20:
254:, in which plants use mycorrhizal fungi to exchange carbon and nutrients with other plants. In these systems, myco-heterotrophs play the role of "mycorrhizal cheaters", taking carbon from the common network, with no known reward. A special form of mycoheterotrophic association, which appears to be a chimera between the haustorial parasitism of a
271:
In congruence with older reports, it has been recently shown that some myco-heterotrophic orchids can be supported by saprotrophic fungi, exploiting litter- or wood-decaying fungi. In addition, several green plants (evolutionarily close to myco-heterotrophic species) have been shown to engage in
333:
stages. The fungi that are parasitized by myco-heterotrophs are typically fungi with large energy reserves to draw on, usually mycorrhizal fungi, though there is some evidence that they may also parasitize parasitic fungi that form extensive mycelial networks, such as
232:". It is now known that these plants are not physiologically capable of directly breaking down organic matter and that in order to get food, non-photosynthetic plants must engage in parasitism, either through myco-heterotrophy or direct parasitism of other plants.
197:) gets all of its food from the fungi that it parasitizes. Partial (or facultative) myco-heterotrophy exists when a plant is capable of photosynthesis, but parasitizes fungi as a supplementary food supply. There are also plants, such as some
217:
of other plants. The partial or full loss of photosynthesis is reflected by extreme physical and functional reductions of plastid genomes in mycoheterophic plants, an ongoing evolutionary process.
923:
235:
The interface between the plant and fungal partners in this association is between the roots of the plant and the mycelium of the fungus. Myco-heterotrophy therefore closely resembles
978:
Gebauer, G; Meyer, M (2003). "15N and 13C natural abundance of autotrophic and myco-heterotrophic orchids provides insights into nitrogen and carbon gain from fungal association".
168:
352:
fungi. The great diversity in unrelated plant families with myco-heterotrophic members, as well as the diversity of fungi targeted by myco-heterotrophs, suggests multiple
799:
239:(and indeed is thought to have evolved from mycorrhiza), except that in myco-heterotrophy, the flow of carbon is from the fungus to the plant, rather than vice versa.
1088:
205:, and photosynthetic and facultatively myco-heterotrophic or non-myco-heterotrophic for the rest of their life cycle. Not all non-photosynthetic or "
564:
2116:
1369:
1118:"Arbuscular, ecto-related, orchid mycorrhizasâthree independent structural lineages towards mycoheterotrophy: implications for classification?"
1282:
678:"Nitrogen and carbon stable isotope abundances support the myco-heterotrophic nature and host-specificity of certain achlorophyllous plants"
2260:
733:
2330:
1341:
1214:
677:
272:
partial myco-heterotrophy, that is, they are able to take carbon from mycorrhizal fungi, in addition to their photosynthetic intake.
1902:
1867:
509:"Dense infraspecific sampling reveals rapid and independent trajectories of plastome degradation in a heterotrophic orchid complex"
1307:
1117:
2340:
2068:
1050:"Origin and relationships of the myco-heterotrophic liverwort Cryptothallus mirabilis Malmb. (Metzgeriales, Marchantiophyta)"
734:"Changing partners in the dark: isotopic and molecular evidence of ectomycorrhizal liaisons between forest orchids and trees"
2345:
1270:
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2078:
1945:
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630:"Plants parasitic on fungi: unearthing the fungi in myco-heterotrophs and debunking the 'saprophytic' plant myth"
2750:
2623:
2796:
2395:
2350:
2102:
1355:
1882:
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924:"Independent recruitment of saprotrophic fungi as mycorrhizal partners by tropical achlorophyllous orchids"
922:
Martos, F; Dulormne, M; Pailler, T; Bonfante, P; Faccio, A; Fournel, J; Dubois, M-P; Selosse, M-A (2009).
