621:, known as âfine root endophytes" (MFREs), were mistakenly identified as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi until recently. While similar to AMF, MFREs are from subphylum Mucoromycotina instead of Glomeromycotina. Their morphology when colonizing a plant root is very similar to AMF, but they form fine textured hyphae. Effects of MFREs may have been mistakenly attributed to AMFs due to confusion between the two, complicated by the fact that AMFs and MFREs often colonize the same hosts simultaneously. Unlike AMFs, they appear capable of surviving without a host. This group of mycorrhizal fungi is little understood, but appears to prefer wet, acidic soils and forms symbiotic relationships with liverworts, hornworts, lycophytes, and angiosperms.
458:, are generalists that form mycorrhizas with many different plants. An individual tree may have 15 or more different fungal EcM partners at one time. While the diversity of plants involved in EcM is low, the diversity of fungi involved in EcM is high. Thousands of ectomycorrhizal fungal species exist, hosted in over 200 genera. A recent study has conservatively estimated global ectomycorrhizal fungal species richness at approximately 7750 species, although, on the basis of estimates of knowns and unknowns in macromycete diversity, a final estimate of ECM species richness would probably be between 20,000 and 25,000. Ectomycorrhizal fungi evolved independently from saprotrophic ancestors many times in the group's history.
702:. Orchid seeds are so small that they contain no nutrition to sustain the germinating seedling, and instead must gain the energy to grow from their fungal symbiont. The OM relationship is asymmetric; the plant seems to benefit more than the fungus, and some orchids are entirely mycoheterotrophic, lacking chlorophyll for photosynthesis. It is actually unknown whether fully autotrophic orchids that do not receive some of their carbon from fungi exist or not. Like fungi that form ErMs, OM fungi can sometimes live as endophytes or as independent saprotrophs. In the OM symbiosis, hyphae penetrate into the root cells and form pelotons (coils) for nutrient exchange.
1020:. These associations have been found to assist in plant defense both above and belowground. Mycorrhizas have been found to excrete enzymes that are toxic to soil borne organisms such as nematodes. More recent studies have shown that mycorrhizal associations result in a priming effect of plants that essentially acts as a primary immune response. When this association is formed a defense response is activated similarly to the response that occurs when the plant is under attack. As a result of this inoculation, defense responses are stronger in plants with mycorrhizal associations.
777:
mycorrhizae distribute nutrients based upon the environment with surrounding plants and other mycorrhizae. They go on to explain how this updated model could explain why mycorrhizae do not alleviate plant nitrogen limitation, and why plants can switch abruptly from a mixed strategy with both mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal roots to a purely mycorrhizal strategy as soil nitrogen availability declines. It has also been suggested that evolutionary and phylogenetic relationships can explain much more variation in the strength of mycorrhizal mutualisms than ecological factors.
822:
other chemical compounds are also suspected to have a signaling function. While the signals emitted by the fungi are less understood, it has been shown that chitinaceous molecules known as Myc factors are essential for the formation of arbuscular mycorrhizae. Signals from plants are detected by LysM-containing receptor-like kinases, or LysM-RLKs. AMF genomes also code for potentially hundreds of effector proteins, of which only a few have a proven effect on mycorrhizal symbiosis, but many others likely have a function in communication with plant hosts as well.
45:
56:
36:
781:
630:
749:
359:
65:
818:, a plant hormone, secreted from roots induces fungal spores in the soil to germinate, stimulates their metabolism, growth and branching, and prompts the fungi to release chemical signals the plant can detect. Once the plant and fungus recognize one another as suitable symbionts, the plant activates the common symbiotic signaling pathway, which causes changes in the root tissues that enable the fungus to colonize.
664:, but are found in two-thirds of all forests on Earth. Ericoid mycorrhizal fungi belong to several different lineages of fungi. Some species can live as endophytes entirely within plant cells even within plants outside the Ericales, or live independently as saprotrophs that decompose dead organic matter. This ability to switch between multiple lifestyle types makes ericoid mycorrhizal fungi very adaptable.
864:
345:
503:, was published in 2008. An expansion of several multigene families occurred in this fungus, suggesting that adaptation to symbiosis proceeded by gene duplication. Within lineage-specific genes those coding for symbiosis-regulated secreted proteins showed an up-regulated expression in ectomycorrhizal root tips suggesting a role in the partner communication.
440:. Ectomycorrhizae associate with relatively few plant species, only about 2% of plant species on Earth, but the species they associate with are mostly trees and woody plants that are highly dominant in their ecosystems, meaning plants in ectomycorrhizal relationships make up a large proportion of plant biomass. Some EcM fungi, such as many
569:, (formerly known as vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas), have hyphae that penetrate plant cells, producing branching, tree-like structures called arbuscules within the plant cells for nutrient exchange. Often, balloon-like storage structures, termed vesicles, are also produced. In this interaction, fungal
2962:
Hoeksema, Jason D.; Bever, James D.; Chakraborty, Sounak; Chaudhary, V. Bala; Gardes, Monique; Gehring, Catherine A.; Hart, Miranda M.; Housworth, Elizabeth Ann; Kaonongbua, Wittaya; Klironomos, John N.; Lajeunesse, Marc J.; Meadow, James; Milligan, Brook G.; Piculell, Bridget J.; Pringle, Anne; RĂșa,
585:
to facilitate the transfer of nutrients between them. Arbuscular mycorrhizas are obligate biotrophs, meaning that they depend upon the plant host for both growth and reproduction; they have lost the ability to sustain themselves by decomposing dead plant material. Twenty percent of the photosynthetic
926:
of the mycorrhizal fungus can, however, access many such nutrient sources, and make them available to the plants they colonize. Thus, many plants are able to obtain phosphate without using soil as a source. Another form of immobilisation is when nutrients are locked up in organic matter that is slow
675:
capabilities, and EcM fungi have significant variation in their ability to produce enzymes needed for a saprotrophic lifestyle, fungi involved in ErMs have fully retained the ability to decompose plant material for sustenance. Some ericoid mycorrhizal fungi have actually expanded their repertoire of
821:
Experiments with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi have identified numerous chemical compounds to be involved in the "chemical dialog" that occurs between the prospective symbionts before symbiosis is begun. In plants, almost all plant hormones play a role in initiating or regulating AMF symbiosis, and
760:
relationship with the roots of most plant species. In such a relationship, both the plants themselves and those parts of the roots that host the fungi, are said to be mycorrhizal. Relatively few of the mycorrhizal relationships between plant species and fungi have been examined to date, but 95% of
1065:
or hyphae of mycorrhizal fungi to colonise the plant roots and aid in the uptake of soil mineral nutrients. The absence of mycorrhizal fungi can also slow plant growth in early succession or on degraded landscapes. The introduction of alien mycorrhizal plants to nutrient-deficient ecosystems puts
805:
for detecting chemical signals from other organisms. Plants dynamically adjust their symbiotic and immune responses, changing their interactions with their symbionts in response to feedbacks detected by the plant. In plants, the mycorrhizal symbiosis is regulated by the common symbiosis signaling
667:
Plants that participate in these symbioses have specialized roots with no root hairs, which are covered with a layer of epidermal cells that the fungus penetrates into and completely occupies. The fungi have a simple intraradical (growth in cells) phase, consisting of dense coils of hyphae in the
1025:
significance of mycorrhizal fungi also includes alleviation of salt stress and its beneficial effects on plant growth and productivity. Although salinity can negatively affect mycorrhizal fungi, many reports show improved growth and performance of mycorrhizal plants under salt stress conditions.
