Natural resource economics

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using high-aluminous clays or anorthosite to produce alumina, and magnesium before it was recovered from seawater. An abundant resource is quite similar to a perpetual resource. The reserve base is the part of an identified resource that has a reasonable potential for becoming economically available at a time beyond when currently proven technology and current economics are in operation. Identified resources are those whose location, grade, quality, and quantity are known or estimated from specific geologic evidence. Reserves are that part of the reserve base that can be economically extracted at the time of determination; reserves should not be used as a surrogate for resources because they are often distorted by taxation or the owning firm's public relations needs.

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investment and quicker realization of revenue. (3) The extensive development margin in which extraction is begun of known but previously uneconomic deposits. (4) The exploration margin in which the search for new deposits (resources) is conducted and the cost per unit extracted is highly uncertain with the cost of failure having to be balanced against finding usable resources (deposits) that have marginal costs of extraction no higher than in the first three stages above. (5) The technology margin which interacts with the first four stages. The Gray-Hotelling (exhaustion) theory is a special case, since it covers only Stages 1–3 and not the far more important Stages 4 and 5.

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they theoretically should be, it ought to be possible to eliminate areas of dislocations and greatly strengthen them, enabling lesser quantities to be used. To summarize, "mining" companies will have more and more diverse products, the world economy is moving away from materials towards services, and the population seems to be levelling, all of which implies a lessening of demand growth for materials; much of the materials will be recovered from somewhat uncommon rocks, there will be much more coproducts and byproducts from a given operation, and more trade in minerals and materials.

983: 1208:(world's only significant source of cobalt) was given a hasty independence in 1960 and the cobalt-producing province seceded as Katanga, followed by several wars and insurgencies, local government removals, railroads destroyed, and nationalizations. This was topped off by an invasion of the province by Katangan rebels in 1978 that disrupted supply and transportation and caused the cobalt price to briefly triple. While the cobalt supply was disrupted and the price shot up, nickel and other substitutes were pressed into service. 1163:(an immediate exhaustibility crisis), but on the other hand a material can go out of use, its resource can proceed to being perpetual if it was not before, and then the resource can become a paleoresource when the material goes almost completely out of use (e.g. resources of arrowhead-grade flint). Some of the complexities influencing resources of a material include the extent of recyclability, the availability of suitable substitutes for the material in its end-use products, plus some other less important factors. 1505: 1700: 108: 1078:, human economics, and natural ecosystems. Economic models must be adapted to accommodate the special features of natural resource inputs. The traditional curriculum of natural resource economics emphasized fisheries models, forestry models, and mineral extraction models (i.e. fish, trees, and ore). In recent years, however, other resources, notably air, water, the global climate, and "environmental resources" in general have become increasingly important to policy-making. 1399:, 1.25% to 1.5% nickel, 1% to 1.4% copper, and 0.2% to 0.25% cobalt (commercial grade) Nautilus Minerals Ltd. is planning to recover commercial grade material averaging 29.9% zinc, 2.3% lead, and 0.5% copper from massive ocean-bottom polymetallic sulfide deposits using an underwater vacuum cleaner-like device that combines some current technologies in a new way. Partnering with Nautilus are Tech Cominco Ltd. and Anglo-American Ltd., world-leading international firms. 3176: 1346:, aluminum to a lesser degree). Bismuth is an example of a byproduct metal that does not follow the relationship very well; the 3% lead reserves in the western U.S. would have only 100 ppm bismuth, clearly too low-grade for a bismuth reserve. The world recoverable resource potential is 2,120 million tonnes for copper, 2,590 million tonnes for nickel, 3,400 million tonnes for zinc, 3,519 billion tonnes for aluminum, and 2,035 billion tonnes for iron. 935: 1477: 1326:

use iron ore. New materials will appear (note: they have), the result of technological advances, some acting as substitutes and some with new properties. Recycling will become more common and more efficient (note: it has!). Ultimately, minerals and metals will be obtained by processing "average" rock. Rock, 100 tonnes of "average" igneous rock, will yield eight tonnes of aluminum, five tonnes of iron, and 0.6 tonnes of titanium.

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product to final disposal, plus recyclability of the material and availability of satisfactory substitutes. Specifically, this shows that exhaustibility does not occur until these factors weaken and play out: the availability of substitutes, the extent of recycling and its feasibility, more efficient manufacturing of the final consumer product, more durable and longer-lasting consumer products, and even a number of other factors.