2943:
2585:
1476:
1095:(Sanders IR, van der Heijden M, eds.), Ecological Studies vol. 157, pp 375â414. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
595:
189:
Full (or obligate) myco-heterotrophy exists when a non-photosynthetic plant (a plant largely lacking in
2650:
2370:
1857:
1574:
1471:
480:
Wicke, S.; Naumann, J. (2018). "Molecular evolution of plastid genomes in parasitic flowering plants".
321:
being fully myco-heterotrophic; in photosynthetic orchids; and in a number of other plant groups. Some
954:
2938:
2831:
2443:
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800:"Communities and populations of sebacinoid basidiomycetes associated with the achlorophyllous orchid
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2015:
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1013:
Selosse, M-A; Roy, M (2009). "Green plants eating fungi: facts and questions about mixotrophy".
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In the past, non-photosynthetic plants were mistakenly thought to get food by breaking down
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1103:. (NOTE: this PDF is from the page proofs, and is not identical to the published version)
891:"A unique mode of parasitism in the conifer coral tree Parasitaxus ustus (Podocarpaceae)"
376:
plants of eastern
Massachusetts form mycorrhizae with a diversity of russulacean fungi".
251:
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species, that are non-photosynthetic and obligately myco-heterotrophic for part of their
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Noteworthy Plant For June 1997: Fungus
Flowers â Flowering Plants that Resemble Fungi
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340:. Examples of fungi parasitized by myco-heterotrophic plants can be found among the
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457:
Dawson, JH; Musselman, LJ; Wolswinkel, P; Dörr, I (1994). "Biology and control of
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414:
Leake, JR (1994). "The biology of myco-heterotrophic ('saprophytic') plants".
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1313:
1184:
Hershey, DR (1999). "Myco-heterophytes and parasitic plants in food chains".
40:
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relationship and myco-heterotrophs are sometimes informally referred to as "
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2513:
2483:
2428:
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243:
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28:, an obligate myco-heterotroph known to parasitize fungi belonging to the
2163:
1710:
1672:
1647:
1637:
1602:
1549:
1529:
330:
260:
194:
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156:
29:
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162:
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partner in this relationship. Myco-heterotrophy is considered a kind of
2876:
2453:
2418:
2058:
2010:
1955:
1925:
1831:
1748:
1692:
1569:
1519:
1205:
336:
326:
291:
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246:, since they take energy from fungi that in turn get their energy from
236:
229:
125:
732:
Bidartondo, MI; Burghardt, B; Gebauer, G; Bruns, TD; Read, DJ (2004).
524:
250:. Indeed, much myco-heterotrophy takes place in the context of common
209:" plants are myco-heterotrophic â some non-photosynthetic plants like
2781:
2735:
2463:
1907:
1877:
1677:
1632:
1607:
1544:
1534:
1509:
1501:
1446:
1377:
113:
98:
68:
48:
1235:
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19:
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2765:
2296:
2124:
1803:
1715:
1662:
1617:
183:
1089:
Mycorrhizal specificity and function in myco-heterotrophic plants.
2826:
2633:
2503:
2498:
2125:
2073:
1733:
1378:
868:"Common Mycorrhizal Networks: An Important Ecological Phenomenon"
295:
242:
Most myco-heterotrophs can therefore be seen as ultimately being
210:
167:
731:
317:
286:
Myco-heterotrophs are found among several plant groups, mainly
198:
117:
1344:â images of myco-heterotrophs by mycologist MartĂn Bidartondo.
921:
456:
121:
322:
152:, though this term is also used for plants that engage in
298:
are full myco-heterotrophs, as is the non-photosynthetic
1041:
804:(L.) L.C.M. Rich. and neighbouring tree ectomycorrhizae"
675:
124:, in which the plant gets all or part of its food from
797:
276:
Species diversity of myco-heterotrophs and host fungi
163:
Relationship between myco-heterotrophs and host fungi
16:
Symbiotism between certain parasitic plants and fungi
1267:
Myco-heterotrophs: hacking the mycorrhizal network.