842:
The mechanisms by which mycorrhizae increase absorption include some that are physical and some that are chemical. Physically, most mycorrhizal mycelia are much smaller in diameter than the smallest root or root hair, and thus can explore soil material that roots and root hairs cannot reach, and
1811:
Selosse, Marc-Andre; Petroli, Remi; Mujica, Maria; Laurent, Liam; Perez-Lamarque, Benoit; Figura, Tomas; Bourceret, Amelia; Jaquemyn, Hans; Li, Taiqiang; Gao, Jiangyun; Minasiewicz, Julita; Martos, Florent (2021). "The
Waiting Room Hypothesis revisited by orchids: were orchid mycorrhizal fungi
659:
and are the most recently evolved of the major mycorrhizal relationships. Plants that form ericoid mycorrhizae are mostly woody understory shrubs; hosts include blueberries, bilberries, cranberries, mountain laurels, rhododendrons, heather, neinei, and giant grass tree. ErMs are most common in
1134:
being the ancestral and predominant form, and the most prevalent symbiotic association found in the plant kingdom. The structure of arbuscular mycorrhizas has been highly conserved since their first appearance in the fossil record, with both the development of ectomycorrhizas, and the loss of
335:
Some forms of plant-fungal symbiosis are similar to mycorrhizae, but considered distinct. One example is fungal endophytes. Endophytes are defined as organisms that can live within plant cells without causing harm to the plant. They are distinguishable from mycorrhizal fungi by the absence of
776:
has indicated that mycorrhizal fungi and plants have a relationship that may be more complex than simply mutualistic. This relationship was noted when mycorrhizal fungi were unexpectedly found to be hoarding nitrogen from plant roots in times of nitrogen scarcity. Researchers argue that some
1163:
and possible damage to mycorrhizae, but the direct effect of an increase in the gas should be to benefit plants and mycorrhizae. In Arctic regions, nitrogen and water are harder for plants to obtain, making mycorrhizae crucial to plant growth. Since mycorrhizae tend to do better in cooler
1024:
provided by mycorrhizal fungi may depend on the soil microbiome. Furthermore, mycorrhizal fungi was significantly correlated with soil physical variable, but only with water level and not with aggregate stability and can lead also to more resistant to the effects of drought. Moreover, the
833:
plants with a mutation disabling their ability to detect P starvation show that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi detection, recruitment and colonization is prompted when the plant detects that it is starved of phosphorous. Nitrogen starvation also plays a role in initiating AMF symbiosis.
668:
outermost layer of root cells. There is no periradical phase and the extraradical phase consists of sparse hyphae that don't extend very far into the surrounding soil. They might form sporocarps (probably in the form of small cups), but their reproductive biology is poorly understood.
2609:
Kiers, E. Toby; Duhamel, Marie; Beesetty, Yugandhar; Mensah, Jerry A.; Franken, Oscar; Verbruggen, Erik; Fellbaum, Carl R.; Kowalchuk, George A.; Hart, Miranda M.; Bago, Alberto; Palmer, Todd M.; West, Stuart A.; Vandenkoornhuyse, Philippe; Jansa, Jan; BĂŒcking, Heike (2011-08-12).
552:
256:. Genetic evidence indicates that all land plants share a single common ancestor, which appears to have quickly adopted mycorrhizal symbiosis, and research suggests that proto-mycorrhizal fungi were a key factor enabling plant terrestrialization. The 400 million year old
520:
lifestyle of the mycorrhizal fungus that enables it to grow within both soil and living plant roots. Since then, the genomes of many other ectomycorrhizal fungal species have been sequenced further expanding the study of gene families and evolution in these organisms.
3840:
Babikova, Zdenka; Gilbert, Lucy; Bruce, Toby J. A.; Birkett, Michael; Caulfield, John C.; Woodcock, Christine; Pickett, John A.; Johnson, David (July 2013). "Underground signals carried through common mycelial networks warn neighbouring plants of aphid attack".
2417:
Miyauchi, Shingo; Kiss, EnikĆ; Kuo, Alan; Drula, Elodie; Kohler, Annegret; SĂĄnchez-GarcĂa, Marisol; Morin, Emmanuelle; Andreopoulos, Bill; Barry, Kerrie W.; Bonito, Gregory; BuĂ©e, Marc; Carver, Akiko; Chen, Cindy; Cichocki, Nicolas; Clum, Alicia (2020-10-12).
1142:
Associations of fungi with the roots of plants have been known since at least the mid-19th century. However early observers simply recorded the fact without investigating the relationships between the two organisms. This symbiosis was studied and described by
533:. It is however different from ericoid mycorrhiza and resembles ectomycorrhiza, both functionally and in terms of the fungi involved. It differs from ectomycorrhiza in that some hyphae actually penetrate into the root cells, making this type of mycorrhiza an
589:
Contrasting with the pattern seen in ectomycorrhizae, the species diversity of AMFs is very low, but the diversity of plant hosts is very high; an estimated 78% of all plant species associate with AMFs. Arbuscular mycorrhizas are formed only by fungi in the
605:, which may be one of the major stores of carbon in the soil. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi have (possibly) been asexual for many millions of years and, unusually, individuals can contain many genetically different nuclei (a phenomenon called
495:
was able to derive up to 25% of its nitrogen from springtails. When compared with non-mycorrhizal fine roots, ectomycorrhizae may contain very high concentrations of trace elements, including toxic metals (cadmium, silver) or chlorine.
336:
nutrient-transferring structures for bringing in nutrients from outside the plant. Some lineages of mycorrhizal fungi may have evolved from endophytes into mycorrhizal fungi, and some fungi can live as mycorrhizae or as endophytes.
4205:"Der ganze Körper ist also weder Baumwurzel noch Pilz allein, sondern Àhnlich wie der Thallus der Flechten, eine Vereinigung zweier verschiedener Wesen zu einem einheitlichen morphologischen Organ, welches vielleicht passend als
814:. The CSSP has origins predating the colonization of land by plants, demonstrating that the co-evolution of plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi is over 500 million years old. In arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, the presence of
4137:
Berch, S. M.; Massicotte, H. B.; Tackaberry, L. E. (July 2005). "Re-publication of a translation of 'The vegetative organs of
Monotropa hypopitys L.' published by F. Kamienski in 1882, with an update on Monotropa mycorrhizas".
867:
In this mutualism, fungal hyphae (E) increase the surface area of the root and uptake of key nutrients while the plant supplies the fungi with fixed carbon (A=root cortex, B=root epidermis, C=arbuscle, D=vesicle, F=root hair,
3947:
Jeffries, Peter; Gianinazzi, Silvio; Perotto, Silvia; Turnau, Katarzyna; Barea, José-Miguel (January 2003). "The contribution of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in sustainable maintenance of plant health and soil fertility".
4215:(The whole body is thus neither tree root nor fungus alone, but similar to the thallus of lichens, a union of two different organisms into a single morphological organ, which can be aptly designated as a "fungus root", a
1192:
was launched. SPUN is a science-based initiative to map and protect the mycorrhizal networks regulating Earthâs climate and ecosystems. The stated goals of SPUN are mapping, protecting, and harnessing mycorrhizal fungi.
507:
is lacking enzymes involved in the degradation of plant cell wall components (cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and pectates), preventing the symbiont from degrading host cells during the root colonisation. By contrast,
286:
is an extension of mycorrhizal symbiosis. The modern distribution of mycorrhizal fungi appears to reflect an increasing complexity and competition in root morphology associated with the dominance of angiosperms in the
1981:
Ward, Elisabeth B.; Duguid, Marlyse C.; Kuebbing, Sara E.; Lendemer, James C.; Bradford, Mark A. (2022). "The functional role of ericoid mycorrhizal plants and fungi on carbon and nitrogen dynamics in forests".
676:
enzymes for breaking down organic matter. They can extract nitrogen from cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, and chitin. This would increase the benefit they can provide to their plant symbiotic partners.
601:, when the first plants were colonizing land. Arbuscular mycorrhizas are found in 85% of all plant families, and occur in many crop species. The hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi produce the glycoprotein
2317:
CejpkovĂĄ, J.; Gryndler, M.; HrĆĄelovĂĄ, H.; Kotrba, P.; Ćanda, Z.; GreĆovĂĄ, I.; BoroviÄka, J. (2016). "Bioaccumulation of heavy metals, metalloids, and chlorine in ectomycorrhizae from smelter-polluted area".
797:, such as mycorrhizal fungi and any of the thousands of microbes that colonize plants, plants must discriminate between mutualists and pathogens, allowing the mutualists to colonize while activating an
3107:
Prout, James N.; Williams, Alex; Wanke, Alan; Schornack, Sebastian; Ton, Jurriaan; Field, Katie J. (2023). "Mucoromycotina 'fine root endophytes': a new molecular model for plantâfungal mutualisms?".
2792:
Prout, James N.; Williams, Alex; Wanke, Alan; Schornack, Sebastian; Ton, Jurriaan; Field, Katie J. (2023). "Mucoromycotina 'fine root endophytes': a new molecular model for plantâfungal mutualisms?".
761:
the plant families investigated are predominantly mycorrhizal either in the sense that most of their species associate beneficially with mycorrhizae, or are absolutely dependent on mycorrhizae. The
3069:
Nasir, Fahad; Bahadur, Ali; Lin, Xiaolong; Gao, Yingzhi; Tian, Chunjie (2021). "Novel insights into host receptors and receptor-mediated signaling that regulate arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis".
586:
products made by the plant host are consumed by the fungi, the transfer of carbon from the terrestrial host plant is then exchanged by equal amounts of phosphate from the fungi to the plant host.
232:
and there is fossil evidence that early land plants that lacked roots formed arbuscular mycorrhizal associations. Most plant species form mycorrhizal associations, though some families like
4229:
Monz, C. A.; Hunt, H. W.; Reeves, F. B.; Elliott, E. T. (1994). "The response of mycorrhizal colonization to elevated CO2 and climate change in
Pascopyrum smithii and Bouteloua gracilis".
