12595:
12436:
12323:
12073:
12021:
11829:
11721:
10711:
9219:
5815:
5684:
5455:
also mentioned this a year later—noting even the designs of them on Chinese silken robes—while
4628:
4477:
2569:
executed upon suspicion of a conspiracy plot to overthrow him; after that Hongwu abolished the
2182:
2013:
1991:
1976:
1462:
1181:
461:
11334:
10920:
10871:
Wong, H.C. (1963), "China's Opposition to Western Science during Late Ming and Early Ch'ing",
10574:
6858:
A Dragon's Head and a Serpent's Tail: Ming China and the First Great East Asian War, 1592-1598
2932:
337:
13761:
13638:
13598:
13411:
13286:
12350:
12340:
12299:
12270:
12178:
12156:
12141:
11782:
11762:
11640:
11600:
11590:
10579:
New Perspectives on the History and Historiography of Southeast Asia: Continuing Explorations
9401:
5311:
4941:
who were as literate and skillful in calligraphy, painting, and poetry as their male guests.
4705:
4581:
4555:
4188:
4003:
3912:
3884:
3329:
An imperial throne carpet with double dragon and seed pearl motif, Ming dynasty, 16th century
3214:
3046:
2722:
2473:
2240:
1986:
1403:
239:
31:
13526:
8188:
5649:
4752:
4402:
2258:
The rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances; the capture of the
13731:
13561:
13531:
13406:
13337:
13308:
13227:
12561:
12399:
12389:
12209:
11777:
11676:
11555:
10131:
4933:
4932:) challenged the elevation and emphasis of the family in Chinese society. His contemporary
4756:
4738:
4323:
3610:
3157:
3107:
3089:
2526:
2437:
2228:
2224:
2028:
1241:
13511:
9181:——— (2005). "Another Look at Silver Imports into China, ca. 1635–1644".
8119:
4794:
During his mission, Ricci was also contacted in Beijing by one of the approximately 5,000
3475:
to create a new Manchu ethnic identity. He offered to lead his armies to support Ming and
3025:(1371–1433) as the admiral for a gigantic new fleet of ships designated for international
2871:
initiated in 1578, an alliance which affected the foreign policy of the subsequent Manchu
2513:
8:
13423:
13303:
13269:
13171:
12991:
12986:
12798:
12517:
12453:
12328:
12313:
12059:
11898:
11841:
11794:
11726:
11580:
6682:
Sen, Tansen (2016). "The impact of Zheng He's expeditions on Indian Ocean interactions".
5937:
5895:
5882:
5775:
5741:
5290:
4721:
4692:
The advent of the Ming was initially devastating to Christianity: in his first year, the
4271:
4167:
3685:
3622:
3472:
3431:
3384:
3367:
3334:
2691:
2271:
2232:
1193:
518:
182:
13139:
13129:
11630:
11441:
10135:
5728:
emperors lessened the penalties against those who had fled their home region, while the
5395:, and "other instruments ... with wheels rotated by sand as if by water" (Chinese:
3609:(1612–1650) and Wu Sangui approached Beijing after the army sent by Li was destroyed at
3065:
2917:
The territorial zenith of the Ming dynasty in 1415 under the reign of the Yongle Emperor
2737:
general of the Northern Yuan dynasty, won hegemony over the Mongol tribes in Manchuria (
2203:, a set of published dynastic instructions. This failed when his teenage successor, the
13536:
13516:
13499:
13450:
13315:
13124:
13075:
13008:
12926:
12867:
12862:
12857:
12813:
12783:
12675:
12573:
12441:
12416:
11671:
11625:
11585:
11369:
11060:
11052:
11005:
10997:
10925:
Chieftains into Ancestors: Imperial Expansion and Indigenous Society in Southwest China
10888:
10796:
10622:
10444:
10336:
10307:
10257:
9962:
9954:
9909:
9863:
9825:
9752:
9723:
9510:
9494:
9429:
9388:
9380:
9339:
9310:
9206:
9198:
9169:
6075:
5740:
that started in Shanxi Province in 1633, ravaged the densely populated areas along the
5416:
5412:
5330:
4922:
4843:
4803:
4337:
4319:
4291:
4256:
4231:
4039:
3807:
3795:
3718:
3359:
3338:
3301:
3258:
3222:
3123:
3053:
2570:
2468:. In 1363, Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his archrival and leader of the rebel Han faction,
2301:
2247:
as far as Arabia and the eastern coasts of Africa. Hongwu and Yongle emperors had also
2127:
1996:
1176:
1085:
1077:
877:
869:
204:
192:
11804:
11326:
11150:
10836:
10690:
3525:("Revering Virtue") era, and changed the ethnic name of his people from "Jurchen" to "
1104:
896:
13645:
13541:
13477:
13472:
13401:
13298:
13013:
12941:
12936:
12778:
12707:
12690:
12685:
12680:
12480:
12431:
11883:
11620:
11560:
11391:
11302:
11281:
11262:
11228:
11200:
11181:
11129:
11077:
11064:
11009:
10966:
10947:
10928:
10905:
10892:
10857:
10813:
10786:
10759:
10740:
10676:
10657:
10638:
10582:
10559:
10540:
10499:
10480:
10461:
10413:
10394:
10360:
10340:
10214:
10195:
10109:
10090:
10071:
9986:
9966:
9899:
9880:
9832:
9809:
9790:
9771:
9692:
9673:
9654:
9648:
9633:
9614:
9595:
9576:
9557:
9553:
9534:
9514:
9502:
9456:
9450:
9435:
9407:
9392:
9314:
9279:
9272:
A Court on Horseback: Imperial Touring & the Construction of Qing Rule, 1680–1785
9256:
9210:
9138:
8125:
6862:
6699:
6140:
5942:
5660:(1598–1652), showing a lady holding an oval fan while enjoying the beauty of the plum
5585:
5456:
5338:
5254:
5129:
4861:
in 1402. The Ming scholar most influential upon subsequent generations, however, was
4776:
4772:
4725:
4382:
4311:
4252:
3926:
3892:
3867:
3822:
3803:
3705:
3579:
3468:
3288:(r. 1627–44) had Wei dismissed from court, which led to Wei's suicide shortly after.
3285:
3127:
3030:
2948:
specified his grandson Zhu Yunwen as his successor, and he assumed the throne as the
2738:
1924:
1492:
1472:
1247:
804:
796:
323:
261:
187:
11447:
10900:
Wylie, Turrell V. (2003), "Lama Tribute in the Ming Dynasty", in McKay, Alex (ed.),
9135:
Autocracy and China's Rebel Founding Emperors: Comparing Chairman Mao and Ming Taizu
5520:
3265:, excessive tyrannical eunuch power did not become evident until the 1590s when the
2775:
Manchuria. Throughout its existence, the Ming established a total of 384 guards (衛,
2749:
The early Ming court could not, and did not, aspire to the control imposed upon the
2721:
by the Ming dynasty in 1368, Manchuria remained under control of the Mongols of the
697:
13494:
13281:
13276:
13232:
13219:
13149:
13117:
13112:
12976:
12971:
12953:
12914:
12847:
12830:
12771:
12761:
12756:
12697:
12653:
12623:
12583:
12566:
12549:
12512:
12263:
12052:
11861:
11824:
11814:
11799:
11772:
11757:
11595:
11426:
11361:
11243:
A Ming Society: T'ai-ho County, Kiangsi, in the Fourteenth to Seventeenth Centuries
11197:
Confucianism and Autocracy: Professional Elites in the Founding of the Ming Dynasty
11044:
10989:
10880:
10778:
10614:
10436:
10328:
10299:
10278:
10269:
Robinson, David M. (1995). "Notes on Eunuchs in Hebei During the Mid-Ming Period".
10237:
9946:
9855:
9744:
9715:
9592:
Culture, Institution, and Development in China: The economics of national character
9486:
9372:
9331:
9302:
9190:
9161:
8178:
6691:
5966:
5899:
5717:
5436:
5383:
5318:
5169:
4865:(1472–1529), whose teachings were attacked in his own time for their similarity to
4836:
4685:
4647:
4627:
was also well-established throughout China, with a history said to have begun with
4605:
4235:
4158:
4082:
3813:
The Hongwu Emperor sent his heir apparent to Shaanxi in 1391 to "tour and soothe" (
3710:
3689:
3517:
3497:
3281:
3218:
3026:
2953:
2824:
2502:
2445:
2297:
2289:
2208:
2199:
2098:
1603:
1161:
1153:
956:
933:
731:
708:
661:
197:
177:
61:
9306:
9220:"China, Europe and the Great Divergence: a Study in National Accounting, 980–1850"
5431:
by Yu Wenhui, Latinized as Emmanuel Pereira, dated the year of Ricci's death, 1610
5265:
model of the solar system was rejected by the Catholic missionaries in China, but
4902:
4522:. The houses of the rich were also furnished with rosewood furniture and feathery
2266:
ended them completely. The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while
2215:
in 1402. The Yongle Emperor established Yan as a secondary capital and renamed it
13712:
13680:
13553:
13521:
13504:
13460:
13455:
13433:
13428:
13386:
13379:
13354:
13214:
13209:
13050:
12931:
12825:
12820:
12788:
12613:
12603:
12497:
12490:
12485:
12470:
12426:
12308:
12294:
12243:
12095:
12038:
11956:
11731:
11706:
11459:
11385:
11296:
11123:
10800:
10526:
10249:
5834:
5729:
5725:
5721:
5706:
5506:
5403:
5270:
5266:
5057:
4949:
4780:
4585:
4580:
The dominant religious beliefs during the Ming dynasty were the various forms of
3960:
3858:
3846:
3693:
3614:
3551:
3404:
3139:
3094:
2949:
2896:
2847:
2811:
2746:, which concluded with the surrender of Naghachu and Ming conquest of Manchuria.
2625:
2531:
2333:
2309:
2204:
2197:
his many sons throughout China and attempting to guide these princes through the
2189:
were the largest in the world. He also took great care breaking the power of the
1007:
782:
13134:
10517:, translated with preface by E-Tu Zen Sun and Shiou-Chuan Sun, University Park:
9363:
Dennerline, Jerry P. (1985). "The Southern Ming, 1644–1662. By Lynn A. Struve".
4065:
tomb of Pan Yongzheng, a Ming dynasty official who lived during the 16th century
2867:(r. 1572–1620) attempted to reestablish Sino-Tibetan relations in the wake of a
2686:
13655:
13650:
13613:
13588:
13571:
13482:
13467:
13438:
13396:
13244:
13204:
13199:
13154:
13080:
13040:
13030:
13020:
12835:
12714:
12608:
12475:
12357:
12219:
12214:
12090:
11381:
10600:
10596:
10282:
10241:
10123:
10024:"The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims"
6380:
5864:
in Nanjing in 1364. The regime is known in historiography as the "Western Wu" (
5689:
5589:
5473:
5407:—describe the 'five-wheeled sand clock', a mechanism pioneered by Zhan Xiyuan (
5371:
5258:
5191:
5137:
5088:
5049:
4850:
4743:
4693:
4672:
4624:
4507:
4497:
4453:
4332:
4243:
4239:
4162:
4087:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3850:
3767:
3626:
3392:
3379:
3351:
3277:
3241:
3168:
3099:
3010:
2977:
2957:
2945:
2937:
2908:
2771:
2750:
2699:
2518:
2465:
2357:
2341:
2332:
trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced a massive influx of
2220:
2212:
2170:
1505:
1422:
991:
766:
299:
287:
244:
219:
111:
11246:
11142:
11035:
Zhang, Wenxian (2008). "The Yellow Register Archives of Imperial Ming China".
10980:
Yuan, Zheng (1994), "Local Government Schools in Sung China: A Reassessment",
6695:
5667:
debate the population figures for each era in the Ming dynasty. The historian
4819:
4018:
3582:, the last Ming emperor, accompanied only by a eunuch servant, hanged himself
2267:
13755:
13736:
13623:
13418:
13391:
13364:
13342:
13320:
13087:
13070:
13055:
12899:
12852:
12840:
12766:
12658:
12532:
12527:
12502:
12384:
12100:
11893:
11836:
11365:
11316:
Owen, Stephen (1997), "The Yuan and Ming Dynasties", in Owen, Stephen (ed.),
11278:
The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1
11178:
The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1
10854:
The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2
10737:
The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2
9983:
The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1
9670:
The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1
6703:
5958:
5840:
5668:
5657:
5634:
5616:
5468:
5392:
5278:
5262:
5234:
5186:
4891:
4862:
4824:
4681:
4438:
4391:
4368:
4367:(1037–1101). Yuan Hongdao and his two brothers, Yuan Zongdao (1560–1600) and
4282:
4247:
4120:
3782:
Departing from the main central administrative system generally known as the
3642:
3590:
3526:
3371:
3273:
3266:
3245:
3210:
3206:
3198:
2864:
2755:
2665:
2578:
2552:
2469:
2449:
2369:
2353:
2349:
2337:
2163:
1295:
1262:
633:
390:
311:
13164:
13144:
11091:
Zhou, Shao Quan (1990). "明代服饰探论" [On the Costumes of Ming Dynasty].
10618:
10261:
9846:
Hucker, Charles O. (1958), "Governmental Organization of The Ming Dynasty",
9350:
9335:
6081:
5620:
is a medical text with 1,892 entries, each entry with its own name called a
5467:(1739–1801) in the writings of his travel diary in China. The encyclopedist
3073:
3069:
2892:
2543:, which was completed by 1397 and repeated certain clauses found in the old
13628:
13369:
13359:
13325:
13254:
13176:
12966:
12948:
12909:
12904:
12884:
12879:
12751:
12744:
12734:
12729:
12724:
12618:
12556:
12537:
12522:
12458:
11876:
11487:
11470:
11321:
10536:
9925:, Canberra: The Australian National University, Centre of Oriental Studies.
9913:
9506:
8183:
5950:
5946:
5878:
5630:
5607:
5428:
5342:
5322:
5302:
5274:
5182:
5116:
4911:
4840:
4795:
4788:
4787:
in Rome that would eventually lead to a full ban of Christianity under the
4717:
4614:
4601:
4589:
4531:
4515:
4422:
4360:
4341:
4286:
4277:
4265:
4201:
4161:
was justified in part as upholding the rights of the princes, but once the
4054:('government students'), the lowest tier of graduates, by the 16th century.
3854:
3842:
3837:
3634:
3602:
3575:
3508:
3485:
3456:
3440:
3355:
2872:
2816:
2718:
2695:
2669:
2632:-loyalist Mongol and Hui Muslim troops holding out in Yunnan province. The
2629:
2559:
2536:
2461:
2432:
2420:
2377:
2373:
2365:
2336:
silver. This abundance of specie remonetized the Ming economy, whose paper
2305:
2244:
2159:
2151:
2135:
1870:
1846:
1820:
1764:
1723:
1661:
1375:
1365:
1342:
1094:
963:
886:
738:
647:
605:
578:
229:
11935:
10601:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"
10332:
9194:
8309:
8307:
5277:(1612–1659) in 1627, Adam Schall von Bell's treatise in 1640, and finally
4519:
13347:
13332:
13181:
12894:
12803:
12793:
12719:
12367:
12362:
12131:
11666:
5820:
5678:
5673:
5593:
5581:
5560:
5530:
5482:
5460:
5448:
5388:
5212:
4858:
4697:
4677:
4523:
4493:
4296:
4192:
4154:
4146:
4007:
3791:
3646:
3375:
3135:
3119:
3085:
3038:
2839:
2707:
2703:
2653:
2441:
2427:
that stirred resentment and rebellion, overtaxation of areas hard-hit by
2424:
2263:
2194:
2139:
1777:
1648:
1482:
1450:
1437:
1271:
504:
496:
11373:
11180:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 182–384,
11056:
10856:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 333–375,
10739:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 301–332,
9985:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 107–181,
9672:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 403–439,
9351:
9202:
5199:
4564:
4492:
by the late 16th century. Individual potters also became known, such as
2320:, which diminished famines and spurred population growth. The growth of
13374:
13191:
13065:
13025:
12958:
12110:
11966:
11452:
11048:
11027:
10626:
10311:
9867:
9756:
9498:
9384:
9343:
9173:
8922:
8726:
8304:
7888:
5954:
5929:
5861:
5638:
5603:
5597:
5573:
5551:
5510:
5478:
5112:
5092:
4729:
4327:
4031:
3633:
province, Li Zicheng died there in the summer of 1645, thus ending the
3594:
3563:
3542:
3522:
3504:
3362:(r. 1621–1665) began cracking down on illegal smuggling of silver from
3176:
3110:
of Bengal (r. 1410–12) to the Yongle Emperor of Ming China (r. 1402–24)
3002:
2876:
2843:
2828:
2763:
2657:
2633:
2566:
2481:
2345:
2252:
2155:
2147:
2138:. The Ming dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China ruled by the
1529:
1318:
1021:
820:
813:
619:
11495:
11001:
10782:
10477:
Negotiating ethnicity in China: citizenship as a response to the state
10448:
9958:
9727:
8282:
8280:
8278:
5696:—in his 1432 report to the throne about widespread itinerant commerce.
5354:
3798:
Hu Weiyong in 1380, the Hongwu Emperor abolished the Secretariat, the
2142:, the majority ethnic group in China. Although the primary capital of
13264:
13035:
12919:
12889:
12670:
12544:
12335:
12151:
11252:
6739:
6737:
5860:
Prior to proclaiming himself emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang declared himself
5830:
5713:
5577:
5569:
5539:
5514:
5367:
5334:
5242:
5120:
5083:
with a teenage boy was seen as a mark of elite status, regardless of
5080:
4945:
4938:
4907:
4882:
4827:(1472–1529), considered the most influential Confucian thinker since
4569:
4511:
4430:
4410:
4406:
4376:
4212:
4123:'s royal carriage being pulled by elephants and escorted by cavalry (
3799:
3598:
3226:
2734:
2544:
2490:
2457:, which he would later establish as the capital of the Ming dynasty.
2428:
2381:
2293:
1042:
834:
11151:
The Ming-Qing conflict, 1619–1683: A historiography and source guide
10710:
Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006).
10303:
9859:
9767:
Amid the Clouds and Mist: China's Colonization of Guizhou, 1200–1700
9748:
9490:
9376:
9165:
7411:
6137:
The price of collapse: the Little Ice Age and the fall of Ming China
5273:'s ideas slowly trickled into China starting with the Polish Jesuit
5215:
along the bottom. Sailing directions and distances are marked using
4219:
3447:
3122:
launched an invasion into Ming China in July 1449. The chief eunuch
2913:
2628:
following the successful effort by Hui Muslim Ming armies to defeat
2535:
states that as early as 1364 Zhu Yuanzhang had begun drafting a new
12665:
12448:
12406:
12345:
11121:
11019:
10993:
10884:
10440:
9950:
9719:
8319:
8292:
8275:
7852:
6597:
5745:
5664:
5490:
5359:
5298:
5204:
5178:
4981:
4747:
4667:
4643:
4610:
4597:
4535:
4442:
4434:
4352:
4347:
4307:
4207:
4062:
4023:
3618:
3512:
3314:
3306:
3131:
3022:
2730:
2726:
2590:
2574:
2317:
2236:
2211:, an uprising that placed the Prince of Yan upon the throne as the
1063:
977:
855:
752:
234:
10458:
Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier, 1600–1800
10412:(illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 8–9.