798:Selosse, M-A; Weiss, M; Jany, J; Tilier, A (2002).
356:of myco-heterotrophs from mycorrhizal ancestors.
148:". This relationship is sometimes referred to as
2915:
676:Trudell, SA; Rygiewicz, PT; Edmonds, RL (2003).
506:
1047:
870:. MykoWeb (originally published on Mycena News)
565:"The evolutionary ecology of myco-heterotrophy"
371:
1087:Taylor DL, Bruns TD, Leake JR, Read DJ. 2002.
311:). Partial myco-heterotrophy is common in the
2110:
1363:
888:
865:
1278:Dr. Martin Bidartondo: Selected publications
977:
741:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B
479:
1301:The Strange and Wonderful Myco-heterotrophs
1048:Wickett, Norman; Goffinet, Bernard (2008).
93:
63:
43:
2331:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
2117:
2103:
1370:
1356:
1111:
1109:
1012:
562:
228:fungi. Such plants were therefore called "
1065:
906:
760:
623:
621:
619:
617:
615:
532:
507:Barrett, C.; Wicke, S.; Sass, C. (2018).
409:
407:
2229:Predatorâprey (LotkaâVolterra) equations
1868:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
1081:
1054:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society
915:
166:
18:
2261:Random generalized LotkaâVolterra model
1212:
1183:
1106:
558:
556:
554:
552:
2916:
2069:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
1330:Fungus of the Month for October 2002:
1283:D. Lee Taylor Lab: Recent Publications
612:
404:
116:relationship between certain kinds of
2098:
1351:
1115:
1006:
971:
791:
669:
627:
450:
413:
258:and mycoheterotrophy, is observed in
2084:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
889:Field, T.S.; Brodripp, T.J. (2005).
725:
549:
307:(previously considered a species of
2534:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
13:
2287:Ecological effects of biodiversity
1176:
859:
428:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1994.tb04272.x
193:or otherwise lacking a functional
14:
2960:
1623:Generalist and specialist species
1294:
282:List of myco-heterotrophic genera
2346:Occupancyâabundance relationship
1215:"When good relationships go bad"
1067:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2007.00743.x
992:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00872.x
943:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02987.x
908:10.1111/j.1365-3040.2005.01378.x
823:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2002.01553.x
697:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00876.x
584:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01429.x
2366:Relative abundance distribution
2079:Plant defense against herbivory
1946:Competitive exclusion principle
1658:Mesopredator release hypothesis
882:
866:Peter Kennedy (November 2005).
1951:Consumerâresource interactions
1304:The Parasitic Plant Connection
500:
482:Advances in Botanical Research
473:
372:Yang, S; DH Pfister. (2006). "
365:
1:
2797:Biological data visualization
2624:Environmental niche modelling
2351:Population viability analysis
1027:10.1016/j.tplants.2008.11.004
359:
264:, the only mycoheterotrophic
2282:Density-dependent inhibition
1288:M.-A. Selosse's publications
315:, with a few genera such as
171:Myco-heterotrophic roots of
128:upon fungi rather than from
99:
69:
49:
7:
2751:Liebig's law of the minimum
2586:Resource selection function
1477:Metabolic theory of ecology
10:
2965:
2651:Niche apportionment models
2371:Relative species abundance
1575:Primary nutritional groups
1472:List of feeding behaviours
494:10.1016/bs.abr.2017.11.014
390:10.3852/mycologia.98.4.535
279:
2900:
2832:Ecosystem based fisheries
2774:
2674:
2599:
2472:
2444:Interspecific competition
2409:
2336:Minimum viable population
2269:
2194:Maximum sustainable yield
2179:Intraspecific competition
2174:Effective population size
2137:
2054:Anti-predator adaptations
2039:
1918:
1845:
1802:
1724:
1691:
1588:
1565:Photosynthetic efficiency
1500:
1394:
1137:10.1007/s00572-009-0240-7
649:10.1017/S0269915X05003046
94:
64:
44:
2822:Ecological stoichiometry
2787:Alternative stable state
1186:American Biology Teacher
329:have myco-heterotrophic
213:directly parasitize the
2666:Ontogenetic niche shift
2529:Ideal free distribution
2439:Ecological facilitation
2189:Malthusian growth model
2159:Consumer-resource model
2016:Paradox of the plankton
1981:Energy systems language
1701:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
1668:Optimal foraging theory
1643:Heterotrophic nutrition
1342:MartĂn's Treasure Chest
1015:Trends in Plant Science
563:Bidartondo, MI (2005).
