1345:
742:, at the opposing army. A contemporaneous record of the battle recounts the process by which the bombs were launched. First, a soldier ignited the fuse. The rope of the trebuchet was pulled, launching the bomb into the air. The bomb produced a large explosion the moment it landed, inflicting damage that could penetrate armor. The explosion sometimes sparked a fire on the grass of the battlefield, which could burn a soldier to death, even if he survived the initial blast. The bombs were more primitive than modern explosives, and occasionally they would fail to detonate or detonated too early. Mongol soldiers counteracted the bombs by digging trenches leading up to the city, which they covered with shielding made of cowhide, to protect from the explosives fired overhead. The Jurchen official reports, in a translation provided by historian
638:, from the color of the uniforms they wore starting in 1215. After the fall of Zhongdu in 1215, the Mongols downsized their war effort against the Jin, and shifted their resources in preparation for the invasion of Central Asia. The Jin tried to make up for their territorial losses to the Mongols by invading the Song in 1217. The invasion was fruitless, so the Jin wanted to negotiate for peace, but the Song rebuffed the offers. By 1218, Jurchen diplomats were prohibited from traveling to the Song. The Mongol war against the Jin had subsided, but not stopped, and went on through the early 1220s under the command of the general
663:
591:
533:
704:
of the available men in the empire to either defend
Kaifeng or fight against the Mongols on the frontlines. While the negotiations were ongoing, a plague was devastating the population of the city. Starvation was rampant. The supplies stored in Kaifeng were running out, even with what had been forcibly seized from people. The city's political disintegration created unfounded fears that there was an internal threat. Several residents of the city were executed on the suspicion that they were traitors.
39:
763:, ground porcelain and iron filings. The flame that shot from the lance reached a distance of three meters. The heated tinder that ignited the weapon was stored in a small iron box toted by the Jurchen soldiers in battle. Once the gunpowder was consumed, the fire lance could be wielded like a normal spear, or replenished by a new tube filled with gunpowder.
767:
gunpowder was in the arsenal of both combatants, but
Turnbull believes that only the Jurchens made use of it. The Mongols loaded their catapults with large stones or bombs of gunpowder, which were fired at the Jin fortifications. The barrage inflicted casualties in the city and had a psychological impact on the soldiers operating the Jurchen trebuchets.
838:. In the Mongol siege of Kaifeng in 1233 against the Jurchens in the Jin dynasty, Mongols and Han Chinese who defected to the Mongols against the Jin slaughtered the male members of the Jin Jurchen Wanyan Imperial family and took the Jin Jurchen Wanyan royal women including the Jin concubines and Jin Jurchen Wanyan princesses to Mongolia as war booty.
611:. They withdrew in 1214. Later in the year, fearing another siege, the Jin moved their capital from Zhongdu to Kaifeng. The Mongols besieged Zhongdu once more in 1215 once they learned that the Jin court had fled from the city. The city fell on May 31, and by 1216, large swaths of Jin territory were under Mongol control.
826:
palace women. The Mongol emperor Kublai Khan even granted a Mongol princess from his own
Borjigin family as a wife to the surrendered Han Chinese Southern Song Emperor Gong of Song and they fathered a son together named Zhao Wanpu. Genghis Khan forced the Jurchen Jin dynasty to give the former Jurchen Wanyan Jin Emperor
642:. Muqali died from sickness in 1223, and the Mongol campaigns against the Jin wound down. The Jin settled for peace with the Song, but the Song continued to assist the Red Coats insurgency against the Jin. Genghis Khan fell ill and died in 1227. Ăgedei was his successor, and he renewed the war against the Jin in 1230.