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and chemical properties, performance, and longevity comparable to the material of first choice, (3) well-established and known behavior and properties particularly as a component in exotic alloys, and (4) an ability for processing and fabrication with minimal changes in existing technology, capital plant, and processing and fabricating facilities. Some suggested substitutions were

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amount used per person was 84 kg per person in 1905, 7.1 kg in 1965, and 0.8 kg in 2005. Compare this to the USGS anthracite reserves of 18.6 billion tonnes and total resources of 79 billion tonnes; the anthracite demand has dropped so much that these resources are more than perpetual.

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The perpetual resource concept is a complex one because the concept of resource is complex and changes with the advent of new technology (usually more efficient recovery), new needs, and to a lesser degree with new economics (e.g. changes in prices of the material, changes in energy costs, etc.). On

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Academic and policy interest has now moved beyond simply the optimal commercial exploitation of the standard trio of resources to encompass management for other objectives. For example, natural resources more broadly have defined recreational, as well as commercial values. They may also contribute to

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in many locations. More recently, polymetallic sulfide deposits have been discovered and polymetallic sulfide "black muds" are being presently deposited from "black smokers" The cobalt scarcity situation of 1978 has a new option now: recover it from manganese nodules. A Korean firm plans to start

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Diverse authors have further contributions. Some think the number of substitutes is almost infinite, particularly with the flow of new materials from the chemical industry; identical end products can be made from different materials and starting points. Since all materials are 100 times weaker than

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or the Phosphoria formation (sic!). These changes could occur irregularly in different parts of the world. While Europe and North America might use anorthosite or clay as raw material for aluminum, other parts of the world might use bauxite, and while North America might use taconite, Brazil might

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situation or a "Resource War" situation is to use substitutes for a material in its end-uses. Some criteria for a satisfactory substitute are (1) ready availability domestically in adequate quantities or availability from contiguous nations, or possibly from overseas allies, (2) possessing physical

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Vogely has stated that the development of a mineral resource occurs in five stages: (1) The current operating margin (rate of production) governed by the proportion of the reserve (resource) already depleted. (2) The intensive development margin governed by the trade-off between the rising necessary

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As radical new technology impacts the materials and minerals world more and more powerfully, the materials used are more and more likely to have perpetual resources. There are already more and more materials that have perpetual resources and less and less materials that have nonrenewable resources

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Several other kinds of resources need to be introduced. If strategic and critical materials are the worst case for resources, unless mitigated by substitution and/or recycling, one of the best is an abundant resource. An abundant resource is one whose material has so far found little use, such as

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and made some other materials, such as tungsten, very difficult to obtain. This was the worst case for resource availability, becoming a strategic and critical material. After the war a government stockpile of strategic and critical materials was set up, having around 100 different materials that

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dealers cannot retain enough business to cover costs and close, and mines with too small a volume to cover costs also close. This is a mutually reinforcing process: customers convert to other forms of cleaner energy that produce less pollution and carbon dioxide, then the coal dealer has to close

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There are also other robot mining techniques that could be applied under the ocean. Rio Tinto is using satellite links to allow workers 1500 kilometers away to operate drilling rigs, load cargo, dig out ore and dump it on conveyor belts, and place explosives to subsequently blast rock and earth.

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in stomach medicine is hopelessly scattered (dissipated) and therefore impossible to recover, while bismuth alloys can be easily recovered and recycled. A good example where recycling makes a big difference is the resource availability situation for graphite, where flake graphite can be recovered

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Another way of replacing or extending a resource is by recycling the material desired from scrap or waste. This depends on whether or not the material is dissipated or is available as a no longer usable durable product. Reclamation of the durable product depends on its resistance to chemical and

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If a resource lasting 700 or more years is perpetual, one that lasts 350 to 700 years can be called an abundant resource, and is so defined here. How long the material can be recovered from its resource depends on human need and changes in technology from extraction through the life cycle of the

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Finally, what is a perpetual resource? The ASTM definition for a perpetual resource is "one that is virtually inexhaustible on a human time-scale". Examples given include solar energy, tidal energy, and wind energy, to which should be added salt, stone, magnesium, diamonds, and other materials

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Following this, the idea of a "Resource War" by the Soviets became popular. Rather than the chaos that resulted from the Zairean cobalt situation, this would be planned, a strategy designed to destroy economic activity outside the Soviet bloc by the acquisition of vital resources by noneconomic

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is another material where the trend towards obsolescence and becoming a paleoresource can be shown statistically. Production of anthracite was 70.4 million tonnes in 1905, 49.8 million tonnes in 1945, 13.5 million tonnes in 1965, 4.3 million tonnes in 1985, and 1.5 million tonnes in 2005. The