463:Reviews of Weed Science
294:and non-photosynthetic
224:in a manner similar to
2812:Ecological forecasting
2756:Marginal value theorem
2554:Landscape epidemiology
2489:Cross-boundary subsidy
2424:Biological interaction
1774:Microbial intelligence
1462:Green world hypothesis
753:10.1098/rspb.2004.2807
346:arbuscular mycorrhizal
186:
33:
2817:Ecological humanities
2716:Ecological energetics
2661:Niche differentiation
2524:Habitat fragmentation
2292:Ecological extinction
2239:Small population size
1991:Feed conversion ratio
1971:Ecological succession
1903:San Francisco Estuary
1817:Ecological efficiency
1759:Microbial cooperation
1310:, College of Science.
170:
22:
2842:Evolutionary ecology
2807:Ecological footprint
2802:Ecological economics
2726:Ecological threshold
2721:Ecological indicator
2591:Sourceâsink dynamics
2544:Land change modeling
2539:Insular biogeography
2391:Species distribution
2130:Modelling ecosystems
1789:Microbial metabolism
1628:Intraguild predation
1417:Biogeochemical cycle
1383:Modelling ecosystems
1213:Hibbett, DS (2002).
252:mycorrhizal networks
146:mycorrhizal cheaters
2892:Theoretical ecology
2867:Natural environment
2731:Ecosystem diversity
2701:Ecological collapse
2691:Bateman's principle
2646:Limiting similarity
2559:Landscape limnology
2381:Species homogeneity
2219:Population modeling
2214:Population dynamics
2031:Trophic state index
1093:Mycorrhizal Ecology
747:(1550): 1799â1806.
354:parallel evolutions
2944:Parasites of fungi
2903:Outline of ecology
2852:Industrial ecology
2847:Functional ecology
2711:Ecological deficit
2656:Niche construction
2619:Ecosystem engineer
2396:Speciesâarea curve
2317:Introduced species
2132:: Other components
2064:Deimatic behaviour
1966:Ecological network
1898:North Pacific Gyre
1883:hydrothermal vents
1822:Ecological pyramid
1769:Microbial food web
1580:Primary production
1525:Foundation species
1332:Monotropa uniflora
1322:2006-08-24 at the
895:Plant Cell Environ
802:Neottia nidus-avis
628:Leake, JR (2005).
374:Monotropa uniflora
350:orchid mycorrhizal
187:
174:Monotropa uniflora
34:
25:Monotropa uniflora
2909:
2908:
2792:Balance of nature
2549:Landscape ecology
2434:Community ecology
2376:Species diversity
2312:Indicator species
2307:Gradient analysis
2184:Logistic function
2092:
2091:
2049:Animal coloration
2026:Trophic mutualism
1764:Microbial ecology
1555:Photoheterotrophs
1540:Myco-heterotrophy
1452:Ecosystem ecology
1437:Carrying capacity
1402:Abiotic component
1265:Werner PG. 2006.
1230:(6905): 345â346.
1116:Imhof, S (2009).
901:(10): 1316â1325.