775:
The siege of
Kaifeng crippled the Jin dynasty, but did not destroy it. The penultimate emperor of the dynasty, Emperor Aizong, had evaded capture, but was left destitute after the siege. He sent his diplomats to entreat the neighbouring Song Dynasty for help. They warned that the Mongols would invade
737:
observed in his assessment of the battle that the siege is significant for historians of military technology. Many of the details of the siege are known to historians, based on a comprehensive account of the battle compiled by a Jin official living in the besieged city. The
Jurchens fired explosives,
703:
The
Jurchens tried to end the siege by negotiating a peace treaty. There was some progress towards an agreement in the summer of 1232, but the assassination of the Mongol diplomat Tang Qing and his entourage by the Jurchens made further talks impossible. The Jin grew desperate. They had enlisted most
716:
on
February 26, 1233, then Caizhou on August 3. The retreat of the emperor was ruinous to the morale of the soldiers defending the city. In the wake of the emperor's departure, Cui ordered the execution of those loyal to the emperor who had remained in the city. He realized that prolonging the
720:
The
Mongols looted the city when it fell, but atypical to most sieges in the time period, they permitted trade. The richest residents of the city sold their luxury belongings to Mongol soldiers for critically needed food supplies. Male members of the royal family residing in the city were captured
598:
The
Mongols learned that a famine had struck the Jin, and invaded in 1211. Two armies were dispatched by the Mongols into Jin territory, with one under the command of Genghis himself. The Jin built up its armies and reinforced its cities in preparation for the Mongol incursion. The Mongol strategy
750:
Therefore the Mongol soldiers made cowhide shields to cover their approach trenches and men beneath the walls, and dug as it were niches, each large enough to contain a man, hoping that in this way the troops above would not be able to do anything about it. But someone suggested the technique of
825:
and his mother as well as sparing the civilians inside it and not sacking the city, allowing them to go about their normal business, rehiring
Southern Song officials. The Mongols did not take the southern Song palace women for themselves but instead had Han Chinese artisans in Shangdu marry the
766:
The bombs and fire lances of the Jin were the only two weapons of the Jurchens that the Mongols were wary of facing. The Jurchen deployment of gunpowder was extensive, but it is not certain if the Mongols had acquired gunpowder from the Jurchens before this point. Herbert Franke maintains that
653:
led troops to pursue Emperor Aizong as he retreated and destroyed an 80,000-strong Jin army led by Wanyan Chengyi (ćźéĄæżèŁ) at Pucheng (èČć). Shi Tianze led a Han Tumen in the Mongol army since his family under his father Shi Bingzhi defected to the Mongols under Muqali against the Jin.
780:
against the Jin, resented the Jurchens for their conquest of northern China decades earlier. Instead of aiding the Jin, the Song allied with the Mongols. They cooperated militarily and captured the last of the cities still controlled by the Jin. In December 1233, the Mongols
707:
The defense of the city did not collapse immediately. The Jin held out for months before the city fell. The Jurchen emperor was afforded the opportunity to escape in late 1232, and departed with a retinue of court officials. He left the governance of the city to the General
751:
lowering the thunder crash bombs on iron chains. When these reached the trenches where the Mongols were making their dugouts, the bombs were set off, with the result that the cowhide and the attacking soldiers were all blown to bits, and not even a trace being left behind.
820:
when they defeated him earlier. However Patricia also noted the Mongols were lenient on the Han Chinese Zhao royal family of the Southern Song explicitly unlike the Jurchens in the Jingkang incident, sparing both the Southern Song royals in the capital Hangzhou like the
717:
siege was suicidal, and offered to surrender to the Mongols. Cui opened the gates of Kaifeng and the Mongols were let into the city on May 29. He was later killed outside of battle in a personal dispute, for insulting the wife of someone under his command.
789:, Emperor Aizong's intended successor, resided in the same town and was killed in battle soon after. His reign lasted less than two days, from February 9 to his death on February 10. The Jin dynasty ended with the fall of Caizhou.
675:
Two Mongol armies were dispatched in 1230 to capture the Jin capital of Kaifeng, then named Bianjing. The plans were to have one army approach the city from the north, while the second attacked from the south.
514:, who executed the emperor's loyalists and promptly surrendered to the Mongols. The Mongols entered Kaifeng on May 29, 1233, and looted the city. The dynasty fell after the suicide of Aizong and the
785:, where Aizong had fled to from Kaifeng. The emperor was unable to escape the town under siege, and resorted to suicide. On February 9, 1234, the Mongols broke through the defenses of Caizhou.
