Cheating (biology)

247:, "Hyla arborea". In many sexually reproducing species such as this, some males can access mates by exploiting resources of more competitive males. Many species have dynamic reproductive strategies that can change in response to changes in the environment. In these instances, several factors contribute to the decision to switch between mating strategies. For example, in the European tree frog, a sexually competitive (as in, perceived to be attractive by females) male tend to call to attract mates. This is often referred to as the "bourgeois" tactic. On the other hand, a smaller male that would likely fail to attract mates using the bourgeois tactic will tend to hide near attractive males and attempt to access females. In this instance, the males can gain access to females without having to defend territories or acquiring additional resources (which often serve as the basis for attractiveness). This is referred to as the "parasitic" tactic, where the smaller male effectively cheats its way to accessing females, by reaping the benefit of sexual reproduction without contributing resources that normally attract females. Models such as this provide valuable tools for research aimed at energetic constraints and 230:

cleaners will feed on mucus when their clients are unable to control the cleaner's behavior; however, in natural settings, client fish often jolt, chase after cheating cleaners, or terminate interactions of swimming way, effectively controlling the cheating behavior. Studies on cleaning mutualisms generally suggest that cheating behavior is often adjusted depending on the species of the client. In cleaning shrimp, cheating is predicted to occur less often because shrimps bear a higher cost if the clients use aggression to control the cleaner's behavior. Studies have found that cleaner species can strategically adjust cheating behavior according to the potential associated risk. For example, predatory clients, which present a significantly high cost for cheating, experience less cheating behavior. On the other hand, nonpredatory clients present a lower cost for cheating, and thus experience more cheating behaviors from the cleaners. Some evidence suggest that physiological processes can mediate the cleaners' decision to switch from cooperating to cheating in mutualistic interactions. For example, in the bluestreak cleaner wrasse, changes in

194:

have potential for cheating to occur. Eusocial insects in the order Hymenoptera, which includes bees and wasps, exhibit good examples of conflicts of interest present in insect societies. In these systems, queen bees and wasps can mate and lay fertilized eggs that hatch into females. On the other hand, workers of most species in Hymenoptera can produce eggs, but cannot produce fertilized eggs due to loss of mating ability. Workers that lay eggs represent a cost for the colony because workers that lay eggs often do significantly less work, and thus negatively impact the health of the colony (for example: decreased amount of collected food, or less attention given to tending the queen's eggs). In this case, a conflict of interest arises between the workers and the colony. The workers should lay eggs in order to pass on their genes; however, as a colony, having only the queen reproduce leads to better productivity. If workers sought to pass their own genes by laying eggs, foraging activities would diminish, leading to decreased resources for the entire colony. This, in turn, can cause a

58:, or mutually beneficial interactions between species, is common in ecological systems. These interactions can be thought of "biological markets" in which species offer partners goods that are relatively inexpensive for them to produce and receive goods that are more expensive or even impossible for them to produce. However, these systems provide opportunities for exploitation by individuals that can obtain resources while providing nothing in return. Exploiters can take on several forms: individuals outside a mutualistic relationship who obtain a commodity in a way that confers no benefit to either mutualist, individuals who receive benefits from a partner but have lost the ability to give any in return, or individuals who have the option of behaving mutualistically towards their partners but chose not to do so. 198:, where selfish behavior lead to the depletion of resources, with long-term negative consequences for the group. However, in natural bee and wasp societies, only 0.01–0.1% and 1%, respectively, of the workers lay eggs, suggesting that strategies exist to combat cheating to prevent tragedy of the commons. These insect systems have given scientists opportunities to study strategies that keep cheating in check. Such strategies are commonly referred to as "policing" strategies, generally where additional costs are imposed on cheaters to discourage or eliminate cheating behaviors. For example, honeybees and wasps may eat eggs produced by workers. In some ant species and yellowjackets, policing may occur via aggression towards or killing egg-laying individuals to minimize cheating. 521:"Cheating" sometimes happens when the yucca moth deposits too many eggs in one plant. In this case, the yucca plant has little to no benefits from this interaction. However, the plant has a unique way of constraining this behavior. While the constraint against cheating often occurs directly to the individual, in this case, the constraint occurs to the individual's offspring. The yucca plant can "abort" the moths by aborting the flowers. Pellmyr and Huth found that there is selective maturation for flowers that have low egg loads and high number of scars (and therefore a high amount of pollen). In this way, there is selection against the "cheaters" who try to use the yucca plant without providing the benefits of pollination. 101: 159:. However, when the scarcity of food sources causes individual cells to starve, roughly 10⁴ to 10⁵ cells aggregate to form a mobile, multicellular structure dubbed a "slug". In the wild, aggregates generally contain multiple genotypes, resulting in chimeric mixtures. Unlike clonal (genetically identical) aggregates typically found in multicellular organisms, the potential for competition exists in chimeric aggregates. For example, because individuals in the aggregate contain different genomes, differences in fitness can result in conflict of interest among cells in the aggregate, where different genotypes could potentially compete against each other for resources and reproduction. In 83:

the individual that initiated the cooperative behavior, mutualism should be selected for. When researchers investigated the co-evolution of cooperation and choice in a choosy host and its symbiont (an organism that lives in a relationship that benefits all parties involved), their model indicated that although choice and cooperation may be initially selected for, this would often be unstable. In other words, one cooperative partner will choose another cooperative partner if given a choice. However, if this choice is made over and over, variation is removed and this selection can no longer be maintained. This situation is similar to the

482:

setting, the cleaner fish undergoes behavioral change in face of deterrents against eating their preferential food. In several trials, the plate of their preferential food source was immediately removed when they eat it, to mimic "client fleeing" in natural settings. In other trials, the plate of their preferential food source chased the cleaner fish when they eat it, mimicking "client chasing" in natural setting. After only six learning trials, the cleaners learned to choose against their preference, indicating that punishment is potentially a very effective countermeasure against cheating in mutualistic relationships.

486: 518:. The female yucca moths deposit their eggs one at a time to the yucca flower. At the same time, she also deposits a small amount of pollen from yucca flowers as nutrition for the yucca moths. Because most of the pollen is not consumed by the larva, yucca moths are therefore also the active pollinators for the yucca plant. Moreover, sometimes the female moths do not successfully deposit their eggs the first time, and may try again and again. The yucca plant receives scars from the multiple attempts, but they also receive more pollen, since the moths are depositing pollen with every try. 92:

exploitive individuals, otherwise known as cheaters, contribute enough genetic variation to maintain mutualism itself. Both this theory and the negative frequency-dependent theory suggest that that cheating exists as part of a stable mixed evolutionary strategy with mutualism. In other words, cheating is a stable strategy used by individuals in a population where many other individuals cooperate. Another study supports that cheating can exist as a mixed strategy with mutualism using a mathematical game model. Thus, cheating can arise and be maintained in mutualistic populations.

507:. Moreover, these plants cannot tell whether the bacteria are more or less parasitic until they are settled in the plant nodules. To prevent cheating, these plants seem to be able to punish the rhizobium bacteria. In a series of experiments, researchers forced non-cooperation between the bacteria and the plants by placing various nodules in nitrogen-free atmosphere. They saw a decrease in the rhizobium reproductive success by 50%. West et al. created a model for legume sanctioning the bacteria and hypothesizes that these behaviors exist to stabilize mutualistic interactions. 425:, Wenseleers et al. found that a combination of aggressive behavior and destruction of worker-laid eggs kept the number of worker-laid eggs low. In fact, 91% of the worker-laid eggs were policed within one day. They also found that about 20% of workers laying eggs were prevented from doing so through both the queen's and workers' aggressive behavior. The workers and the queen would grab the egg-laying worker and try to sting her or push her off the cell. This usually results in the worker removing her abdomen and not depositing her eggs. 400:, it is collectively beneficial for all the individuals in the community to have the queen to lay eggs rather than the workers lay eggs. This is because if the workers lay eggs, it benefits the egg-laying worker individually, but the rest of the workers are now twice removed from this worker's offspring. Therefore, though it is beneficial for one individual to have its own offspring, it is collectively beneficial to have the queen lay the eggs. Therefore, a system of worker and queen policing exists against worker-laid eggs. 434: 202: 4843: 3493: 4869: 4856: 3503: 466:

the experiment, they recruit coalition support against this individual by screaming. The formed coalition then chases this individual away. If higher ranked individuals find this discoverer, they either chase the discoverer away or became physically aggressive towards the individual. These results show that aggression as punishment is a way to encourage members to work together and share food when it is found.

445:, punishments by the queen are a way she motivates the lazier, less-related workers in their groups. The queen would shove the lazier workers, with the number of shoves increasing when there are fewer active workers. Reeve found that if the queen is removed when colonies are satiated, there is a significant drop in weight of the active workers because the lazier workers are taking advantage of the system. 385: 79:

not producing the antibiotic agent themselves, they are more likely to be negatively impacted by the antibiotic substrate because there is less antibiotic agent to protect everyone. Thus, cheaters can persist in a population because their exploitative behavior gives them an advantage when they exist at low frequencies but these benefits are diminished when they are greater in number.

455:

the study. Researchers theorize that this system developed because the fish are usually not closely related (so kinship benefits have little impact), and because there is a high level of predation risk when the fish is outside the group (therefore a strong motivator for the helper fish to stay in the group).