811:Molecular Ecology
525:10.1111/nph.15072
37:Myco-heterotrophy
2956:
2939:Parasitic plants
2609:Ecological niche
2581:selection theory
2401:Umbrella species
2386:Species richness
2322:Invasive species
2302:Flagship species
2209:Population cycle
2204:Overexploitation
2169:Ecological yield
2119:
2112:
2105:
2096:
2095:
2001:Mesotrophic soil
1941:Climax community
1873:Marine food webs
1812:Biomagnification
1613:Chemoorganotroph
1467:Keystone species
1427:Biotic component
1372:
1365:
1358:
1349:
1348:
1337:TomVolkFungi.net
1326:by WP Armstrong.
1262:
1260:
1254:. Archived from
1219:
1209:
1171:
1170:
1168:
1167:
1161:
1155:. Archived from
1122:
1113:
1104:
1085:
1079:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1069:
1045:
1039:
1038:
1010:
1004:
1003:
975:
969:
968:
966:
965:
959:
953:. Archived from
928:
919:
913:
912:
910:
886:
880:
879:
877:
875:
863:
857:
856:
854:
853:
847:
841:. Archived from
817:(9): 1831â1844.
808:
795:
789:
788:
786:
785:
779:
773:. Archived from
764:
738:
729:
723:
722:
720:
719:
713:
707:. Archived from
682:
673:
667:
666:
664:
663:
657:
651:. Archived from
634:
625:
610:
609:
607:
606:
600:
594:. Archived from
569:
560:
547:
546:
536:
519:(3): 1192â1204.
504:
498:
497:
477:
471:
470:
454:
448:
447:
411:
402:
401:
369:
304:Aneura mirabilis
288:flowering plants
261:Parasitaxus usta
180:Russula brevipes
134:myco-heterotroph
111:
108:
105:
102:
97:
96:
91:
88:
85:
81:
78:
75:
72:
67:
66:
61:
58:
55:
52:
47:
46:
2964:
2963:
2959:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2954:
2953:
2914:
2913:
2910:
2905:
2896:
2882:Systems ecology
2770:
2741:Extinction debt
2706:Ecological debt
2696:Bioluminescence
2677:
2670:
2639:marine habitats
2614:Ecological trap
2595:
2475:
2468:
2411:
2405:
2361:Rapoport's rule
2356:Priority effect
2297:Endemic species
2265:
2224:Population size
2140:
2133:
2123:
2093:
2088:
2041:
2035:
2021:Trophic cascade
1931:Bioaccumulation
1914:
1841:
1798:
1720:
1687:
1584:
1496:
1457:Ecosystem model
1390:
1376:
1324:Wayback Machine
1297:
1292:
1258:
1236:10.1038/419345a
1217:
1198:10.2307/4450771
1179:
1177:Further reading
1174:
1165:
1163:
1159:
1120:
1114:
1107:
1086:
1082:
1072:
1070:
1046:
1042:
1011:
1007:
980:New Phytologist
976:
972:
963:
961:
957:
931:New Phytologist
926:
920:
916:
887:
883:
873:
871:
864:
860:
851:
849:
845:
806:
796:
792:
783:
781:
777:
736:
730:
726:
717:
715:
711:
685:New Phytologist
680:
674:
670:
661:
659:
655:
632:
626:
613:
604:
602:
598:
572:New Phytologist
567:
561:
550:
513:New Phytologist
505:
501:
478:
474:
455:
451:
416:New Phytologist
412:
405:
370:
366:
362:
342:ectomycorrhizal
284:
278:
256:parasitic plant
248:vascular plants
215:vascular tissue
207:achlorophyllous
165:
159:relationships.