579:
to the Jin. Hostilities between the Jin and Mongols had been building up. The Mongols coveted the prosperity of Jin territory. They may have also harbored a grudge against the Jin for assassinating
502:
and bombs of gunpowder, killing many Mongols and severely injuring others. The Jin dynasty tried to arrange a peace treaty, but the assassination of a Mongol diplomat foiled their efforts. The
311:
599:
was based on capturing small settlements and ignoring the fortifications of major cities. They looted the land and retreated in 1212. The Mongols returned the next year and besieged
1677:
211:
692:. An illness incapacitated Ăgedei and Tolui, and they relinquished their roles in the campaign. Ăgedei later regained his health, but Tolui died the next year.
304:
1381:
635:
759:. The fire lance was a spear, with a tube of gunpowder attached to it. The mixture contained, besides the gunpowder ingredients of sulfur, charcoal, and
258:
243:
238:
297:
1148:
1670:
831:
1495:(1994). "The rise of the Mongolian empire and Mongolian rule in north China". In Denis C. Twitchett; Herbert Franke; John King Fairbank (eds.).
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The siege deprived the city of resources, and its residents were beset with famine and disease. Jin soldiers defended the city with
709:
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in 1215. Further south, rebellions had broken out in Shandong beginning with Yang Anguo's revolt in 1214. The rebels were known as
511:
197:
777:
441:
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793:
792:
One year after the end of the Jin dynasty, Emperor Aizong's prediction turned out to be right, with the beginning of the
630:
was not successful. Wannu, realizing the Jin dynasty was on the verge of collapse, rebelled and declared himself king of
700:
on January 28, 1232, and began amassing around Kaifeng on February 6. They besieged the city on April 8.
547:
in 1206. The Mongols had united under his leadership, and defeated the rival tribes of the steppes. In the same period,
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30:
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led the combined Mongol forces once the two armies converged in late 1231 and early 1232. The Mongols reached the
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the Song once the Jin fell, and requested supplies from the Song. The Song refused the offer. The Song, who had
358:
614:
Meanwhile, the Jin had been afflicted by multiple revolts. In Manchuria, the Khitans, under the leadership of
1630:
743:
1908:
1686:
1514:
734:
572:
472:
373:
68:
479:
for nearly two decades, beginning in 1211 after the Jin dynasty refused the Mongol offer to submit as a
1888:
1883:
1397:"Chapter 6 The Journey of Zhao Xian and the Exile of Royal Descendants in the Yuan Dynasty (1271 1358)"
603:, the capital of the Jin, in 1213. The Mongols were not able to penetrate the walls of the city in the
1436:
551:
was divided into three separate dynastic states. In the north, the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty controlled
1701:
411:
368:
1844:
1753:
1726:
590:
393:
104:
812:
treated the Jurchen Wanyan royal family harshly, butchering them by the hundreds as well as the
1432:
805:
1396:
1893:
1778:
1768:
1463:
662:
618:, declared their independence from the Jin and allied with the Mongols. YelĂŒ was enthroned a
575:. The Mongols subjugated Western Xia in 1210. In that same year, the Mongols renounced their
503:
268:
253:
121:
1613:
Science and Civilisation in China: Military technology: The Gunpowder Epic, Volume 5, Part 7
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8:
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who led the siege. The Mongols arrived at the walls of Kaifeng on April 8, 1232.
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1721:
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1353:
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786:
604:
487:
sent two armies to besiege Kaifeng, one led by himself, and the other by his brother
421:
248:
1546:
A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century
1788:
1741:
1527:
The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710â1368
1522:
1497:
The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710â1368
1492:
1404:
782:
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399:
351:
289:
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151:
1655:
1346:"9 State-Forced Relocations in China, 900-1300 THE MONGOLS AND THE STATE OF YUAN"
532:
388:
587:'s rude behavior to Genghis Khan when Wanyan Yongji was still a Jurchen prince.