70:

of a phenotype depends on its frequency relative to other phenotypes in a population. Cheater phenotypes often display negative frequency-dependent selection, where fitness increases as a phenotype becomes less common and vice versa. In other words, cheaters do best (in terms of evolutionary benefits

454:

in their cooperative breeding systems. It is a pay-to-stay system where helper fish are allowed to stay in certain territories in exchange for their help. Similar to the naked mole rats, the helpers that were prevented from helping, the "idle helpers", receive more aggression than control helpers in

78:

colonies, there are antibiotic-sensitive "cheaters" that persist at low numbers on antibiotic-laced mediums when in a cooperative colony. These cheaters enjoy the benefit of others producing antibiotic-resistant agents while producing none themselves. However, as numbers increase, if they persist in

465:

and number of kin: females call more often and females with more kin call more often. However, sometimes when food is found, the individual ("discoverer") does not call to attract its kin and, presumably, to share food. If lower ranked individuals find this discoverer to be in the food drop area of

325:

association, the study demonstrated that the non-producer was unable to do so in soil conditions, suggesting that the two strains could coexist. Further experiments suggested that this cheating prevention may be due to interactions with other microbes in the soil influencing the relationship or the

193:

Eusocial insects also serve as valuable tools in studying cheating. Eusocial insects behave cooperatively, where members of the community forgo reproduction to assist a few individuals to reproduce. Such model systems have potential for conflict of interest to arise among individuals, and thus also

82:

Others have proposed that cheating (exploitive behavior) can stabilize cooperation in mutualistic systems. In many mutualistic systems, there will be feedback benefits to those that cooperate. For instance, the fitness of both partners may be improved. If there is a high reward or many benefits for

61:

Cheaters, who do not cooperate but benefit from others who do cooperate gain a competitive edge. In an evolutionary context, this competitive edge refers to a greater ability to survive or to reproduce. If individuals who cheat are able to gain survivorship and reproductive benefits while incurring

37:

to describe behavior whereby organisms receive a benefit at the cost of other organisms. Cheating is common in many mutualistic and altruistic relationships. A cheater is an individual who does not cooperate (or cooperates less than their fair share) but can potentially gain the benefit from others

502:

from inside the roots of leguminous plants, providing this essential source of nitrogen to these plants while also receiving organic acids for themselves. However, some bacteria are more mutualistic, while others are more parasitic because they consume the plant's resources but fixes little to no

171:

susceptible to cheating individuals that take advantage of the reproductive behavior without paying the fair price. In other words, if certain individuals tend to become a part of the sorus more frequently, they can gain increased benefit from the fruiting body system without sacrificing their own

108:

Studies of cheating and dishonest communication in populations presupposes an organismal system that cooperates. Without a collective population that has signaling and interactions among individuals, behaviors such as cheating do not manifest. In other words, in order to study cheating behavior, a

229:

removed by the cleaners. In these situations, instead of picking off the parasites on the surface of the client fish, the cleaner can cheat by feeding on the client's tissue (mucus layer, scales, etc.), thereby gaining additional benefit from the symbiotic system. It has been well documented that

365:

populations are placed into growth conditions with a proportion of adenosine, the cheaters are suppressed because the bacteria that responds to the quorum signal now produces adenosine hydrolase that they privately use for themselves to digest adenosine food source. In wild populations where the

91:

One theory states that cheating maintains genetic variation in the face of selection for mutualism. One study shows that a small influx of immigrants with a tendency to cooperate less can generate enough genetic variability to stabilize selection for mutualism. This suggests that the presence of

481:

and reef fish. Bshary and Grutter found that cleaner wrasse prefers the client tissue mucus over ectoparasites. This creates a conflict between the cleaner fish and reef fish, because the reef fish only benefit when the cleaner fish eats the ectoparasites. Further studies revealed that in a lab

316:

were studied in the soil, their natural environment. One strain, known as the producer, produced a higher level of siderophores, which meant that other strain, known as the non-producer, ceased siderophore production in favor of using the other's siderophores. Although one would expect that the

348:

that detect their population density and prompt the transcription of various resources when needed. In this case, the resources are publicly shared proteases that break down a food source like casein, and privately used adenosine hydrolase, which breaks down another food source, adenosine. The

234:

levels are associated with behavior changes. For smaller clients, increase cortisol levels in the water lead to more cooperative behavior, while for larger clients, the same treatment lead to more dishonest behavior. It has been suggested that "good behavior" toward smaller clients often allow

334:

By definition, individuals cheat to gain benefits that their non-cheating counterparts do not receive. This raises the question of how a cooperative system can exist in face of these cheaters. One answer is that the cheaters actually have a reduced fitness compared to the non-cheaters.

167:. The remaining 80% of cells become spores in the sorus of the fruiting body, which can germinate again once conditions are more favorable. In this case, 20% of the cells must give up reproduction so that the fruiting body forms successfully. This makes chimeric aggregates of 380:

Cheating is also commonly found in insects. The social and seemingly altruistic communities found in insects such as ants and bees provide ample opportunities for cheaters to take advantage of the system and accrue additional benefits at the expense of the community.

410:), Ratneiks & Visscher found that other workers effectively removed worker-laid eggs in all colonies, whether the eggs were from originated from the same colonies or not. An example of a combination of queen and worker policing is found in ants, in the genus 416:, in which worker-laid eggs are taken by other workers and fed to the "queen". In general, these signals that identify the eggs as queen-laid are likely incorruptible, since it must be an honest signal to be maintained and not be used by cheating workers. 1021:

Santorelli, L.A.; Thompson, C. R.; Villegas, E.; Svetz, J.; Dinh, C.; Parikh, A.; Sucgang, R.; Kuspa, A.; Strassmann, J.E.; Queller, D.C.; Shaulsky, G. (2008). "Facultative cheater mutants reveal the genetic complexity of cooperation in social amoebae".

396:" for its ability to take on properties greater than those of the sum of individuals. A colony of insects in which different individuals are specialized for specific tasks means a greater colony production and greater efficiency. Moreover, based on the 87:

in female choice. For example, in lek paradox, if females consistently choose for a particular male trait, genetic variance for that trait should eventually be eliminated, removing the benefits of choice. However, that choice somehow still persists.

62:

no costs, natural selection should favor cheaters. However, mechanisms also exist that prevent cheaters from undermining mutualistic systems. One main factor is that the advantages of cheating are often frequency-dependent.

474:

Cheating and constraints of cheating are not limited to intraspecific interactions; it can also occur in a mutualistic relationship between two species. A common example is the mutualistic relationship between cleaner fish

349:

problem arises when some individuals ("cheaters") do not respond to these quorum sensing signals and therefore do not contribute to the costly protease production yet enjoy the benefits of the broken down resources.

251:

involved in cheating. Studies find that mating strategies are highly adaptable and depend on a variety of factors, such as competitiveness, energetic costs involved in defending territory or acquiring resources.

493:

Finally the countermeasures are not limited to organismal relationships. West et al. found a similar countermeasure against cheating in legume-rhizobium mutualism. In this relationship, nitrogen fixing bacteria

403:

One form of policing occurs by the oophagy of the worker-laid eggs, found in many ant and bee species. This could be done by both or either the queen or the workers. In a series of experiments with honeybees

356:

populations are placed into growth conditions where cooperation (and responding to the quorum signal) is costly, the number of cheaters increases, and the public resources are depleted, which can lead to a

176:

is well established, and many studies have attempted to elucidate the evolutionary and genetic mechanisms underlying the behavior. Having a 34Mb genome that is completely sequenced and well annotated makes

366:

presence of adenosine is common, this is an explanation for how individuals that cooperate could have higher fitness than those that cheat, thereby suppressing the cheaters and maintaining cooperation.

269:, iron-chelating particles that seek and bring back iron for the bacteria. Siderophores are not necessarily specific to its producer - sometimes another individual could take up the particles instead. 46:

states that facilitation, cooperation or mutualism should be more common in stressful environments, while cheating, competition or parasitism are common in benign environments (i.e nutrient excess).

265:

Like many other organisms, bacteria rely on iron intake for its biological processes. However, iron is sometimes difficult to access in certain environments, like soil. Some bacteria have evolved

217:

that develop between small and larger marine organisms often represent models useful for studying the evolution of stable social interactions and cheating. In the cleaning fish

461:

also use aggression as a punishment. These animals have five distinct calls that they can "decide" to produce upon finding food. Whether they call or not is related to their

283:, to retrieve the iron necessary for survival. However, when iron is readily available, either from freely diffusing in environment or another bacterium's siderophores, 450: 3225: 1270: 326:

spatial structure of the soil preventing siderophore diffusion and therefore limiting the non-producer's ability to exploit the producer's siderophores.

3714: 3571: 3539: 123:

insects, such as ants, bees, and wasps; and inter-specific interactions found in cleaning mutualisms. Common examples of cleaning mutualisms include

815:(2009). "Frequency-Dependent Success of Cheaters During Foraging Bouts Might Limit Their Spread within Colonies of a Socially Polymorphic Spider". 298: 2974: 2274: 344:) under varying environmental conditions. These microorganisms, like many species of bacteria, use a cell-cell communication system called 71:

such as increased survival and reproduction) when there are relatively few of them, but as cheaters become more abundant, they do worse.

38:

cooperating. Cheaters are also those who selfishly use common resources to maximize their individual fitness at the expense of a group.

4415: 1424:

Brepson, L.; Troïanowski, M.; Voituron, Y.; Lengagne, T. (2004). "Cheating for sex: inherent disadvantage or energetic constraint?".

4703: 4305: 3478: 2933: 1443:

Castellano, S.; Marconi, V.; Zanollo, V.; Berto, G. (2009). "Alternative mating tactics in the Italian treefrog, Hyla intermedia".