10033:. The 59th George E. Morrison Lecture in Ethnology. Archived from
9428:
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006),
8512:
7648:
6734:
6651:
6260:
6104:
4869:. Building upon Zhu Xi's concept of the "extension of knowledge" (
3667:
2270:
constructed the Liaodong palisade and connected and fortified the
12578:
12507:
12463:
12318:
10515:
T'ien-Kung K'ai-Wu: Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century
8702:
5933:
5693:
5565:
5535:
5408:
5379:
5375:
5294:
5076:
4985:
4915:
4886:
4700:
missions among the Yuan heterodox and illegal. The centuries-old
4651:
4473:
4091:
3955:
3870:
to assist the emperor, handling paperwork under the reign of the
3672:
3630:
3559:
3555:
3464:
3318:
3262:
3143:
3103:
3006:
2969:
2802:
2767:
2715:
2661:
2649:
2637:
2617:
2498:
2497:) in 1368. The last Yuan emperor fled north to the upper capital
2494:
2485:
2454:
2416:
2216:
2186:
2143:
2131:
1672:
1523:
1517:
1101:
893:
363:
350:
145:
137:
12379:
10944:
The Jews of Kaifeng, China : history, culture, and religion
9322:
Crawford, Robert B. (1961). "Eunuch Power in the Ming Dynasty".
5949:
bestowed the hereditary title of marquis on a descendant of the
5423:
4775:—including missing an eclipse easily computed by Xu Guangqi and
4662:
4413:
of painting, contributing greatly to Chinese artistic tradition.
3321:
of incoming silver and by private transactions involving silver.
3193:
3029:. Among the kingdoms visited by Zheng He, Yongle proclaimed the
12411:
12286:
10810:
The Ming Prince and Daoism: Institutional Patronage of an Elite
10357:
Culture, Courtiers, and Competition: The Ming Court (1368–1644)
10002:"Potosí: the mountain of silver that was the first global city"
9531:
A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China
9086:
8608:
8606:
8122:
Culture, Courtiers, and Competition: The Ming Court (1368–1644)
7768:
6899:
6591:
6483:
5525:
5502:
5498:
5494:
5208:
5125:
5084:
4846:
4828:
4733:
4593:
4573:
4539:
4496:, who became famous in the early 17th century for his style of
4485:
4418:
4364:
4035:
3606:
3476:
3115:
3018:
2851:
2645:
2277:
224:
11225:
Ming China, 1368–1644: A Concise History of a Resilient Empire
9248:
The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China
8774:
6785:
6773:
6710:
6248:
4098:, by an anonymous court painter of the Xuande period (1425–35)
3878:(r. 1424–25). The Grand Secretariat drew its members from the
3550:
province by 1635. By the 1640s, an ex-soldier and rival to Li—
3436:
13045:
12016:
10775:
Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics
9689:
The Snow Lion and the Dragon: China, Tibet and the Dalai Lama
9403:
China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects
8690:
7312:
7136:
5411:
1360–80) which featured the scoop wheel of Su Song's earlier
5289:
in the 19th century. Catholic Jesuits in China would promote
4768:
4713:
3567:
3547:
3347:
2880:
2820:
2621:
2313:
2282:
1123:
1109:
915:
901:
535:
30:"Ming" and "Ming Dynasty" redirect here. For other uses, see
11258:
1587, a Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline
10108:. Berkeley: University of California press. p. xxxiii.
8996:
8994:
8603:
8569:
8567:
8565:
8563:
8138:
7876:
7744:
7372:
6519:
6005:
6003:
4394:(1598–1652); small leaf album paintings like this one first
3380:
shipping silver mined in the Spanish Latin American colonies
3017:
Beginning in 1405, the Yongle Emperor entrusted his favored
11930:
10055:
Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China
8858:
8834:
8678:
8654:
8591:
8536:
8500:
8488:
8401:
8399:
8203:
6296:
6272:
6238:
6236:
6158:
6156:
5486:
5370:, dragon-headed devices that spouted mists of perfume, and
4224:
4095:
3861:" that indicates he was a civil official of the first rank.
3775:
3295:
2884:
2285:
instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves.
2107:
530:
12255:
11280:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge UP, pp. 343–402,
10835:
10577:. In Aung-Thwin, Michael Arthur; Hall, Kenneth R. (eds.).
10391:
In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia
8966:
8964:
8928:
8411:
6471:
6392:
3388:
silver shortages caused the downfall of the Ming dynasty.
2815:—the official history of the Ming dynasty compiled by the
11167:
The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties
10252:(1987). "Chin P'ing Mei: Inversion of Self-cultivation".
9006:
8991:
8810:
8786:
8750:
8560:
8423:
8086:
8062:
8011:
7972:
7960:
7900:
7672:
7660:
7597:
7336:
7124:
7088:
6761:
6435:
6000:
5978:
For the argument that they increased social mobility see
5174:
4866:
4306:
Informal essay and travel writing was another highlight.
3762:
2130:, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the
2104:
1082:
1068:
1054:
874:
860:
846:
11354:
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
10773:
Wang, Yuan-kang (2011). "The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)".
9770:(illustrated ed.). Harvard University Asia Center.
9076:
9074:
8951:
8949:
8396:
8386:
8384:
8382:
8150:
8052:
8050:
8001:
7999:
7912:
7864:
7816:
7804:
7792:
7720:
7626:
7624:
7609:
7587:
7585:
7583:
7570:
7568:
7566:
7564:
7551:
7549:
7522:
7486:
7462:
7401:
7399:
7360:
7288:
7269:
7267:
7252:
7242:
7240:
7210:
7100:
7035:
6983:
6935:
6875:
6615:
6531:
6233:
6221:
6209:
6180:
6168:
6153:
2842:
over Tibet. Some believe it was a relationship of loose
2547:
of 653. Hongwu organized a military system known as the
2207:, attempted to curtail his uncle's power, prompting the
1033:
825:
10837:"Who invented the toothbrush and when was it invented?"
10254:
The Four Masterworks of the Ming Novel: Ssu Ta Ch'i-shu
9059:
9035:
9025:
9023:
9021:
8981:
8979:
8961:
8882:
8870:
8846:
8822:
8798:
8762:
8714:
8666:
8642:
8630:
8618:
8579:
8548:
8524:
8454:
8452:
8450:
8251:
7924:
7428:
7426:
7198:
7177:
7165:
7155:
7153:
7151:
7112:
7054:
7052:
7050:
7023:
6959:
6923:
6911:
6838:
6836:
6722:
6627:
6603:
6567:
6555:
6507:
6425:
6423:
6421:
6419:
6356:
6308:
6284:
6199:
6197:
6195:
5932:, Prince of Ningjing and Zhu Honghuan, who stayed with
5185:, with the right illustration displaying men working a
4944:
The liberal views of Wang Yangming were opposed by the
3832:
11318:
An Anthology of Chinese Literature: Beginnings to 1911
11106:
10633:
8738:
8476:
8435:
8227:
7936:
7756:
7227:
7225:
6887:
6749:
6684:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
6579:
6027:
5902:, is usually not considered part of the Southern Ming.
4728:
throughout East Asia, and whose work with the convert
2304:
of crops, plants, and animals into China, introducing
9575:(2nd ed.), Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
9110:
9098:
9071:
9047:
8946:
8464:
8379:
8367:
8355:
8343:
8331:
8239:
8215:
8074:
8047:
8035:
8023:
7996:
7984:
7948:
7840:
7780:
7732:
7708:
7696:
7684:
7636:
7621:
7580:
7561:
7546:
7534:
7510:
7498:
7474:
7450:
7438:
7396:
7300:
7264:
7237:
6971:
6495:
6063:
5321:
was in need of reform. Although the Ming had adopted
5038:(蘇州片清明上河圖), depicting urban life of the Ming dynasty.
4716:
after its founding in 1579. The most influential was
3529:". In 1636, Banner Armies defeated Joseon during the
3346:
gained consent from the Ming court in 1557 to settle
2963:
2116:
1012:
996:
982:
968:
801:
787:
771:
757:
743:
10359:, Harvard University Asia Center, pp. 365–421,
9632:. Berkeley; London: University of California Press.
9431:
East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History
9018:
8976:
8934:
8447:
7828:
7423:
7384:
7148:
7064:
7047:
7011:
6947:
6833:
6821:
6809:
6797:
6675:
6663:
6639:
6543:
6459:
6416:
6344:
6332:
6192:
5497:, manufacturing processes such as for roasting iron
5329:
calendar of 1281, which was just as accurate as the
2838:
Modern scholars debate whether the Ming dynasty had
1889:
1811:
1691:
1624:
1554:
1428:
11390:. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
10410:
Ming China and its Allies: Imperial Rule in Eurasia
10350:"The Ming court and the legacy of the Yuan Mongols"
9427:
8325:
8313:
8298:
8286:
7894:
7654:
7222:
6743:
6657:
6447:
6368:
6110:
6015:
3079:
2529:, as well as new palaces and government halls. The
2101:
11448:Ming dynasty art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
11216:Background Factors in the Rise of the Ming Dynasty
9824:
7348:
6320:
5293:theory at court, yet at the same time embrace the
5103:Weeding out the field, illustrated on Fan Kuang's
2440:in 1351. The Red Turbans were affiliated with the
10182:The Southwestern Frontier During the Ming Dynasty
4106:
3907:—were direct administrative organs of the state:
2823:and conferring new princely titles on leaders of
13753:
11169:(History of Imperial China) (Harvard UP, 2010).
10709:
7076:
6690:(3). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 609–636.
6139:. Princeton Oxford: Princeton University Press.
6045:
3570:with extended influence over Shaanxi and Henan.
3536:
3407:'s reign, killing approximately 830,000 people.
2368:, but it was defeated shortly afterwards by the
11115:Ming History: An Introductory Guide to Research
10213:, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, pp. 252–287,
9570:
9092:
7858:
6791:
6716:
6266:
6254:
5912:
5481:gear for pearl divers, the annual processes of
4814:
4299:(1550–1616), with its first performance at the
3737:州) under a subprefect. The lowest unit was the
3668:Province, prefecture, sub-prefecture and county
11301:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
3956:Bureaus and offices for the imperial household
3201:(r. 1572–1620) in state ceremonial court dress
2902:
2508:
2380:, with the help of the defecting Ming general
13822:States and territories disestablished in 1644
12271:
12116:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
11511:
11453:Highlights from the British Museum exhibition
11387:The Great Wall of China: From History to Myth
10960:
10831:, New York: Paragon Book Reprint Corporation.
10712:"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires"
9877:The Mandate of Heaven and The Great Ming Code
9787:Studies on the Population of China: 1368–1953
9708:Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews
8900:
7324:
5396:
5346:
5220:
5066:
4927:
4876:
4870:
4684:devoted an entire section of his book to the
4646:. The Hongwu Emperor's generals Chang Yuqun,
4136:
4015:classics and successful examination answers.
3554:(1606–1647)—had created a firm rebel base in
3188:
3060:to expand China's borders. This included the
2850:(r. 1521–67) persecuted Buddhism in favor of
2675:
2072:
938:
713:
413:6,500,000 km (2,500,000 sq mi)
68:
53:
13728:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy
11143:The Ming History English Translation Project
10673:Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle
9691:, Berkeley: University of California Press,
9571:Fairbank, John King; Goldman, Merle (2006),
9356:Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary
8103:
8101:
6082:Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary
5677:may be attributed to the practice of female
5509:—and the use of gunpowder weapons such as a
5463:(1608–1674) in one of his famous poems, and
5036:Along the River During the Qingming Festival
4621:successful in persuading foreign audiences.
4322:, with information on everything from local
2702:were combined into a unified wall under the
11442:Notable Ming dynasty painters and galleries
11016:
10923:. In Faure, David; Ho, Ts'ui-p'ing (eds.).
10689:
10675:. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
7183:
6410:
6116:
6094:
6092:
6090:
6051:
4855:extermination of the ten degrees of kinship
4688:in the making of porcelain items like this.
4170:, which supervised the imperial genealogy.
3752:
3629:, and finally along the northern border of
3358:challenged them for control of this trade.
2410:
110:Ming China in 1415 during the reign of the
27:Imperial dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644
13827:States and territories established in 1368
12278:
12264:
11518:
11504:
11071:
10946:. Jersey City, NJ: KTAV Publishing House.
9547:
9452:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China
9362:
9217:
9132:
8573:
7318:
7279:
6386:
6227:
6069:
5641:in 1498, although it used stiff pig hair.
5351:) in 1629 according to Western standards.
5231:science and technology in the Song dynasty
5157:History of science and technology in China
4576:deity, from the Ming dynasty, 16th century
3617:ruler of China. After being forced out of
3158:staged a coup against the Tianshun Emperor
2079:
2065:
696:
119:
104:
10758:, Beijing: China Intercontinental Press,
10753:
10595:
10558:, New York: Routledge, pp. 473–482,
10084:
9686:
9646:
9630:ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age
9455:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
8182:
8098:
7342:
6621:
6585:
6561:
6477:
6441:
6413:, Geography I, III; Western Territory III
6398:
6186:
6162:
6057:
6039:
5150:
4263:into mature form in this period, such as
3821:assignments became institutionalized as "
3788:which was instituted by various dynasties
3005:located 50 km (31 mi) north of
2601:
2352:permitted a more accommodating attitude.
2281:laws intended to protect the coasts from
10637:. University of Washington Press. 2012.
10553:
10455:
10429:Journal of the American Oriental Society
10407:
10388:
10347:
10318:
10289:
10268:
10227:
10106:Peking: Temples and City Life, 1400–1900
10065:
9980:
9827:The Greatest Killer: Smallpox in History
9734:
9321:
9133:Andrew, Anita N.; Rapp, John A. (2000),
8906:
8554:
8144:
7882:
7378:
7330:
6989:
6779:
6767:
6755:
6633:
6525:
6489:
6314:
6302:
6290:
6278:
6122:
6087:
6033:
5911:For the lower population estimate, see (
5683:
5648:
5519:
5459:(1512–1594) featured them in his atlas,
5422:
5353:
5241:wrote the first Chinese treatise on the
5198:
5168:
5098:
5043:
4901:
4897:
4818:
4732:led to the first Chinese translation of
4722:Map of the Myriad Countries of the World
4661:
4563:
4476:province, most famous in the period for
4447:
4401:
4381:
4351:Painting of a peddler selling birds, by
4346:
4259:. Literati scholars edited or developed
4218:
4200:
4110:
4081:
4056:
4017:
3992:
3959:
3836:
3761:
3671:
3446:
3435:
3324:
3305:
3296:Economic breakdown and natural disasters
3236:
3192:
3106:as a tributary gift in the name of King
3093:
3033:to be its protectorate. The Chinese had
2996:
2931:
2912:
2827:. However, Turrell V. Wylie states that
2796:
2685:
2512:
13552:
11525:
11380:
11128:. New York: Columbia University Press.
11125:Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644
11076:. China: China Intercontinental Press.
10961:Yaniv, Zohara; Bachrach, Uriel (2005).
10839:. The Library of Congress. 4 April 2007
10754:Wang, Jiawei; Nyima, Gyaincain (1997),
10691:"Tsunami among world's worst disasters"
10426:
10169:
10160:
10151:
10142:
10122:
9929:
9822:
9808:. New York: Columbia University Press.
9806:The Ladder of Success in Imperial China
9789:, Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
9705:
8912:
8888:
8876:
8864:
8852:
8840:
8828:
8816:
8804:
8792:
8780:
8768:
8732:
8720:
8684:
8672:
8660:
8648:
8636:
8624:
8612:
8597:
8585:
8542:
8530:
8506:
8494:
8441:
8209:
7942:
7930:
6598:The Ming Biographical Dictionary (1976)
6404:
5928:The last Ming princes to hold out were
5614:—belonged to the late Ming period. His
5445:mounting masts and sails onto carriages
5048:A Ming dynasty red "seal paste box" in
4955:
4488:catered to European tastes by creating
4480:, but also producing other styles. The
4077:
3757:
3276:(1568–1627) dominated the court of the
2786:
2644:(350,000 acres) of land in what is now
14:
13754:
12067:Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty
10756:The Historical Status of China's Tibet
10525:
10256:. Princeton University Press: 55–182.
10208:
10185:(PhD thesis). University of Minnesota.
10103:
10052:
10021:
9920:
9893:
9845:
9763:
9608:
9399:
9232:from the original on 13 September 2014
9180:
9151:
9053:
9012:
8894:
8470:
8405:
8390:
8221:
8168:
8156:
8056:
7870:
7846:
7834:
7810:
7798:
7786:
7750:
7726:
7642:
7630:
7615:
7603:
7591:
7574:
7555:
7540:
7528:
7516:
7504:
7492:
7480:
7468:
7456:
7444:
7405:
7390:
7306:
7294:
7273:
7258:
7246:
7216:
7204:
7171:
7159:
7130:
7118:
7058:
7029:
6965:
6953:
6905:
6842:
6827:
6815:
6645:
6609:
6573:
6513:
6501:
6465:
6338:
6215:
5898:on the island of Taiwan, ruled by the
5801:Military conquests of the Ming dynasty
5465:Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest
5173:The puddling process of smelting iron
4386:Painting of flowers, a butterfly, and
4182:
4177:
4006:that was initially established by the
3421:
2895:(1582–1655) in 1642, establishing the
2744:a military campaign to attack Naghachu
1084:
876:
803:
12259:
11499:
11072:Zhang, Yuxin; Xiang, Hongjia (2002).
11034:
10899:
10851:
10826:
10572:
10248:
10189:
10087:Forbidden Nation: A History of Taiwan
9874:
9667:
9627:
9528:
9524:from the original on 10 October 2022.
9469:
9448:
9269:
9244:
9116:
9104:
9080:
9065:
9041:
9029:
9000:
8985:
8970:
8955:
8940:
8458:
8429:
8417:
8373:
8361:
8349:
8337:
8257:
8245:
8092:
8080:
8068:
8041:
8029:
8017:
8005:
7990:
7978:
7966:
7954:
7918:
7906:
7774:
7762:
7738:
7714:
7702:
7690:
7678:
7666:
7432:
7417:
7231:
7106:
7094:
7070:
7041:
7017:
6941:
6881:
6854:
6803:
6669:
6549:
6537:
6453:
6429:
6350:
6242:
6203:
6174:
6134:
6098:
6021:
5916:
5781:List of tributaries of Imperial China
5606:(1518–1593)—one of the most renowned
5358:A 24-point compass chart employed by
5341:, a discovery made simultaneously by
5136:Early Ming dynasty saw the strictest
2875:(1644–1912) in their support for the
13787:14th-century establishments in China
11294:
11122:Goodrich, Luther Carrington (1976).
11090:
10979:
10870:
10807:
10772:
10734:
10670:
10651:
10512:
10178:
9999:
9434:, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,
9292:
9137:, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield,
8756:
8744:
8708:
8696:
8518:
8482:
8233:
8107:
7822:
7366:
7189:
7082:
7001:
6977:
6929:
6917:
6728:
6374:
6362:
5712:Historians are now turning to local
5489:, metallurgic processes such as the
4974:The Bustling and Hustling of Nanjing
4894:but not experienced the real world.
4094:with his eunuchs, a game similar to
3988:
3833:Grand Secretariat and Six Ministries
3784:Three Departments and Six Ministries
3749:京) attached to Nanjing and Beijing.
3663:List of emperors of the Ming dynasty
3566:, while Li's center of power was in
3453:Drum Tower and Bell Tower of Beijing
3229:, during the Wanli Emperor's reign.
2976:, and at the center of this was the
2664:. After the scholar and philosopher
702:"Ming dynasty" in Chinese characters
13772:Former countries in Chinese history
11107:Reference works and primary sources
11037:Libraries & the Cultural Record
10927:(illustrated ed.). UBC Press.
10918:
10519:Pennsylvania State University Press
10474:
9589:
8326:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006)
8314:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006)
8299:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006)
8287:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006)
8263:
8169:Hagras, Hamada (20 December 2019).
8162:
7895:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006)
7655:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006)
7354:
6893:
6855:Swope, Kenneth M. (29 April 2013).
6744:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006)
6681:
6658:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006)
6326:
6111:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006)
5501:in converting sulphide to oxide in
5443:the peculiar Chinese innovation of
5305:(1231–1316) had laid the basis for
5257:acquired the telescope of the late
4456:mark and period (1426–35) imperial
3410:
3056:to spread Chinese culture. He also
2760:Nurgan Regional Military Commission
2612:Miao rebellions in the Ming dynasty
2292:—though restricted to islands near
2146:fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by
24:
11199:, University of California Press,
11158:
11101:
11017:Zhang Tingyu; et al. (1739).