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1838:
1806:
1608:
1229:
619:
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434:
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1408:
677:
491:. Command of the forces, once they converged into a single army, was given to
484:
322:
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827:
813:
799:
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560:
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145:
109:
1441:. Translated by Boyle, John Andrew. Columbia University Press. p. 287.
1352:(illustrated ed.). University of Washington Press. pp. 325, 326.
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576:
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subordinate to the Mongols in 1213, and given the title emperor of the
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136:
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38:
1833:
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189:
128:
64:
1468:(illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 94.
681:
639:
1399:. In Heirman, Ann; Meinert, Carmen; Anderl, Christoph (eds.).
760:
713:
685:
488:
132:
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1262:
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1256:
1254:
1252:
1223:"ććłçŹŹäș ććŠäž (Biographies 2, Imperial wives and concubines )".
847:
800:
Comparison to the Mongol treatment of other royal families
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1249:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
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1174:
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1348:. In Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Smith, Paul Jakov (eds.).
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969:
583:, one of Genghis' predecessors, and for the Jin emperor
944:
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886:
626:. The Jurchen expedition sent against him commanded by
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and executed. All imperial concubines, including the
666:
Battle between the Jin and Mongols in 1211, from the
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319:
1401:
Buddhist Encounters and Identities Across East Asia
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510:. The city was placed under the command of General
1685:
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922:
859:
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1529:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 215â320.
1499:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 321â413.
1380:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
125:Cui Li (Han officer who defected to the Mongols)
1635:Genghis Khan and the Mongol Conquests 1190â1400
1362:. Archived from the original on March 15, 2022
607:, but intimidated the Jin emperor into paying
1671:
305:
205:
1218:
1216:
834:(ćČćć
Źäž») to Genghis as a concubine during the
567:ruled parts of the western China, while the
475:. The Mongol Empire and the Jin dynasty had
181:Almost all, though exact figures are unknown
1461:
1403:. Leiden, Netherlands: BRILL. p. 213.
55:April 8, 1232 â May 29, 1233
1678:
1664:
770:
312:
298:
212:
198:
184:Very heavy; many Mongols killed or injured
37:
1465:Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire
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755:The infantry of the Jin were armed with
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555:and all of China proper north of the
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1307:
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865:
830:'s daughter, the Jin Jurchen Wanyan
16:1232â33 battle of the Mongol-Jin War
1394:
794:Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty
657:
13:
1879:Sieges involving the Mongol Empire
1759:Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty
528:Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty
219:
14:
1920:
1233:] (in Chinese). Vol. 64.
725:, were captured and taken north.
712:and reached the city of Guide in
594:Genghis Khan receiving Jin envoys
536:Ăgedei Khan, successor of Genghis
1344:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (2016).
688:commanded the army stationed in
1824:Jin dynasty coinage (1115â1234)
1517:(1994). "The Chin Dynasty". In
1485:
1455:
1425:
1388:
1337:
88:Emperor Aizong flees to Caizhou
1615:. Cambridge University Press.
1571:. Greenwood Publishing Group.
1548:. Cambridge University Press.
1438:The Successors of Genghis Khan
1350:State Power in China, 900-1325
506:fled the city for the town of
43:Mongol Conquest of Jurchen Jin
1:
1462:Broadbridge, Anne F. (2018).
841:
521:
1874:Mongol conquest of Jin China
1593:. Harvard University Press.
1567:Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule
7:
10:
1925:
1544:Holcombe, Charles (2011).
525:
1904:1233 in the Mongol Empire
1899:1232 in the Mongol Empire
1799:
1702:Alliance Conducted at Sea
1694:
1409:10.1163/9789004366152_008
680:headed the army based in
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47:
36:
28:
23:
1591:Imperial China: 900â1800
1845:Zhaocheng Jin Tripitaka
1754:1194 Yellow River flood
1687:Jin dynasty (1115â1234)
771:Historical significance
459:from 1232 to 1233, the
457:Mongol siege of Kaifeng
24:Mongol siege of Kaifeng
1433:RaĆĄÄ«d-ad-DÄ«n FaážlallÄh
808:noted that the Mongol
806:Patricia Buckley Ebrey
753:
672:
595:
537:
116:Commanders and leaders
1637:. Osprey Publishing.