2284: 338:

In a study by Dandekar et al., the researchers examined the survival rates of cheating and non-cheating bacteria populations (

4275: 4195: 4170: 4049: 3929: 3532: 3241: 3001: 963:

Strassmann, J. E.; Y. Zhu; D.C.Queller (2000). "Altruism and social cheating in the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum".

305:

ceased siderophore production in favor of taking up iron-bound coelichelin, an association also known as siderophore piracy.

4395: 3603: 2598: 781:

Schwartz, M. W.; Hoeksema, J. D (1998). "Specialization and resource trade: biological markets as a model of mutualisms".

4175: 4100: 4027: 4003: 3951: 3324: 2244: 4835: 4787: 4420: 3806: 3559: 2986: 2646: 2122:

Kiers, E. T.; Rousseau, R. A; West, S. A.; Denison, R. F. (2003). "Host sanctions and the legume–rhizobium mutualism".

1227:

Bshary, R.; Grutter, A.S. (2002). "Asymmetric cheating opportunities and partner control in a cleaner fish mutualism".

1496:

Galet, Justine; Deveau, Aurélie; Hôtel, Laurence; Frey-Klett, Pascale; Leblond, Pierre; Aigle, Bertrand (2015-05-01).

4215: 3053: 630:

MacLean, R. C.; Gudelj, I. (2006). "Resource competition and social conflict in experimental populations of yeast".

4901: 4848: 4455: 4240: 4032: 3525: 3058: 2656: 1498:"Pseudomonas fluorescens Pirates both Ferrioxamine and Ferricoelichelin Siderophores from Streptomyces ambofaciens" 4450: 4430: 4143: 3888: 3596: 3591: 3564: 3303: 3293: 3217: 2492: 100: 794: 4708: 4668: 4623: 4330: 4153: 3723: 3660: 3431: 3298: 3078: 2822: 2620: 2524: 2413: 587:

West, S. A.; Griffin, A. S.; Gardner, A.; Diggle, S. P. (2006). "Social evolution theory for microorganisms".

4780: 4465: 4445: 4382: 3833: 3702: 3643: 3496: 3083: 2827: 2566: 1798:

Kikuta, N.; Tsuji, K. (1999). "Queen and worker policing in the monogynous and monandrous ant, Diacamma sp".

63: 3028: 1271:"Strategic adjustment of service quality to client identity in the cleaner shrimp, Periclimenes longicarpus" 1080:

Li, S.I.; Purugganan, M.D. (2011). "The cooperative amoeba: Dictyostelium as a model for social evolution".

4628: 4400: 4220: 3843: 3811: 3719: 3436: 2938: 419:

The other form of policing occurs through aggression towards egg-laying workers. In a species of tree wasp

181:

a useful model in studying the genetic bases and molecular mechanisms of cheating, and in a broader sense,

287:

ceases production, allowing the bacterium to devote its energy towards growth. One study showed that when

4874: 4440: 3675: 3506: 3100: 1928:"Group-size-dependent punishment of idle subordinates in a cooperative breeder where helpers pay to stay" 1720:

Beekman, M.; Oldroyd, B. P. (2008). "When workers disunite: intraspecific parasitism by eusocial bees".

4335: 4205: 4185: 3964: 3709: 3202: 2376: 2183:

Pellmyr, O.; Huth, C. J. (1994). "Evolutionary stability of mutualism between yuccas and yucca moths".

43: 4755: 4726: 4613: 4527: 4435: 4410: 4235: 4200: 3976: 2996: 2793: 2603: 2371: 2264: 477: 421: 222: 20: 3125: 4648: 4532: 4405: 4225: 4158: 4020: 3993: 3848: 3623: 3586: 3419: 3283: 3255: 3230: 3187: 3090: 3023: 2898: 2771: 2739: 2712: 2702: 1872:

Reeve, H.K. (1992). "Queen activation of lazy workers in colonies of the eusocial naked mole-rat".

485: 293: 182: 143: 115: 2903: 1173: 909:

Számadó, S. (2000). "Cheating as a mixed strategy in a simple model of aggressive communication".

4812: 4653: 4519: 4345: 4325: 4315: 4130: 4110: 3981: 3969: 3959: 3816: 3548: 3424: 3354: 3263: 2991: 2873: 2641: 2237: 271: 260: 4770: 4765: 4740: 4688: 4683: 4523: 4515: 4506: 4501: 4470: 4362: 4148: 4085: 3838: 3757: 3463: 3112: 2981: 2943: 2844: 2815: 2788: 2783: 2381: 358: 340: 195: 148: 2969: 4797: 4760: 4658: 4567: 4562: 4537: 4265: 4245: 4095: 4015: 3988: 3919: 3687: 3404: 3278: 3197: 3192: 3177: 3162: 3152: 3068: 3043: 2878: 2834: 2798: 2766: 2707: 2685: 2666: 2529: 2482: 2433: 2428: 2386: 1174:"Cortisol mediates cleaner wrasse switch from cooperation to cheating and tactical deception" 4750: 4557: 4542: 4510: 4497: 4358: 4270: 4138: 4105: 4080: 3934: 3898: 3792: 3762: 3581: 3378: 3273: 3207: 3008: 2923: 2839: 2751: 2734: 2661: 2651: 2361: 2269: 2253: 2192: 2131: 1988: 1881: 1764: 1631: 1509: 1031: 972: 863: 753: 639: 156: 3013: 2883: 1733: 1695: 8: 4817: 4582: 4367: 4285: 3826: 3770: 3697: 3441: 3399: 3349: 3268: 3116: 3108: 3038: 3018: 2964: 2808: 2561: 2504: 2366: 2349: 2327: 2091:"Sanctions and mutualism stability: when should less beneficial mutualists be tolerated?" 55: 2719: 2196: 2135: 1992: 1885: 1768: 1635: 1513: 1035: 976: 867: 757: 643: 4775: 4618: 4608: 4577: 4372: 4320: 4230: 4180: 4039: 3998: 3914: 3821: 3801: 3655: 3628: 3414: 3366: 3359: 2956: 2868: 2729: 2690: 2514: 2458: 2448: 2408: 2317: 2312: 2230: 2208: 2165: 2063: 2038: 1952: 1927: 1905: 1854: 1815: 1780: 1652: 1619: 1595: 1562: 1538: 1497: 1460: 1394: 1369: 1342: 1317: 1293: 1244: 1204: 1055: 996: 934: 886: 851: 714: 689: 663: 612: 564: 539: 244: 214: 30: 2039:"Punishment and partner switching cause cooperative behaviour in a cleaning mutualism" 4896: 4868: 4861: 4855: 4638: 4633: 4547: 4349: 4090: 4057: 3924: 3785: 3733: 3692: 3670: 3638: 3502: 3456: 3182: 3130: 2908: 2724: 2625: 2588: 2583: 2539: 2534: 2487: 2453: 2157: 2107: 2090: 2068: 2016: 2011: 1976: 1957: 1897: 1737: 1699: 1657: 1600: 1582: 1543: 1525: 1399: 1347: 1196: 1149: 1144: 1127: 1097: 1047: 988: 926: 891: 832: 828: 766: 741: 719: 655: 604: 569: 406: 67: 39: 1858: 1834: 1819: 1679: 1464: 1297: 1248: 1171: 1020: 938: 616: 4067: 4008: 3797: 3740: 3048: 2615: 2593: 2401: 2212: 2200: 2169: 2147: 2139: 2121: 2102: 2058: 2050: 2006: 1996: 1947: 1939: 1909: 1889: 1846: 1807: 1784: 1772: 1729: 1691: 1647: 1639: 1590: 1574: 1533: 1517: 1452: 1389: 1381: 1337: 1329: 1285: 1236: 1208: 1188: 1139: 1125: 1089: 1059: 1039: 1000: 980: 918: 881: 871: 824: 790: 761: 709: 701: 667: 647: 596: 559: 551: 3939: 2893: 1423: 1289: 4807: 4698: 4663: 4572: 4460: 4354: 4310: 4290: 4163: 3879: 3858: 3613: 3409: 3033: 2860: 2849: 2803: 2746: 2695: 2475: 2279: 586: 375: 1192: 4300: 4280: 4190: 3883: 3775: 3650: 3249: 3121: 3063: 2423: 2418: 2356: 2334: 1172:

Soares, M.C.; Cardoso, S.C.; Grutter, A.S.; Oliveira, R.F.; Bshary, R. (2014).

812: 458: 442: 345: 163:, roughly 20% of the cells in the aggregate become dead to make the stalk of a 128: 1977:"Costs of deception: cheaters are punished in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)" 1850: 1456: 1093: 4890: 4802: 4745: 4735: 4295: 4115: 4075: 4071: 4062: 3905: 3874: 3863: 3853: 3780: 3682: 3576: 3451: 3329: 3288: 3134: 2888: 2556: 2551: 2001: 1586: 1529: 1442: 537: 397: 393: 261:

Environmental conditions and social interactions affecting microbial cheating

113:

is needed. Models that provide insight on cheating include the social amoeba

1643: 876: 4592: 3893: 3870: 3446: 3394: 3339: 3172: 3167: 2761: 2519: 2161: 2072: 2054: 1961: 1943: 1741: 1703: 1661: 1604: 1578: 1547: 1403: 1385: 1351: 1333: 1240: 1200: 1153: 1101: 1051: 992: 930: 922: 895: 836: 723: 705: 659: 608: 573: 555: 538:

Ferriere, R.; Bronstein, J.L.; Rinaldi, S.; Law, R.; Gauduchon, M. (2002).