10941:
10493:
10292:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
9879:. University of Washington Press.
9848:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
9803:
9784:
9737:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
9533:. University of California Press.
8269:
7142:
6009:
5979:
5961:. He was posthumously promoted to
5703:Studies on the Population of China
5439:(1527–1598) featured in his atlas
4396:became popular in the Song dynasty
4012:printing industry since Song times
3586:right outside the Forbidden City.
3494:previous Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty
3232:
3041:(202 BCE – 220 CE) and engaged in
2964:New capital and foreign engagement
2846:that was largely cut off when the
2565:In 1380 Hongwu had the Chancellor
69:
25:
13843:
11406:
10716:Journal of World-Systems Research
9650:The Dynasties of China: A History
8124:. Harvard East Asian Monographs.
5957:, and was also inducted into the
5542:before the latter's death in 1375
5513:ignited by use of a rip-cord and
5087:being repugnant to sexual norms.
4153:dynasties—these estates were not
2480:. Known for its ambitious use of
2150:(who established the short-lived
13807:1640s disestablishments in China
10635:The Great Ming Code / Da Ming lu
10089:. New York: St. Martin's Press.
9653:, New York: Carroll & Graf,
9449:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999),
9225:. Economic History Association.
8113:
6861:. University of Oklahoma Press.
6046:Turchin, Adams & Hall (2006)
5972:
5922:
5024:
5015:
5006:
4997:
4962:
4906:A Ming dynasty print drawing of
4427:Four Masters of the Ming dynasty
4145:) but—unlike the princes in the
4061:Processional figurines from the
3601:(1612–1678) opened the gates at
3584:on a tree in the imperial garden
3562:, with the establishment of the
3080:Tumu Crisis and the Ming Mongols
3072:, the founder of the Vietnamese
2927:
2169:The Ming dynasty's founder, the
2097:
1160:
666:
652:
638:
624:
610:
596:
571:
481:
480:
88:
11702:Japanese missions to Ming China
11018:
10827:White, William Charles (1966),
10654:The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty
10606:International Studies Quarterly
10355:, in Robinson, David M. (ed.),
9898:. University of Hawai'i Press.
9831:. University of Chicago Press.
9609:Farmer, Edward L., ed. (1995).
8735:, pp. 634, 649–50, 668–69.
6848:
6128:
5905:
5888:
5546:Focusing on agriculture in his
4767:, which exiled four Jesuits to
3531:Second Manchu invasion of Korea
2733:, a former Yuan official and a
2478:largest naval battle in history
2398:For a chronological guide, see
2175:
1124:
1110:
1083:
1069:
1055:
1034:
916:
902:
875:
861:
847:
826:
13812:1644 disestablishments in Asia
11576:Campaign against the Uriankhai
11348:79.3 (2015). pp. 597–634.
11245:(U of California Press, 1996)
10982:History of Education Quarterly
10671:——— (2001).
10652:Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (1996).
10456:Shepherd, John Robert (1993).
10408:——— (2020).
10393:. Cambridge University Press.
10389:——— (2019).
10348:——— (2008),
10170:——— (1987),
10161:——— (1984),
10152:——— (1971),
10143:——— (1965),
10130:, Cambridge University Press,
10059:University of Washington Press
9804:——— (1962).
9529:——— (2000).
9253:University of California Press
9125:
8929:The Library of Congress (2007)
5871:
5854:
5401:). Chinese records—namely the
4984:, depicting the urban life of
4640:sharply curtailed this support
4159:rebellion of the Prince of Yan
4107:Eunuchs, princes, and generals
3725:府) operating under a prefect (
3621:by the Qing, chased along the
3597:after the Ming border general
3311:Spring morning in a Han palace
3225:in southwestern China and the
2742:attack. In 1387 the Ming sent
2431:, and massive flooding of the
2019:Science and technology history
1013:
997:
983:
969:
939:
802:
788:
772:
758:
744:
714:
13:
1:
11636:Campaigns against the Mongols
10777:. Columbia University Press.
10460:. Stanford University Press.
10174:, Cambridge University Press.
10165:, Cambridge University Press.
10156:, Cambridge University Press.
10147:, Cambridge University Press.
9687:Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1997),
9548:Engelfriet, Peter M. (1998),
9307:10.1080/0147037X.2016.1179552
9093:Fairbank & Goldman (2006)
7859:Fairbank & Goldman (2006)
6792:Fairbank & Goldman (2006)
6717:Fairbank & Goldman (2006)
6267:Fairbank & Goldman (2006)
6255:Fairbank & Goldman (2006)
5989:
5644:
5368:self-operating tiger automata
4835:During the Ming dynasty, the
4809:
4696:declared the eighty-year-old
4552:Islam during the Ming dynasty
4508:Carved designs in lacquerware
3656:
3537:Rebellion, invasion, collapse
2754:of Manchuria, except for the
2616:Hui Muslim troops settled in
1389:
1348:
1324:
1301:
1277:
1218:
36:Ming Dynasty (disambiguation)
12174:Covered jar with carp design
11790:Transition from Ming to Qing
11478:Dynasties in Chinese history
11432:Resources in other libraries
11227:, Rowman & Littlefield,
11154:, Online Indiana University.
10963:Handbook of Medicinal Plants
10085:Manthorpe, Jonathan (2008).
10053:Lipman, Jonathan N. (1998),
9894:Kinney, Anne Behnke (1995).
9628:Frank, Andre Gunder (1998).
9479:The Journal of Asian Studies
9365:The Journal of Asian Studies
9218:Broadberry, Stephen (2014).
9154:The Journal of Asian Studies
8711:, pp. 171–72, 189, 196.
5994:
5915::128); for the higher, see (
5833:(for further information on
5826:Transition from Ming to Qing
4815:Wang Yangming's Confucianism
4742:in 1607. The discovery of a
4634:and strong official support
4470:imperial kilns at Jingdezhen
4125:full panoramic painting here
3983:
3417:Transition from Ming to Qing
3339:established trade with China
2589:, and other peoples such as
2400:Timeline of the Ming dynasty
7:
13777:1368 establishments in Asia
12285:
12169:Ming presentation porcelain
11768:Japanese invasions of Korea
11346:Journal of Military History
11295:Mote, Frederick W. (2003).
10532:The Search For Modern China
10494:So, Billy Kee Long (2012).
10000:Lane, Kris (30 July 2019).
9823:Hopkins, Donald R. (2002).
9470:Elman, Benjamin A. (1991).
8901:Yaniv & Bachrach (2005)
5913:Fairbank & Goldman 2006
5764:Taxation in premodern China
5759:Economy of the Ming dynasty
5751:
5239:Johann Adam Schall von Bell
5165:List of Chinese discoveries
4800:their long history in China
4702:Church of the East in China
4545:
3481:Japanese invasions of Korea
3473:unified other Jurchen clans
3378:towards China, in favor of
3173:five major offensives north
3062:brief occupation of Vietnam
2903:Reign of the Yongle Emperor
2887:region, culminating in the
2714:After the overthrow of the
2551:, which was similar to the
2509:Reign of the Hongwu Emperor
2405:
2394:History of the Ming dynasty
2290:expansion of European trade
307:• 1572–1620 (longest)
10:
13848:
12031:Compilations and Documents
11662:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns
10829:The Chinese Jews, Volume 1
10573:Swope, Kenneth M. (2011).
10535:(2nd ed.), New York:
10283:10.1179/014703795788763645
10242:10.1179/014703786788764194
10211:Warfare in Chinese History
10179:Ness, John Philip (1998).
10070:. Paris: OECD Publishing.
10022:Leslie, Donald D. (1998).
9930:Kuttner, Fritz A. (1975),
9896:Chinese Views of Childhood
9647:Gascoigne, Bamber (2003),
9406:. Richmond: Curzon Press.
9270:Chang, Michael G. (2007),
7145:, p. 4, 17–18, 32–34.
5796:Ming dynasty in Inner Asia
5786:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns
5744:; a gazetteer in northern
5203:Map of the known world by
5161:List of Chinese inventions
5154:
4549:
4462:Metropolitan Museum of Art
4186:
3660:
3425:
3414:
3401:Shaanxi earthquake of 1556
3299:
3189:Reign of the Wanli Emperor
3183:
3083:
2923:Ming dynasty in Inner Asia
2920:
2906:
2790:
2679:
2676:Campaign in the North-East
2605:
2397:
2391:
2387:
2249:expanded the empire's rule
29:
13721:
13673:
13190:
12594:
12293:
12235:
12202:
12164:Chinese lacquerware table
12124:
12083:
12030:
11987:
11944:
11926:Embroidered Uniform Guard
11854:
11740:
11687:Prince of Anhua rebellion
11649:
11543:
11534:
11484:
11475:
11467:
11427:Resources in your library
11223:Dardess, John W. (2012),
11214:Dardess, John W. (1968),
11195:Dardess, John W. (1983),
11026:(in Chinese) – via
10808:Wang, Richard G. (2012).
10321:Journal of Social History
10031:www.islamicpopulation.com
6696:10.1017/s0041977x16001038
5963:Marquis of Extended Grace
5894:The Ming loyalist regime
5865:
5811:Ming emperors family tree
5791:Manchuria under Ming rule
5397:
5347:
5229:After the flourishing of
5221:
5067:
4928:
4877:
4871:
4785:Chinese Rites controversy
4655:The Hongwu Emperor wrote
4560:Chinese Rites Controversy
4502:The Ceramic Trade in Asia
4482:Dehua porcelain factories
4417:Famous painters included
4137:
3976:dictator over the state.
3589:Seizing opportunity, the
3507:renamed his dynasty the "
3428:Manchuria under Ming rule
3397:Great Plague of 1633–1644
3009:; the site was chosen by
2682:Manchuria under Ming rule
2587:Embroidered Uniform Guard
2288:By the 16th century, the
2162:—collectively called the
2158:ruled by remnants of the
2128:imperial dynasty of China
1893:
1815:
1695:
1628:
1558:
1432:
1135:
1117:
1100:
1093:
1076:
1062:
1048:
1041:
1027:
1020:
1006:
990:
976:
962:
955:
950:
946:
932:
927:
909:
892:
885:
868:
854:
840:
833:
819:
812:
795:
781:
765:
751:
737:
730:
725:
721:
707:
695:
691:
686:
550:
489:
474:
460:
456:
446:
436:
426:
422:
417:
409:
404:
400:
387:
374:
360:
347:
343:
333:
329:
317:
305:
293:
283:• 1368–1398 (first)
281:
277:
267:
257:
213:
157:
130:
118:
103:
85:
80:
54:
45:
12227:Great Ming Treasure Note
12106:Ming Ancestors Mausoleum
11889:Administrative divisions
11692:Prince of Ning rebellion
11366:10.1163/156852008X354643
11298:Imperial China, 900–1800
11095:(in Chinese) (6): 34–40.
10066:Maddison, Angus (2006).
9764:Herman, John E. (2007).
9400:Dillon, Michael (1999).
9276:Harvard University Press
9183:Journal of World History
8699:, pp. 7–30, 84–103.
7777:, p. 380, 394, 392.
6908:, p. 164, 165, 281.
6387:Zhang & Xiang (2002)
6228:Andrew & Rapp (2000)
6012:, pp. 8–9, 22, 259.
5847:
5317:By the 16th century the
4802:to Europe. However, the
4798:and introduced them and
4765:Nanjing Incident of 1616
4510:and designs glazed onto
4490:Chinese export porcelain
4478:blue and white porcelain
4409:(1427–1509) founded the
3948:Ministry of Public Works
3853:. The decoration of two
3845:, an official under the
3753:Institutions and bureaus
3541:A peasant soldier named
3459:and rebuilt in the Ming.
3035:sent diplomatic missions
2779:) and 24 battalions (所,
2411:Revolt and rebel rivalry
2260:Emperor Yingzong of Ming
2193:and unrelated magnates,
319:• 1627–1644 (last)
12046:The Hundred-word Eulogy
11712:Great Rites Controversy
11566:Ming conquest of Yunnan
10904:, New York: Routledge,
10619:10.1111/0020-8833.00053
10513:Song, Yingxing (1966),
9875:Jiang, Yonglin (2011).
9336:10.1163/156853262X00057
9245:Brook, Timothy (1998),
6562:Wang & Nyima (1997)
6492:, pp. 474–75, 478.
6478:Wang & Nyima (1997)
6442:Wang & Nyima (1997)
6399:Wang & Nyima (1997)
6135:Brook, Timothy (2023).
5771:1642 Yellow River flood
5441:Theatrum Orbis Terrarum
5420:clogging up too often.
5362:during his explorations
5211:at the upper right and
4632:during the Tang dynasty
4301:Pavilion of Prince Teng
4197:Musicians in Ming China
3704:路). However, after the
3503:In 1636, Nurhaci's son
3108:Saif Al-Din Hamzah Shah
2869:Mongol-Tibetan alliance
2801:A 17th-century Tibetan
2608:Ming conquest of Yunnan
2466:establish a new dynasty
2227:and the primacy of the
12084:Palaces and Mausoleums
12074:Ming Veritable Records
11722:Luso-Chinese agreement
11444:at China Online Museum
11261:, New Haven: Yale UP,
11218:, Columbia University.
11112:Farmer, Edward L. ed.
10656:. Albany: SUNY Press.
10104:Naquin, Susan (2000).
9921:Kolmaš, Josef (1967),
9590:Fan, C. Simon (2016).
8783:, pp. 205, 339ff.
8184:10.36816/shedet.006.08
6782:, pp. 79, 101–08.
5816:Ming official headwear
5697:
5661:
5543:
5432:
5363:
5251:Far Seeing Optic Glass
5226:
5196:
5151:Science and technology
5108:
5052:
4918:
4832:
4689:
4657:a 100 character praise
4577:
4465:
4414:
4399:
4356:
4314:author, published his
4228:
4216:
4128:
4117:The Emperor's Approach
4099:
4066:
4027:
3998:
3968:
3862:
3779:
3681:
3460:
3444:
3403:, occurred during the
3330:
3322:
3249:
3202:
3111:
3043:private overseas trade
3014:
2941:
2918:
2825:Tibetan Buddhist sects
2806:
2711:
2672:of the local peoples.
2602:South-Western frontier
2522:
2340:had suffered repeated
2312:and highly productive
2241:voyages of exploration
2166:—survived until 1662.
366:designated as capital
349:• Established in
125:Ming China around 1580
13802:17th century in China
13797:16th century in China
13792:15th century in China
13782:14th century in China
13698:Medieval great powers
12179:Yongning Temple Stele
11916:Imperial Commissioner
11641:Reign of Ren and Xuan
11601:Ming treasure voyages
11591:Dao Ganmeng rebellion
10919:Xie, Xiaohui (2013).
10333:10.1353/jsh.2000.0035
9195:10.1353/jwh.2006.0013
7753:, pp. 15–17, 26.
7420:, p. 15, footnote 42.
5936:'s Ming loyalists in
5687:
5665:Sinologist historians
5652:
5574:exploding cannonballs
5523:
5485:and weaving with the
5426:
5357:
5202:
5172:
5155:Further information:
5119:; even further south
5102:
5047:
5034:Suzhou Imitation" of
4905:
4898:Conservative reaction
4822:
4726:traditional geography
4665:
4582:Chinese folk religion
4567:
4556:Jesuit China missions
4451:
4405:
4385:
4350:
4227:from the Ming dynasty
4222:
4204:
4189:Ming dynasty painting
4187:Further information:
4114:
4085:
4060:
4021:
3996:
3963:
3913:Ministry of Personnel
3840:
3765:
3675:
3450:
3439:
3328:
3309:
3300:Further information:
3240:
3196:
3097:
3000:
2935:
2921:Further information:
2916:
2800:
2723:Northern Yuan dynasty
2698:walls of the ancient
2689:
2636:troops under General
2516:
2474:Battle of Lake Poyang
2239:, led seven enormous
2229:imperial examinations
1884:(mainland, 1912–1949)
240:Chinese folk religion
158:Common languages
32:Ming (disambiguation)
13708:European colonialism
13693:Ancient great powers
11778:Sino-Dutch conflicts
11677:Rebellion of Cao Qin
11606:Ming–Turpan conflict
11556:Red Turban Rebellion
11458:20 June 2020 at the
11074:Testimony of History
10965:. Psychology Press.
10194:, Richmond: Curzon,
10192:China's Tibet Policy
10190:Norbu, Dawa (2001),
9976:on 26 February 2020.
9785:Ho, Ping-ti (1959),
9573:China: A New History
9352:"Definition of Ming"
8759:, pp. 237, 190.
8615:, pp. 133, 508.
8521:, p. 31, footnote 1.
8420:, pp. 229, 232.
7097:, pp. 206, 208.
6528:, pp. 139, 161.
5951:Ming imperial family
5879:Ming imperial family
5417:stationary dial face
5374:in the tradition of
5207:: India at the top,
4956:Urban and rural life
4638:. Although the Ming
4336:switched from using
4261:major Chinese novels
4223:Decorated back of a
4078:Lesser functionaries
3778:from the Inner Court
3758:Institutional trends
3678:Ming–Tibet relations
3492:in reference to the
3488:and established the
3090:Rebellion of Cao Qin
3037:over land since the
2954:three-year civil war
2793:Ming–Tibet relations
2787:Relations with Tibet
2762:on the banks of the
2160:Ming imperial family
13832:Confucian dynasties
13703:Modern great powers
12125:Society and Culture
12060:Yongle Encyclopedia
11899:Imperial Clan Court
11842:Kingdom of Tungning
11795:Jurchen unification
11727:Jiajing wokou raids
11616:Battle of Palembang
11581:Battle of Buir Lake
10527:Spence, Jonathan D.
10475:Shi, Zhiyu (2002).
10136:1959scc3.book.....N
10040:on 17 December 2010
9003:, pp. 28, 267.
8867:, pp. 498–502.
8843:, pp. 203–205.
8687:, pp. 274–276.
8663:, pp. 510–511.
8600:, pp. 166–167.
8545:, pp. 255–257.
8509:, pp. 444–447.
8497:, pp. 444–445.
8432:, pp. 232–223.
8316:, pp. 281–282.
8212:, pp. 171–172.
8147:, pp. 203–207.
8095:, pp. 225–226.
8071:, pp. 224–225.
8020:, pp. 229–231.
7981:, pp. 318–319.
7969:, pp. 215–217.
7909:, pp. 202–203.
7897:, pp. 104–105.
7885:, pp. 116–117.
7861:, pp. 109–112.
7681:, pp. 198–202.
7669:, pp. 145–146.
7381:, pp. 397–398.
7369:, pp. 193–194.
7109:, pp. 349–353.
7044:, pp. 343–349.
6944:, pp. 194–195.
6731:, pp. 317–327.
6540:, pp. 417–418.
6305:, pp. 144–146.
6281:, pp. 365–399.
6269:, pp. 129–130.
6245:, pp. 192–193.
6177:, pp. 190–191.
5896:Kingdom of Tungning
5883:Kingdom of Tungning
5776:Kingdom of Tungning
5453:Gonzales de Mendoza
5225:) or compass route.
5093:special paper money
5063:Shì nóng gōng shāng
4923:scholar-bureaucrats
4773:Chinese astronomers
4650:, Ding Dexing, and
4629:Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas
4318:in 404,000 written
4272:Journey to the West
4183:Literature and arts
4178:Society and culture
4168:Imperial Clan Court
3941:Ministry of Justice
3920:Ministry of Revenue
3857:on his chest is a "
3686:Edwin O. Reischauer
3479:armies against the
3432:Jurchen unification
3422:Rise of the Manchus
3344:initial hostilities
3102:envoy presenting a
2692:Great Wall of China
2527:wall around Nanjing
2233:scholar-bureaucrats
2223:, and restored the
13817:Medieval East Asia
13767:Dynasties of China
11974:Military conquests
11820:Peasant rebellions
11697:Capture of Malacca
11672:Defense of Beijing
11586:Lin Kuan rebellion
11049:10.1353/lac.0.0016
10697:. 30 December 2004
10599:(September 1997).