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for cobalt, and aluminum alloy automobile radiators for copper alloy automobile radiators. Materials can be eliminated without material substitutes, for example by using discharges of high tension electricity to shape hard objects that were formerly shaped by mineral abrasives, giving superior

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The USGS model based on crustal abundance data and the reserve-abundance relationship of McKelvey, is applied to several metals in the Earth's crust (worldwide) and in the U.S. crust. The potential currently recoverable (present technology, economy) resources that come closest to the McKelvey

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The economics and policy area focuses on the human aspects of environmental problems. Traditional areas of environmental and natural resource economics include welfare theory, land/location use, pollution control, resource extraction, and non-market valuation, and also resource exhaustibility,

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Three circles enclosed within one another showing how both economy and society are subsets of our planetary ecological system. This view is useful for correcting the misconception, sometimes drawn from the previous "three pillars" diagram, that portions of social and economic systems can exist

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were added to the list of perpetual resources, since they can be easily made from a lump of another form of carbon. Synthetic graphite, is made in large quantities (graphite electrodes, graphite fiber) from carbon precursors such as petroleum coke or a textile fiber. A firm named Liquidmetal

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The firm can keep workers out of danger this way, and also use fewer workers. Such technology reduces costs and offsets declines in metal content of ore reserves. Thus a variety of minerals and metals are obtainable from unconventional sources with resources available in huge quantities.

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because of lack of enough sales volume to cover costs. The coal dealer's other customers are then forced to convert unless they can find another nearby coal dealer. Finally, the anthracite mine closes because it does not have enough sales volume to cover its costs.

1124:, reflecting the increasing scarcity of the resource. Nonaugmentable resources of inorganic materials (i.e. minerals) are uncommon; most resources can be augmented by recycling and by the existence and use of substitutes for the end-use products (see below). 1424:

Perpetual resources can transition to being a paleoresource. A paleoresource is one that has little or no demand for the material extracted from it; an obsolescent material, humans no longer need it. The classic paleoresource is an arrowhead-grade

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mentioned above. A study on the biogeophysical aspects of sustainability came up with a rule of prudent practice that a resource stock should last 700 years to achieve sustainability or become a perpetual resource, or for a worse case, 350 years.

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has dropped so far, is it possible to see how anthracite might become a paleoresource? Probably by customers continuing to disappear (i.e. convert to other kinds of energy for space heating), the supply network atrophy as anthracite

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methods of managing those resources to ensure their availability for future generations. Resource economists study interactions between economic and natural systems, with the goal of developing a sustainable and efficient economy.

1248:, although a certain kind of graphite could be almost replaced by a recycled product. Most graphite is synthetic, for example, graphite electrodes, graphite fiber, graphite shapes (machined or unmachined), and graphite powder. 1257:

from a renewable resource called kish, a steelmaking waste created when carbon separates out as graphite within the kish from the molten metal along with slag. After it is cold, the kish can be processed.

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Technologies, Inc. is utilizing the removal of dislocations in a material with a technique that overcomes performance limitations caused by inherent weaknesses in the crystal atomic structure. It makes

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resource; no one makes flint arrowheads or spearheads anymore—making a sharpened piece of scrap steel and using it is much simpler. Obsolescent products include tin cans, tin foil, the schoolhouse

1098:. Research topics could include the environmental impacts of agriculture, transportation and urbanization, land use in poor and industrialized countries, international trade and the environment, 1818:"Domestic Reserves vis-a-vis Resources","Congressional Handbook on U.S. Materials Import Dependency" House Committee on Banking, Finance & Urban Affairs, September 1981, pp. 19-21 1269:

Harrison Brown and associates stated that humanity will process lower and lower grade "ore". Iron will come from low-grade iron-bearing material such as raw rock from anywhere in an

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R. L. Erickson "Crustal Abundance of Elements, and Mineral Reserves and Resources", "United States Mineral Resources" U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 820, 1973, pp. 21-25

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Vogely, William A. "Nonfuel Minerals and the World Economy", Chapter 15 in "The Global Possible" by Repetto, Robert, World Resources Institute Book Yale University Press

1836:"THE RESOURCES WAR", "Congressional Handbook on U.S. Materials Import Dependency" House Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs, September 1981, pp. 160-174 1175:

were purchased for cash or obtained by trading off U.S. agricultural commodities for them. In the longer term, scarcity of tin later led to completely substituting