124: 3517: 2088: 2020: 1901: 1811: 1755:

Ratnieks, F.L.; Visscher, P.K. (1989). "Worker policing in the honeybee".

1563:"Siderophore cooperation of the bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens in soil" 433: 54:

Organisms communicate and cooperate to perform a wide range of behaviors.

4731: 4643: 4587: 4425: 4210: 3909: 3728: 3473: 3344: 3073: 2608: 2438: 2344: 2302: 1832: 1521: 441:

Aggression and punishment are not just found in insects. For example, in

266: 248: 201: 120: 110: 2913: 2143: 1677: 1617: 1043: 651: 600: 510:

Another well-known example of plant-organism interaction occurs between

312:

cheating behavior could be suppressed. In another study, two strains of

4678: 4673: 4390: 4125: 3665: 3334: 3235: 3157: 3144: 2778: 2578: 2465: 2443: 2396: 2391: 2339: 2307: 2222: 1128:"Worker reproduction and policing in insect societies: an ESS analysis" 515: 280: 226: 84: 1835:"Queen and worker policing in the tree wasp Dolichovespula sylvestris" 275:

is a bacterium commonly found in the soil. Under low-iron conditions,

4340: 3468: 3319: 2928: 2546: 2294: 2204: 1893: 1776: 1318:"Mutualism or parasitism? The variable outcome of cleaning symbioses" 984: 2152: 4792: 4552: 4257: 3371: 2573: 495: 412: 231: 164: 34: 1925: 1126:

Wenseleers, T.; Helanterä, H.; Hart, A.; Ratnieks, F.L.W. (2004).

962: 4693: 2756: 2470: 1620:"Bacterial quorum sensing and metabolic incentives to cooperate" 329: 152: 1367: 384: 147:

is a widely used model for cooperation and the development of

42:

favors cheating, but there are mechanisms to regulate it. The

2677: 1561:

Luján, Adela M.; Gómez, Pedro; Buckling, Angus (2015-02-01).

780: 511: 155:, single-celled state that feeds independently and undergoes 1754: 810: 795:

10.1890/0012-9658(1998)079[1029:sartbm]2.0.co;2

1495: 849: 235:

wrasses to attract larger clients that are often cheated.

2089:

West, S. A.; Kiers, E.T.; Pen, I.; Denison, R.F. (2002).

1719: 462: 428: 301:, no pyoverdine was detected. This result suggested that 225:), as in many cleaner species, client fish seeks to have 205:

Fish cleaned by smaller cleaner wrasses on Hawaiian reefs

1478:

Wells, K. (2001). "The energetics of calling in frogs".

1079: 852:"Parasites may help stabilize cooperative relationships" 629: 2036: 1932:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

1226: 694:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

540:"Cheating and the evolutionary stability of mutualisms" 2182: 1833:

Wenseleers, T.; Tofilski, A.; Ratnieks, F. L. (2005).

1315: 687: 1678:

Ratnieks, F.L.; Foster, K.R.; Wenseleers, T. (2006).

1618:

Dandekar, A.A.; Chugani, S.; Greenberg, E.P. (2012).

1268: 317:

non-producer would outcompete the producer, like the

151:. This species of amoeba is most commonly found in a 1797: 1560: 1363: 1361: 1121: 1119: 1117: 1115: 1113: 1111: 690:"Cheating can stabilize cooperation in mutualisms" 297:, another bacterium that produces the siderophore 255: 1016: 1014: 1012: 1010: 958: 956: 954: 952: 950: 948: 369: 172:opportunities to reproduce. Cheating behavior in 4888: 739: 469: 1981:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1926:Fischer, S.; Zöttl, M.; Groenewoud, F. (2014). 1673: 1671: 1358: 1108: 1921: 1919: 1826: 1715: 1713: 1419: 1417: 1415: 1413: 1264: 1262: 1260: 1258: 1007: 945: 806: 804: 134: 3533: 2238: 2032: 2030: 1311: 1309: 1307: 1222: 1220: 1218: 1167: 1165: 1163: 330:Selection pressure in bacteria (intraspecies) 1974: 1748: 1668: 1611: 531: 448:Punishment is also a method used by cichlid 392:Sometimes, a colony of insects is called a " 3547: 2176: 2084: 2082: 1916: 1871: 1710: 1410: 1255: 908: 801: 774: 735: 733: 3540: 3526: 2245: 2231: 2027: 1968: 1791: 1426:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 1374:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 1304: 1215: 1160: 623: 2151: 2115: 2106: 2062: 2010: 2000: 1951: 1865: 1680:"Conflict resolution in insect societies" 1651: 1594: 1537: 1477: 1393: 1370:"Tragedy of the commons in Melipona bees" 1368:Wenseleers, T.; Ratnieks, F.L.W. (2004). 1341: 1143: 1075: 1073: 1071: 1069: 885: 875: 843: 765: 713: 563: 16:Exploitive behavior in behavioral ecology 4704:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 3479:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 2252: 2079: 730: 484: 432: 383: 209: 200: 99: 683: 681: 679: 677: 580: 4889: 1502:Applied and Environmental Microbiology 1066: 429:Policing/punishment in other organisms 308:More studies, however, suggested that 188: 4196:Psychological effects of Internet use 3521: 3242:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 2226: 1734:10.1146/annurev.ento.53.103106.093515 1696:10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.151003 1491: 1489: 850:Little, A. E.; Currie, C. R. (2009). 243:Other models of cheating include the 127:such as wrasses and gobies, and some 49: 674: 279:produces siderophores, specifically 4176:Digital media use and mental health 1839:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 1800:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 1445:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 104:Stalked slime mould fruiting bodies 13: 3807:Automatic and controlled processes 2647:Evolutionary developmental biology 2037:Bshary, R.; Grutter, A.S. (2005). 1486: 489:Nitrogen-fixing nodules in legumes 14: 4913: 4216:Smartphones and pedestrian safety 1316:Cheney, K.L.; Cote, I.M. (2005). 688:Foster, K. R.; Kokko, H. (2006). 4867: 4854: 4842: 4841: 4241:Mobile phones and driving safety 3501: 3492: 3491: 2108:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00441.x 1269:Chapuis, L.; Bshary, R. (2009). 1145:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2004.00751.x 829:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00771.x 767:10.1046/j.1461-0248.2001.00218.x 742:"The exploitation of mutualisms" 4144:Computer-mediated communication 3304:Extended evolutionary synthesis 2493:Gene-centered view of evolution 2095:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 1554: 1471: 1436: 256:Constraints and countermeasures 4421:Empathising–systemising theory 3724:female intrasexual competition 3661:Evolutionarily stable strategy 3432:Hologenome theory of evolution 3299:History of molecular evolution 2525:Evolutionarily stable strategy 2414:Last universal common ancestor 902: 370:Policing/punishment in insects 1: 4781:Standard social science model 3834:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis 3226:Renaissance and Enlightenment 1290:10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.06.001 524: 470:Interspecific countermeasures 109:model system that engages in 64:Frequency-dependent selection 4629:Missing heritability problem 4221:Social aspects of television 3844:Evolution of nervous systems 3812:Computational theory of mind 3437:Missing heritability problem 3064:Gamete differentiation/sexes 7: 4875:Evolutionary biology portal 1193:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.06.010 589:Nature Reviews Microbiology 388:Wasp nest, with some larvae 95: 10: 4918: 4836:Evolutionary psychologists 4709:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 4624:Human–animal communication 4336:Ovulatory shift hypothesis 4186:Imprinted brain hypothesis 4154:Human–computer interaction 3069:Life cycles/nuclear phases 2621:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 373: 44:stress gradient hypothesis 18: 4830: 4756:Environmental determinism 4727:Cultural selection theory 4719: 4614:Evolutionary epistemology 4601: 4528:evolutionary neuroscience 4490: 4483: 4381: 4256: 4201:Rank theory of depression 4124: 4048: 3950: 3756: 3749: 3703:Parent–offspring conflict 3612: 3555: 3487: 3387: 3312: 3216: 3143: 3099: 2954: 2858: 2675: 2634: 2567:Parent–offspring conflict 2503: 2372:Earliest known life forms 2293: 2260: 1851:10.1007/s00265-004-0892-4 1457:10.1007/s00265-009-0756-z 1094:10.1016/j.tig.2010.11.003 740:Bronstein, J. L. (2001). 437:A nest of naked mole rats 422:Dolichovespula sylvestris 291:grew in association with 223:Bluestreak cleaner wrasse 21:cheating (disambiguation) 4649:Cultural group selection 4533:Biocultural anthropology 4226:Societal impacts of cars 4159:Media naturalness theory 3849:Fight-or-flight response 3420:Cultural group selection 3284:The eclipse of Darwinism 3256:On the Origin of Species 3231:Transmutation of species 2002:10.1073/pnas.89.24.12137 856:BMC Evolutionary Biology 294:Streptomyces ambofaciens 238: 169:Dictyostelium discoideum 161:Dictyostelium discoideum 144:Dictyostelium discoideum 137:Dictyostelium discoideum 116:Dictyostelium discoideum 4902:Biological interactions 4849:Evolutionary psychology 4813:Sociocultural evolution 4654:Dual inheritance theory 4111:Personality development 3572:Theoretical foundations 3549:Evolutionary psychology 3425:Dual inheritance theory 3264:History of paleontology 1644:10.1126/science.1227289 877:10.1186/1471-2148-9-124 451:Neolamprologous pulcher 272:Pseudomonas fluorescens 4771:Social constructionism 4766:Psychological nativism 4741:Biological determinism 4689:Recent human evolution 4684:Punctuated equilibrium 4507:Behavioral epigenetics 4502:evolutionary economics 4471:Variability hypothesis 4416:Emotional intelligence 4149:Engineering psychology 3839:Evolution of the brain 3113:Punctuated equilibrium 2434:Non-adaptive radiation 2382:Evolutionary arms race 2055:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0344 1944:10.1098/rspb.2014.0184 1579:10.1098/rsbl.2014.0934 1386:10.1098/rsbl.2003.0159 1334:10.1098/rsbl.2004.0288 1241:10.1006/anbe.2001.1937 923:10.1006/anbe.1999.1293 706:10.1098/rspb.2006.3571 556:10.1098/rspb.2001.1900 490: 438: 389: 359:tragedy of the commons 341:Pseudomonas aeruginosa 206: 196:tragedy of the commons 105: 4798:Multilineal evolution 4761:Nature versus nurture 4720:Theoretical positions 4568:Functional psychology 4563:Evolutionary medicine 4538:Biological psychiatry 4246:Texting while driving 4236:Lead–crime hypothesis 4096:Cognitive development 4081:Caregiver deprivation 3592:Gene selection theory 3405:Evolutionary medicine 3279:Mendelian inheritance 2987:Biological complexity 2975:Programmed cell death 2667:Phenotypic plasticity 2387:Evolutionary pressure 2377:Evidence of evolution 2275:Timeline of evolution 1975:Hauser, M.D. (1992). 1812:10.1007/s002650050608 1181:Hormones and Behavior 488: 436: 387: 374:Further information: 210:In cleaning symbiosis 204: 103: 4751:Cultural determinism 4558:Evolutionary biology 4543:Cognitive psychology 4491:Academic disciplines 4139:Cognitive ergonomics 4106:Language acquisition 4086:Childhood attachment 3899:Wason selection task 3793:Behavioral modernity 3582:Cognitive revolution 3565:Evolutionary thought 3379:Teleology in biology 3274:Blending inheritance 2652:Genetic assimilation 2515:Artificial selection 2254:Evolutionary biology 1522:10.1128/AEM.03520-14 1480:Anuran Communication 478:Labroides dimidiatus 398:kin-selection theory 219:Labroides dimidiatus 157:asexual reproduction 19:For other uses, see 4818:Unilineal evolution 4583:Population genetics 4368:Sexy son hypothesis 4306:Hormonal motivation 4286:Concealed ovulation 3827:Dual process theory 3698:Parental investment 3442:Molecular evolution 3400:Ecological genetics 3269:Transitional fossil 3059:Sexual reproduction 2899:endomembrane system 2828:pollinator-mediated 2784:dolphins and whales 2562:Parental investment 2197:1994Natur.372..257P 2144:10.1038/nature01931 2136:2003Natur.425...78K 1993:1992PNAS...8912137H 1987:(24): 12137–12139. 1886:1992Natur.358..147R 1769:1989Natur.342..796R 1636:2012Sci...338..264D 1514:2015ApEnM..81.3132G 1380:(Suppl 5): S310-2. 1044:10.1038/nature06558 1036:2008Natur.451.1107S 1030:(7182): 1107–1110. 977:2000Natur.408..965S 868:2009BMCEE...9..124L 758:2001EcolL...4..277B 700:(1598): 2233–2239. 