8191:on 18 October 2020
7921:, pp. 55–182.
7825:, p. 602–606.
7606:, pp. 11, 25.
7219:, pp. 24, 28.
7133:, p. 467–489.
6932:, p. 119-120.
6920:, p. 139–140.
6896:, p. 118–120.
6884:, p. 122–125.
6365:, p. 101–144.
6101:, pp. 148–175
5698:
5662:
5654:Appreciating Plums
5639:bristle toothbrush
5612:in Chinese history
5586:multistage rockets
5544:
5433:
5413:astronomical clock
5364:
5331:Gregorian calendar
5227:
5197:
5195:encyclopedia, 1637
5109:
5061:four occupations (
5053:
4919:
4910:on his way to the
4833:
4710:St. Paul's College
4690:
4578:
4466:
4415:
4400:
4357:
4355:(計盛), 15th century
4292:The Peony Pavilion
4257:Vernacular Chinese
4229:
4217:
4129:
4100:
4067:
4040:eight-legged essay
4028:
4004:examination system
3999:
3969:
3863:
3823:grand coordinators
3780:
3682:
3461:
3445:
3360:Philip IV of Spain
3331:
3323:
3302:The General Crisis
3250:
3223:Chiefdom of Bozhou
3203:
3112:
3054:woodblock printing
3027:tributary missions
3015:
2942:
2919:
2807:
2712:
2523:
2302:Columbian exchange
2219:, constructed the
2122:), officially the
1899:
1709:Five Dynasties and
1701:
1636:Southern dynasties
1564:
1463:Chu–Han Contention
1455:(206 BCE – 220 CE)
389:• End of the
13747:
13746:
13669:
13668:
13634:Polish–Lithuanian
12809:Gurjara-Pratihara
12253:
12252:
11962:Gunpowder weapons
11921:Grand coordinator
11884:Grand Secretariat
11850:
11849:
11744:(1572–1683)
11653:(1435–1572)
11621:Battle of Kherlen
11571:Ming–Mong Mao War
11561:Wu Mian rebellion
11547:(1368–1435)
11494:
11493:
11485:Succeeded by
11413:Library resources
11308:978-0-674-01212-7
11287:978-0-521-24332-2
11268:978-0-300-02518-7
11241:Dardess, John W.
11234:978-1-4422-0491-1
11206:978-0-520-04733-4
11187:978-0-521-24332-2
11135:978-0-231-03833-1
11083:978-7-80113-885-9
10972:978-1-56022-995-7
10953:978-0-88125-791-5
10934:978-0-7748-2371-5
10911:978-0-415-30843-4
10863:978-0-521-24333-9
10819:978-0-19-976768-7
10801:10.7312/wang15140
10792:978-0-231-15140-5
10783:10.7312/wang15140
10765:978-7-80113-304-5
10746:978-0-521-24333-9
10682:978-0-295-80022-6
10663:978-0-7914-2687-6
10644:978-0-295-80400-2
10588:978-1-136-81964-3
10565:978-0-415-30843-4
10546:978-0-393-97351-8
10505:978-0-415-50896-4
10486:978-0-415-28372-4
10467:978-0-8047-2066-3
10419:978-1-108-48922-5
10400:978-1-10-868279-4
10366:978-0-674-02823-4
10220:978-90-04-11774-7
10201:978-0-7007-0474-3
10115:978-0-520-21991-5
10096:978-0-230-61424-6
10077:978-92-64-02262-1
9992:978-0-521-24332-2
9905:978-0-8248-1681-0
9886:978-0-295-80166-7
9838:978-0-226-35168-1
9815:978-0-231-89496-8
9796:978-0-674-85245-7
9777:978-0-674-02591-2
9698:978-0-520-21951-9
9679:978-0-521-24332-2
9660:978-0-7867-1219-9
9639:978-0-520-21129-2
9601:978-1-317-24183-6
9582:978-0-674-01828-0
9563:978-90-04-10944-5
9554:Koninklijke Brill
9540:978-0-520-92147-4
9462:978-0-521-66991-7
9441:978-0-618-13384-0
9413:978-0-7007-1026-3
9285:978-0-674-02454-0
9262:978-0-520-22154-3
9144:978-0-8476-9580-5
9068:, pp. 94–96.
9044:, pp. 27–28.
9015:, p. 200–01.
8973:, pp. 97–99.
8819:, pp. 24–25.
8795:, pp. 65–66.
8747:, pp. 36–36.
8574:Engelfriet (1998)
8408:, pp. 12–13.
8260:, pp. 31–38.
8236:, pp. 30–32.
8131:978-0-674-02823-4
7873:, pp. 19–20.
7813:, pp. 24–25.
7801:, pp. 18–19.
7729:, pp. 11–14.
7618:, pp. 25–26.
7531:, pp. 33–35.
7495:, pp. 31–32.
7471:, pp. 29–30.
7321:, p. 824–25.
7319:Dennerline (1985)
7297:, pp. 32–33.
7261:, pp. 21–22.
7174:, pp. 22–24.
7121:, pp. 20–21.
7032:, pp. 19–20.
6968:, pp. 17–18.
6770:, pp. 84–85.
6612:, pp. 34–35.
6576:, pp. 30–31.
6516:, pp. 28–29.
6480:, pp. 39–40.
6401:, pp. 39–41.
6218:, p. xxxiii.
6146:978-0-691-25040-3
6125:, p. 115–148
6070:Broadberry (2014)
5943:Yongzheng Emperor
5635:ancient Egyptians
5550:, the agronomist
5548:Nongzheng Quanshu
5515:steel flint wheel
5457:Gerardus Mercator
5372:mechanical clocks
5339:equal temperament
5261:(1576–1630). The
5255:Chongzhen Emperor
4839:doctrines of the
4777:Sabatino de Ursis
4686:ceramics industry
4425:, as well as the
4312:travel literature
4295:, was written by
4253:Classical Chinese
3989:Scholar-officials
3967:, 14–17th century
3927:Ministry of Rites
3868:Grand Secretaries
3804:Grand Secretariat
3772:Republic of China
3729:知府), followed by
3651:Republic of China
3490:Later Jin dynasty
3469:Jianzhou Jurchens
3455:was built in the
3286:Chongzhen Emperor
3128:Zhengtong Emperor
3066:guerrilla warfare
3058:used the military
3031:Kingdom of Cochin
2889:conquest of Tibet
2739:Liaoyang province
2089:
2088:
2046:Transport history
1972:Education history
1944:
1943:
1939:
1938:
1925:Republic of China
1907:People's Republic
1880:Republic of China
1859:
1858:
1808:
1807:
1803:
1802:
1688:
1687:
1621:
1620:
1616:
1615:
1552:
1551:
1385:Spring and Autumn
1248:Liao civilization
1139:
1138:
1131:
1130:
1050:Yale Romanization
957:Standard Mandarin
923:
922:
842:Yale Romanization
732:Standard Mandarin
682:
681:
678:
677:
674:
673:
584:
583:
476:• Per capita
324:Chongzhen Emperor
295:• 1402–1424
262:Absolute monarchy
250:Roman Catholicism
172:Chinese languages
16:(Redirected from
13839:
13550:
13549:
13215:Austro-Hungarian
12915:Chagatai Khanate
12280:
12273:
12266:
12257:
12256:
12053:Huang-Ming Zuxun
11825:Jiashen Incident
11815:She-An Rebellion
11800:Seven Grievances
11773:Donglin movement
11758:Bozhou rebellion
11745:
11654:
11631:Lam Sơn uprising
11611:Ming–Đại Ngu War
11596:Jingnan campaign
11548:
11541:
11540:
11520:
11513:
11506:
11497:
11496:
11468:Preceded by
11465:
11464:
11401:
11377:
11335:pp. 807–832
11327:pp. 723–743
11325:
11312:
11291:
11272:
11238:
11219:
11210:
11191:
11165:Brook, Timothy.
11139:
11096:
11087:
11068:
11031:
11025:
11013:
10976:
10957:
10942:Xu, Xin (2003).
10938:
10915:
10896:
10867:
10848:
10846:
10844:
10832:
10823:
10804:
10769:
10750:
10731:
10729:
10727:
10706:
10704:
10702:
10686:
10667:
10648:
10630:
10592:
10569:
10550:
10522:
10509:
10490:
10471:
10452:
10423:
10404:
10385:
10383:
10381:
10375:
10369:, archived from
10354:
10344:
10315:
10286:
10265:
10250:Plaks, Andrew. H
10245:
10224:
10205:
10186:
10175:
10166:
10157:
10148:
10139:
10119:
10100:
10081:
10062:
10049:
10047:
10045:
10039:
10028:
10018:
10016:
10014:
9996:
9977:
9975:
9969:, archived from
9936:
9926:
9917:
9890:
9871:
9842:
9830:
9819:
9800:
9781:
9760:
9731:
9702:
9683:
9664:
9643:
9624:
9605:
9586:
9567:
9544:
9525:
9523:
9476:
9466:
9445:
9424:
9422:
9420:
9396:
9359:
9347:
9318:
9289:
9266:
9241:
9239:
9237:
9231:
9224:
9214:
9177:
9148:
9120:
9114:
9108:
9102:
9096:
9090:
9084:
9078:
9069:
9063:
9057:
9051:
9045:
9039:
9033:
9027:
9016:
9010:
9004:
8998:
8989:
8983:
8974:
8968:
8959:
8953:
8944:
8938:
8932:
8926:
8920:
8910:
8904:
8898:
8892:
8886:
8880:
8874:
8868:
8862:
8856:
8850:
8844:
8838:
8832:
8826:
8820:
8814:
8808:
8802:
8796:
8790:
8784:
8778:
8772:
8766:
8760:
8754:
8748:
8742:
8736:
8730:
8724:
8718:
8712:
8706:
8700:
8694:
8688:
8682:
8676:
8670:
8664:
8658:
8652:
8646:
8640:
8634:
8628:
8622:
8616:
8610:
8601:
8595:
8589:
8583:
8577:
8571:
8558:
8552:
8546:
8540:
8534:
8528:
8522:
8516:
8510:
8504:
8498:
8492:
8486:
8485:, p. 34–40.
8480:
8474:
8468:
8462:
8456:
8445:
8439:
8433:
8427:
8421:
8415:
8409:
8403:
8394:
8388:
8377:
8371:
8365:
8359:
8353:
8347:
8341:
8335:
8329:
8323:
8317:
8311:
8302:
8296:
8290:
8284:
8273:
8267:
8261:
8255:
8249:
8243:
8237:
8231:
8225:
8219:
8213:
8207:
8201:
8200:
8198:
8196:
8187:. Archived from
8186:
8166:
8160:
8159:, p. 38-39.
8154:
8148:
8142:
8136:
8135:
8117:
8111:
8105:
8096:
8090:
8084:
8078:
8072:
8066:
8060:
8054:
8045:
8039:
8033:
8027:
8021:
8015:
8009:
8003:
7994:
7988:
7982:
7976:
7970:
7964:
7958:
7952:
7946:
7940:
7934:
7928:
7922:
7916:
7910:
7904:
7898:
7892:
7886:
7880:
7874:
7868:
7862:
7856:
7850:
7844:
7838:
7832:
7826:
7820:
7814:
7808:
7802:
7796:
7790:
7784:
7778:
7772:
7766:
7760:
7754:
7748:
7742:
7736:
7730:
7724:
7718:
7712:
7706:
7700:
7694:
7688:
7682:
7676:
7670:
7664:
7658:
7652:
7646:
7640:
7634:
7628:
7619:
7613:
7607:
7601:
7595:
7589:
7578:
7572:
7559:
7553:
7544:
7538:
7532:
7526:
7520:
7514:
7508:
7502:
7496:
7490:
7484:
7478:
7472:
7466:
7460:
7454:
7448:
7442:
7436:
7430:
7421:
7415:
7409:
7403:
7394:
7388:
7382:
7376:
7370:
7364:
7358:
7352:
7346:
7343:Manthorpe (2008)
7340:
7334:
7333:, p. 469–70
7328:
7322:
7316:
7310:
7304:
7298:
7292:
7286:
7283:
7277:
7271:
7262:
7256:
7250:
7244:
7235:
7229:
7220:
7214:
7208:
7207:, p. 27-28.
7202:
7196:
7193:
7187:
7181:
7175:
7169:
7163:
7157:
7146:
7140:
7134:
7128:
7122:
7116:
7110:
7104:
7098:
7092:
7086:
7080:
7074:
7068:
7062:
7056:
7045:
7039:
7033:
7027:
7021:
7015:
7009:
6999:
6993:
6987:
6981:
6980:, p. 27–47.
6975:
6969:
6963:
6957:
6951:
6945:
6939:
6933:
6927:
6921:
6915:
6909:
6903:
6897:
6891:
6885:
6879:
6873:
6872:
6852:
6846:
6840:
6831:
6825:
6819:
6813:
6807:
6801:
6795:
6789:
6783:
6777:
6771:
6765:
6759:
6753:
6747:
6741:
6732:
6726:
6720:
6714:
6708:
6707:
6679:
6673:
6667:
6661:
6655:
6649:
6643:
6637:
6631:
6625:
6622:Goldstein (1997)
6619:
6613:
6607:
6601:
6595:
6589:
6586:Goldstein (1997)
6583:
6577:
6571:
6565:
6559:
6553:
6547:
6541:
6535:
6529:
6523:
6517:
6511:
6505:
6499:
6493:
6487:
6481:
6475:
6469:
6463:
6457:
6451:
6445:
6444:, pp. 1–40.
6439:
6433:
6427:
6414:
6408:
6402:
6396:
6390:
6384:
6378:
6372:
6366:
6360:
6354:
6348:
6342:
6336:
6330:
6324:
6318:
6312:
6306:
6300:
6294:
6288:
6282:
6276:
6270:
6264:
6258:
6252:
6246:
6240:
6231:
6225:
6219:
6213:
6207:
6201:
6190:
6187:Gascoigne (2003)
6184:
6178:
6172:
6166:
6163:Gascoigne (2003)
6160:
6151:
6150:
6132:
6126:
6120:
6114:
6108:
6102:
6096:
6085:
6079:
6073:
6067:
6061:
6058:Taagepera (1997)
6055:
6049:
6043:
6037:
6031:
6025:
6019:
6013:
6007:
5983:
5976:
5970:
5967:Qianlong Emperor
5926:
5920:
5909:
5903:
5892:
5886:
5877:Remnants of the
5875:
5869:
5867:
5858:
5738:a great epidemic
5718:Chenghua Emperor
5437:Abraham Ortelius
5400:
5399:
5384:Nicolas Trigault
5350:
5349:
5319:Chinese calendar
5301:(1031–1095) and
5224:
5223:
5070:
5069:
5028:
5019:
5010:
5001:
4966:
4931:
4930:
4880:
4879:
4874:
4873:
4680:, 17th century;
4140:
4139:
3706:Jurchen invasion
3690:John K. Fairbank
3498:Seven Grievances
3467:, leader of the
3411:Fall of the Ming
3261:, Wang Zhi, and
3219:Bozhou rebellion
2993:
2992:
2988:
2985:
2936:Portrait of the
2517:Portrait of the
2448:secret society.
2283:Japanese pirates
2262:during the 1449
2209:Jingnan campaign
2200:Huang-Ming Zuxun
2185:'s dockyards in
2179:
2177:
2119:
2114:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2081:
2074:
2067:
2009:Military history
1967:Economic history
1955:Related articles
1932:
1914:
1896:
1895:
1891:
1890:
1885:
1852:
1839:
1826:
1813:
1812:
1796:
1783:
1770:
1751:
1741:
1729:
1716:
1698:
1697:
1693:
1692:
1677:
1667:
1654:
1641:
1626:
1625:
1609:
1604:Sixteen Kingdoms
1587:
1577:
1561:
1560:
1556:
1555:
1545:
1511:
1498:
1488:
1478:
1477:(202 BCE – 9 CE)
1468:
1456:
1443:
1430:
1429:
1408:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1391:
1381:
1371:
1359:
1357:
1353:
1350:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1326:
1312:
1310:
1306:
1303:
1288:
1286:
1282:
1279:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1220:
1164:
1154:History of China
1141:
1140:
1127:
1126:
1113:
1112:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1072:
1071:
1058:
1057:
1037:
1036:
1016:
1015:
1002:
1001:
1000:
986:
985:
972:
971:
948:
947:
942:
941:
919:
918:
905:
904:
881:
880:
879:
864:
863:
850:
849:
829:
828:
808:
807:
806:
791:
790:
777:
776:
775:
761:
760:
747:
746:
723:
722:
717:
716:
700:
684:
683:
670:
669:
662:Portuguese Macau
656:
655:
642:
641:
628:
627:
614:
613:
600:
599:
588:
587:
575:
574:
568:
567:
552:
551:
539:
526:
501:
484:
483:
467:
174:
150:
142:
123:
108:
92:
72:
65:
57:
56:
43:
42:
21:
13847:
13846:
13842:
13841:
13840:
13838:
13837:
13836:
13752:
13751:
13748:
13743:
13732:American Empire
13717:
13713:African empires
13665:
13548:
13240:Central African
13186:
13004:Romano-Germanic
12590:
12324:Middle Assyrian
12297:
12289:
12284:
12254:
12249:
12244:History of Ming
12231:
12198:
12120:
12096:Chaotian Palace
12079:
12039:History of Yuan
12026:
11983:
11940:
11846:
11746:
11743:
11736:
11732:Single whip law
11707:Ningbo incident
11682:Miao rebellions
11655:
11652:
11645:
11549:
11546:
11530:
11524:
11490:
11481:
11473:
11460:Wayback Machine
11438:
11437:
11436:
11421:
11420:
11416:
11409:
11404:
11398:
11382:Waldron, Arthur
11351:
11315:
11309:
11288:
11275:
11269:
11251:
11235:
11222:
11213:
11207:
11194:
11188:
11175:
11161:
11159:General studies
11136:
11109:
11104:
11102:Further reading
11099:
11084:
11021:History of Ming
10973:
10954:
10935:
10912:
10864:
10842:
10840:
10820:
10793:
10766:
10747:
10725:
10723:
10700:
10698:
10683:
10664:
10645:
10597:Taagepera, Rein
10589:
10566:
10547:
10506:
10487:
10468:
10420:
10401:
10379:
10377:
10376:on 11 June 2016
10373:
10367:
10352:
10304:10.2307/2652684
10221:
10202:
10124:Needham, Joseph
10116:
10097:
10078:
10043:
10041:
10037:
10026:
10012:
10010:
9993:
9973:
9939:Ethnomusicology
9934:
9906:
9887:
9860:10.2307/2718619
9839:
9816:
9797:
9778:
9749:10.2307/2718941
9699:
9680:
9661:
9640:
9621:
9602:
9583:
9564:
9541:
9521:
9491:10.2307/2057472
9474:
9463:
9442:
9418:
9416:
9414:
9377:10.2307/2056469
9286:
9263:
9235:
9233:
9229:
9222:
9166:10.2307/2700190
9145:
9128:
9123:
9115:
9111:
9103:
9099:
9091:
9087:
9079:
9072:
9064:
9060:
9052:
9048:
9040:
9036:
9028:
9019:
9011:
9007:
8999:
8992:
8984:
8977:
8969:
8962:
8954:
8947:
8939:
8935:
8927:
8923:
8911:
8907:
8899:
8895:
8887:
8883:
8875:
8871:
8863:
8859:
8851:
8847:
8839:
8835:
8827:
8823:
8815:
8811:
8803:
8799:
8791:
8787:
8779:
8775:
8767:
8763:
8755:
8751:
8743:
8739:
8731:
8727:
8719:
8715:
8707:
8703:
8695:
8691:
8683:
8679:
8671:
8667:
8659:
8655:
8647:
8643:
8635:
8631:
8623:
8619:
8611:
8604:
8596:
8592:
8584:
8580:
8572:
8561:
8555:Peterson (1986)
8553:
8549:
8541:
8537:
8529:
8525:
8517:
8513:
8505:
8501:
8493:
8489:
8481:
8477:
8469:
8465:
8457:
8448:
8440:
8436:
8428:
8424:
8416:
8412:
8404:
8397:
8389:
8380:
8372:
8368:
8360:
8356:
8348:
8344:
8336:
8332:
8324:
8320:
8312:
8305:
8297:
8293:
8285:
8276:
8268:
8264:
8256:
8252:
8244:
8240:
8232:
8228:
8220:
8216:
8208:
8204:
8194:
8192:
8167:
8163:
8155:
8151:
8145:Robinson (2020)
8143:
8139:
8132:
8118:
8114:
8106:
8099:
8091:
8087:
8079:
8075:
8067:
8063:
8055:
8048:
8040:
8036:
8028:
8024:
8016:
8012:
8004:
7997:
7989:
7985:
7977:
7973:
7965:
7961:
7953:
7949:
7941:
7937:
7929:
7925:
7917:
7913:
7905:
7901:
7893:
7889:
7883:Robinson (1999)
7881:
7877:
7869:
7865:
7857:
7853:
7845:
7841:
7833:
7829:
7821:
7817:
7809:
7805:
7797:
7793:
7785:
7781:
7773:
7769:
7765:, p. 7–28.