3012:
Thoms, David; Liang, Yan; Haney, Cara H. (2021). "Maintaining
Symbiotic Homeostasis: How Do Plants Engage With Beneficial Microorganisms While at the Same Time Restricting Pathogens?".
3758:
Nikolaou, N.; Angelopoulos, K.; Karagiannidis, N. (2003). "Effects of
Drought Stress on Mycorrhizal and Non-Mycorrhizal Cabernet Sauvignon Grapevine, Grafted Onto Various Rootstocks".
4272:
Hobbie, John E.; Hobbie, Erik A.; Drossman, Howard; et al. (2009). "Mycorrhizal fungi supply nitrogen to host plants in Arctic tundra and boreal forests: 15N is the key signal".
385:
that penetrates between cells. Ectomycorrhizas consist of a hyphal sheath, or mantle, covering the root tip and the Hartig net of hyphae surrounding the plant cells within the root
1838:
Howard, Nathan; Pressel, Silvia; Kaye, Ryan S.; Daniell, Tim J.; Field, Katie J. (2022). "The potential role of
Mucoromycotina 'fine root endophytes' in plant nitrogen nutrition".
2534:
892:, and partly because some such fungi can mobilize soil minerals unavailable to the plants' roots. The effect is thus to improve the plant's mineral absorption capabilities.
884:. The carbohydrates are translocated from their source (usually leaves) to root tissue and on to the plant's fungal partners. In return, the plant gains the benefits of the
3475:
AzcĂłn-Aguilar, C.; Barea, J. M. (29 October 1996). "Arbuscular mycorrhizas and biological control of soil-borne plant pathogens â an overview of the mechanisms involved".
927:
to decay, such as wood, and some mycorrhizal fungi act directly as decay organisms, mobilising the nutrients and passing some onto the host plants; for example, in some
1952:
3571:
Svenningsen, Nanna B; Watts-Williams, Stephanie J; Joner, Erik J; Battini, Fabio; Efthymiou, Aikaterini; Cruz-Paredes, Carla; Nybroe, Ole; Jakobsen, Iver (May 2018).
888:'s higher absorptive capacity for water and mineral nutrients, partly because of the large surface area of fungal hyphae, which are much longer and finer than plant
512:
possesses expanded multigene families associated with hydrolysis of bacterial and microfauna polysaccharides and proteins. This genome analysis revealed the dual
581:, creating a so-called peri-arbuscular membrane. The structure of the arbuscules greatly increases the contact surface area between the hypha and the host cell
3981:
2673:
Simon, L.; Bousquet, J.; LĂ©vesque, R. C.; Lalonde, M. (1993). "Origin and diversification of endomycorrhizal fungi and coincidence with vascular land plants".
1529:
Harris, Brogan J.; Clark, James W.; Schrempf, Dominik; SzöllĆsi, Gergely J.; Donoghue, Philip C. J.; Hetherington, Alistair M.; Williams, Tom A. (2022-09-29).
3391:
Simard, S.W.; Beiler, K.J.; Bingham, M.A.; Deslippe, J.R.; Philip, L.J.; Teste, F.P. (April 2012). "Mycorrhizal networks: mechanisms, ecology and modelling".
3031:
Martin, Francis M.; van der
Heijden, Marcel G. A. (2024). "The mycorrhizal symbiosis: research frontiers in genomics, ecology, and agricultural application".
2123:
Martin, Francis M.; van der
Heijden, Marcel G. A. (2024). "The mycorrhizal symbiosis: research frontiers in genomics, ecology, and agricultural application".
4394:
3369:
1096:
planted in several contaminated sites displayed high tolerance to the prevailing contaminant, survivorship and growth. One study discovered the existence of
3510:
Jung, Sabine C.; Martinez-Medina, Ainhoa; Lopez-Raez, Juan A.; Pozo, Maria J. (24 May 2012). "Mycorrhiza-Induced
Resistance and Priming of Plant Defenses".
3286:"Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi contribute to phosphorus uptake by wheat grown in a phosphorus-fixing soil even in the absence of positive growth responses"
843:
provide a larger surface area for absorption. Chemically, the cell membrane chemistry of fungi differs from that of plants. For example, they may secrete
3688:
2811:
Midgley, DJ; Chambers, SM; Cairney, J. W. G. (2002). "Spatial distribution of fungal endophyte genotypes in a
Woollsia pungens (Ericaceae) root system".
2879:
Li, Taiqiang; Yang, Wenke; Wu, Shimao; Selosse, Marc-Andre; Gao, Jiangyun (2021). "Progress and Prospects of Mycorrhizal Fungal Diversity in Orchids".
1189:
1771:
Perotto, Silvia; Daghino, Stefania; Martino, Elena (2018). "Ericoid mycorrhizal fungi and their genomes: another side to the mycorrhizal symbiosis?".
303:
multiple times in the history of Earth. There are multiple ways to categorize mycorrhizal symbiosis. One major categorization is the division between
2898:
Trappe, J. M. (1987). "Phylogenetic and ecologic aspects of mycotrophy in the angiosperms from an evolutionary standpoint". In Safir, G. R. (ed.).
784:
Within mycorrhiza, the plant gives carbohydrates (products of photosynthesis) to the fungus, while the fungus gives the plant water and minerals.
966:
In some more complex relationships, mycorrhizal fungi do not just collect immobilised soil nutrients, but connect individual plants together by
1202:
224:
and supplies them to the fungus in the form of sugars or lipids, while the fungus supplies the plant with water and mineral nutrients, such as
1176:, the colonization of roots, degradation in connections between trees, reduction in the mycorrhizal incidence in trees, and reduction in the
1694:"[Evolution of nitrogen-fixing symbioses based on the migration of bacteria from mycorrhizal fungi and soil into the plant tissues]"
397:. Other forms of mycorrhizae, including arbuscular, ericoid, arbutoid, monotropoid, and orchid mycorrhizas, are considered endomycorrhizae.
2253:
1858:
389:. In some cases the hyphae may also penetrate the plant cells, in which case the mycorrhiza is called an endomycorrhiza. Outside the root,
806:
pathway (CSSP), a set of genes involved in initiating and maintaining colonization by endosymbiotic fungi and other endosymbionts such as
400:
Ectomycorrhizas, or EcM, are symbiotic associations between the roots of around 10% of plant families, mostly woody plants including the
266:, giving a lower bound for how late mycorrhizal symbiosis may have developed. Ectomycorrhizae developed substantially later, during the
2741:
Hijri, M.; Sanders, I. R. (2005). "Low gene copy number shows that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi inherit genetically different nuclei".
1274:
260:
contains an assemblage of fossil plants preserved in sufficient detail that arbuscular mycorrhizae have been observed in the stems of
3178:
1238:
4400:
4319:"Impact of temperature on the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis: growth responses of the host plant and its AM fungal partner"
3925:
3326:
1066:
indigenous non-mycorrhizal plants at a competitive disadvantage. This aptitude to colonize barren soil is defined by the category
671:
Plants participating in ericoid mycorrhizal symbioses are found in acidic, nutrient-poor conditions. Whereas AMFs have lost their
3663:
390:
228:, taken from the soil. Mycorrhizas are located in the roots of vascular plants, but mycorrhiza-like associations also occur in
2099:
4013:
3158:
1948:
1868:
1513:
1338:
487:
to obtain nitrogen, some of which may then be transferred to the mycorrhizal host plant. In a study by Klironomos and Hart,
4382:
3146:
825:
Many factors are involved in the initiation of mycorrhizal symbiosis, but particularly influential is the plant's need for
3987:
253:
4029:
Tam, Paul C.F. (1995). "Heavy metal tolerance by ectomycorrhizal fungi and metal amelioration by Pisolithus tinctorius".
1041:, the plant signals surrounding connected plants of its condition. Both the host plant and those connected to it release
4083:
2205:
Simard, Suzanne W.; Perry, David A.; Jones, Melanie D.; Myrold, David D.; Durall, Daniel M. & Molina, Randy (1997).
2963:
Megan A.; Umbanhowar, James; Viechtbauer, Wolfgang; Wang, Yen-Wen; Wilson, Gail W. T.; Zee, Peter C. (16 August 2018).
1037:
can use these underground connections to communicate warning signals. For example, when a host plant is attacked by an
461:
Nutrients can be shown to move between different plants through the fungal network. Carbon has been shown to move from
270:
period, while most other modern mycorrhizal families, including orchid and erchoid mycorrhizae, date to the period of
3647:
2144:"Positive citation bias and overinterpreted results lead to misinformation on common mycorrhizal networks in forests"
970:
that transport water, carbon, and other nutrients directly from plant to plant through underground hyphal networks.