138:parasitic plant
109:
106:
103:
89:
86:
83:
79:
76:
73:
59:
56:
53:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2962:
2952:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2898:
2897:
2895:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2862:Microecosystem
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2778:
2776:
2772:
2771:
2769:
2768:
2763:
2761:Thorson's rule
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2686:Assembly rules
2682:
2680:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2605:
2603:
2597:
2596:
2594:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2571:
2569:Patch dynamics
2566:
2564:Metapopulation
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2480:
2478:
2470:
2469:
2467:
2466:
2461:
2459:Storage effect
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2415:
2413:
2407:
2406:
2404:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2341:Neutral theory
2338:
2333:
2328:
2326:Native species
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2263:
2258:
2257:
2256:
2251:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2199:Overpopulation
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2145:
2143:
2135:
2134:
2122:
2121:
2114:
2107:
2099:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2045:
2043:
2037:
2036:
2034:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2006:Nutrient cycle
2003:
1998:
1996:Feeding frenzy
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1976:Energy quality
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1936:Cascade effect
1933:
1928:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1849:
1847:
1843:
1842:
1840:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1808:
1806:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1779:Microbial loop
1776:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1744:Lithoautotroph
1741:
1736:
1730:
1728:
1726:Microorganisms
1722:
1721:
1719:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1697:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1686:
1685:
1683:Prey switching
1680:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1594:
1592:
1586:
1585:
1583:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1560:Photosynthesis
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1515:Chemosynthesis
1512:
1506:
1504:
1498:
1497:
1495:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1407:Abiotic stress
1404:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1391:
1375:
1374:
1367:
1360:
1352:
1346:
1345:
1339:
1327:
1311:
1308:SIU Carbondale
1296:
1295:External links
1293:
1291:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1263:
1261:on 2008-12-16.
1210:
1192:(8): 575â578.
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1172:
1131:(6): 357â363.
1105:
1080:
1040:
1005:
986:(1): 209â223.
970:
937:(3): 668â681.
914:
881:
858:
790:
724:
691:(2): 391â401.
668:
611:
578:(2): 335â352.
548:
499:
488:(1): 315â347.
472:
449:
422:(2): 171â216.
403:
384:(4): 535â540.
363:
361:
358:
313:Gentian family
277:
274:
222:organic matter
164:
161:
130:photosynthesis
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2961:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2921:
2919:
2912:
2904:
2899:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2887:Urban ecology
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
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2793:
2790:
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2779:
2777:
2773:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2746:Kleiber's law
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2679:
2673:
2667:
2664:
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2659:
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2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
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2640:
2637:
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2622:
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2557:
2555:
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2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2519:Foster's rule
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
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2372:
2369:
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2359:
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2329:
2327:
2323:
2320:
2318:
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2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
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2290:
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2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2262:
2259:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2246:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2120:
2115:
2113:
2108:
2106:
2101:
2100:
2097:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2046:
2044:
2038:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1917:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1875:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1844:
1838:
1837:Trophic level
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1801:
1795:
1794:Phage ecology
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1784:Microbial mat
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1739:Bacteriophage
1737:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1729:
1727:
1723:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1706:Decomposition
1704:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1690:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1653:Mesopredators
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1598:Apex predator
1596:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
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1541:
1538:
1536:
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1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1432:Biotic stress
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1373:
1368:
1366:
1361:
1359:
1354:
1353:
1350:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:by Tom Volk,
1334:
1333:
1328:
1325:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1312:
1309:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1224:
1216:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1181:
1162:on 2016-03-03
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1119:
1112:
1110:
1102:
1101:3-540-00204-9
1098:
1094:
1090:
1084:
1068:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1009:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
974:
960:on 2020-04-30
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
925:
918:
909:
904:
900:
896:
892:
885:
869:
862:
848:on 2020-04-30
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
805:
803:
794:
780:on 2011-03-31
776:
772:
768:
763:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
735:
728:
714:on 2015-09-24
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
679:
672:
658:on 2012-03-14
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
631:
624:
622:
620:
618:
616:
601:on 2020-01-11
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
566:
559:
557:
555:
553:
544:
540:
535:
530:
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522:
518:
514:
510:
503:
495:
491:
487:
483:
476:
468:
464:
460:
453:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
410:
408:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
368:
364:
357:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
338:
332:
328:
324:
320:
319:
314:
310:
309:Cryptothallus
306:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
283:
273:
269:
267:
263:
262:
257:
253:
249:
245:
240:
238:
233:
231:
227:
223:
218:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
185:
182:
181:
176:
175:
169:
160:
158:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
101:
71:
51:
42:
38:
31:
27:
26:
21:
2911:
2872:Regime shift
2857:Macroecology
2578:
2574:
2514:Edge effects
2484:Biogeography
2429:Commensalism
2277:Biodiversity
2154:Allee effect
1893:kelp forests
1846:Example webs
1711:Detritivores
1550:Organotrophs
1539:
1530:Kinetotrophs
1482:Productivity
1336:
1331:
1315:Wayne's Word
1314:
1303:
1269:
1256:the original
1227:
1221:
1189:
1185:
1164:. Retrieved
1157:the original
1128:
1124:
1092:
1083:
1071:. Retrieved
1057:
1053:
1043:
1021:(2): 64â70.