7761:
7757:
7749:
7745:
7737:
7733:
7725:
7721:
7713:
7709:
7701:
7697:
7689:
7685:
7677:
7673:
7665:
7661:
7653:
7649:
7641:
7637:
7629:
7622:
7614:
7610:
7602:
7598:
7590:
7581:
7573:
7562:
7554:
7547:
7539:
7535:
7527:
7523:
7515:
7511:
7503:
7499:
7491:
7487:
7479:
7475:
7467:
7463:
7455:
7451:
7443:
7439:
7431:
7424:
7416:
7412:
7404:
7397:
7389:
7385:
7379:Hartwell (1982)
7377:
7373:
7365:
7361:
7353:
7349:
7341:
7337:
7331:Shepherd (1993)
7329:
7325:
7317:
7313:
7305:
7301:
7293:
7289:
7284:
7280:
7272:
7265:
7257:
7253:
7245:
7238:
7230:
7223:
7215:
7211:
7203:
7199:
7194:
7190:
7184:BBC News (2004)
7182:
7178:
7170:
7166:
7158:
7149:
7141:
7137:
7129:
7125:
7117:
7113:
7105:
7101:
7093:
7089:
7081:
7077:
7069:
7065:
7057:
7048:
7040:
7036:
7028:
7024:
7016:
7012:
7000:
6996:
6992:, p. 1–16.
6990:Robinson (1995)
6988:
6984:
6976:
6972:
6964:
6960:
6952:
6948:
6940:
6936:
6928:
6924:
6916:
6912:
6904:
6900:
6892:
6888:
6880:
6876:
6869:
6853:
6849:
6841:
6834:
6826:
6822:
6814:
6810:
6802:
6798:
6790:
6786:
6780:Robinson (1999)
6778:
6774:
6768:Robinson (1999)
6766:
6762:
6756:Robinson (1999)
6754:
6750:
6742:
6735:
6727:
6723:
6715:
6711:
6680:
6676:
6668:
6664:
6656:
6652:
6644:
6640:
6634:Robinson (2000)
6632:
6628:
6624:, pp. 6–9.
6620:
6616:
6608:
6604:
6596:
6592:
6584:
6580:
6572:
6568:
6560:
6556:
6548:
6544:
6536:
6532:
6526:Langlois (1988)
6524:
6520:
6512:
6508:
6500:
6496:
6490:Sperling (2003)
6488:
6484:
6476:
6472:
6464:
6460:
6452:
6448:
6440:
6436:
6428:
6417:
6411:History of Ming
6409:
6405:
6397:
6393:
6385:
6381:
6373:
6369:
6361:
6357:
6349:
6345:
6337:
6333:
6325:
6321:
6315:Robinson (2019)
6313:
6309:
6303:Robinson (2019)
6301:
6297:
6293:, pp. 8–9.
6291:Robinson (2020)
6289:
6285:
6279:Robinson (2008)
6277:
6273:
6265:
6261:
6253:
6249:
6241:
6234:
6226:
6222:
6214:
6210:
6202:
6193:
6185:
6181:
6173:
6169:
6161:
6154:
6147:
6133:
6129:
6123:Crawford (1961)
6121:
6117:
6109:
6105:
6097:
6088:
6080:
6076:
6068:
6064:
6056:
6052:
6044:
6040:
6034:Maddison (2006)
6032:
6028:
6020:
6016:
6008:
6001:
5997:
5992:
5987:
5986:
5977:
5973:
5965:in 1750 by the
5927:
5923:
5910:
5906:
5893:
5889:
5876:
5872:
5859:
5855:
5850:
5845:
5835:rural economics
5754:
5730:Jiajing Emperor
5707:Hongzhi Emperor
5647:
5610:and physicians
5608:pharmacologists
5596:that had up to
5590:booster rockets
5271:Galileo Galilei
5267:Johannes Kepler
5253:); in 1634 the
5167:
5153:
5128:shells to make
5058:Jonathan Spence
5042:
5041:
5040:
5039:
5031:
5030:
5029:
5021:
5020:
5012:
5011:
5003:
5002:
4991:
4990:
4989:
4972:
4967:
4958:
4950:Donglin Academy
4900:
4817:
4812:
4636:during the Yuan
4586:Three Teachings
4568:Chinese glazed
4562:
4548:
4498:white porcelain
4338:woodblock print
4310:(1587–1641), a
4199:
4185:
4180:
4109:
4080:
3991:
3986:
3958:
3934:Ministry of War
3847:Hongzhi Emperor
3835:
3760:
3755:
3694:Albert M. Craig
3670:
3665:
3659:
3615:Shunzhi Emperor
3552:Zhang Xianzhong
3539:
3521:, declared the
3434:
3424:
3419:
3413:
3405:Jiajing Emperor
3304:
3298:
3282:Donglin Society
3235:
3233:Role of eunuchs
3191:
3186:
3126:encouraged the
3092:
3084:Main articles:
3082:
2990:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2966:
2950:Jianwen Emperor
2930:
2925:
2911:
2905:
2897:Khoshut Khanate
2857:tea-horse trade
2848:Jiajing Emperor
2795:
2789:
2694:: Although the
2684:
2678:
2626:Kingdom of Dali
2614:
2606:Main articles:
2604:
2577:, a network of
2532:History of Ming
2511:
2476:, arguably the
2413:
2408:
2403:
2396:
2390:
2310:Sichuan cuisine
2205:Jianwen Emperor
2174:
2117:
2100:
2096:
2085:
2056:
2055:
2051:Women's history
1957:
1956:
1947:
1946:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1928:
1917:
1912:
1908:
1888:
1883:
1874:
1873:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1842:
1837:
1829:
1824:
1810:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1786:
1781:
1773:
1768:
1760:
1754:
1749:
1739:
1727:
1719:
1714:
1710:
1690:
1689:
1684:
1675:
1665:
1657:
1652:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1623:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1599:
1596:
1590:
1585:
1575:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1535:
1509:
1501:
1496:
1486:
1476:
1466:
1454:
1446:
1441:
1426:
1425:
1414:
1413:
1406:
1396:
1392:
1387:
1379:
1369:
1355:
1351:
1346:
1338:
1331:
1327:
1322:
1309: 1046 BCE
1308:
1304:
1299:
1291:
1285: 1600 BCE
1284:
1280:
1275:
1266:
1265:
1254:
1253:
1226: 2000 BCE
1225:
1221:
1216:
1208:
1197:
1196:
1008:Tongyong Pinyin
998:
783:Tongyong Pinyin
773:
703:
667:
653:
639:
625:
611:
597:
572:
546:
543:
542:
533:
519:strings of coin
516:
499:
477:
465:
449:
439:
429:
393:
380:
378:Fall of Beijing
370:28 October 1420
367:
356:23 January 1368
353:
320:
308:
296:
284:
169:
153:
148:
140:
126:
114:
99:
98:
93:
76:
75:
59:
48:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
13845:
13835:
13834:
13829:
13824:
13819:
13814:
13809:
13804:
13799:
13794:
13789:
13784:
13779:
13774:
13769:
13764:
13745:
13744:
13742:
13741:
13740:
13739:
13734:
13725:
13723:
13719:
13718:
13716:
13715:
13710:
13705:
13700:
13695:
13690:
13689:
13688:
13677:
13675:
13671:
13670:
13667:
13666:
13664:
13663:
13658:
13653:
13648:
13643:
13642:
13641:
13631:
13626:
13621:
13616:
13611:
13606:
13601:
13596:
13591:
13586:
13585:
13584:
13579:
13569:
13564:
13558:
13556:
13547:
13546:
13545:
13544:
13539:
13534:
13529:
13524:
13514:
13509:
13508:
13507:
13497:
13492:
13491:
13490:
13485:
13480:
13470:
13465:
13464:
13463:
13458:
13448:
13447:
13446:
13441:
13436:
13431:
13426:
13416:
13415:
13414:
13409:
13399:
13394:
13389:
13384:
13383:
13382:
13377:
13372:
13367:
13362:
13352:
13351:
13350:
13345:
13335:
13330:
13329:
13328:
13323:
13313:
13312:
13311:
13306:
13296:
13295:
13294:
13289:
13279:
13274:
13273:
13272:
13267:
13262:
13257:
13252:
13242:
13237:
13236:
13235:
13230:
13222:
13217:
13212:
13207:
13202:
13196:
13194:
13188:
13187:
13185:
13184:
13179:
13174:
13169:
13168:
13167:
13162:
13157:
13152:
13147:
13142:
13137:
13127:
13122:
13121:
13120:
13115:
13110:
13105:
13100:
13095:
13085:
13084:
13083:
13078:
13073:
13068:
13058:
13053:
13048:
13043:
13038:
13033:
13028:
13023:
13018:
13017:
13016:
13011:
13001:
13000:
12999:
12994:
12989:
12984:
12979:
12974:
12961:
12956:
12951:
12946:
12945:
12944:
12939:
12934:
12924:
12923:
12922:
12917:
12912:
12907:
12897:
12892:
12887:
12882:
12877:
12872:
12871:
12870:
12865:
12860:
12855:
12845:
12844:
12843:
12838:
12833:
12828:
12818:
12817:
12816:
12811:
12806:
12796:
12791:
12786:
12781:
12776:
12775:
12774:
12769:
12764:
12754:
12749:
12748:
12747:
12742:
12737:
12732:
12727:
12722:
12712:
12711:
12710:
12705:
12695:
12694:
12693:
12688:
12683:
12678:
12668:
12663:
12662:
12661:
12651:
12650:
12649:
12644:
12636:
12631:
12626:
12621:
12616:
12611:
12606:
12600:
12598:
12596:Post-classical
12592:
12591:
12589:
12588:
12587:
12586:
12576:
12571:
12570:
12569:
12564:
12554:
12553:
12552:
12542:
12541:
12540:
12535:
12530:
12525:
12520:
12515:
12505:
12500:
12495:
12494:
12493:
12488:
12483:
12478:
12468:
12467:
12466:
12461:
12451:
12446:
12445:
12444:
12439:
12434:
12429:
12424:
12414:
12409:
12404:
12403:
12402:
12397:
12395:Middle Kingdom
12392:
12382:
12377:
12376:
12375:
12370:
12365:
12355:
12354:
12353:
12351:Neo-Babylonian
12348:
12343:
12341:Old Babylonian
12333:
12332:
12331:
12326:
12316:
12311:
12305:
12303:
12291:
12290:
12283:
12282:
12275:
12268:
12260:
12251:
12250:
12248:
12247:
12239:
12237:
12233:
12232:
12230:
12229:
12224:
12223:
12222:
12220:Yongle Tongbao
12217:
12215:Hongwu Tongbao
12206:
12204:
12200:
12199:
12197:
12196:
12191:
12186:
12181:
12176:
12171:
12166:
12161:
12160:
12159:
12154:
12149:
12139:
12134:
12128:
12126:
12122:
12121:
12119:
12118:
12113:
12108:
12103:
12098:
12093:
12091:Forbidden City
12087:
12085:
12081:
12080:
12078:
12077:
12070:
12063:
12056:
12049:
12042:
12034:
12032:
12028:
12027:
12025:
12024:
12019:
12014:
12009:
12008:
12007:
12002:
11991:
11989:
11985:
11984:
11982:
11981:
11979:Nine Garrisons
11976:
11971:
11970:
11969:
11959:
11954:
11948:
11946:
11942:
11941:
11939:
11938:
11933:
11928:
11923:
11918:
11913:
11912:
11911:
11901:
11896:
11891:
11886:
11881:
11880:
11879:
11874:
11869:
11858:
11856:
11852:
11851:
11848:
11847:
11845:
11844:
11839:
11834:
11833:
11832:
11827:
11822:
11817:
11812:
11807:
11802:
11797:
11787:
11786:
11785:
11775:
11770:
11765:
11763:Ordos campaign
11760:
11755:
11749:
11747:
11742:
11738:
11737:
11735:
11734:
11729:
11724:
11719:
11714:
11709:
11704:
11699:
11694:
11689:
11684:
11679:
11674:
11669:
11664:
11658:
11656:
11651:
11647:
11646:
11644:
11643:
11638:
11633:
11628:
11626:Ming–Kotte War
11623:
11618:
11613:
11608:
11603:
11598:
11593:
11588:
11583:
11578:
11573:
11568:
11563:
11558:
11552:
11550:
11545:
11538:
11532:
11531:
11523:
11522:
11515:
11508:
11500:
11492:
11491:
11486:
11483:
11474:
11469:
11463:
11462:
11450:
11445:
11435:
11434:
11429:
11423:
11422:
11411:
11410:
11408:
11407:External links
11405:
11403:
11402:
11396:
11378:
11360:(4): 578–638,
11349:
11342:
11313:
11307:
11292:
11286:
11273:
11267:
11249:
11239:
11233:
11220:
11211:
11205:
11192:
11186:
11173:
11162:
11160:
11157:
11156:
11155:
11146:
11140:
11134:
11119:
11108:
11105:
11103:
11100:
11098:
11097:
11088:
11082:
11069:
11043:(2): 148–175.
11032:
11014:
10994:10.2307/369121
10988:(2): 193–213,
10977:
10971:
10958:
10952:
10939:
10933:
10916:
10910:
10897:
10885:10.1086/349663
10868:
10862:
10849:
10833:
10824:
10818:
10805:
10791:
10770:
10764:
10751:
10745:
10732:
10707:
10687:
10681:
10668:
10662:
10649:
10643:
10631:
10613:(3): 475–504.
10593:
10587:
10570:
10564:
10551:
10545:
10523:
10510:
10504:
10491:
10485:
10472:
10466:
10453:
10441:10.2307/595074
10424:
10418:
10405:
10399:
10386:
10365:
10345:
10327:(3): 527–563,
10316:
10287:
10266:
10246:
10225:
10219:
10206:
10200:
10187:
10176:
10167:
10158:
10149:
10140:
10120:
10114:
10101:
10095:
10082:
10076:
10063:
10050:
10019:
9997:
9991:
9978:
9951:10.2307/850355
9945:(2): 163–206,
9927:
9918:
9904:
9891:
9885:
9872:
9843:
9837:
9820:
9814:
9801:
9795:
9782:
9776:
9761:
9743:(2): 365–442,
9732:
9720:10.2307/495194
9714:(1/2): 67–93,
9703:
9697:
9684:
9678:
9665:
9659:
9644:
9638:
9625:
9619:
9606:
9600:
9587:
9581:
9568:
9562:
9545:
9539:
9526:
9467:
9461:
9446:
9440:
9425:
9412:
9397:
9371:(4): 824–825.
9360:
9348:
9330:(3): 115–148.
9319:
9290:
9284:
9267:
9261:
9242:
9215:
9189:(4): 467–489.
9178:
9149:
9143:
9129:
9127:
9124:
9122:
9121:
9119:, p. 163.
9109:
9107:, p. 195.
9097:
9095:, p. 128.
9085:
9083:, p. 162.
9070:
9058:
9046:
9034:
9017:
9005:
8990:
8975:
8960:
8958:, p. 267.
8945:
8933:
8921:
8913:Hopkins (2002)
8905:
8893:
8891:, p. 229.
8889:Needham (1987)
8881:
8879:, p. 508.
8877:Needham (1987)
8869:
8865:Needham (1987)
8857:
8855:, p. 205.
8853:Needham (1987)
8845:
8841:Needham (1987)
8833:
8831:, p. 264.
8829:Needham (1987)
8821:
8817:Needham (1987)
8809:
8807:, p. 372.
8805:Needham (1987)
8797:
8793:Needham (1984)
8785:
8781:Needham (1987)
8773:
8771:, p. 126.
8769:Needham (1987)
8761:
8749:
8737:
8733:Needham (1971)
8725:
8723:, p. 668.
8721:Needham (1971)
8713:
8701:
8689:
8685:Needham (1965)
8677:
8675:, p. 276.
8673:Needham (1965)
8665:
8661:Needham (1965)
8653:
8651:, p. 511.
8649:Needham (1965)
8641:
8639:, p. 509.
8637:Needham (1965)
8629:
8627:, p. 438.
8625:Needham (1965)
8617:
8613:Needham (1965)
8602:
8598:Kuttner (1975)
8590:
8588:, p. 166.
8586:Kuttner (1975)
8578:
8559:
8547:
8543:Needham (1965)
8535:
8533:, p. 110.
8531:Needham (1959)
8523:
8511:
8507:Needham (1959)
8499:
8495:Needham (1959)
8487:
8475:
8463:
8446:
8442:Schafer (1956)
8434:
8422:
8410:
8395:
8378:
8376:, p. 206.
8366:
8364:, p. 213.
8354:
8352:, p. 230.
8342:
8340:, p. 158.
8330:
8328:, p. 283.
8318:
8303:
8301:, p. 281.
8291:
8289:, p. 282.
8274:
8262:
8250:
8248:, p. 212.
8238:
8226:
8214:
8210:Needham (1965)
8202:
8177:(6): 134–158.
8161:
8149:
8137:
8130:
8112:
8097:
8085:
8083:, p. 225.
8073:
8061:
8046:
8044:, p. 206.
8034:
8032:, p. 201.
8022:
8010:
8008:, p. 318.
7995:
7993:, p. 319.
7983:
7971:
7959:
7957:, p. xxi.
7947:
7943:Hargett (1985)
7935:
7933:, p. 524.
7931:Needham (1959)
7923:
7911:
7899:
7887:
7875:
7863:
7851:
7839:
7827:
7815:
7803:
7791:
7779:
7767:
7755:
7743:
7741:, p. 199.
7731:
7719:
7717:, p. xxv.
7707:
7705:, p. 198.
7695:
7693:, p. 200.
7683:
7671:
7659:
7647:
7635:
7620:
7608:
7596:
7579:
7560:
7545:
7533:
7521:
7509:
7497:
7485:
7473:
7461:
7449:
7437:
7422:
7410:
7395:
7383:
7371:
7359:
7347:
7345:, p. 108.
7335:
7323:
7311:
7299:
7287:
7278:
7263:
7251:
7236:
7221:
7209:
7197:
7188:
7176:
7164:
7147:
7135:
7123:
7111:
7099:
7087:
7075:
7073:, p. 205.
7063:
7046:
7034:
7022:
7020:, p. 124.
7010:
6994:
6982:
6970:
6958:
6946:
6934:
6922:
6910:
6898:
6886:
6874:
6867:
6847:
6832:
6820:
6808:
6806:, p. 208.
6796:
6794:, p. 139.
6784:
6772:
6760:
6748:
6746:, p. 273.
6733:
6721:
6719:, p. 137.