311:. The two types are differentiated by the fact that the hyphae of ectomycorrhizal fungi do not penetrate individual
3428:"Nitrogen Fixation Associated with Suillus tomentosus Tuberculate Ectomycorrhizae on Pinus contorta var. latifolia"
3377:
3126:
Ho-Plagaro, Tania; Garcia-Garrido, Jose Manuel (2022). "Molecular Regulation of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis".
3088:
Ho-Plagaro, Tania; Garcia-Garrido, Jose Manuel (2022). "Molecular Regulation of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis".
3050:
Ho-Plagaro, Tania; Garcia-Garrido, Jose Manuel (2022). "Molecular Regulation of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis".
2420:"Large-scale genome sequencing of mycorrhizal fungi provides insights into the early evolution of symbiotic traits"
1637:"Large-scale genome sequencing of mycorrhizal fungi provides insights into the early evolution of symbiotic traits"
1531:"Divergent evolutionary trajectories of bryophytes and tracheophytes from a complex common ancestor of land plants"
381:
Ectomycorrhizae are distinct in that they do not penetrate into plant cells, but instead form a structure called a
2362:
220:
A mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a green plant and a fungus. The plant makes organic molecules by
4385:
video recommending agricultural mycorrhiza use to conserve phosphorus reserves & 85% waste problem @Ted.com
3692:
3241:
Selosse, M. A.; Richard, F.; He, X.; Simard, S. W. (2006). "Mycorrhizal networks: des liaisons dangereuses?".
765:
are notorious as a family in which the absence of the correct mycorrhizae is fatal even to germinating seeds.
4190:
900:
107:
2552:
Lanfranco, Luisa; Bonfante, Paola; Genre, Andrea (2016-12-23). Heitman, Joseph; Howlett, Barbara J. (eds.).
1897:
Wang, B.; Qiu, Y.-L. (July 2006). "Phylogenetic distribution and evolution of mycorrhizas in land plants".
193:
3349:
872:
The mycorrhizal mutualistic association provides the fungus with relatively constant and direct access to
2965:"Evolutionary history of plant hosts and fungal symbionts predicts the strength of mycorrhizal mutualism"
124:
17:
3630:
Zeng, Ren-Sen (2006). "Disease Resistance in Plants Through Mycorrhizal Fungi Induced Allelochemicals".
2915:"Forests trapped in nitrogen limitation - an ecological market perspective on ectomycorrhizal symbiosis"
3794:
1016:
Mycorrhizal plants are often more resistant to diseases, such as those caused by microbial soil-borne
499:
The first genomic sequence for a representative of symbiotic fungi, the ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete
1042:
240:
cannot. Different forms for the association are detailed in the next section. The most common is the
2553:
283:
4436:
2042:
Saari, S. K.; Campbell, C. D.; Russell, J.; Alexander, I. J.; Anderson, I. C. (14 October 2004).
982:
fungus, produces specialized structures known as tuberculate ectomycorrhizae with its plant host
802:
244:
that is present in 70% of plant species, including many crop plants such as cereals and legumes.
4403:
a portal concerned with the biology and ecology of ectomycorrhizal fungi and other forest fungi.
1874:
1144:
1078:
Fungi have a protective role for plants rooted in soils with high metal concentrations, such as
3179:"Botany online: Interactions - Plants - Fungi - Parasitic and Symbiotic Relations - Mycorrhiza"
100:
2044:"Pine microsatellite markers allow roots and ectomycorrhizas to be linked to individual trees"
1011:
4421:
1131:
1092:
566:
559:
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470:
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seedlings, although not conclusively through a common mycorrhizal network, thereby promoting
252:
Fossil and genetic evidence indicate that mycorrhizae are ancient, potentially as old as the
241:
82:
271:
4431:
4416:
4238:
4147:
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3957:
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3584:
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1906:
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1587:
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967:
363:
300:
4191:"Ăber die auf Wurzelsymbiose beruhende ErnĂ€hrung gewisser BĂ€ume durch unterirdische Pilze"
3182:
1801:
Allen, Michael F. 1991. The ecology of mycorrhizae. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
1789:
Harley, J. L.; Smith, S. E. 1983. Mycorrhizal symbiosis (1st ed.). Academic Press, London.
8:
2569:
1243:
1049:, predators of aphids. This assists the mycorrhizal fungi by conserving its food supply.
1034:
941:
757:
591:
205:
188:
In a mycorrhizal association, the fungus colonizes the host plant's root tissues, either
4391:
Comprehensive illustrations and lists of mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal plants and fungi
4242:
4193:[On the nourishing, via root symbiosis, of certain trees by underground fungi].
4151:
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3961:
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2627:
2435:
2385:
2331:
2279:
2222:
2159:
1910:
1652:
1546:
1462:
452:, are symbiotic with only one particular genus of plant, while other fungi, such as the
4426:
4254:
4171:
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3775:
3740:
3735:
3714:
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2419:
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2187:
2001:
den Bakker, Henk C.; Zuccarello, G. C.; Kuyper, Th. W.; Noordeloos, M. E. (July 2004).
1930:
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1636:
1612:
1563:
1530:
1379:
1083:
1021:
974:
652:
647:
488:
2611:
855:. Mycorrhizae are especially beneficial for the plant partner in nutrient-poor soils.
698:
at some stage during their lifecycle, meaning that they can survive only if they form
4340:
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3907:
3866:
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3612:
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3307:
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3154:
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2500:
2465:
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2191:
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2143:
2065:
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2019:
2002:
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1705:
1674:
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1509:
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1446:
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1415:
1398:
1374:
1355:
1334:
995:
711:
699:
695:
685:
466:
462:
4258:
4068:
3977:
3779:
3573:"Suppression of the activity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi by the soil microbiota"
3557:
3496:
2715:
2659:
2520:
2483:
Brundrett, Mark (2004). "Diversity and classification of mycorrhizal associations".
1934:
1383:
953:
rainforest destruction, relies upon mycorrhiza within the root system of species of
931:
forests, large amounts of phosphate and other nutrients are taken up by mycorrhizal
4358:
Xavier, L. J.; Germida, J. J. (1999). "Impact of human activities on mycorrhizae".
4330:
4289:
4281:
4246:
4175:
4155:
4099:
4054:
4046:
3965:
3897:
3858:
3821:
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3767:
3730:
3635:
3602:
3592:
3535:
3527:
3484:
3447:
3439:
3408:
3297:
3258:
3215:
3145:
Sylvia, David M.; Fuhrmann, Jeffry J.; Hartel, Peter G.; Zuberer, David A. (2005).
2984:
2976:
2934:
2926:
2851:
2820:
2778:
2758:
2717:
2702:
2690:
2631:
2573:
2565:
2492:
2455:
2439:
2389:
2335:
2303:
2283:
2240:
2226:
2163:
2084:
2055:
2014:
1914:
1736:
1664:
1656:
1607:
1599:
1558:
1550:
1476:
1466:
1410:
1369:
1326:
1228:
1114:
639:
479:
405:
55:
1356:"Functioning of mycorrhizal associations along the mutualismâparasitism continuum"
44:
3333:. Washington DC: National Council for Science and the Environment. Archived from
2339:
1360:
1177:
1108:
1046:
769:
736:
and derive their carbon from the fungus partner. This is thus a non-mutualistic,
597:. Fossil evidence and DNA sequence analysis suggest that this mutualism appeared
425:
386:
174:
3164:
2266:
Klironomos, J. N.; Hart, M. M. (2001). "Animal nitrogen swap for plant carbon".
1130:
Mycorrhizas are present in 92% of plant families studied (80% of species), with
320:
208:. In particular species, or in particular circumstances, mycorrhizae may have a
35:
3262:
2443:
2167:
1725:"Evolutionary history of mycorrhizal symbioses and global host plant diversity"
1660:
1554:
1253:
1160:
1098:
983:
950:
801:
response towards the pathogens. Plant genomes code for potentially hundreds of
773:
717:
618:
606:
376:
352:
312:
237:
221:
182:
78:
4159:
3969:
3813:
3771:
3634:. Disease Management of Fruits and Vegetables. Vol. 2. pp. 181â192.
3597:
3531:
3412:
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1918:
1330:
4410:
3639:
3390:
3206:
Harrison, M. J. (2005). "Signaling in the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis".
2840:"Mycorrhizas and nutrient cycling in ecosystemsâa journey towards relevance?"
2643:
2587:
2554:"The Mutualistic Interaction between Plants and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi"
2504:
2451:
2175:
1603:
1471:
979:
911:
815:
798:
752:
Nutrient exchanges and communication between a mycorrhizal fungus and plants.