1563:Lane, George (2004).
748:
665:
593:
535:
504:Emperor Aizong of Jin
467:, the capital of the
176:Casualties and losses
122:Emperor Aizong of Jin
823:Emperor Gong of Song
778:fought multiple wars
1519:Twitchett, Denis C.
1395:Hua, Kaiqi (2018).
1269:, pp. 263â264.
1053:, pp. 357â360.
1026:, pp. 254â256.
1002:, pp. 257â258.
990:, pp. 254â259.
856:, pp. 135â136.
729:Military technology
565:Western Xia dynasty
442:Bulgaria and Serbia
1909:History of Kaifeng
1829:Huining Prefecture
1747:Treaty of Shaoxing
1587:Mote, Frederick W.
1523:John King Fairbank
1521:; Herbert Franke;
673:
596:
538:
516:capture of Caizhou
1889:Conflicts in 1233
1884:Conflicts in 1232
1861:
1860:
1722:Jingkang incident
1644:978-1-84176-523-5
1631:Turnbull, Stephen
1622:978-0-521-30358-3
1600:978-0-674-01212-7
1578:978-0-313-32528-1
1555:978-0-521-51595-5
1536:978-0-521-24331-5
1506:978-0-521-24331-5
1286:, pp. 33â35.
836:Battle of Zhongdu
669:Jami' al-tawarikh
605:Battle of Zhongdu
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1493:Allsen, Thomas
1487:
1484:
1482:
1481:
1475:978-1108636629
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1454:
1447:
1424:
1418:978-9004366152
1417:
1387:
1359:978-0295998480
1358:
1336:
1334:, p. 265.
1324:
1322:, p. 215.
1312:
1310:, p. 248.
1300:
1288:
1271:
1248:
1246:, p. 172.
1236:
1230:History of Jin
1212:
1210:, p. 264.
1193:
1166:
1147:
1145:, p. 372.
1132:
1130:, p. 263.
1103:
1101:, p. 370.
1091:
1089:, p. 366.
1079:
1077:, p. 365.
1067:
1065:, p. 360.
1055:
1043:
1041:, p. 259.
1028:
1016:
1014:, p. 258.
1004:
992:
980:
978:, p. 352.
965:
963:, p. 254.
953:
951:, p. 351.
936:
921:
919:, p. 252.
909:
907:, p. 251.
897:
895:, p. 350.
882:
880:, p. 233.
870:
858:
845:
843:
840:
832:Princess of Qi
801:
798:
772:
769:
735:Herbert Franke
730:
727:
659:
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526:Main article:
523:
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222:MongolâJin War
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82:Mongol victory
79:
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69:Northern China
63:
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34:
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31:MongolâJin War
26:
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1727:Huangtiandang
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1712:JinâSong Wars
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1448:0-231-03351-6
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1298:, p. 35.
1297:
1296:Turnbull 2003
1292:
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1284:Turnbull 2003
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1198:
1191:, p. 33.
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1189:Turnbull 2003
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933:
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913:
906:
901:
894:
889:
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874:
868:, p. 45.