6709:
6674:
6672:, p. 194.
6662:
6660:, p. 272.
6650:
6638:
6636:, p. 527.
6626:
6614:
6602:
6590:
6578:
6566:
6554:
6552:, p. 227.
6542:
6530:
6518:
6506:
6504:, p. 273.
6494:
6482:
6470:
6458:
6446:
6434:
6432:, p. 470.
6415:
6403:
6391:
6379:
6377:, p. 159.
6367:
6355:
6353:, p. 197.
6343:
6331:
6329:, p. 133.
6319:
6317:, p. 248.
6307:
6295:
6283:
6271:
6259:
6257:, p. 130.
6247:
6232:
6220:
6208:
6206:, p. 191.
6191:
6189:, p. 151.
6179:
6167:
6165:, p. 150.
6152:
6145:
6127:
6115:
6113:, p. 271.
6103:
6086:
6074:
6062:
6050:
6038:
6036:, p. 238.
6026:
6024:, p. 109.
6014:
5998:
5996:
5993:
5991:
5988:
5985:
5984:
5971:
5921:
5904:
5900:House of Zheng
5887:
5870:
5852:
5851:
5849:
5846:
5844:
5843:
5838:
5828:
5823:
5818:
5813:
5808:
5803:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5783:
5778:
5773:
5768:
5767:
5766:
5755:
5753:
5750:
5690:Xuande Emperor
5646:
5643:
5564:, compiled by
5534:, compiled by
5493:technique and
5474:Tiangong Kaiwu
5393:incense clocks
5378:(683–727) and
5259:Johann Schreck
5192:Tiangong Kaiwu
5152:
5149:
5138:sumptuary laws
5089:Public bathing
5050:carved lacquer
5033:
5032:
5023:
5022:
5014:
5013:
5005:
5004:
4996:
4995:
4994:
4993:
4992:
4969:
4968:
4961:
4960:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4899:
4896:
4851:Yongle Emperor
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4783:had begun the
4694:Hongwu Emperor
4673:Blanc-de-Chine
4547:
4544:
4500:sculpture. In
4458:blue and white
4388:rock sculpture
4333:Peking Gazette
4316:Travel Diaries
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4163:Yongle Emperor
4108:
4105:
4088:Xuande Emperor
4079:
4076:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3982:
3957:
3954:
3953:
3952:
3944:
3937:
3930:
3923:
3916:
3880:Hanlin Academy
3876:Hongxi Emperor
3872:Yongle Emperor
3851:Nanjing Museum
3841:A portrait of
3834:
3831:
3768:Forbidden City
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3731:subprefectures
3669:
3666:
3658:
3655:
3538:
3535:
3423:
3420:
3415:Main article:
3412:
3409:
3393:Little Ice Age
3335:The Portuguese
3297:
3294:
3278:Tianqi Emperor
3234:
3231:
3215:Ordos campaign
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3169:Yongle Emperor
3150:(r. 1457–64).
3081:
3078:
3047:treasure ships
2978:Forbidden City
2965:
2962:
2958:Yongle Emperor
2946:Hongwu Emperor
2938:Yongle Emperor
2929:
2926:
2909:Yongle Emperor
2907:Main article:
2904:
2901:
2791:Main article:
2788:
2785:
2770:, a eunuch of
2700:Warring States
2680:Main article:
2677:
2674:
2603:
2600:
2539:law code, the
2519:Hongwu Emperor
2510:
2507:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2392:Main article:
2389:
2386:
2376:armies of the
2358:Little Ice Age
2348:introduced by
2342:hyperinflation
2334:South American
2235:. One eunuch,
2221:Forbidden City
2213:Yongle Emperor
2171:Hongwu Emperor
2087:
2086:
2084:
2083:
2076:
2069:
2061:
2058:
2057:
2054:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2042:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2005:
2004:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1982:Jewish history
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1958:
1954:
1953:
1952:
1949:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1937:
1936:
1934:
1933:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1915:
1913:(1949–present)
1902:
1900:
1894:
1887:
1886:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1867:
1864:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1854:
1853:
1841:
1840:
1828:
1827:
1816:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1797:
1787:
1784:
1774:
1771:
1761:
1757:
1755:
1753:
1752:
1742:
1731:
1730:
1718:
1717:
1704:
1702:
1696:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1682:
1681:
1680:
1679:
1678:
1656:
1655:
1643:
1642:
1629:
1619:
1618:
1614:
1613:
1611:
1610:
1600:
1597:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1588:
1578:
1567:
1565:
1559:
1550:
1549:
1547:
1546:
1534:
1533:
1513:
1512:
1506:Three Kingdoms
1500:
1499:
1489:
1479:
1469:
1458:
1457:
1445:
1444:
1433:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1416:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1410:
1409:
1404:Warring States
1401:
1397: 476 BCE
1372:
1370:(1046–771 BCE)
1361:
1360:
1356: 256 BCE
1337:
1336:
1314:
1313:
1290:
1289:
1267:
1261:
1260:
1259:
1256:
1255:
1252:
1251:
1231:
1230:
1207:
1206:
1198:
1192:
1191:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1184:
1182:Historiography
1179:
1174:
1166:
1165:
1157:
1156:
1150:
1149:
1137:
1136:
1133:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1121:
1115:
1114:
1107:
1098:
1097:
1091:
1090:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1052:
1046:
1045:
1043:Yue: Cantonese
1039:
1038:
1031:
1025:
1024:
1018:
1017:
1010:
1004:
1003:
994:
988:
987:
980:
974:
973:
966:
960:
959:
953:
952:
951:Transcriptions
944:
943:
936:
930:
929:
925:
924:
921:
920:
913:
907:
906:
899:
890:
889:
883:
882:
872:
866:
865:
858:
852:
851:
844:
838:
837:
835:Yue: Cantonese
831:
830:
823:
817:
816:
810:
809:
799:
793:
792:
785:
779:
778:
769:
763:
762:
755:
749:
748:
741:
735:
734:
728:
727:
726:Transcriptions
719:
718:
711:
705:
704:
701:
693:
692:
689:
688:
680:
679:
676:
675:
672:
671:
664:
658:
657:
650:
644:
643:
636:
630:
629:
622:
616:
615:
608:
602:
601:
594:
585:
582:
581:
576:
564:
563:
558:
548:
547:
545:
544:
541:
540:
538:and by weight)
527:
509:
508:
502:
493:
491:
487:
486:
478:
475:
472:
471:
468:
458:
457:
454:
453:
450:
447:
444:
443:
440:
437:
434:
433:
430:
427:
424:
423:
420:
419:
415:
414:
411:
407:
406:
402:
401:
398:
397:
394:
388:
385:
384:
381:
375:
372:
371:
368:
361:
358:
357:
354:
348:
345:
344:
341:
340:
335:
334:Historical era
331:
330:
327:
326:
321:
318:
315:
314:
309:
306:
303:
302:
300:Yongle Emperor
297:
294:
291:
290:
288:Hongwu Emperor
285:
282:
279:
278:
275:
274:
271:
265:
264:
259:
255:
254:
253:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
227:
222:
220:Heaven worship
215:
211:
210:
209:
208:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
167:
159:
155:
154:
152:
151:
143:
134:
132:
128:
127:
124:
116:
115:
112:Yongle Emperor
109:
101:
100:
94:
87:
86:
83:
82:
78:
77:
74:
73:
66:
50:
49:
46:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
13844:
13833:
13830:
13828:
13825:
13823:
13820:
13818:
13815:
13813:
13810:
13808:
13805:
13803:
13800:
13798:
13795:
13793:
13790:
13788:
13785:
13783:
13780:
13778:
13775:
13773:
13770:
13768:
13765:
13763:
13760:
13759:
13757:
13750:
13738:
13737:Soviet empire
13735:
13733:
13730:
13729:
13727:
13726:
13724:
13722:Miscellaneous
13720:
13714:
13711:
13709:
13706:
13704:
13701:
13699:
13696:
13694:
13691:
13687:
13684:
13683:
13682:
13679:
13678:
13676:
13672:
13662:
13659:
13657:
13654:
13652:
13649:
13647:
13644:
13640:
13637:
13636:
13635:
13632:
13630:
13627:
13625:
13622:
13620:
13617:
13615:
13612:
13610:
13607:
13605:
13602:
13600:
13597:
13595:
13592:
13590:
13587:
13583:
13580:
13578:
13575:
13574:
13573:
13570:
13568:
13565:
13563:
13560:
13559:
13557:
13555:
13551:
13543:
13540:
13538:
13535:
13533:
13530:
13528:
13525:
13523:
13520:
13519:
13518:
13515:
13513:
13510:
13506:
13503:
13502:
13501:
13498:
13496:
13493:
13489:
13486:
13484:
13481:
13479:
13476:
13475:
13474:
13471:
13469:
13466:
13462:
13459:
13457:
13454:
13453:
13452:
13449:
13445:
13442:
13440:
13437:
13435:
13432:
13430:
13427:
13425:
13422:
13421:
13420:
13417:
13413:
13410:
13408:
13405:
13404:
13403:
13400:
13398:
13395:
13393:
13390:
13388:
13385:
13381:
13378:
13376:
13373:
13371:
13368:
13366:
13363:
13361:
13358:
13357:
13356:
13353:
13349:
13346:
13344:
13341:
13340:
13339:
13336:
13334:
13331:
13327:
13324:
13322:
13321:German Empire
13319:
13318:
13317:
13314:
13310:
13307:
13305:
13302:
13301:
13300:
13297:
13293:
13290:
13288:
13285:
13284:
13283:
13280:
13278:
13275:
13271:
13268:
13266:
13263:
13261:
13258:
13256:
13253:
13251:
13248:
13247:
13246:
13243:
13241:
13238:
13234:
13231:
13229:
13226:
13225:
13223:
13221:
13218:
13216:
13213:
13211:
13208:
13206:
13203:
13201:
13198:
13197:
13195:
13193:
13189:
13183:
13180:
13178:
13175:
13173:
13170:
13166:
13163:
13161:
13158:
13156:
13153:
13151:
13148:
13146:
13143:
13141:
13138:
13136:
13133:
13132:
13131:
13128:
13126:
13123:
13119:
13116:
13114:
13111:
13109:
13106:
13104:
13101:
13099:
13096:
13094:
13091:
13090:
13089:
13086:
13082:
13079:
13077:
13074:
13072:
13069:
13067:
13064:
13063:
13062:
13061:Turco-Persian
13059:
13057:
13054:
13052:
13049:
13047:
13044:
13042:
13039:
13037:
13034:
13032:
13029:
13027:
13024:
13022:
13019:
13015:
13012:
13010:
13007:
13006:
13005:
13002:
12998:
12995:
12993:
12990:
12988:
12985:
12983:
12980:
12978:
12975:
12973:
12970:
12969:
12968:
12965:
12962:
12960:
12957:
12955:
12952:
12950:
12947:
12943:
12940:
12938:
12935:
12933:
12930:
12929:
12928:
12925:
12921:
12918:
12916:
12913:
12911:
12908:
12906:
12903:
12902:
12901:
12898:
12896:
12893:
12891:
12888:
12886:
12883:
12881:
12878:
12876:
12873:
12869:
12866:
12864:
12861:
12859:
12856:
12854:
12851:
12850:
12849:
12846:
12842:
12839:
12837:
12834:
12832:
12829:
12827:
12824:
12823:
12822:
12819:
12815:
12812:
12810:
12807:
12805:
12802:
12801:
12800:
12797:
12795:
12792:
12790:
12787:
12785:
12782:
12780:
12777:
12773:
12770:
12768:
12765:
12763:
12760:
12759:
12758:
12755:
12753:
12750:
12746:
12743:
12741:
12738:
12736:
12733:
12731:
12728:
12726:
12723:
12721:
12718:
12717:
12716:
12713:
12709:
12706:
12704:
12701:
12700:
12699:
12696:
12692:
12689:
12687:
12684:
12682:
12679:
12677:
12674:
12673:
12672:
12669:
12667:
12664:
12660:
12657:
12656:
12655:
12652:
12648:
12645:
12643:
12640:
12639:
12637:
12635:
12632:
12630:
12627:
12625:
12622:
12620:
12617:
12615:
12612:
12610:
12607:
12605:
12602:
12601:
12599:
12597:
12593:
12585:
12582:
12581:
12580:
12577:
12575:
12572:
12568:
12565:
12563:
12560:
12559:
12558:
12555:
12551:
12548:
12547:
12546:
12543:
12539:
12536:
12534:
12531:
12529:
12526:
12524:
12521:
12519:
12516:
12514:
12511:
12510:
12509:
12506:
12504:
12501:
12499:
12496:
12492:
12489:
12487:
12484:
12482:
12479:
12477:
12474:
12473:
12472:
12469:
12465:
12462:
12460:
12457:
12456:
12455:
12452:
12450:
12447:
12443:
12440:
12438:
12435:
12433:
12430:
12428:
12425:
12423:
12420:
12419:
12418:
12415:
12413:
12410:
12408:
12405:
12401:
12398:
12396:
12393:
12391:
12388:
12387:
12386:
12383:
12381:
12378:
12374:
12371:
12369:
12366:
12364:
12361:
12360:
12359:
12356:
12352:
12349:
12347:
12344:
12342:
12339:
12338:
12337:
12334:
12330:
12327:
12325:
12322:
12321:
12320:
12317:
12315:
12312:
12310:
12307:
12306:
12304:
12301:
12296:
12292:
12288:
12281:
12276:
12274:
12269:
12267:
12262:
12261:
12258:
12246:
12245:
12241:
12240:
12238:
12234:
12228:
12225:
12221:
12218:
12216:
12213:
12212:
12211:
12208:
12207:
12205:
12201:
12195:
12192:
12190:
12187:
12185:
12182:
12180:
12177:
12175:
12172:
12170:
12167:
12165:
12162:
12158:
12155:
12153:
12150:
12148:
12145:
12144:
12143:
12140:
12138:
12135:
12133:
12130:
12129:
12127:
12123:
12117:
12114:
12112:
12109:
12107:
12104:
12102:
12101:Ming Xiaoling
12099:
12097:
12094:
12092:
12089:
12088:
12086:
12082:
12076:
12075:
12071:
12069:
12068:
12064:
12062:
12061:
12057:
12055:
12054:
12050:
12048:
12047:
12043:
12041:
12040:
12036:
12035:
12033:
12029:
12023:
12020:
12018:
12015:
12013:
12010:
12006:
12003:
12001:
11998:
11997:
11996:
11993:
11992:
11990:
11986:
11980:
11977:
11975:
11972:
11968:
11965:
11964:
11963:
11960:
11958:
11955:
11953:
11950:
11949:
11947:
11943:
11937:
11934:
11932:
11929:
11927:
11924:
11922:
11919:
11917:
11914:
11910:
11909:Vassal prince
11907:
11906:
11905:
11902:
11900:
11897:
11895:
11894:Eastern Depot
11892:
11890:
11887:
11885:
11882:
11878:
11875:
11873:
11870:
11868:
11865:
11864:
11863:
11860:
11859:
11857:
11853:
11843:
11840:
11838:
11837:Southern Ming
11835:
11831:
11828:
11826:
11823:
11821:
11818:
11816:
11813:
11811:
11808:
11806:
11803:
11801:
11798:
11796:
11793:
11792:
11791:
11788:
11784:
11781:
11780:
11779:
11776:
11774:
11771:
11769:
11766:
11764:
11761:
11759:
11756:
11754:
11751:
11750:
11748:
11739:
11733:
11730:
11728:
11725:
11723:
11720:
11718:
11715:
11713:
11710:
11708:
11705:
11703:
11700:
11698:
11695:
11693:
11690:
11688:
11685:
11683:
11680:
11678:
11675:
11673:
11670:
11668:
11665:
11663:
11660:
11659:
11657:
11648:
11642:
11639:
11637:
11634:
11632:
11629:
11627:
11624:
11622:
11619:
11617:
11614:
11612:
11609:
11607:
11604:
11602:
11599:
11597:
11594:
11592:
11589:
11587:
11584:
11582:
11579:
11577:
11574:
11572:
11569:
11567:
11564:
11562:
11559:
11557:
11554:
11553:
11551:
11542:
11539:
11537:
11533:
11528:
11521:
11516:
11514:
11509:
11507:
11502:
11501:
11498:
11489:
11480:
11479:
11472:
11466:
11461:
11457:
11454:
11451:
11449:
11446:
11443:
11440:
11439:
11433:
11430:
11428:
11425:
11424:
11419:
11414:
11399:
11397:0-521-36518-X
11393:
11389:
11388:
11383:
11379:
11375:
11371:
11367:
11363:
11359:
11355:
11350:
11347:
11343:
11340:
11336:
11332:
11328:
11323:
11319:
11314:
11310:
11304:
11300:
11299:
11293:
11289:
11283:
11279:
11274:
11270:
11264:
11260:
11259:
11254:
11250:
11248:
11244:
11240:
11236:
11230:
11226:
11221:
11217:
11212:
11208:
11202:
11198:
11193:
11189:
11183:
11179:
11174:
11172:
11168:
11164:
11163:
11153:
11152:
11148:Lynn Struve,
11147:
11144:
11141:
11137:
11131:
11127:
11126:
11120:
11117:
11116:
11111:
11110:
11094:
11089:
11085:
11079:
11075:
11070:
11066:
11062:
11058:
11054:
11050:
11046:
11042:
11038:
11033:
11029:
11024:
11022:
11015:
11011:
11007:
11003:
10999:
10995:
10991:
10987:
10983:
10978:
10974:
10968:
10964:
10959:
10955:
10949:
10945:
10940:
10936:
10930:
10926:
10922:
10917:
10913:
10907:
10903:
10898:
10894:
10890:
10886:
10882:
10878:
10874:
10869:
10865:
10859:
10855:
10850:
10838:
10834:
10830:
10825:
10821:
10815:
10811:
10806:
10802:
10798:
10794:
10788:
10784:
10780:
10776:
10771:
10767:
10761:
10757:
10752:
10748:
10742:
10738:
10733:
10721:
10717:
10713:
10708:
10696:
10692:
10688:
10684:
10678:
10674:
10669:
10665:
10659:
10655:
10650:
10646:
10640:
10636:
10632:
10628:
10624:
10620:
10616:
10612:
10608:
10607:
10602:
10598:
10594:
10590:
10584:
10581:. Routledge.
10580:
10576:
10571:
10567:
10561:
10557:
10552:
10548:
10542:
10538:
10534:
10533:
10528:
10524:
10520:
10516:
10511:
10507:
10501:
10498:. Routledge.
10497:
10492:
10488:
10482:
10478:
10473:
10469:
10463:
10459:
10454:
10450:
10446:
10442:
10438:
10434:
10430:
10425:
10421:
10415:
10411:
10406:
10402:
10396:
10392:
10387:
10372:
10368:
10362:
10358:
10351:
10346:
10342:
10338:
10334:
10330:
10326:
10322:
10317:
10313:
10309:
10305:
10301:
10298:(1): 79–123,
10297:
10293:
10288:
10284:
10280:
10276:
10272:
10267:
10263:
10259:
10255:
10251:
10247:
10243:
10239:
10235:
10231:
10226:
10222:
10216:
10212:
10207:
10203:
10197:
10193:
10188:
10184:
10183:
10177:
10173:
10168:
10164:
10159:
10155:
10150:
10146:
10141:
10137:
10133:
10129:
10125:
10121:
10117:
10111:
10107:
10102:
10098:
10092:
10088:
10083:
10079:
10073:
10069:
10064:
10060:
10056:
10051:
10036:
10032:
10025:
10020:
10009:
10008:
10003:
9998:
9994:
9988:
9984:
9979:
9972:
9968:
9964:
9960:
9956:
9952:
9948:
9944:
9940:
9933:
9928:
9924:
9919:
9915:
9911:
9907:
9901:
9897:
9892:
9888:
9882:
9878:
9873:
9869:
9865:
9861:
9857:
9853:
9849:
9844:
9840:
9834:
9829:
9828:
9821:
9817:
9811:
9807:
9802:
9798:
9792:
9788:
9783:
9779:
9773:
9769:
9768:
9762:
9758:
9754:
9750:
9746:
9742:
9738:
9733:
9729:
9725:
9721:
9717:
9713:
9709:
9704:
9700:
9694:
9690:
9685:
9681:
9675:
9671:
9666:
9662:
9656:
9652:
9651:
9645:
9641:
9635:
9631:
9626:
9622:
9620:90-04-10391-0
9616:
9612:
9607:
9603:
9597:
9594:. Routledge.