729:
661:
629:
594:
578:
429:
324:
197:
189:
3350:"Slash-and-burn farming has become a major threat to the world's rainforest"
2635:
780:
4344:
4303:
4265:
4167:
4127:
Mémoires de la Société nat. Des Sciences naturelles et mathém. De Cherbourg
3911:
3870:
3616:
3549:
3461:
3354:
3311:
3270:
3227:
2998:
2948:
2865:
2770:
2651:
2595:
2512:
2469:
2403:
2347:
2295:
2183:
2069:
2028:
1926:
1750:
1709:
1693:
1678:
1621:
1572:
1490:
1424:
1207:
1012:
Disease, drought and salinity resistance and its correlation to mycorrhizae
946:
873:
852:
844:
830:
672:
513:
257:
233:
3795:"Salinity stress alleviation using arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. A review"
3488:
2207:"Net transfer of carbon between ectomycorrhizal tree species in the field"
4335:
4318:
3443:
1588:"Plantâmicrobe interactions that have impacted plant terrestrializations"
936:
762:
733:
725:
691:
530:
394:
261:
166:
3540:
2762:
2578:
2394:
1399:"The evolution of mycorrhiza-like associations in liverworts: An update"
1122:
of the fungus, without affecting the exchange of beneficial substances.
4250:
4222:
4059:
4050:
3793:
Porcel, Rosa; Aroca, Ricardo; Ruiz-Lozano, Juan Manuel (January 2012).
3744:
2612:"Reciprocal Rewards Stabilize Cooperation in the Mycorrhizal Symbiosis"
2085:"Ectomycorrhizal fungal diversity: separating the wheat from the chaff"
1173:
1172:
produced by human activity may harm mycorrhizae, causing reduction in "
1067:
960:
928:
914:
such as iron. One form of such immobilization occurs in soil with high
826:
737:
574:
517:
484:
437:
433:
401:
382:
275:
229:
225:
209:
85:(lower left) are very common in plants, including crop species such as
74:
3902:
3885:
3862:
2930:
2535:"Some plants may depend more on friendly fungi than own leaves: Study"
2003:"Evolution and host specificity in the ectomycorrhizal genus Leccinum"
1976:
1974:
1972:
1970:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1760:
1741:
1724:
1118:. This was probably due to binding of the metal to the extramatricial
748:
165:. The term mycorrhiza refers to the role of the fungus in the plant's
4388:
4294:
3570:
3284:
Li, H.; Smith, S. E.; Holloway, R. E.; Zhu, Y.; Smith, F. A. (2006).
2694:
2287:
1218:
904:
889:
848:
794:
721:
582:
474:
409:
178:
154:
130:
113:
4285:
2824:
2142:
Karst, Justine; Jones, Melanie D.; Hoeksema, Jason D. (2023-02-13).
2000:
1164:
temperatures, warming could be detrimental to them. Gases such as SO
4360:
Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Microbial Ecology
3632:
Allelochemicals: Biological Control of Plant Pathogens and Diseases
2716:
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (2019-11-07).
1967:
1824:
1757:
1586:
Puginier, Camille; Keller, Jean; Delaux, Pierre-Marc (2022-08-29).
1248:
1223:
1212:
1119:
1017:
1002:
998:
923:
896:
885:
807:
793:
To successfully engage in mutualistic symbiotic relationships with
656:
602:
598:
529:
This type of mycorrhiza involves plants of the Ericaceae subfamily
442:
421:
417:
413:
358:
288:
267:
4310:
2231:
2206:
3757:
3509:
2961:
1857:
Peterson, R. L.; Massicotte, H. B. & Melville, L. H. (2004).
1233:
1079:
881:
877:
634:
454:
448:
173:
system and its surroundings. Mycorrhizae play important roles in
64:
4383:
Mohamed Hijri: A simple solution to the coming phosphorus crisis
1447:"Four hundred-million-year-old vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae"
291:, characterized by complex ecological dynamics between species.
3946:
2913:
Franklin, O.; NÀsholm, T.; Högberg, P.; Högberg, M. N. (2014).
1445:
Remy, W.; Taylor, T. N.; Hass, H.; Kerp, H. (6 December 1994).
1304:
Kirk, P. M.; Cannon, P. F.; David, J. C.; Stalpers, J. (2001).
811:
570:
279:
158:
3918:
3835:
3833:
3831:
3014:
International Society for Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions
2316:
1635:
Miyauchi, Shingo; Kiss, EnikĆ; Kuo, Alan; et al. (2020).
1061:
and growth media often perform poorly without the addition of
551:
4376:
2912:
2041:
1087:
1062:
1038:
932:
863:
555:
348:
316:
278:
period. There is genetic evidence that the symbiosis between
162:
86:
2672:
344:
3839:
3828:
3426:
Paul, L. R.; Chapman, B. K.; Chanway, C. P. (1 June 2007).
3144:
3106:
2791:
1810:
1528:
1103:
1058:
955:
915:
907:
170:
2608:
2476:
1980:
1856:
4271:
4136:
4117:
KamieĆski, Franciszek (1882). "Les organes vĂ©gĂ©tatifs de
1125:
1106:. Another study discovered that zinc-tolerant strains of
3125:
3087:
3049:
1837:
1797:
1795:
1692:
Provorov, N. A.; Shtark, O. Yu; Dolgikh, E. A. (2016).
1303:
919:
3792:
3719:(Bong.) Carr. I. In Conditions of Nutrient Deficiency"
3240:
2810:
2551:
2204:
2082:
612:
4228:
3564:
3030:
2718:"Plants and fungi together could slow climate change"
2122:
2083:
Rinaldi, A. C.; Comandini, O.; Kuyper, T. W. (2008).
1792:
1770:
1691:
1322:
Arbuscular Mycorrhizas and Stress Tolerance of Plants
1005:
and allow the pines to colonize nutrient-poor sites.
319:
of endomycorrhizal fungi penetrate the cell wall and
2416:
2360:
1949:"Orchids and fungi: An unexpected case of symbiosis"
1850:
1634:
1585:
1354:
Johnson, N. C.; Graham, J. H.; Smith, F. A. (1997).
577:(i.e. the interior of the cell), but invaginate the
4397:
Biosafety research into genetically modified barley
4008:. London: Cambridge University Press. p. 336.
1308:(9th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
3474:
3425:
3283:
3068:
2141:
1508:(second ed.). Versaillles: Inra. p. 10.
1444:
1353:
1190:Society for the Protection of Underground Networks
330:
4317:Heinemeyer, A.; Fitter, A. H. (22 January 2004).
1722:
4408:
4316:
3151:Principles and Applications of Soil Microbiology
2837:
716:This type of mycorrhiza occurs in the subfamily
4195:Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft
3886:"Interplant signalling through hyphal networks"
3201:
3199:
3011:
2878:
1451:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1325:(1st ed.). Springer Singapore. p. 1.
858:
393:forms an extensive network within the soil and
3883:
2265:
1203:Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity
1052:
4357:
3999:
3997:
3691:. Aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu. Archived from
2367:provides insights into mycorrhizal symbiosis"
1951:. American Journal of Botany. July 12, 2011.
1440:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1306:Ainsworth and Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi
1215:, an organism that grows on another life form
895:Unaided plant roots may be unable to take up
3884:Johnson, David; Gilbert, Lucy (March 2015).
3329:. In Jorgensen, A.; Cleveland, C.J. (eds.).
3196:
2955:
2906:
2740:
1863:. National Research Council Research Press.
994:). These structures have been shown to host
851:many ions, or release them from minerals by
299:The mycorrhizal lifestyle has independently
4351:
3128:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
3090:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
3052:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
2838:Read, D. J. & Perez-Moreno, J. (2003).
2361:Martin, F.; Aerts, A.; et al. (2008).
1892:
1890:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1723:Brundrett, Mark C.; Tedersoo, Leho (2018).
1396:
1183:
4389:Mycorrhizal Associations: The Web Resource
4003:
3994:
3384:
2891:
1431:
1390:
4334:
4293:
4188:
4116:
4058:
3901:
3734:
3606:
3596:
3539:
3451:
3301:
3181:. Biologie.uni-hamburg.de. Archived from
2988:
2938:
2855:
2666:
2577:
2482:
2459:
2393:
2230:
2059:
2018:
1740:
1668:
1611:
1562:
1480:
1470:
1414:
1373:
1239:Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage
1073:
1033:Plants connected by mycorrhizal fungi in
1001:which contribute a significant amount of
705:
4022:
3940:
3205:
2541:. Press Trust of India. 20 October 2019.