1018:
1014:
1008:
983:
979:
973:
962:. Retrieved
955:the original
934:
930:
917:
898:
894:
884:
872:. Retrieved
861:
850:. Retrieved
843:the original
814:
810:
801:
793:
782:. Retrieved
775:the original
744:
740:
727:
716:. Retrieved
709:the original
688:
684:
671:
660:. Retrieved
653:the original
640:
636:
603:. Retrieved
596:the original
575:
571:
516:
512:
502:
485:
481:
475:
466:
462:
458:
452:
419:
415:
381:
377:
373:
367:
335:
316:
308:
302:
285:
270:
259:
244:epiparasites
241:
234:
226:saprotrophic
219:
188:
178:
172:
149:
145:
133:
36:
35:
23:
2509:Disturbance
2412:interaction
2234:Recruitment
2164:Depensation
1956:Copiotrophs
1827:Energy flow
1749:Lithotrophy
1693:Decomposers
1673:Planktivore
1648:Insectivore
1638:Heterotroph
1603:Bacterivore
1570:Phototrophs
1520:Chemotrophs
1492:Restoration
1442:Competition
1274:57(3): 1,8.
1271:Mycena News
1060:(1): 1â12.
874:January 19,
643:: 113â122.
331:gametophyte
230:saprophytes
195:photosystem
191:chlorophyll
157:mycorrhizal
154:mutualistic
30:Russulaceae
2918:Categories
2877:Sexecology
2454:Parasitism
2419:Antibiosis
2254:Resistance
2249:Resilience
2139:Population
2059:Camouflage
2011:Oligotroph
1926:Ascendency
1888:intertidal
1878:cold seeps
1832:Food chain
1633:Herbivores
1608:Carnivores
1535:Mixotrophs
1510:Autotrophs
1389:components
1166:2011-11-19
1125:Mycorrhiza
1073:23 October
964:2010-12-29
852:2010-12-29
784:2020-08-19
718:2006-05-21
662:2010-12-29
637:Mycologist
605:2010-12-29
469:: 265â317.
360:References
337:Armillaria
327:clubmosses
292:monotropes
280:See also:
266:gymnosperm
237:mycorrhiza
203:life cycle
150:mycotrophy
126:parasitism
2949:Symbiosis
2782:Allometry
2736:Emergence
2464:Symbiosis
2449:Mutualism
2244:Stability
2149:Abundance
1961:Dominance
1919:Processes
1908:tide pool
1804:Food webs
1678:Predation
1663:Omnivores
1590:Consumers
1545:Mycotroph
1502:Producers
1447:Ecosystem
1412:Behaviour
378:Mycologia
300:liverwort
114:symbiotic
107:nutrition
87:different
2934:Mycology
2837:Endolith
2766:Xerosere
2678:networks
2494:Ecocline
2040:Defense,
1716:Detritus
1618:Foraging
1487:Resource
1320:Archived
1252:17311635
1244:12353014
1153:85629763
1145:19326151
1035:19162524
1000:33873535
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