9593:
9588:
9584:
9578:
9574:
9569:
9565:
9559:
9555:
9551:
9546:
9542:
9536:
9532:
9527:
9520:
9516:
9512:
9508:
9504:
9500:
9496:
9492:
9488:
9484:
9480:
9473:
9468:
9464:
9458:
9454:
9453:
9447:
9443:
9437:
9433:
9432:
9426:
9415:
9409:
9405:
9404:
9398:
9394:
9390:
9386:
9382:
9378:
9374:
9370:
9366:
9361:
9357:
9353:
9349:
9345:
9341:
9337:
9333:
9329:
9325:
9320:
9316:
9312:
9308:
9304:
9301:(74): 27–47.
9300:
9296:
9291:
9287:
9281:
9277:
9274:, Cambridge:
9273:
9268:
9264:
9258:
9254:
9250:
9249:
9243:
9228:
9221:
9216:
9212:
9208:
9204:
9200:
9196:
9192:
9188:
9184:
9179:
9175:
9171:
9167:
9163:
9160:(1): 83–113,
9159:
9155:
9150:
9146:
9140:
9136:
9131:
9130:
9118:
9113:
9106:
9101:
9094:
9089:
9082:
9077:
9075:
9067:
9062:
9056:, p. 86.
9055:
9054:Atwell (2002)
9050:
9043:
9038:
9032:, p. 28.
9031:
9026:
9024:
9022:
9014:
9013:Kinney (1995)
9009:
9002:
8997:
8995:
8988:, p. 97.
8987:
8982:
8980:
8972:
8967:
8965:
8957:
8952:
8950:
8943:, p. 27.
8942:
8937:
8930:
8925:
8918:
8914:
8909:
8902:
8897:
8890:
8885:
8878:
8873:
8866:
8861:
8854:
8849:
8842:
8837:
8830:
8825:
8818:
8813:
8806:
8801:
8794:
8789:
8782:
8777:
8770:
8765:
8758:
8753:
8746:
8741:
8734:
8729:
8722:
8717:
8710:
8705:
8698:
8693:
8686:
8681:
8674:
8669:
8662:
8657:
8650:
8645:
8638:
8633:
8626:
8621:
8614:
8609:
8607:
8599:
8594:
8587:
8582:
8576:, p. 78.
8575:
8570:
8568:
8566:
8564:
8557:, p. 47.
8556:
8551:
8544:
8539:
8532:
8527:
8520:
8515:
8508:
8503:
8496:
8491:
8484:
8479:
8473:, p. 14.
8472:
8471:Spence (1999)
8467:
8461:, p. 95.
8460:
8455:
8453:
8451:
8444:, p. 57.
8443:
8438:
8431:
8426:
8419:
8414:
8407:
8406:Spence (1999)
8402:
8400:
8393:, p. 13.
8392:
8391:Spence (1999)
8387:
8385:
8383:
8375:
8370:
8363:
8358:
8351:
8346:
8339:
8334:
8327:
8322:
8315:
8310:
8308:
8300:
8295:
8288:
8283:
8281:
8279:
8272:, p. 47.
8271:
8266:
8259:
8254:
8247:
8242:
8235:
8230:
8224:, p. 15.
8223:
8222:Leslie (1998)
8218:
8211:
8206:
8190:
8185:
8180:
8176:
8172:
8165:
8158:
8157:Lipman (1998)
8153:
8146:
8141:
8133:
8127:
8123:
8116:
8109:
8104:
8102:
8094:
8089:
8082:
8077:
8070:
8065:
8059:, p. 10.
8058:
8057:Spence (1999)
8053:
8051:
8043:
8038:
8031:
8026:
8019:
8014:
8007:
8002:
8000:
7992:
7987:
7980:
7975:
7968:
7963:
7956:
7951:
7945:, p. 69.
7944:
7939:
7932:
7927:
7920:
7915:
7908:
7903:
7896:
7891:
7884:
7879:
7872:
7871:Hucker (1958)
7867:
7860:
7855:
7849:, p. 19.
7848:
7847:Hucker (1958)
7843:
7836:
7835:Hucker (1958)
7831:
7824:
7819:
7812:
7811:Hucker (1958)
7807:
7800:
7799:Hucker (1958)
7795:
7789:, p. 18.
7788:
7787:Hucker (1958)
7783:
7776:
7771:
7764:
7759:
7752:
7751:Hucker (1958)
7747:
7740:
7735:
7728:
7727:Hucker (1958)
7723:
7716:
7711:
7704:
7699:
7692:
7687:
7680:
7675:
7668:
7663:
7657:, p. 96.
7656:
7651:
7645:, p. 12.
7644:
7643:Hucker (1958)
7639:
7633:, p. 26.
7632:
7631:Hucker (1958)
7627:
7625:
7617:
7616:Hucker (1958)
7612:
7605:
7604:Hucker (1958)
7600:
7594:, p. 25.
7593:
7592:Hucker (1958)
7588:
7586:
7584:
7577:, p. 24.
7576:
7575:Hucker (1958)
7571:
7569:
7567:
7565:
7558:, p. 36.
7557:
7556:Hucker (1958)
7552:
7550:
7543:, p. 35.
7542:
7541:Hucker (1958)
7537:
7530:
7529:Hucker (1958)
7525:
7519:, p. 33.
7518:
7517:Hucker (1958)
7513:
7507:, p. 32.
7506:
7505:Hucker (1958)
7501:
7494:
7493:Hucker (1958)
7489:
7483:, p. 30.
7482:
7481:Hucker (1958)
7477:
7470:
7469:Hucker (1958)
7465:
7459:, p. 23.
7458:
7457:Hucker (1958)
7453:
7447:, p. 16.
7446:
7445:Hucker (1958)
7441:
7435:, p. 16.
7434:
7429:
7427:
7419:
7414:
7408:, p. 28.
7407:
7406:Hucker (1958)
7402:
7400:
7392:
7391:Hucker (1958)
7387:
7380:
7375:
7368:
7363:
7357:, p. 97.
7356:
7351:
7344:
7339:
7332:
7327:
7320:
7315:
7309:, p. 33.
7308:
7307:Spence (1999)
7303:
7296:
7295:Spence (1999)
7291:
7282:
7276:, p. 22.
7275:
7274:Spence (1999)
7270:
7268:
7260:
7259:Spence (1999)
7255:
7249:, p. 31.
7248:
7247:Spence (1999)
7243:
7241:
7234:, p. 92.
7233:
7228:
7226:
7218:
7217:Spence (1999)
7213:
7206:
7205:Spence (1999)
7201:
7192:
7185:
7180:
7173:
7172:Spence (1999)
7168:
7162:, p. 21.
7161:
7160:Spence (1999)
7156:
7154:
7152:
7144:
7139:
7132:
7131:Atwell (2005)
7127:
7120:
7119:Spence (1999)
7115:
7108:
7103:
7096:
7091:
7084:
7079:
7072:
7067:
7061:, p. 20.
7060:
7059:Spence (1999)
7055:
7053:
7051:
7043:
7038:
7031:
7030:Spence (1999)
7026:
7019:
7014:
7007:
7003:
6998:
6991:
6986:
6979:
6974:
6967:
6966:Spence (1999)
6962:
6956:, p. 11.
6955:
6954:Hucker (1958)
6950:
6943:
6938:
6931:
6926:
6919:
6914:
6907:
6906:Herman (2007)
6902:
6895:
6890:
6883:
6878:
6870:
6868:9780806185026
6864:
6860:
6859:
6851:
6845:, p. 17.
6844:
6843:Spence (1999)
6839:
6837:
6830:, p. 16.
6829:
6828:Spence (1999)
6824:
6818:, p. 31.
6817:
6816:Hucker (1958)
6812:
6805:
6800:
6793:
6788:
6781:
6776:
6769:
6764:
6758:, p. 83.
6757:
6752:
6745:
6740:
6738:
6730:
6725:
6718:
6713:
6705:
6701:
6697:
6693:
6689:
6685:
6678:
6671:
6666:
6659:
6654:
6648:, p. 84.
6647:
6646:Atwell (2002)
6642:
6635:
6630:
6623:
6618:
6611:
6610:Kolmaš (1967)
6606:
6599:
6594:
6587:
6582:
6575:
6574:Kolmaš (1967)
6570:
6564:, p. 38.
6563:
6558:
6551:
6546:
6539:
6534:
6527:
6522:
6515:
6514:Kolmaš (1967)
6510:
6503:
6502:Perdue (2000)
6498:
6491:
6486:
6479:
6474:
6468:, p. 32.
6467:
6466:Kolmaš (1967)
6462:
6456:, p. 52.
6455:
6450:
6443:
6438:
6431:
6426:
6424:
6422:
6420:
6412:
6407:
6400:
6395:
6388:
6383:
6376:
6371:
6364:
6359:
6352:
6347:
6341:, p. 34.
6340:
6339:Dillon (1999)
6335:
6328:
6323:
6316:
6311:
6304:
6299:
6292:
6287:
6280:
6275:
6268:
6263:
6256:
6251:
6244:
6239:
6237:
6230:, p. 25.
6229:
6224:
6217:
6216:Naquin (2000)
6212:
6205:
6200:
6198:
6196:
6188:
6183:
6176:
6171:
6164:
6159:
6157:
6148:
6142:
6138:
6131:
6124:
6119:
6112:
6107:
6100:
6095:
6093:
6091:
6083:
6078:
6071:
6066:
6060:, p. 500
6059:
6054:
6048:, p. 222
6047:
6042:
6035:
6030:
6023:
6018:
6011:
6006:
6004:
5999:
5981:
5975:
5968:
5964:
5960:
5959:Eight Banners
5956:
5952:
5948:
5944:
5939:
5935:
5931:
5925:
5918:
5914:
5908:
5901:
5897:
5891:
5884:
5880:
5874:
5863:
5857:
5853:
5842:
5841:Zheng Zhilong
5839:
5836:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5824:
5822:
5819:
5817:
5814:
5812:
5809:
5807:
5806:Ming ceramics
5804:
5802:
5799:
5797:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5787:
5784:
5782:
5779:
5777:
5774:
5772:
5769:
5765:
5762:
5761:
5760:
5757:
5756:
5749:
5747:
5743:
5739:
5733:
5731:
5727:
5723:
5719:
5715:
5710:
5708:
5704:
5695:
5691:
5686:
5682:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5669:Timothy Brook
5666:
5659:
5658:Chen Hongshou
5655:
5651:
5642:
5640:
5636:
5632:
5627:
5623:
5619:
5618:
5617:Bencao Gangmu
5613:
5609:
5605:
5601:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5588:propelled by
5587:
5583:
5579:
5575:
5571:
5567:
5563:
5562:
5555:
5553:
5549:
5541:
5537:
5533:
5532:
5527:
5522:
5518:
5516:
5512:
5508:
5504:
5500:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5475:
5470:
5469:Song Yingxing
5466:
5462:
5458:
5454:
5450:
5449:Chinese ships
5446:
5442:
5438:
5430:
5425:
5421:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5405:
5394:
5390:
5385:
5381:
5377:
5373:
5369:
5361:
5356:
5352:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5332:
5328:
5324:
5320:
5315:
5313:
5308:
5304:
5300:
5296:
5292:
5288:
5284:
5280:
5279:Joseph Edkins
5276:
5272:
5268:
5264:
5260:
5256:
5252:
5248:
5244:
5240:
5236:
5235:Western world
5232:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5206:
5201:
5194:
5193:
5188:
5187:blast furnace
5184:
5180:
5176:
5171:
5166:
5162:
5158:
5148:
5145:
5144:
5139:
5134:
5131:
5127:
5122:
5118:
5114:
5106:
5105:Bianmintuzuan
5101:
5097:
5094:
5090:
5086:
5082:
5078:
5072:
5064:
5059:
5051:
5046:
5037:
5027:
5018:
5009:
5000:
4987:
4983:
4979:
4976:-handscroll (
4975:
4971:
4965:
4953:
4951:
4947:
4942:
4940:
4935:
4924:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4904:
4895:
4893:
4888:
4884:
4868:
4867:Chan Buddhism
4864:
4863:Wang Yangming
4860:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4845:
4842:
4838:
4837:Neo-Confucian
4830:
4826:
4825:Wang Yangming
4821:
4807:
4805:
4801:
4797:
4792:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4778:
4774:
4770:
4766:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4740:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4687:
4683:
4682:Song Yingxing
4679:
4675:
4674:
4669:
4664:
4660:
4658:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4630:
4626:
4622:
4618:
4616:
4612:
4607:
4606:Tibetan lamas
4603:
4599:
4595:
4591:
4587:
4583:
4575:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4543:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4527:
4525:
4521:
4518:, ivory, and
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4452:Ming dynasty
4450:
4446:
4444:
4440:
4439:Wen Zhengming
4436:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4397:
4393:
4392:Chen Hongshou
4389:
4384:
4380:
4378:
4374:
4370:
4369:Yuan Zhongdao
4366:
4362:
4354:
4349:
4345:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4334:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4304:
4302:
4298:
4294:
4293:
4288:
4284:
4283:Feng Menglong
4280:
4279:
4274:
4273:
4268:
4267:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4249:
4248:Chinese opera
4245:
4241:
4237:
4233:
4226:
4221:
4214:
4210:
4209:
4203:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4175:
4171:
4169:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4133:
4126:
4122:
4121:Wanli Emperor
4118:
4113:
4104:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4084:
4075:
4071:
4064:
4059:
4055:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4025:
4020:
4016:
4013:
4009:
4005:
3995:
3981:
3977:
3975:
3966:
3962:
3949:
3945:
3942:
3938:
3935:
3931:
3928:
3924:
3921:
3917:
3914:
3910:
3909:
3908:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3849:, now in the
3848:
3844:
3839:
3830:
3826:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3811:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3764:
3750:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3679:
3674:
3664:
3654:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3643:Southern Ming
3638:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3591:Eight Banners
3587:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3571:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3544:
3534:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3519:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3501:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3458:
3454:
3449:
3442:
3438:
3433:
3429:
3418:
3408:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3389:
3386:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3354:, while even
3353:
3349:
3345:
3340:
3336:
3327:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3303:
3293:
3289:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3274:Wei Zhongxian
3270:
3268:
3267:Wanli Emperor
3264:
3260:
3254:
3247:
3246:Wei Zhongxian
3243:
3239:
3230:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3211:Zhang Juzheng
3208:
3207:Wanli Emperor
3200:
3199:Wanli Emperor
3195:
3181:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3165:
3163:
3162:Imperial City
3159:
3155:
3151:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3087:
3077:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3050:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3012:
3008:
3004:
2999:
2995:
2979:
2975:
2974:Imperial City
2971:
2961:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2939:
2934:
2928:Rise to power
2924:
2915:
2910:
2900:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2865:Wanli Emperor
2860:
2858:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2836:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2813:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2784:
2782:
2778:
2773:
2772:Haixi Jurchen
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2756:Wild Jurchens
2752:
2747:
2745:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2717:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2673:
2671:
2667:
2666:Wang Yangming
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2613:
2609:
2599:
2595:
2592:
2588:
2582:
2580:
2579:secret police
2576:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2561:
2557:
2555:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2533:
2528:
2520:
2515:
2506:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2493:(present-day
2492:
2489:Yuan capital
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2470:Chen Youliang
2467:
2463:
2458:
2456:
2451:
2450:Zhu Yuanzhang
2447:
2443:
2439:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2401:
2395:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2354:Zhang Juzheng
2351:
2350:Wang Yangming
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2306:chili peppers
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2286:
2284:
2280:
2279:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2256:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2201:
2196:
2192:
2191:court eunuchs
2188:
2184:
2172:
2167:
2165:
2164:Southern Ming
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2120:
2112:
2094:
2082:
2077:
2075:
2070:
2068:
2063:
2062:
2060:
2059:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2021:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2014:Naval history
2012:
2010:
2007:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1998:
1997:Music history
1995:
1993:
1992:Media history
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1977:Legal history
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1959:
1951:
1950:
1931:1949–present)
1927:
1926:
1922:
1921:
1919:
1911:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1897:
1892:
1882:
1881:
1877:
1876:
1872:
1866:
1865:
1849:
1848:
1844:
1843:
1836:
1835:
1831:
1830:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1817:
1814:
1793:
1792:
1788:
1785:
1780:
1779:
1775:
1772:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1748:
1747:
1746:Southern Song
1743:
1738:
1737:
1736:Northern Song
1733:
1732:
1726:
1725:
1721:
1720:
1713:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1699:
1694:
1674:
1671:
1670:
1669:
1668:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1658:
1651:
1650:
1646:
1645:
1638:
1637:
1631:
1630:
1627:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1584:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1573:
1569:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1557:
1542:
1541:
1537:
1536:
1532:
1531:
1526:
1525:
1520:
1519:
1515:
1514:
1508:
1507:
1503:
1502:
1495:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1467:(206–202 BCE)
1465:
1464:
1460:
1459:
1453:
1452:
1448:
1447:
1442:(221–207 BCE)
1440:
1439:
1435:
1434:
1431:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1407:(475–221 BCE)
1405:
1402:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1380:(771–256 BCE)
1378:
1377:
1373:
1368:
1367:
1363:
1362:
1345:
1344:
1340:
1339:
1321:
1320:
1316:
1315:
1298:
1297:
1293:
1292:
1274:
1273:
1269:
1268:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1250:
1249:
1244:
1243:
1238:
1237:
1233:
1232:
1215:
1214:
1210:
1209:
1205:
1204:
1200:
1199:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1168:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1142:
1134:
1122:
1120:
1116:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1099:
1096:
1092:
1086:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1053:
1051:
1047:
1044:
1040:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1023:
1019:
1011:
1009:
1005:
995:
993:
989:
981:
979:
975:
967:
965:
961:
958:
954:
949:
945:
937:
935:
931:
928:Dynastic name
926:
914:
912:
908:
900:
898:
895:
891:
888:
884:
878:
873:
871:
867:
859:
857:
853:
845:
843:
839:
836:
832:
824:
822:
818:
815:
811:
805:
800:
798:
794:
786:
784:
780:
770:
768:
764:
756:
754:
750:
742:
740:
736:
733:
729:
724:
720:
712:
710:
706:
699:
694:
690:
685:
665:
663:
660:
659:
651:
649:
646:
645:
637:
635:
634:Southern Ming
632:
631:
623:
621:
618:
617:
609:
607:
604:
603:
595:
593:
590:
589:
586:
580:
577:
570:
569:
566:
565:
562:
559:
557:
554:
553:
549:
537:
532:
528:
524:
520:
515:
511:
510:
506:
503:
498:
495:
494:
492:
488:
479:
473:
469:
463:
459:
455:
451:
445:
441:
435:
431:
425:
421:
416:
412:
408:
403:
399:
395:
392:
391:Southern Ming
386:
383:25 April 1644
382:
379:
373:
369:
365:
359:
355:
352:
346:
342:
339:
336:
332:
328:
325:
322:
316:
313:
312:Wanli Emperor
310:
304:
301:
298:
292:
289:
286:
280:
276:
272:
270:
266:
263:
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168:
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160:
156:
147:
144:
139:
136:
135:
133:
129:
122:
117:
113:
107:
102:
97:
96:Imperial seal
91:
84:
79:
71:
67:
63:
52:
51:
44:
41:
37:
33:
19:
13762:Ming dynasty
13749:
13488:Contemporary
13338:Indo-Persian
13326:Nazi Germany
13270:Contemporary
13249:
13172:Vijayanagara
13071:Great Seljuk
12982:Thessalonica
12910:Golden Horde
12550:Carthaginian
12329:Neo-Assyrian
12314:Neo-Sumerian
12242:
12236:Other topics
12147:Four Masters
12072:
12065:
12058:
12051:
12044:
12037:
11877:House of Zhu
11830:Shanhai Pass
11810:Great Plague
11753:Jianzhou war
11527:Ming dynasty
11526:
11488:Qing dynasty
11476:
11471:Yuan dynasty
11418:Ming dynasty
11417:
11386:
11357:
11353:
11345:
11322:W. W. Norton
11320:, New York:
11317:
11297:
11277:
11257:
11242:
11224:
11215:
11196:
11177:
11166:
11149:
11124:
11113:
11092:
11073:
11040:
11036:
11020:
10985:
10981:
10962:
10943:
10924:
10901:
10879:(1): 29–49,
10876:
10872:
10853:
10841:. Retrieved
10828:
10809:
10774:
10755:
10736:
10726:16 September
10724:. Retrieved
10719:
10715:
10699:. Retrieved
10694:
10672:
10653:
10634:
10610:
10604:
10578:
10555:
10537:W. W. Norton
10530:
10514:
10495:
10476:
10457:
10435:(2): 57–82,
10432:
10428:
10409:
10390:
10378:, retrieved
10371:the original
10356:
10324:
10320:
10295:
10291:
10274:
10271:Ming Studies
10270:
10262:j.ctt17t75h5
10253:
10236:(1): 45–61.