1881:
1159:released by human activities is causing
1028:
949:technique proposed as an alternative to
862:
779:
747:
628:
550:
540:
357:
343:
3715:"Mycorrhizas and Drought Resistance of
3664:"Dr. Susan Kaminskyj: Endorhizal Fungi"
3234:
2804:
2254:Fungi kill insects and feed host plants
2035:
1896:
14:
4409:
4081:
3419:
3220:10.1146/annurev.micro.58.030603.123749
2900:Ecophysiology of VA Mycorrhizal Plants
2897:
1504:Fortin, J. André; et al. (2015).
1503:
1126:Occurrence of mycorrhizal associations
939:, bypassing the need for soil uptake.
524:
391:ectomycorrhizal extramatrical mycelium
3712:
3347:
3341:
3324:
2734:
1994:
1860:Mycorrhizas: anatomy and cell biology
624:
4395:Mycorrhizas â a successful symbiosis
3802:Agronomy for Sustainable Development
3629:
2570:10.1128/microbiolspec.FUNK-0012-2016
679:
4121:L."" [The vegetative organs of
4028:
3362:
3147:"Overview of Mycorrhizal Symbioses"
1812:recruited among root endophytes?".
724:, as well as several genera in the
613:Mucoromycotina fine root endophytes
368:
204:fungi. The association is normally
201:
138:
73:Many conspicuous fungi such as the
24:
4104:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a089540
3736:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1992.tb00094.x
3277:
1318:
1275:"The Microbial World: Mycorrhizas"
1272:
1112:conferred resistance to plants of
1102:strains with varying tolerance of
918:content, or soils with a strongly
899:that are chemically or physically
655:, or ErMs, involve only plants in
81:(upper right) with tree rootlets.
27:Fungus-plant symbiotic association
25:
4448:
4370:
4006:Ecology and biogeography of Pinus
1150:
959:to prevent the rain from washing
637:mycorrhizal fungus isolated from
339:
4379:International Mycorrhiza Society
4377:International Mycorrhiza Society
4274:Canadian Journal of Microbiology
3926:"Root fungi turn rock into soil"
3303:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01846.x
2857:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00704.x
2061:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01213.x
2020:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01090.x
1416:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01471.x
1375:10.1046/j.1469-8137.1997.00729.x
483:has been found to lure and kill
63:
54:
43:
34:
4182:
4110:
4075:
3877:
3786:
3751:
3706:
3681:
3656:
3623:
3503:
3468:
3318:
3243:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
3171:
3138:
3119:
3100:
3081:
3062:
3043:
3024:
3005:
2872:
2831:
2785:
2709:
2602:
2545:
2527:
2410:
2354:
2310:
2259:
2247:
2198:
2135:
2116:
2105:from the original on 2011-07-24
2076:
1955:from the original on 2011-07-15
1941:
1804:
1783:
1716:
1685:
1628:
740:type of mycorrhizal symbiosis.
617:Mycorrhizal fungi belonging to
331:Similar symbiotic relationships
4323:Journal of Experimental Botany
4189:KamieĆski, Franciszek (1885).
3950:Biology and Fertility of Soils
3370:"What is Inga alley cropping?"
3071:Journal of Experimental Botany
2148:Nature Ecology & Evolution
1579:
1535:Nature Ecology & Evolution
1522:
1497:
1397:Kottke, I.; Nebel, M. (2005).
1347:
1312:
1297:
1266:
1045:that repel aphids and attract
212:association with host plants.
13:
1:
4004:Richardson, David M. (2000).
3932:. 3 July 2009. Archived from
1319:Wu, Qiang-Sheng, ed. (2017).
1259:
837:
573:do not in fact penetrate the
477:. The ectomycorrhizal fungus
428:, and fungi belonging to the
215:
4082:Rayner, M. Cheveley (1915).
2813:Australian Journal of Botany
2340:10.1016/j.envpol.2016.08.009
859:Sugar-water/mineral exchange
788:
254:terrestrialization of plants
247:
194:arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
7:
3348:Elkan, D. (21 April 2004).
1196:
1180:of ectomycorrhizal roots."
1053:Colonization of barren soil
743:
315:within the root, while the
120: 'fungus' and
10:
4453:
3689:"Dr. Davies Research Page"
3666:. Usask.ca. Archived from
3263:10.1016/j.tree.2006.07.003
2881:Frontiers in Plant Science
2444:10.1038/s41467-020-18795-w
2168:10.1038/s41559-023-01986-1
1661:10.1038/s41467-020-18795-w
1555:10.1038/s41559-022-01885-x
1043:volatile organic compounds
709:
683:
645:
544:
374:
123:
106:
4160:10.1007/s00572-004-0334-1
3970:10.1007/s00374-002-0546-5
3814:10.1007/s13593-011-0029-x
3772:10.1017/S001447970300125X
3598:10.1038/s41396-018-0059-3
3532:10.1007/s10886-012-0134-6
3413:10.1016/j.fbr.2012.01.001
3153:. Pearson Prentice Hall.
2981:10.1038/s42003-018-0120-9
2497:10.1017/s1464793103006316
1919:10.1007/s00572-005-0033-6
1698:Zhurnal Obshchei Biologii
1331:10.1007/978-981-10-4115-0
756:Mycorrhizal fungi form a
599:400-460 million years ago
4213:bezeichnet werden kann."
3760:Experimental Agriculture
3640:10.1007/1-4020-4447-X_10
1472:10.1073/pnas.91.25.11841
1184:Conservation and mapping
1057:Plants grown in sterile
829:. Experiments involving
465:seedlings into adjacent
294:
284:nitrogen-fixing bacteria
4084:"Obligate Symbiosis in
3109:Trends in Plant Science
2794:Trends in Plant Science
2636:10.1126/science.1208473
2320:Environmental Pollution
1279:bio.ed.ac.uk (archived)
1139:on multiple occasions.
3393:Fungal Biology Reviews
2969:Communications Biology
1604:10.1093/plphys/kiac258
1132:arbuscular mycorrhizas
1090:trees inoculated with
1074:Resistance to toxicity
869:
785:
753:
706:Monotropoid mycorrhiza
643:
567:Arbuscular mycorrhizas
563:
372:
355:
157:association between a
3713:Lehto, Tarja (1992).
3489:10.1007/s005720050147
3331:Encyclopedia of Earth
2902:. Florida: CRC Press.
2558:Microbiology Spectrum
2491:(3). Wiley: 473â495.
2424:Nature Communications
1840:Physiologia Plantarum
1641:Nature Communications
1137:evolving convergently
1093:Pisolithus tinctorius
1029:Resistance to insects
866:
783:
768:Recent research into
751:
632:
560:arbuscular mycorrhiza
554:
547:Arbuscular mycorrhiza
541:Arbuscular mycorrhiza
361:
347:
83:Arbuscular mycorrhiza
3325:Hogan, C.M. (2011).
1145:Franciszek KamieĆski
1035:mycorrhizal networks
968:mycorrhizal networks
364:Leccinum aurantiacum
301:convergently evolved
272:angiosperm radiation
4243:1994PlSoi.165...75M
4152:2005Mycor..15..323B
4123:Monotropa hypopitys
4119:Monotropa hypopitys
4043:1995Mycor...5..181T
3962:2003BioFS..37....1J
3930:Planet Earth Online
3855:2013EcolL..16..835B
3589:2018ISMEJ..12.1296S
3524:2012JCEco..38..651J
3405:2012FunBR..26...39S
3374:rainforestsaver.org
3255:2006TEcoE..21..621S
2763:10.1038/nature03069
2755:2005Natur.433..160H
2687:1993Natur.363...67S
2628:2011Sci...333..880K
2436:2020NatCo..11.5125M
2395:10.1038/nature06556
2386:2008Natur.452...88M
2332:2016EPoll.218..176C
2280:2001Natur.410..651K
2223:1997Natur.388..579S
2160:2023NatEE...7..501K
1911:2006Mycor..16..299W
1653:2020NatCo..11.5125M
1547:2022NatEE...6.1634H
1463:1994PNAS...9111841R
1457:(25): 11841â11843.
1244:Mycorrhizal network
942:Inga alley cropping
935:acting directly on
903:; examples include
728:. These plants are
653:Ericoid mycorrhizae
525:Arbutoid mycorrhiza
4336:10.1093/jxb/erh049
4251:10.1007/bf00009964
4051:10.1007/BF00203335
3444:10.1093/aob/mcm061
3208:Annu Rev Microbiol
2485:Biological Reviews
1084:contaminated soils
1022:Ecosystem services
975:Suillus tomentosus
870:
786:
754:
700:orchid mycorrhizae
696:myco-heterotrophic
648:Ericoid mycorrhiza
644:
625:Ericoid mycorrhiza
564:
489:Eastern White Pine
373:
356:
77:(upper left) form
4015:978-0-521-78910-3
3903:10.1111/nph.13115
3863:10.1111/ele.12115
3167:on June 23, 2010.