867:
862:
855:
854:Holcombe 2011
850:
846:
839:
837:
833:
829:
828:Wanyan Yongji
824:
819:
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795:
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764:
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738:propelled by
736:
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585:Wanyan Yongji
582:
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543:was declared
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461:Mongol Empire
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337:Volga Bulgars
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158:(Han general)
157:
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110:Mongol Empire
108:
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40:
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32:
27:
22:
1894:1232 in Asia
1850:
1843:
1783:
1653:
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1612:
1590:
1566:
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1526:
1496:
1486:Bibliography
1464:
1457:
1437:
1427:
1400:
1390:
1364:. Retrieved
1349:
1339:
1327:
1315:
1303:
1291:
1244:Needham 1987
1239:
1228:
1224:
1094:
1082:
1070:
1058:
1046:
1019:
1007:
995:
983:
956:
912:
900:
873:
861:
849:
810:Yuan dynasty
803:
791:
774:
765:
754:
749:
732:
719:
706:
702:
698:Yellow River
674:
667:
644:
628:Puxian Wannu
624:Liao dynasty
620:puppet ruler
613:
597:
569:Song dynasty
549:China proper
541:Genghis Khan
539:
497:
456:
454:
359:Eastern Liao
346:
325:'s campaigns
273:
153:
99:Belligerents
29:Part of the
1812:Wanyan clan
1779:Sanfengshan
1769:Dachangyuan
1332:Franke 1994
1267:Franke 1994
1208:Franke 1994
1158:Franke 1994
1143:Allsen 1994
1128:Franke 1994
1099:Allsen 1994
1087:Allsen 1994
1075:Allsen 1994
1063:Allsen 1994
1051:Allsen 1994
1039:Franke 1994
1024:Franke 1994
1012:Franke 1994
1000:Franke 1994
988:Franke 1994
976:Allsen 1994
961:Franke 1994
949:Allsen 1994
917:Franke 1994
905:Franke 1994
893:Allsen 1994
878:Franke 1994
818:Western Xia
816:emperor of
757:fire lances
678:Ăgedei Khan
645:The ethnic
632:Eastern Xia
500:fire lances
485:Ăgedei Khan
477:been at war
473:Jin dynasty
384:Kievan Rus'
342:Jin dynasty
323:Ăgedei Khan
269:Sanfengshan
254:Dachangyuan
144: [
105:Jin dynasty
1868:Categories
1160:, p.
842:References
804:Historian
787:Emperor Mo
740:trebuchets
733:Historian
651:Shi Tianze
616:YelĂŒ Liuge
557:Huai River
522:Background
364:Khwarazmia
1376:cite book
1366:March 15,
1320:Mote 1999
1308:Mote 1999
932:Lane 2004
866:Lane 2004
761:saltpeter
636:Red Coats
577:vassalage
553:Manchuria
518:in 1234.
463:captured
394:Sit River
141:Tang Qing
1819:Jiaochao
1800:See also
1774:Daohuigu
1764:Yehuling
1732:Yancheng
1717:Timeline
1707:Military
1633:(2003).
1611:(1987).
1589:(1999).
1525:(eds.).
1435:(1971).
649:general
581:Ambaghai
264:Daohuigu
234:Yehuling
163:Strength
60:Location
1834:Zhongdu
1789:Caizhou
1784:Kaifeng
1737:Tangdao
1695:History
694:Subutai
690:Shaanxi
609:tribute
601:Zhongdu
545:Khaghan
508:Caizhou
493:Subutai
469:Jurchen
465:Kaifeng
455:In the
430:Hungary
422:Legnica
400:Kozelsk
379:Armenia
374:Georgia
352:Caizhou
347:Kaifeng
279:Caizhou
274:Kaifeng
259:Weizhou
249:Zhongdu
244:Zhenyou
239:Huailai
168:300,000
154:†
129:Subutai
65:Kaifeng
1742:Caishi
1689:topics
1641:
1619:
1597:
1575:
1552:
1533:
1503:
1472:
1445:
1415:
1356:
814:Tangut
710:Cui Li
682:Shanxi
640:Muqali
561:Tangut
559:. The
512:Cui Li
481:vassal
417:Poland
389:Ryazan
369:Goryeo
171:15,000
150:
137:Ăgedei
76:Result
1227:[
714:Henan
686:Tolui
573:south
563:-led
489:Tolui
471:-led
412:Tibet
148:]
133:Tolui
1639:ISBN
1617:ISBN
1595:ISBN
1573:ISBN
1550:ISBN
1531:ISBN
1501:ISBN
1470:ISBN
1443:ISBN
1413:ISBN
1382:link
1368:2022
1354:ISBN
435:Mohi
405:Kiev
52:Date
1405:doi
1162:264
647:Han
1870::
1411:.
1378:}}
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1164:.
313:e
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199:v
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