652:10.1038/nature04624 644:2006Natur.441..498M 601:10.1038/nrmicro1461 498:fixes atmospheric N 189:In eusocial insects 4776:Social determinism 4659:Fisher's principle 4619:Great ape language 4609:Cultural evolution 4578:Philosophy of mind 4411:Division of labour 4373:Westermarck effect 4321:Mating preferences 4231:Distracted driving 3965:Literary criticism 3822:Domain specificity 3802:modularity of mind 3415:Cultural evolution 2530:Fisher's principle 2459:Handicap principle 2449:Parallel evolution 2313:Adaptive radiation 1938:(1789): 20140184. 1722:Annu. Rev. Entomol 1684:Annu. Rev. Entomol 544:Proc. R. Soc. Lond 491: 439: 390: 249:environmental cues 245:European tree frog 215:Cleaning symbiosis 207: 106: 50:Theoretical models 31:behavioral ecology 29:is a term used in 4884: 4883: 4862:Psychology portal 4826: 4825: 4669:Hologenome theory 4639:Unit of selection 4634:Primate cognition 4548:Cognitive science 4479: 4478: 4350:Sexual attraction 4326:Mating strategies 4091:Cinderella effect 4021:Moral foundations 3925:Visual perception 3817:Domain generality 3786:Facial expression 3734:Sexual dimorphism 3693:Natural selection 3639:Hamiltonian spite 3515: 3514: 3131:Uniformitarianism 3084:Sex-determination 2589:Sexual dimorphism 2584:Natural selection 2488:Unit of selection 2454:Signalling theory 2191:(6503): 257–260. 1763:(6251): 796–797. 1630:(6104): 264–266. 971:(6815): 965–967. 823:(11): 2966–2973. 638:(7092): 498–501. 550:(1493): 773–780. 40:Natural selection 4909: 4871: 4858: 4845: 4844: 4488: 4487: 4484:Related subjects 4271:Adult attachment 3798:Cognitive module 3754: 3753: 3741:Social selection 3715:Costly signaling 3710:Sexual selection 3597:Modern synthesis 3542: 3535: 3528: 3519: 3518: 3505: 3495: 3494: 3294:Modern synthesis 3054:Multicellularity 3049:Mosaic evolution 2934:auditory ossicle 2616:Social selection 2599:Flowering plants 2594:Sexual selection 2247: 2240: 2233: 2224: 2223: 2217: 2216: 2205:10.1038/372257a0 2180: 2174: 2173: 2155: 2119: 2113: 2112: 2110: 2086: 2077: 2076: 2066: 2034: 2025: 2024: 2014: 2004: 1972: 1966: 1965: 1955: 1923: 1914: 1913: 1894:10.1038/358147a0 1869: 1863: 1862: 1830: 1824: 1823: 1795: 1789: 1788: 1777:10.1038/342796a0 1752: 1746: 1745: 1717: 1708: 1707: 1675: 1666: 1665: 1655: 1615: 1609: 1608: 1598: 1558: 1552: 1551: 1541: 1508:(9): 3132–3141. 1493: 1484: 1483: 1475: 1469: 1468: 1451:(8): 1109–1118. 1440: 1434: 1433: 1421: 1408: 1407: 1397: 1365: 1356: 1355: 1345: 1313: 1302: 1301: 1278:Animal Behaviour 1275: 1266: 1253: 1252: 1229:Animal Behaviour 1224: 1213: 1212: 1178: 1169: 1158: 1157: 1147: 1123: 1106: 1105: 1077: 1064: 1063: 1018: 1005: 1004: 985:10.1038/35050087 960: 943: 942: 911:Animal Behaviour 906: 900: 899: 889: 879: 847: 841: 840: 808: 799: 798: 789:(3): 1029–1038. 778: 772: 771: 769: 737: 728: 727: 717: 685: 672: 671: 627: 621: 620: 584: 578: 577: 567: 535: 361:. However, when 183:social evolution 149:multicellularity 76:Escherichia coli 74:For example, in 66:occurs when the 4917: 4916: 4912: 4911: 4910: 4908: 4907: 4906: 4887: 4886: 4885: 4880: 4822: 4808:Neoevolutionism 4715: 4699:Species complex 4664:Group selection 4602:Research topics 4597: 4573:Neuropsychology 4475: 4461:Substance abuse 4383:Sex differences 4377: 4291:Coolidge effect 4252: 4164:Neuroergonomics 4129: 4120: 4044: 3946: 3880:Folk psychology 3761: 3745: 3615: 3608: 3551: 3546: 3516: 3511: 3483: 3410:Group selection 3383: 3308: 3212: 3139: 3101:Tempo and modes 3095: 2950: 2854: 2671: 2630: 2506: 2499: 2476:Species complex 2289: 2280:History of life 2256: 2251: 2221: 2220: 2181: 2177: 2130:(6953): 78–81. 2120: 2116: 2087: 2080: 2043:Biology Letters 2035: 2028: 1973: 1969: 1924: 1917: 1880:(6382): 147–9. 1870: 1866: 1831: 1827: 1796: 1792: 1753: 1749: 1718: 1711: 1690:(51): 581–608. 1676: 1669: 1616: 1612: 1573:(2): 20140934. 1567:Biology Letters 1559: 1555: 1494: 1487: 1476: 1472: 1441: 1437: 1432:(5): 1253–1260. 1422: 1411: 1366: 1359: 1314: 1305: 1273: 1267: 1256: 1225: 1216: 1176: 1170: 1161: 1124: 1109: 1078: 1067: 1019: 1008: 961: 946: 907: 903: 848: 844: 813:Riechert, S. E. 811:Pruitt, J. N.; 809: 802: 779: 775: 746:Ecology Letters 738: 731: 686: 675: 628: 624: 585: 581: 536: 532: 527: 506: 501: 472: 443:naked mole rats 431: 378: 376:Worker policing 372: 332: 310:P. fluorescens' 263: 258: 241: 212: 191: 140: 98: 52: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4915: 4905: 4904: 4899: 4882: 4881: 4879: 4878: 4865: 4852: 4839: 4831: 4828: 4827: 4824: 4823: 4821: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4784: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4729: 4723: 4721: 4717: 4716: 4714: 4713: 4712: 4711: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4636: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4605: 4603: 4599: 4598: 4596: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4513: 4504: 4494: 4492: 4485: 4481: 4480: 4477: 4476: 4474: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4387: 4385: 4379: 4378: 4376: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4352: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4262: 4260: 4254: 4253: 4251: 4250: 4249: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4233: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4193: 4191:Mind-blindness 4188: 4183: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4167: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4135: 4133: 4122: 4121: 4119: 4118: 4113: 4108: 4103: 4098: 4093: 4088: 4083: 4078: 4065: 4060: 4054: 4052: 4046: 4045: 4043: 4042: 4037: 4036: 4035: 4025: 4024: 4023: 4013: 4012: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3991: 3986: 3985: 3984: 3974: 3973: 3972: 3967: 3956: 3954: 3948: 3947: 3945: 3944: 3943: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3903: 3902: 3901: 3896: 3886: 3884:theory of mind 3877: 3868: 3867: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3830: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3814: 3809: 3795: 3790: 3789: 3788: 3783: 3778: 3767: 3765: 3751: 3747: 3746: 3744: 3743: 3738: 3737: 3736: 3731: 3726: 3717: 3707: 3706: 3705: 3695: 3690: 3685: 3680: 3679: 3678: 3668: 3663: 3658: 3653: 3651:Baldwin effect 3648: 3647: 3646: 3641: 3636: 3626: 3620: 3618: 3610: 3609: 3607: 3606: 3601: 3600: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3569: 3568: 3567: 3556: 3553: 3552: 3545: 3544: 3537: 3530: 3522: 3513: 3512: 3510: 3509: 3499: 3488: 3485: 3484: 3482: 3481: 3476: 3471: 3466: 3461: 3460: 3459: 3449: 3444: 3439: 3434: 3429: 3428: 3427: 3422: 3417: 3407: 3402: 3397: 3391: 3389: 3385: 3384: 3382: 3381: 3376: 3375: 3374: 3369: 3364: 3363: 3362: 3352: 3347: 3342: 3337: 3332: 3322: 3316: 3314: 3310: 3309: 3307: 3306: 3301: 3296: 3291: 3286: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3261: 3260: 3259: 3250:Charles Darwin 3247: 3246: 3245: 3233: 3228: 3222: 3220: 3214: 3213: 3211: 3210: 3205: 3200: 3195: 3190: 3188:Non-ecological 3185: 3180: 3175: 3170: 3165: 3160: 3155: 3149: 3147: 3141: 3140: 3138: 3137: 3128: 3119: 3105: 3103: 3097: 3096: 3094: 3093: 3088: 3087: 3086: 3081: 3076: 3071: 3066: 3056: 3051: 3046: 3041: 3036: 3031: 3026: 3021: 3016: 3011: 3006: 3005: 3004: 2994: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2978: 2977: 2972: 2961: 2959: 2952: 2951: 2949: 2948: 2947: 2946: 2941: 2939:nervous system 2936: 2931: 2926: 2918: 2917: 2916: 2911: 2906: 2901: 2896: 2891: 2881: 2876: 2871: 2865: 2863: 2856: 2855: 2853: 2852: 2847: 2842: 2837: 2832: 2831: 2830: 2820: 2819: 2818: 2813: 2812: 2811: 2806: 2796: 2791: 2786: 2781: 2776: 2775: 2774: 2769: 2759: 2749: 2744: 2743: 2742: 2732: 2727: 2722: 2717: 2716: 2715: 2705: 2700: 2699: 2698: 2688: 2682: 2680: 2673: 2672: 2670: 2669: 2664: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2644: 2638: 2636: 2632: 2631: 2629: 2628: 2623: 2618: 2613: 2612: 2611: 2606: 2601: 2591: 2586: 2581: 2576: 2571: 2570: 2569: 2564: 2554: 2549: 2544: 2543: 2542: 2532: 2527: 2522: 2517: 2511: 2509: 2501: 2500: 2498: 2497: 2496: 2495: 2485: 2480: 2479: 2478: 2473: 2463: 2462: 2461: 2451: 2446: 2441: 2439:Origin of life 2436: 2431: 2426: 2424:Microevolution 2421: 2419:Macroevolution 2416: 2411: 2406: 2405: 2404: 2394: 2389: 2384: 2379: 2374: 2369: 2364: 2359: 2357:Common descent 2354: 2353: 2352: 2342: 2337: 2335:Baldwin effect 2332: 2331: 2330: 2325: 2315: 2310: 2305: 2299: 2297: 2291: 2290: 2288: 2287: 2282: 2277: 2272: 2267: 2261: 2258: 2257: 2250: 2249: 2242: 2235: 2227: 2219: 2218: 2175: 2114: 2101:(5): 830–837. 2078: 2049:(4): 396–399. 2026: 1967: 1915: 1864: 1825: 1806:(3): 180–189. 1790: 1747: 1709: 1667: 1610: 1553: 1485: 1470: 1435: 1409: 1357: 1303: 1284:(2): 455–459. 1254: 1235:(3): 547–555. 1214: 1187:(2): 346–350. 1159: 1138:(5): 1035–47. 1107: 1065: 1006: 944: 917:(1): 221–230. 901: 842: 800: 773: 752:(3): 277–287. 729: 673: 622: 595:(8): 597–607. 