3160:978-0-13-094117-6
2931:10.1111/nph.12840
2749:(7022): 160â163.
2622:(6044): 880â882.
2539:Business Standard
2274:(6829): 651â652.
2217:(6642): 579â582.
1870:978-0-660-19087-7
1742:10.1111/nph.14976
1541:(11): 1634â1643.
1515:978-2-7592-2433-3
1340:978-981-10-4115-0
963:out of the soil.
847:that dissolve or
712:Myco-heterotrophy
686:Orchid mycorrhiza
680:Orchid mycorrhiza
535:ectendomycorrhiza
263:Aglaophyton major
16:(Redirected from
4444:
4364:
4363:
4355:
4349:
4348:
4338:
4329:(396): 525â534.
4314:
4308:
4307:
4297:
4269:
4263:
4262:
4226:
4220:
4202:
4186:
4180:
4179:
4134:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4092:Annals of Botany
4086:Calluna vulgaris
4079:
4073:
4072:
4062:
4026:
4020:
4019:
4001:
3992:
3991:
3986:
3944:
3938:
3937:
3922:
3916:
3915:
3905:
3896:(4): 1448â1453.
3881:
3875:
3874:
3837:
3826:
3825:
3799:
3790:
3784:
3783:
3755:
3749:
3748:
3738:
3717:Picea sitchensis
3710:
3704:
3703:
3701:
3700:
3685:
3679:
3678:
3676:
3675:
3660:
3654:
3653:
3627:
3621:
3620:
3610:
3600:
3583:(5): 1296â1307.
3577:The ISME Journal
3568:
3562:
3561:
3543:
3507:
3501:
3500:
3472:
3466:
3465:
3455:
3438:(6): 1101â1109.
3432:Annals of Botany
3423:
3417:
3416:
3388:
3382:
3381:
3376:. Archived from
3366:
3360:
3359:
3345:
3339:
3338:
3322:
3316:
3315:
3305:
3281:
3275:
3274:
3238:
3232:
3231:
3203:
3194:
3193:
3191:
3190:
3175:
3169:
3168:
3163:. Archived from
3142:
3136:
3135:
3123:
3117:
3116:
3104:
3098:
3097:
3085:
3079:
3078:
3066:
3060:
3059:
3047:
3041:
3040:
3028:
3022:
3021:
3009:
3003:
3002:
2992:
2959:
2953:
2952:
2942:
2910:
2904:
2903:
2895:
2889:
2888:
2876:
2870:
2869:
2859:
2835:
2829:
2828:
2808:
2802:
2801:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2738:
2732:
2731:
2729:
2728:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2695:10.1038/363067a0
2670:
2664:
2663:
2606:
2600:
2599:
2581:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2480:
2474:
2473:
2463:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2397:
2371:
2365:Laccaria bicolor
2358:
2352:
2351:
2314:
2308:
2307:
2288:10.1038/35070643
2263:
2257:
2251:
2245:
2244:
2234:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2139:
2133:
2132:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2110:
2104:
2092:Fungal Diversity
2089:
2080:
2074:
2073:
2063:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2022:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1978:
1965:
1964:
1962:
1960:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1894:
1879:
1878:
1873:. Archived from
1854:
1848:
1847:
1835:
1822:
1821:
1814:Annals of Botany
1808:
1802:
1799:
1790:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1768:
1755:
1754:
1744:
1735:(4): 1108â1115.
1720:
1714:
1713:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1672:
1632:
1626:
1625:
1615:
1592:Plant Physiology
1583:
1577:
1576:
1566:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1501:
1495:
1494:
1484:
1474:
1442:
1429:
1428:
1418:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1377:
1351:
1345:
1344:
1316:
1310:
1309:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1281:. Archived from
1270:
1229:Epiphytic fungus
1115:Pinus sylvestris
1047:parasitoid wasps
640:Woollsia pungens
491:inoculated with
480:Laccaria bicolor
140:
134:
127:
117:
110:
67:
58:
47:
38:
21:
4452:
4451:
4447:
4446:
4445:
4443:
4442:
4441:
4407:
4406:
4373:
4368:
4367:
4356:
4352:
4315:
4311:
4286:10.1139/w08-127
4270:
4266:
4227:
4223:
4187:
4183:
4115:
4111:
4098:(113): 97â134.
4080:
4076:
4027:
4023:
4016:
4002:
3995:
3984:
3945:
3941:
3924:
3923:
3919:
3890:New Phytologist
3882:
3878:
3843:Ecology Letters
3838:
3829:
3797:
3791:
3787:
3756:
3752:
3723:New Phytologist
3711:
3707:
3698:
3696:
3687:
3686:
3682:
3673:
3671:
3662:
3661:
3657:
3650:
3628:
3624:
3569:
3565:
3508:
3504:
3473:
3469:
3424:
3420:
3389:
3385:
3368:
3367:
3363:
3346:
3342:
3323:
3319:
3290:New Phytologist
3282:
3278:
3249:(11): 621â628.
3239:
3235:
3204:
3197:
3188:
3186:
3177:
3176:
3172:
3161:
3143:
3139:
3124:
3120:
3105:
3101:
3086:
3082:
3067:
3063:
3048:
3044:
3033:New Phytologist
3029:
3025:
3010:
3006:
2960:
2956:
2919:New Phytologist
2911:
2907:
2896:
2892:
2877:
2873:
2844:New Phytologist
2836:
2832:
2825:10.1071/BT02020
2809:
2805:
2790:
2786:
2739:
2735:
2726:
2724:
2714:
2710:
2681:(6424): 67â69.
2671:
2667:
2607:
2603:
2550:
2546:
2533:
2532:
2528:
2481:
2477:
2415:
2411:
2380:(7183): 88â92.
2369:
2363:"The genome of
2359:
2355:
2315:
2311:
2264:
2260:
2252:
2248:
2203:
2199:
2140:
2136:
2125:New Phytologist
2121:
2117:
2108:
2106:
2102:
2087:
2081:
2077:
2048:New Phytologist
2040:
2036:
2007:New Phytologist
1999:
1995:
1984:New Phytologist
1979:
1968:
1958:
1956:
1947:
1946:
1942:
1895:
1882:
1871:
1855:
1851:
1836:
1825:
1809:
1805:
1800:
1793:
1788:
1784:
1773:New Phytologist
1769:
1758:
1729:New Phytologist
1721:
1717:
1690:
1686:
1633:
1629:
1584:
1580:
1527:
1523:
1516:
1502:
1498:
1443:
1432:
1403:New Phytologist
1395:
1391:
1361:New Phytologist
1352:
1348:
1341:
1317:
1313:
1302:
1298:
1288:
1286:
1271:
1267:
1262:
1199:
1186:
1178:enzyme activity
1171:
1167:
1158:
1153:
1128:
1109:Suillus bovinus
1076:
1055:
1031:
1014:
1008:
996:nitrogen fixing
861:
840:
795:other organisms
791:
770:ectomycorrhizal
746:
714:
708:
688:
682:
650:
627:
615:
549:
543:
527:
379:
369:ectomycorrhizal
353:ectomycorrhizal
342:
333:
309:endomycorrhizas
305:ectomycorrhizas
297:
250:
242:arbuscular type
218:
202:ectomycorrhizal
198:extracellularly
190:intracellularly
175:plant nutrition
93:
92:
91:
90:
70:
69:
68:
60:
59:
50:
49:
48:
40:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4450:
4440:
4439:
4437:Fungus ecology
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4405:
4404:
4398:
4392:
4386:
4380:
4372:
4371:External links
4369:
4366:
4365:
4350:
4309:
4264:
4231:Plant and Soil
4221:
4203:From p. 129:
4181:
4109:
4074:
4037:(3): 181â187.
4021:
4014:
3993:
3939:
3936:on 2009-07-13.
3917:
3876:
3849:(7): 835â843.
3827:
3808:(1): 181â200.
3785:
3766:(3): 241â252.
3750:
3729:(4): 661â668.
3705:
3680:
3655:
3648:
3622:
3563:
3518:(6): 651â664.
3502:
3483:(6): 457â464.
3467:
3418:
3383:
3380:on 2011-11-01.
3361:
3340:
3337:on 2012-10-25.
3317:
3296:(3): 536â543.
3276:
3233:
3195:
3170:
3159:
3137:
3118:
3099:
3080:
3061:
3042:
3023:
3004:
2954:
2925:(2): 657â666.
2905:
2890:
2871:
2850:(3): 475â492.
2830:
2819:(5): 559â565.
2803:
2784:
2733:
2708:
2665:
2601:
2544:
2526:
2475:
2409:
2353:
2309:
2258:
2246:
2197:
2154:(4): 501â511.