10233:
10230:Ming Studies
10229:
10210:
10191:
10181:
10171:
10162:
10153:
10144:
10127:
10105:
10086:
10067:
10054:
10042:. Retrieved
10035:the original
10030:
10011:. Retrieved
10005:
9982:
9971:the original
9942:
9938:
9922:
9895:
9876:
9851:
9847:
9826:
9805:
9786:
9766:
9740:
9736:
9711:
9707:
9688:
9669:
9649:
9629:
9610:
9591:
9572:
9549:
9530:
9482:
9478:
9451:
9430:
9417:. Retrieved
9402:
9368:
9364:
9355:
9327:
9323:
9298:
9295:Ming Studies
9294:
9271:
9251:, Berkeley:
9247:
9234:. Retrieved
9186:
9182:
9157:
9153:
9134:
9117:Brook (1998)
9112:
9105:Ebrey (1999)
9100:
9088:
9081:Brook (1998)
9066:Brook (1998)
9061:
9049:
9042:Brook (1998)
9037:
9030:Brook (1998)
9008:
9001:Brook (1998)
8986:Brook (1998)
8971:Brook (1998)
8956:Brook (1998)
8941:Brook (1998)
8936:
8924:
8908:
8903:, p. 37
8896:
8884:
8872:
8860:
8848:
8836:
8824:
8812:
8800:
8788:
8776:
8764:
8752:
8740:
8728:
8716:
8704:
8692:
8680:
8668:
8656:
8644:
8632:
8620:
8593:
8581:
8550:
8538:
8526:
8514:
8502:
8490:
8478:
8466:
8459:Brook (1998)
8437:
8430:Brook (1998)
8425:
8418:Brook (1998)
8413:
8374:Ebrey (1999)
8369:
8362:Ebrey (1999)
8357:
8350:Brook (1998)
8345:
8338:Ebrey (1999)
8333:
8321:
8294:
8265:
8258:White (1966)
8253:
8246:Ebrey (1999)
8241:
8229:
8217:
8205:
8195:16 September
8193:. Retrieved
8189:the original
8174:
8164:
8152:
8140:
8121:
8115:
8110:, p. 11
8093:Brook (1998)
8088:
8081:Brook (1998)
8076:
8069:Brook (1998)
8064:
8042:Brook (1998)
8037:
8030:Ebrey (1999)
8025:
8018:Brook (1998)
8013:
8006:Chang (2007)
7991:Chang (2007)
7986:
7979:Chang (2007)
7974:
7967:Brook (1998)
7962:
7955:Brook (1998)
7950:
7938:
7926:
7919:Plaks (1987)
7914:
7907:Ebrey (1999)
7902:
7890:
7878:
7866:
7854:
7842:
7837:, p. 8.
7830:
7818:
7806:
7794:
7782:
7775:Elman (2000)
7770:
7763:Elman (1991)
7758:
7746:
7739:Ebrey (1999)
7734:
7722:
7715:Brook (1998)
7710:
7703:Ebrey (1999)
7698:
7691:Ebrey (1999)
7686:
7679:Ebrey (1999)
7674:
7667:Ebrey (1999)
7662:
7650:
7638:
7611:
7599:
7536:
7524:
7512:
7500:
7488:
7476:
7464:
7452:
7440:
7433:Chang (2007)
7418:Chang (2007)
7413:
7393:, p. 5.
7386:
7374:
7362:
7350:
7338:
7326:
7314:
7302:
7290:
7281:
7254:
7232:Chang (2007)
7212:
7200:
7191:
7179:
7167:
7138:
7126:
7114:
7107:Wills (1998)
7102:
7095:Brook (1998)
7090:
7078:
7071:Brook (1998)
7066:
7042:Wills (1998)
7037:
7025:
7018:Brook (1998)
7013:
6997:
6985:
6973:
6961:
6949:
6942:Ebrey (1999)
6937:
6925:
6913:
6901:
6889:
6882:Swope (2011)
6877:
6857:
6850:
6823:
6811:
6804:Ebrey (1999)
6799:
6787:
6775:
6763:
6751:
6724:
6712:
6687:
6683:
6677:
6670:Ebrey (1999)
6665:
6653:
6641:
6629:
6617:
6605:
6600:, p. 23
6593:
6588:, p. 8.
6581:
6569:
6557:
6550:Ebrey (1999)
6545:
6538:Geiss (1988)
6533:
6521:
6509:
6497:
6485:
6473:
6461:
6454:Norbu (2001)
6449:
6437:
6430:Wylie (2003)
6406:
6394:
6389:, p. 73
6382:
6370:
6358:
6351:Ebrey (1999)
6346:
6334:
6322:
6310:
6298:
6286:
6274:
6262:
6250:
6243:Ebrey (1999)
6223:
6211:
6204:Ebrey (1999)
6182:
6175:Ebrey (1999)
6170:
6136:
6130:
6118:
6106:
6099:Zhang (2008)
6077:
6065:
6053:
6041:
6029:
6022:Frank (1998)
6017:
5974:
5947:Qing dynasty
5924:
5907:
5890:
5873:
5856:
5837:in the Ming)
5734:
5711:
5702:
5699:
5663:
5653:
5631:oral hygiene
5625:
5621:
5615:
5602:
5594:hand cannons
5559:
5556:
5547:
5545:
5529:
5472:
5447:, just like
5440:
5434:
5429:Matteo Ricci
5427:Portrait of
5402:
5389:water clocks
5365:
5343:Simon Stevin
5326:
5323:Guo Shoujing
5316:
5307:trigonometry
5303:Guo Shoujing
5275:Michael Boym
5263:heliocentric
5250:
5247:Yuanjingshuo
5246:
5228:
5216:
5190:
5183:wrought iron
5141:
5135:
5117:Yangzi River
5110:
5104:
5073:
5062:
5054:
4973:
4943:
4920:
4912:Zhou dynasty
4834:
4823:Portrait of
4796:Kaifeng Jews
4793:
4789:Qing dynasty
4737:
4718:Matteo Ricci
4691:
4671:
4666:Bodhisattva
4623:
4619:
4615:Taoist canon
4590:Confucianism
4579:
4572:statue of a
4532:Matteo Ricci
4528:
4506:
4501:
4467:
4423:Dong Qichang
4416:
4373:Jin Ping Mei
4372:
4361:Yuan Hongdao
4358:
4342:movable type
4331:
4315:
4305:
4290:
4287:Ling Mengchu
4278:Jin Ping Mei
4276:
4270:
4266:Water Margin
4264:
4230:
4205:
4172:
4142:
4134:
4130:
4119:showing the
4116:
4101:
4072:
4068:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4034:outlined by
4029:
4026:(1494–1552).
4000:
3978:
3973:
3970:
3965:Ming coinage
3951:countryside.
3905:Public Works
3864:
3843:Jiang Shunfu
3827:
3818:
3814:
3812:
3781:
3746:
3742:
3734:
3726:
3722:
3714:
3701:
3683:
3639:
3635:Shun dynasty
3603:Shanhai Pass
3593:crossed the
3588:
3572:
3540:
3516:
3502:
3462:
3390:
3385:copper coins
3374:through the
3332:
3310:
3290:
3271:
3255:
3251:
3248:(1568–1627).
3204:
3166:
3152:
3113:
3052:Yongle used
3051:
3016:
2967:
2943:
2940:(r. 1402–24)
2873:Qing dynasty
2861:
2837:
2832:
2817:Qing dynasty
2810:
2808:
2780:
2776:
2748:
2719:Yuan dynasty
2713:
2696:rammed earth
2670:sinification
2641:
2615:
2596:
2583:
2564:
2560:Tang dynasty
2553:
2548:
2540:
2530:
2524:
2521:(r. 1368–98)
2462:Yuan dynasty
2459:
2433:Yellow River
2421:Yuan dynasty
2414:
2378:Qing dynasty
2374:Eight Banner
2366:Shun dynasty
2300:—spread the
2287:
2276:
2268:forced labor
2257:
2245:Indian Ocean
2198:
2168:
2156:rump regimes
2154:), numerous
2152:Shun dynasty
2136:Yuan dynasty
2123:
2093:Ming dynasty
2092:
2090:
1987:LGBT history
1923:
1905:
1878:
1845:
1833:
1832:
1819:
1789:
1776:
1763:
1744:
1734:
1722:
1711:Ten Kingdoms
1707:
1660:
1647:
1634:Northern and
1632:
1602:
1580:
1570:
1538:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1510:(220–280 CE)
1504:
1491:
1481:
1471:
1461:
1449:
1436:
1376:Eastern Zhou
1374:
1366:Western Zhou
1364:
1341:
1317:
1294:
1270:
1246:
1240:
1234:
1211:
1201:
1095:Southern Min
1029:Romanization
964:Hanyu Pinyin
887:Southern Min
739:Hanyu Pinyin
687:Ming dynasty
648:Qing dynasty
606:Shun dynasty
579:Yuan dynasty
561:Succeeded by
560:
555:
448:• 1600
438:• 1500
428:• 1393
338:Early modern
230:Confucianism
202:
40:
13076:Khwarezmian
13009:Carolingian
12814:Rashtrakuta
12518:Shaishunaga
12417:Hellenistic
12400:New Kingdom
12390:Old Kingdom
12189:Tai history
11872:Family tree
11783:Liaoluo Bay
11717:Renyin plot
11667:Tumu Crisis
11247:online free
10277:(1): 1–16.
10057:, Seattle:
9914:j.ctt6wr0q3
9485:(1): 7–28.
9126:Works cited
8757:Song (1966)
8745:Song (1966)
8709:Song (1966)
8697:Song (1966)
8519:Wong (1963)
8483:Zhou (1990)
8234:Wong (1963)
8108:Wang (2012)
7823:Mote (2003)
7367:Yuan (1994)
7285:Spence, 25.
7083:Lane (2019)
7002:Tsai (1996)
6978:Chen (2016)
6930:Tsai (1996)
6918:Ness (1998)
6729:Wang (1998)
6375:Tsai (2001)
6363:Wang (2011)
5821:Ming poetry
5742:Grand Canal
5694:South Zhili
5679:infanticide
5674:North Zhili
5598:ten barrels
5582:aerodynamic
5561:Huolongjing
5531:Huolongjing
5507:crystallize
5483:sericulture
5461:John Milton
5213:East Africa
5189:, from the
4948:and by the
4914:capital of
4859:Fang Xiaoru
4759:, or their
4744:Xi'an Stele
4678:He Chaozong
4604:-supported
4524:latticework
4494:He Chaozong
4464:, New York.
4297:Tang Xianzu
4193:Ming poetry
4155:feudatories
4008:Sui dynasty
3883:Ministries—
3808:chancellors
3790:since late
3719:prefectures
3680:is disputed
3647:Zhu Youlang
3611:Shanhaiguan
3441:Shanhaiguan
3376:Philippines
3370:across the
3352:the Spanish
3272:The eunuch
3171:had staged
3136:Tumu Crisis
3120:Esen Tayisi
3086:Tumu Crisis
3039:Han dynasty
2840:sovereignty
2571:Chancellery
2562:(618–907).
2442:White Lotus
2438:Red Turbans
2362:an epidemic
2264:Tumu Crisis
2225:Grand Canal
2034:Discoveries
2029:Cartography
2024:Archaeology
1962:Art history
1851:(1644–1912)
1838:(1368–1644)
1825:(1271–1368)
1795:(1115–1234)
1782:(1038–1227)
1778:Western Xia
1750:(1127–1279)
1582:Eastern Jin
1572:Western Jin
1497:(25–220 CE)
1493:Eastern Han
1473:Western Han
1352: 1046
1332: 1046
1328: 1250
1305: 1600
1281: 2070
1222: 8500
1203:Paleolithic
1194:Prehistoric
1070:daai6 ming4
1056:Daaih Mìhng
848:Mìhng chìuh
556:Preceded by
500:(1368–1450)
497:Paper money
452:160,000,000
442:125,000,000
149:(1403–1644)
141:(1368–1644)
18:Ming Empire
13756:Categories
13646:Portuguese
13527:Revival Le
13517:Vietnamese
13160:Later Tran
13130:Vietnamese
13026:Singhasari
13014:Holy Roman
12638:Bulgarian
12574:Satavahana
12545:Phoenician
12481:Achaemenid
12442:Indo-Greek
12422:Macedonian
12336:Babylonian
12157:Zhe School
12111:Ming tombs
11995:Inner Asia
11967:Shenjiying
11957:Great Wall
11855:Government
11482:1368–1644
11253:Huang, Ray
11028:Wikisource
9552:, Leiden:
9324:T'oung Pao
8915:, p.
7355:Fan (2016)
6894:Xie (2013)
6327:Shi (2002)
5990:References
5955:Ming tombs
5930:Zhu Shugui
5917:Ebrey 1999
5862:King of Wu
5714:gazetteers
5645:Population
5604:Li Shizhen
5578:land mines
5552:Xu Guangqi
5511:naval mine
5479:snorkeling
5312:field mill
5291:Copernican
5287:John Fryer
5283:Alex Wylie
5113:Huai River
4939:courtesans
4810:Philosophy
4804:1642 flood
4781:Dominicans
4730:Xu Guangqi
4724:" upended
4698:Franciscan
4550:See also:
4540:Xuande era
4328:mineralogy
4320:characters
4232:Literature
4115:Detail of
4032:Four Books
3859:rank badge
3796:Chancellor
3661:See also:
3657:Government
3595:Great Wall
3564:Xi dynasty
3543:Li Zicheng
3509:Great Qing
3505:Hong Taiji
3426:See also:
3242:Tianqi-era
3177:Great Wall
3167:While the
3074:Lê dynasty
3021:commander
3003:Ming Tombs
2893:Güshi Khan
2881:Yellow Hat
2877:Dalai Lama
2844:suzerainty
2829:censorship
2764:Amur River
2567:Hu Weiyong
2541:Da Ming Lü
2482:fire ships
2425:Han people
2346:heterodoxy
2322:Portuguese
2272:Great Wall
2253:Inner Asia
2195:enfeoffing
2148:Li Zicheng
2140:Han people
2124:Great Ming
2039:Inventions
1769:(916–1125)
1740:(960–1127)
1728:(960–1279)
1395: – c.
1393: 770
1354: – c.
1330: – c.
1319:Late Shang
1307: – c.
1283: – c.
1224: – c.
992:Wade–Giles
862:ming4 ciu4
821:Suzhounese
774:Ming ch'ao
767:Wade–Giles
620:Xi dynasty
505:Bimetallic
485:19.8 taels
432:65,000,000
418:Population
258:Government
183:Old Uyghur
166:(official)
47:Great Ming
13639:Couronian
13277:Ethiopian
13265:Manchukuo
13220:Brazilian
13066:Ghaznavid
13036:Srivijaya
12987:Trebizond
12972:Byzantine
12954:North Sea
12949:Norwegian
12937:Almoravid
12920:Ilkhanate
12890:Majapahit
12863:Muromachi
12772:Solomonic
12757:Ethiopian
12671:Caliphate
12604:Aragonese
12432:Ptolemaic
12152:Wu School
12137:Musicians
12000:Manchuria
11988:Frontiers
11065:201773710
11010:144538656
10893:144136313
10843:18 August
10341:144496554
9967:160016226
9613:. Brill.
9515:154406547
9393:162510092
9315:152169027
9236:15 August
9211:162090282
8270:Xu (2003)
7143:So (2012)
6704:0041-977X
6010:Ho (1959)
5995:Citations
5980:Ho (1962)
5831:Ye Chunji
5584:control,
5570:Liu Bowen
5540:Liu Bowen
5528:from the
5495:quenching
5335:Zhu Zaiyu
5295:Ptolemaic
5243:telescope
5181:and then
5121:sugarcane
5081:pederasty
4946:Censorate
4908:Confucius
4883:Confucius
4761:ancestors
4757:Confucius
4720:, whose "
4570:stoneware
4520:cloisonné
4512:porcelain
4431:Shen Zhou
4411:Wu School
4407:Shen Zhou
4324:geography
4303:in 1598.
4213:Shen Zhou
4052:shengyuan
3984:Personnel
3980:princes.
3885:Personnel
3800:Censorate
3623:Han River
3599:Wu Sangui
3580:Chongzhen
3364:New Spain
3356:the Dutch
3259:Wang Zhen
3227:Imjin War
3124:Wang Zhen
2735:Uriankhai
2725:based in
2545:Tang Code
2537:Confucian
2472:, in the
2460:With the
2429:inflation
2382:Wu Sangui
2294:Guangzhou
2243:into the
2126:, was an
1715:(907–979)
1676:(690–705)
1666:(618–907)
1653:(581–618)
1640:(420–589)
1608:(304–439)
1586:(317–420)
1576:(266–316)
1544:(266–420)
1487:(9–23 CE)
1213:Neolithic
1177:Dynasties
917:Bîng tiâu
903:Bêng tiâu
789:Míng cháo
745:Míng cháo
592:Later Jin
466:(nominal)
214:Religion
193:Mongolian
81:1368–1644
13619:Japanese
13582:Scottish
13562:American
13554:Colonial
13483:Imperial
13451:Moroccan
13387:Japanese
13365:Afsharid
13224:Burmese
13210:Austrian
13165:Later Le
13140:Early Le
13125:Venetian
13051:Tiwanaku
12964:Hellenic
12927:Moroccan
12858:Kamakura
12848:Japanese
12831:Saffarid
12784:Georgian
12698:Chalukya
12676:Rashidun
12666:Calakmul
12634:Bruneian
12513:Haryanka
12491:Sasanian
12486:Parthian
12437:Bactrian
12427:Seleucid
12407:Goguryeo
12385:Egyptian
12319:Assyrian
12309:Akkadian
12300:Colonies
12203:Currency
12142:Painting
11952:Military
11945:Military
11456:Archived
11384:(1990).
11374:25165269
11255:(1981),
11057:25549473
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10695:BBC News
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2318:potatoes
2296:such as
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2002:Timeline
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1909:of China
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13651:Russian
13614:Italian
13589:Chinese
13577:English
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13542:Vietnam
13532:Tay son
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13429:Khoshut
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13021:Serbian
12942:Almohad
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12836:Samanid
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12287:Empires
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11118:(1994).
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4887:Mencius
4844:scholar
4753:emperor
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4652:Mu Ying
4474:Jiangxi
4092:chuiwan
3901:Justice
3889:Revenue
3698:circuit
3631:Jiangxi
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3319:bullion
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