579: 529: 528: 526: 523: 504: 499: 471: 468: 459:Rhesus monkeys 430: 427: 407:Apis mellifera 371: 368: 346:quorum sensing 331: 328: 323:S. ambofaciens 319:P. fluorescens 314:P. fluorescens 303:P. fluorescens 289:P. fluorescens 285:P. fluorescens 277:P. fluorescens 262: 259: 257: 254: 240: 237: 211: 208: 190: 187: 139: 133: 129:cleaner shrimp 97: 94: 51: 48: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4914: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4894: 4892: 4877: 4876: 4870: 4866: 4864: 4863: 4857: 4853: 4851: 4850: 4840: 4838: 4837: 4833: 4832: 4829: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4803:Neo-Darwinism 4801: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4788:Functionalism 4786: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4746:Connectionism 4744: 4742: 4739: 4738: 4737: 4736:indeterminism 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4724: 4722: 4718: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4641: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4606: 4604: 4600: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4499: 4496: 4495: 4493: 4489: 4486: 4482: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4457: 4456:Schizophrenia 4454: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4441:Mental health 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4388: 4386: 4384: 4380: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4316:Mate guarding 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4276:Age disparity 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4263: 4261: 4259: 4255: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4228: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4206:Schizophrenia 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4192: 4189: 4187: 4184: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4174: 4172: 4169: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4141: 4140: 4137: 4136: 4134: 4132: 4131:Mental health 4127: 4126:Human factors 4123: 4117: 4116:Socialization 4114: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4097: 4094: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4076:paternal bond 4073: 4069: 4066: 4064: 4061: 4059: 4056: 4055: 4053: 4051: 4047: 4041: 4038: 4034: 4031: 4030: 4029: 4026: 4022: 4019: 4018: 4017: 4014: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3996: 3995: 3992: 3990: 3987: 3983: 3980: 3979: 3978: 3975: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3962: 3961: 3958: 3957: 3955: 3953: 3949: 3941: 3940:Naïve physics 3938: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3927: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3911: 3907: 3906:Motor control 3904: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3891: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3872: 3869: 3865: 3864:Ophidiophobia 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3854:Arachnophobia 3852: 3851: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3828: 3825: 3823: 3820: 3818: 3815: 3813: 3810: 3808: 3805: 3804: 3803: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3787: 3784: 3782: 3781:Display rules 3779: 3777: 3774: 3773: 3772: 3769: 3768: 3766: 3764: 3759: 3755: 3752: 3748: 3742: 3739: 3735: 3732: 3730: 3727: 3725: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3712: 3711: 3708: 3704: 3701: 3700: 3699: 3696: 3694: 3691: 3689: 3686: 3684: 3683:Kin selection 3681: 3677: 3674: 3673: 3672: 3669: 3667: 3664: 3662: 3659: 3657: 3654: 3652: 3649: 3645: 3642: 3640: 3637: 3635: 3632: 3631: 3630: 3627: 3625: 3622: 3621: 3619: 3617: 3611: 3605: 3602: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3583: 3580: 3578: 3577:Adaptationism 3575: 3574: 3573: 3570: 3566: 3563: 3562: 3561: 3558: 3557: 3554: 3550: 3543: 3538: 3536: 3531: 3529: 3524: 3523: 3520: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3498: 3490: 3489: 3486: 3480: 3477: 3475: 3472: 3470: 3467: 3465: 3462: 3458: 3455: 3454: 3453: 3452:Phylogenetics 3450: 3448: 3445: 3443: 3440: 3438: 3435: 3433: 3430: 3426: 3423: 3421: 3418: 3416: 3413: 3412: 3411: 3408: 3406: 3403: 3401: 3398: 3396: 3393: 3392: 3390: 3386: 3380: 3377: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3365: 3361: 3358: 3357: 3356: 3355:Structuralism 3353: 3351: 3348: 3346: 3343: 3341: 3338: 3336: 3333: 3331: 3330:Catastrophism 3328: 3327: 3326: 3323: 3321: 3318: 3317: 3315: 3311: 3305: 3302: 3300: 3297: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3289:Neo-Darwinism 3287: 3285: 3282: 3280: 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3258: 3257: 3253: 3252: 3251: 3248: 3244: 3243: 3239: 3238: 3237: 3234: 3232: 3229: 3227: 3224: 3223: 3221: 3219: 3215: 3209: 3206: 3204: 3203:Reinforcement 3201: 3199: 3196: 3194: 3191: 3189: 3186: 3184: 3181: 3179: 3176: 3174: 3171: 3169: 3166: 3164: 3161: 3159: 3156: 3154: 3151: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3142: 3136: 3135:Catastrophism 3132: 3129: 3127: 3126:Macromutation 3123: 3122:Micromutation 3120: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3107: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3098: 3092: 3089: 3085: 3082: 3080: 3077: 3075: 3072: 3070: 3067: 3065: 3062: 3061: 3060: 3057: 3055: 3052: 3050: 3047: 3045: 3042: 3040: 3037: 3035: 3032: 3030: 3029:Immune system 3027: 3025: 3022: 3020: 3017: 3015: 3012: 3010: 3007: 3003: 3000: 2999: 2998: 2995: 2993: 2990: 2988: 2985: 2983: 2980: 2976: 2973: 2971: 2968: 2967: 2966: 2963: 2962: 2960: 2958: 2953: 2945: 2942: 2940: 2937: 2935: 2932: 2930: 2927: 2925: 2922: 2921: 2919: 2915: 2912: 2910: 2907: 2905: 2902: 2900: 2897: 2895: 2892: 2890: 2889:symbiogenesis 2887: 2886: 2885: 2882: 2880: 2877: 2875: 2872: 2870: 2867: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2857: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2843: 2841: 2838: 2836: 2833: 2829: 2826: 2825: 2824: 2821: 2817: 2814: 2810: 2807: 2805: 2802: 2801: 2800: 2797: 2795: 2792: 2790: 2787: 2785: 2782: 2780: 2777: 2773: 2770: 2768: 2765: 2764: 2763: 2760: 2758: 2755: 2754: 2753: 2750: 2748: 2745: 2741: 2738: 2737: 2736: 2733: 2731: 2728: 2726: 2723: 2721: 2718: 2714: 2711: 2710: 2709: 2706: 2704: 2701: 2697: 2694: 2693: 2692: 2689: 2687: 2684: 2683: 2681: 2679: 2674: 2668: 2665: 2663: 2660: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2645: 2643: 2640: 2639: 2637: 2633: 2627: 2624: 2622: 2619: 2617: 2614: 2610: 2607: 2605: 2602: 2600: 2597: 2596: 2595: 2592: 2590: 2587: 2585: 2582: 2580: 2577: 2575: 2572: 2568: 2565: 2563: 2560: 2559: 2558: 2557:Kin selection 2555: 2553: 2552:Genetic drift 2550: 2548: 2545: 2541: 2538: 2537: 2536: 2533: 2531: 2528: 2526: 2523: 2521: 2518: 2516: 2513: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2502: 2494: 2491: 2490: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2481: 2477: 2474: 2472: 2469: 2468: 2467: 2464: 2460: 2457: 2456: 2455: 2452: 2450: 2447: 2445: 2442: 2440: 2437: 2435: 2432: 2430: 2427: 2425: 2422: 2420: 2417: 2415: 2412: 2410: 2407: 2403: 2400: 2399: 2398: 2395: 2393: 2390: 2388: 2385: 2383: 2380: 2378: 2375: 2373: 2370: 2368: 2365: 2363: 2360: 2358: 2355: 2351: 2348: 2347: 2346: 2343: 2341: 2338: 2336: 2333: 2329: 2326: 2324: 2321: 2320: 2319: 2316: 2314: 2311: 2309: 2306: 2304: 2301: 2300: 2298: 2296: 2292: 2286: 2283: 2281: 2278: 2276: 2273: 2271: 2268: 2266: 2263: 2262: 2259: 2255: 2248: 2243: 2241: 2236: 2234: 2229: 2228: 2225: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2179: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2154: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2118: 2109: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2085: 2083: 2074: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2033: 2031: 2022: 2018: 2013: 2008: 2003: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1971: 1963: 1959: 1954: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1922: 1920: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1868: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1829: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1794: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1751: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1728:(53): 19–37. 1727: 1723: 1716: 1714: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1674: 1672: 1663: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1614: 1606: 1602: 1597: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1557: 1549: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1492: 1490: 1481: 1474: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1439: 1431: 1427: 1420: 1418: 1416: 1414: 1405: 1401: 1396: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1364: 1362: 1353: 1349: 1344: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1312: 1310: 1308: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1272: 1265: 1263: 1261: 1259: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1223: 1221: 1219: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1175: 1168: 1166: 1164: 1155: 1151: 1146: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1122: 1120: 1118: 1116: 1114: 1112: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1076: 1074: 1072: 1070: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1017: 1015: 1013: 1011: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 959: 957: 955: 953: 951: 949: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 916: 912: 905: 897: 893: 888: 883: 878: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 846: 838: 834: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 807: 805: 796: 792: 788: 784: 777: 768: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 736: 734: 725: 721: 716: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 691: 684: 682: 680: 678: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 626: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 583: 575: 571: 566: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 534: 530: 522: 519: 517: 513: 508: 497: 487: 483: 480: 479: 467: 464: 460: 456: 453: 452: 446: 444: 435: 426: 424: 423: 417: 415: 414: 409: 408: 401: 399: 395: 394:superorganism 386: 382: 377: 367: 364: 363:P. aeruginosa 360: 355: 354:P. aeruginosa 350: 347: 343: 342: 336: 327: 324: 320: 315: 311: 306: 304: 300: 296: 295: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 273: 268: 253: 250: 246: 236: 233: 228: 227:ectoparasites 224: 220: 216: 203: 199: 197: 186: 184: 180: 179:D. discoideum 175: 174:D. discoideum 170: 166: 165:fruiting body 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 145: 138: 132: 130: 126: 122: 118: 117: 112: 102: 93: 89: 86: 80: 77: 72: 69: 65: 59: 57: 47: 45: 41: 36: 32: 28: 22: 4873: 4860: 4847: 4834: 4593:Sociobiology 4451:Neuroscience 4431:Intelligence 3977:Anthropology 3930:Color vision 3915:Multitasking 3894:Flynn effect 3889:Intelligence 3871:Folk biology 3633: 3614:Evolutionary 3464:Polymorphism 3447:Astrobiology 3395:Biogeography 3350:Saltationism 3340:Orthogenesis 3325:Alternatives 3254: 3240: 3173:Cospeciation 3168:Cladogenesis 3117:Saltationism 3074:Mating types 2997:Color vision 2982:Avian flight 2904:mitochondria 2642:Canalisation 2520:Biodiversity 2322: 2265:Introduction 2188: 2184: 2178: 2127: 2123: 2117: 2098: 2094: 2046: 2042: 1984: 1980: 1970: 1935: 1931: 1877: 1873: 1867: 1845:(1): 80–86. 