2134:
2115:
2075:
2054:(1): 295â304.
2034:
2013:(1): 201â215.
1993:
1966:
1940:
1905:(5): 299â363.
1880:
1877:on 2007-12-25.
1869:
1849:
1823:
1803:
1791:
1782:
1756:
1715:
1704:(5): 329â345.
1684:
1627:
1578:
1521:
1514:
1506:Les Mycorhizes
1496:
1430:
1409:(2): 330â334.
1389:
1368:(4): 575â585.
1346:
1339:
1311:
1296:
1264:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1254:Suzanne Simard
1251:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1210:
1205:
1198:
1195:
1185:
1182:
1169:
1165:
1161:climate change
1156:
1152:
1151:Climate change
1149:
1147:in 1879â1882.
1127:
1124:
1099:Suillus luteus
1075:
1072:
1054:
1051:
1030:
1027:
1013:
1010:
988:Pinus contorta
984:lodgepole pine
951:slash and burn
912:micronutrients
860:
857:
839:
836:
816:strigolactones
790:
787:
774:boreal forests
745:
742:
718:Monotropoideae
710:Main article:
707:
704:
684:Main article:
681:
678:
662:boreal forests
646:Main article:
626:
623:
619:Mucoromycotina
614:
611:
607:heterokaryosis
545:Main article:
542:
539:
526:
523:
377:Ectomycorrhiza
375:Main article:
341:
340:Ectomycorrhiza
338:
332:
329:
296:
293:
249:
246:
238:Chenopodiaceae
222:photosynthesis
217:
214:
183:soil chemistry
137: 'root';
79:ectomycorrhiza
72:
71:
62:
61:
53:
52:
51:
42:
41:
33:
32:
31:
30:
29:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4449:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4414:
4412:
4402:
4399:
4396:
4393:
4390:
4387:
4384:
4381:
4378:
4375:
4374:
4361:
4354:
4346:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4313:
4305:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4268:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4225:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4200:
4197:(in German).
4196:
4192:
4185:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4146:(5): 323â32.
4145:
4141:
4132:
4129:(in French).
4128:
4124:
4120:
4113:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4087:
4078:
4070:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4025:
4017:
4011:
4007:
4000:
3998:
3989:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3943:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3921:
3913:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3880:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3836:
3834:
3832:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3796:
3789:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3754:
3746:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3718:
3709:
3695:on 2010-10-19
3694:
3690:
3684:
3670:on 2010-11-04
3669:
3665:
3659:
3651:
3649:1-4020-4445-3
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3626:
3618:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3567:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3506:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3471:
3463:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3422:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3387:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3365:
3357:
3356:
3351:
3344:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3321:
3313:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3280:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3237:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3202:
3200:
3185:on 2011-06-06
3184:
3180:
3174:
3166:
3162:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3133:
3129:
3122:
3114:
3110:
3103:
3095:
3091:
3084:
3076:
3072:
3065:
3057:
3053:
3046:
3038:
3034:
3027:
3019:
3015:
3008:
3000:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2958:
2950:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2909:
2901:
2894:
2886:
2882:
2875:
2867:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2834:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2807:
2799:
2795:
2788:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2737:
2723:
2719:
2712:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
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187:
179:soil biology
169:, the plant
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4432:Oligotrophs
4417:Plant roots
4060:10722/48503
3956:(1): 1â16.
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3327:"Phosphate"
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937:leaf litter
901:immobilised
763:Orchidaceae
758:mutualistic
734:mixotrophic
726:Orchidaceae
531:Arbutoideae
485:springtails
467:Douglas-fir
463:paper birch
406:dipterocarp
395:leaf litter
206:mutualistic
167:rhizosphere
151:mycorrhizas
143:mycorrhizae
18:Mycorrhizas
4411:Categories
4217:mycorrhiza
4207:Pilzwurzel
4201:: 128â145.
4140:Mycorrhiza
4031:Mycorrhiza
3699:2010-09-30
3674:2010-09-30
3477:Mycorrhiza
3189:2010-09-30
2975:(1): 116.
2727:2019-11-12
2109:2011-05-23
1899:Mycorrhiza
1289:11 January
1260:References
1174:propagules
1068:Oligotroph
961:phosphorus
929:dystrophic
890:root hairs
876:, such as
868:G=nuclei).
838:Mechanisms
827:phosphorus
772:plants in
575:protoplast
518:biotrophic
510:L. bicolor
505:L. bicolor
501:L. bicolor
493:L. bicolor
475:ecosystems
471:succession
438:Zygomycota
434:Ascomycota
424:families,
410:eucalyptus
383:Hartig net
321:invaginate
276:Cretaceous
230:bryophytes
226:phosphorus
216:Definition
147:mycorrhiza
99:(from
97:mycorrhiza
75:fly agaric
4427:Symbiosis
4401:MycorWiki
4295:1912/2902
4211:Mycorhiza
4125:L.].
3214:: 19â42.
2644:0036-8075
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2452:2041-1723
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2176:2397-334X
1219:Endophyte
1018:pathogens
992:latifolia
905:phosphate
897:nutrients
803:receptors
789:Formation
738:parasitic
722:Ericaceae
583:cytoplasm
248:Evolution
210:parasitic
155:symbiotic
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4304:19190704
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1491:11607500
1425:15998388
1384:42871574
1249:Rhizobia
1224:Epiphyte
1213:Epibiont
1197:See also
1120:mycelium
1003:nitrogen
999:bacteria
924:mycelium
920:basic pH
886:mycelium
808:Rhizobia
744:Function
657:Ericales
603:glomalin
592:division
443:Leccinum
268:Jurassic
4239:Bibcode
4176:3162281
4148:Bibcode
4039:Bibcode
3958:Bibcode
3851:Bibcode
3822:8572482
3745:2557434
3608:5931975
3585:Bibcode
3520:Bibcode
3453:3243579
3401:Bibcode
3251:Bibcode
2990:6123707
2940:4199275
2779:4416663
2751:Bibcode
2703:4319766
2683:Bibcode
2624:Bibcode
2616:Science
2461:7550596
2432:Bibcode
2382:Bibcode
2328:Bibcode
2304:4418192
2276:Bibcode
2241:4423207
2219:Bibcode
2156:Bibcode
1959:24 July
1907:Bibcode
1670:7550596
1649:Bibcode
1613:9434271
1564:9630106
1543:Bibcode
1459:Bibcode
1234:Mucigel
882:sucrose
878:glucose
849:chelate
812:legumes
720:of the
692:orchids
635:ericoid
455:Amanita
449:Suillus
426:orchids
280:legumes
274:in the
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1063:spores
933:hyphae
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799:immune
571:hyphae
436:, and
420:, and
387:cortex
371:fungus
317:hyphae
200:as in
192:as in
181:, and
161:and a
159:fungus
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4172:S2CID
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4065:S2CID
3982:INIST
3974:S2CID
3818:S2CID
3798:(PDF)
3776:S2CID
3741:JSTOR
3554:S2CID
3493:S2CID
3134:(11).
3096:(11).
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2775:S2CID
2699:S2CID
2656:S2CID
2517:S2CID
2370:(PDF)
2300:S2CID
2237:S2CID
2188:S2CID
2103:(PDF)
2088:(PDF)
1931:S2CID
1482:45331
1380:S2CID
1059:soils
1039:aphid
990:var.
945:, an
556:Wheat
402:birch
367:, an
349:Beech
313:cells
295:Types
196:, or
163:plant
149:, or
132:rhĂza
115:mĂșkÄs
108:ÎŒÏÎșηÏ
103:
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4341:PMID
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4164:PMID
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3908:PMID
3867:PMID
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3546:PMID
3458:PMID
3308:PMID
3267:PMID
3224:PMID
3155:ISBN
3115:(6).
3077:(5).
3039:(4).
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2995:PMID
2945:PMID
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2767:PMID
2648:PMID
2640:ISSN
2592:PMID
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2509:PMID
2501:ISSN
2466:PMID
2448:ISSN
2400:PMID
2344:PMID
2292:PMID
2180:PMID
2172:ISSN
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2066:PMID
2025:PMID
1990:(5).
1961:2012
1923:PMID
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1487:PMID
1421:PMID
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1291:2019
1104:zinc
1088:Pine
1082:and
978:, a
956:Inga
916:clay
910:and
908:ions
880:and
831:rice
694:are
690:All
558:has
516:and
446:and
422:rose
418:pine
323:the
307:and
282:and
236:and
171:root
125:ῄίζα
4331:doi
4290:hdl
4282:doi
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4235:165
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4100:doi
4055:hdl
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3966:doi
3898:doi
3894:205
3859:doi
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3768:doi
3731:doi
3727:122
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3603:PMC
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