1842: 1838: 1828: 1803: 1799: 1793: 1760: 1756: 1750: 1725: 1721: 1687: 1683: 1627: 1623: 1613: 1570: 1566: 1556: 1505: 1501: 1479: 1473: 1448: 1444: 1438: 1429: 1425: 1377: 1373: 1328:(2): 162–5. 1325: 1321: 1281: 1277: 1232: 1228: 1184: 1180: 1135: 1131: 1088:(2): 48–54. 1085: 1082:Trends Genet 1081: 1027: 1023: 968: 964: 914: 910: 904: 859: 855: 845: 820: 816: 786: 782: 776: 749: 745: 697: 693: 635: 631: 625: 592: 588: 582: 547: 543: 533: 520: 509: 492: 476: 473: 457: 449: 447: 440: 420: 418: 411: 405: 402: 391: 379: 362: 353: 351: 339: 337: 333: 322: 318: 313: 309: 307: 302: 292: 288: 284: 276: 270: 267:siderophores 264: 242: 218: 213: 192: 178: 173: 168: 160: 142: 141: 136: 125:cleaner fish 114: 107: 90: 81: 75: 73: 60: 53: 26: 25: 4732:Determinism 4644:Coevolution 4588:Primatology 4426:Gender role 4331:Orientation 4211:Screen time 4068:Affectional 4050:Development 3729:Mate choice 3656:By-products 3624:Adaptations 3587:Cognitivism 3474:Systematics 3345:Mutationism 3163:Catagenesis 3091:Snake venom 3024:Eusociality 3002:in primates 2992:Cooperation 2920:In animals 2740:butterflies 2713:Cephalopods 2703:Brachiopods 2635:Development 2609:Mate choice 2362:Convergence 2345:Coevolution 2303:Abiogenesis 1132:J Evol Biol 516:yucca moths 299:coelichelin 111:cooperation 85:lek paradox 4891:Categories 4679:Population 4674:Lamarckism 4520:behavioral 4498:Behavioral 4446:Narcissism 4391:Aggression 4181:Hypophobia 4171:Depression 4058:Attachment 4040:Universals 4004:Psychology 3982:Biological 3970:Musicology 3960:Aesthetics 3859:Basophobia 3666:Exaptation 3644:Reciprocal 3335:Lamarckism 3313:Philosophy 3236:David Hume 3198:Peripatric 3193:Parapatric 3178:Ecological 3158:Anagenesis 3153:Allopatric 3145:Speciation 3109:Gradualism 3034:Metabolism 2894:chromosome 2884:Eukaryotes 2662:Modularity 2579:Population 2505:Population 2466:Speciation 2444:Panspermia 2397:Extinction 2392:Exaptation 2367:Divergence 2340:Cladistics 2328:Reciprocal 2308:Adaptation 862:(1): 124. 525:References 281:pyoverdine 4524:cognitive 4516:Affective 4401:Cognition 4355:Sexuality 4341:Pair bond 4101:Education 3758:Cognition 3676:Inclusive 3616:processes 3604:Criticism 3469:Protocell 3320:Darwinism 3208:Sympatric 2957:processes 2845:Tetrapods 2794:Kangaroos 2720:Dinosaurs 2657:Inversion 2626:Variation 2547:Gene flow 2540:Inclusive 2350:Mutualism 2295:Evolution 1587:1744-9561 1530:0099-2240 1322:Biol Lett 817:Evolution 496:rhizobium 56:Mutualism 4897:Behavior 4793:Memetics 4553:Ethology 4511:genetics 4346:Physical 4311:Jealousy 4266:Activity 4072:maternal 4028:Religion 4016:Morality 3994:Language 3875:taxonomy 3688:Mismatch 3634:Cheating 3629:Altruism 3497:Category 3372:Vitalism 3367:Theistic 3360:Spandrel 3044:Morality 3039:Monogamy 2914:plastids 2879:Flagella 2835:Reptiles 2816:sea cows 2799:primates 2708:Molluscs 2686:Bacteria 2574:Mutation 2507:genetics 2483:Taxonomy 2429:Mismatch 2409:Homology 2323:Cheating 2318:Altruism 2162:12955144 2153:1842/469 2073:17148216 1962:24990673 1859:16813247 1820:43077376 1742:17600462 1704:16332224 1662:23066081 1605:25694506 1548:25724953 1482:: 45–60. 1465:35783869 1404:15504003 1352:17148155 1298:53193030 1249:53181083 1201:24952103 1154:15312076 1102:21167620 1052:18272966 993:11140681 939:37319983 931:10640384 896:19486536 837:19619222 724:16901844 660:16724064 617:18451640 609:16845430 574:11958708 413:Diacamma 232:cortisol 121:eusocial 96:Examples 35:ethology 27:Cheating 4694:Species 4466:Suicide 4301:Fantasy 4281:Arousal 4063:Bonding 3952:Culture 3776:Display 3763:Emotion 3671:Fitness 3560:History 3388:Related 3218:History 3079:Meiosis 3014:Empathy 3009:Emotion 2909:nucleus 2850:Viruses 2840:Spiders 2752:Mammals 2735:Insects 2535:Fitness 2471:Species 2270:Outline 2213:4330563 2193:Bibcode 2170:4363192 2132:Bibcode 2064:1626376 2021:1465451 1989:Bibcode 1953:4100499 1910:4321146 1902:1614546 1882:Bibcode 1785:4366903 1765:Bibcode 1653:3587168 1632:Bibcode 1624:Science 1596:4360104 1539:4393426 1510:Bibcode 1395:1810046 1343:1626222 1209:3188654 1060:4341839 1032:Bibcode 1001:4307980 973:Bibcode 887:2701933 864:Bibcode 783:Ecology 754:Bibcode 715:1635526 668:4419943 640:Bibcode 565:1690960 153:haploid 68:fitness 4872: 4859: 4846: 4436:Memory 4396:Autism 4363:female 4296:Desire 4033:Origin 4009:Speech 3999:Origin 3771:Affect 3507:Portal 3183:Hybrid 3019:Ethics 2861:organs 2823:Plants 2809:lemurs 2804:humans 2789:horses 2779:hyenas 2767:wolves 2762:canids 2696:origin 2211: 2185:Nature 2168: 2160: 2124:Nature 2071: 2061: 2019: 2009: 1960: 1950: 1908: 1900: 1874:Nature 1857: 1818: 1783: 1757:Nature 1740: 1702: 1660: 1650: 1603: 1593: 1585: 1546: 1536: 1528: 1463: 1402: 1392: 1350: 1340: 1296: 1247: 1207: 1199: 1152: 1100: 1058: 1050: 1024:Nature 999: 991: 965:Nature 937: 929: 894: 884: 835: 722: 712: 666: 658: 632:Nature 615: 607: 572: 562: 512:yuccas 4406:Crime 3989:Crime 3920:Sleep 3910:skill 3750:Areas 2970:Death 2965:Aging 2944:brain 2730:Fungi 2691:Birds 2604:Fungi 2402:Event 2285:Index 2209:S2CID 2166:S2CID 2012:50713 1906:S2CID 1855:S2CID 1816:S2CID 1781:S2CID 1461:S2CID 1294:S2CID 1274:(PDF) 1245:S2CID 1205:S2CID 1177:(PDF) 1056:S2CID 997:S2CID 935:S2CID 664:S2CID 613:S2CID 352:When 239:Other 4359:male 3720:Male 3457:Tree 2929:hair 2869:Cell 2772:dogs 2757:cats 2747:Life 2725:Fish 2678:taxa 2158:PMID 2069:PMID 2017:PMID 1958:PMID 1898:PMID 1738:PMID 1700:PMID 1658:PMID 1601:PMID 1583:ISSN 1544:PMID 1526:ISSN 1400:PMID 1348:PMID 1197:PMID 1150:PMID 1098:PMID 1048:PMID 989:PMID 927:PMID 892:PMID 833:PMID 720:PMID 656:PMID 605:PMID 570:PMID 514:and 321:and 33:and 4258:Sex 3935:Eye 2955:Of 2924:eye 2874:DNA 2859:Of 2676:Of 2201:doi 2189:372 2148:hdl 2140:doi 2128:425 2103:doi 2059:PMC 2051:doi 2007:PMC 1997:doi 1948:PMC 1940:doi 1936:281 1890:doi 1878:358 1847:doi 1808:doi 1773:doi 1761:342 1730:doi 1692:doi 1648:PMC 1640:doi 1628:338 1591:PMC 1575:doi 1534:PMC 1518:doi 1453:doi 1390:PMC 1382:doi 1378:271 1338:PMC 1330:doi 1286:doi 1237:doi 1189:doi 1140:doi 1090:doi 1040:doi 1028:451 981:doi 969:408 919:doi 882:PMC 872:doi 825:doi 791:doi 762:doi 710:PMC 702:doi 698:273 648:doi 636:441 597:doi 560:PMC 552:doi 548:269 463:sex 135:In 4893:: 2207:. 2199:. 2187:. 2164:. 2156:. 2146:. 2138:. 2126:. 2099:15 2097:. 2093:. 2081:^ 2067:. 2057:. 2045:. 2041:. 2029:^ 2015:. 2005:. 1995:. 1985:89 1983:. 1979:. 1956:. 1946:. 1934:. 1930:. 1918:^ 1904:. 1896:. 1888:. 1876:. 1853:. 1843:58 1841:. 1837:. 1814:. 1804:46 1802:. 1779:. 1771:. 1759:. 1736:. 1726:53 1724:. 1712:^ 1698:. 1688:51 1686:. 1682:. 1670:^ 1656:. 1646:. 1638:. 1626:. 1622:. 1599:. 1589:. 1581:. 1571:11 1569:. 1565:. 1542:. 1532:. 1524:. 1516:. 1506:81 1504:. 1500:. 1488:^ 1459:. 1449:63 1447:. 1430:84 1428:. 1412:^ 1398:. 1388:. 1376:. 1372:. 1360:^ 1346:. 1336:. 1324:. 1320:. 1306:^ 1292:. 1282:78 1280:. 1276:. 1257:^ 1243:. 1233:63 1231:. 1217:^ 1203:. 1195:. 1185:66 1183:. 1179:. 1162:^ 1148:. 1136:17 1134:. 1130:. 1110:^ 1096:. 1086:27 1084:. 1068:^ 1054:. 1046:. 1038:. 1026:. 1009:^ 995:. 987:. 979:. 967:. 947:^ 933:. 925:. 915:59 913:. 890:. 880:. 870:. 858:. 854:. 831:. 821:63 819:. 803:^ 787:79 785:. 760:. 748:. 744:. 732:^ 718:. 708:. 696:. 692:. 676:^ 662:. 654:. 646:. 634:. 611:. 603:. 591:. 568:. 558:. 546:. 542:. 185:. 131:. 119:; 4734:/ 4526:/ 4522:/ 4518:/ 4509:/ 4500:/ 4361:/ 4357:/ 4348:/ 4128:/ 4074:/ 4070:/ 3908:/ 3882:/ 3873:/ 3800:/ 3760:/ 3722:/ 3541:e 3534:t 3527:v 3133:/ 3124:/ 3115:/ 3111:/ 2246:e 2239:t 2232:v 2215:. 2203:: 2195:: 2172:. 2150:: 2142:: 2134:: 2111:. 2105:: 2075:. 2053:: 2047:1 2023:. 1999:: 1991:: 1964:. 1942:: 1912:. 1892:: 1884:: 1861:. 1849:: 1822:. 1810:: 1787:. 1775:: 1767:: 1744:. 1732:: 1706:. 1694:: 1664:. 1642:: 1634:: 1607:. 1577:: 1550:. 1520:: 1512:: 1467:. 1455:: 1406:. 1384:: 1354:. 1332:: 1326:1 1300:. 1288:: 1251:. 1239:: 1211:. 1191:: 1156:. 1142:: 1104:. 1092:: 1062:. 1042:: 1034:: 1003:. 983:: 975:: 941:. 921:: 898:. 874:: 866:: 860:9 839:. 827:: 797:. 793:: 770:. 764:: 756:: 750:4 726:. 704:: 670:. 650:: 642:: 619:. 599:: 593:4 576:. 554:: 505:2 503:N 500:2 404:( 221:( 23:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.