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U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1956 Minerals Yearbook, "Coal-Pennsylvania Anthracite" pp. 120-165, and 1971 Minerals Yearbook, "Coal-Pennsylvania Anthracite" pp. 378-404

1845:"SUBSTITUTION", "Congressional Handbook on U.S. Material Import Dependency" House Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs, September 1981, pp. 242-254 2054: 1789: 1342:. Metals that do not follow the McKelvey relationship are ones that are byproducts (of major metals) or have not been vital to the economy until recently ( 1166:

The Federal Government suddenly became compellingly interested in resource issues on December 7, 1941, shortly after which Japan cut the U.S. off from

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These conflicting views will be substantially reconciled by considering resource-related topics in depth in the next section, or at least minimized.

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Resources change over time with technology and economics; more efficient recovery leads to a drop in the ore grade needed. The average grade of the

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U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1978-79 Minerals Yearbook, "Cobalt" and "The Mineral Industry of Zaire" chapters, Vol. I pp. 249-258, Vol. III pp. 1061-1066

1116:. It shows that efficient exploitation of a nonrenewable and nonaugmentable resource would, under otherwise stable economic conditions, lead to a 1041:. One main objective of natural resource economics is to better understand the role of natural resources in the economy in order to develop more 1944:

F. M. Herzig and M. Hannington "Polymetallic Sulfides at the Modern Seafloor-A Review" Ore Geology Reviews, Vol. 10 (Elsevier) 1995, pp. 95-115

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Charles W. Merrill "Mineral Obsolescence and Substitution" "Mining Engineering", AIME, Society of Mining Engineers, September 1964, pp. 55-59

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The most recent resource information and guidance on the kinds of resources that must be considered is covered on the Resource Guide-Update

1074:. Resource economics brings together and connects different disciplines within the natural and social sciences connected to broad areas of 1872:

P. D. Laverty, L. J. Nicks, and L. A. Walters "Recovery of Flake Graphite from Steelmaking Kish", U.S. Bureau of Mines RI9512, 1994, 23 p.

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of the resource. The rule states that this would lead to a net price or "Hotelling rent" for it that rose annually at a rate equal to the

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metal and magnesia consumption (i.e. in refractories), currently obtained from seawater, will increase. Sulfur will be obtained from

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Platts Metals Week "Underseas Mining Finds Richer Grades at Lower Cost: Nautilus", "Platts Metals Week", September 22, 2008, p. 14-15

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Harold A. Taylor. "The Future of the Mineral Industry" University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Dept. of Mining Engineering, 1968, 15 p.

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physical breakdown, quantities available, price of availability, and the ease of extraction from the original product. For example,

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ore processed has dropped from 4.0% copper in 1900 to 1.63% in 1920, 1.20% in 1940, 0.73% in 1960, 0.47% in 1980, and 0.44% in 2000.

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Harrison Brown, James Bonner, and John Weir. "The Next Hundred Years" The Viking Press, 1955, pp. 17-26, 33-42, 89-94, and 147-154

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Peter T. Flawn. "Mineral Resources (Geology, Engineering, Economics, Politics, Law)" Rand McNally, Chicago, 1966, pp. 374-378

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alloys are 250% stronger than a standard titanium alloy. The Liquidmetal alloys can supplant many high performance alloys.

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Michael J. Conroy and James T. Peterson (2013). Decision Making in Natural Resource Management, New York: Wiley-Blackwell.

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Simon, Julian. "Can the Supply of Natural Resources Really be Infinite? Yes!", "The Ultimate Resource" 1981, Chapter 3

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and other radioisotopes in radiation treatment. Noncorroding lead as a cable covering has been replaced by plastics.

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University of Rhode Island Department of Environmental and Natural Resource Economics Retrieved October-22-09

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Wall Street Journal "Miner Digs for Ore in the Outback With Remote-Controlled Robots", March 2, 2010, pp. D1

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means (military?) outside the Soviet bloc (Third World?), then withholding these minerals from the West.

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Kevin H. Deal (2016). Wildlife and Natural Resource Management 4e, Boston: Delmar Cengage Learning.

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performance at lower cost, or by using computers/satellites to replace copper wire (land lines).

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U.S. Securities and Exchange Comm. Form 10-K "Liquidmetal Technologies, Inc." December 2008, p.3

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or are strategic and critical materials. Some materials that have perpetual resources such as

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relationship are those that have been sought for the longest time, such as copper, zinc, lead,

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Harrison Brown. "The Challenge of Man's Future" The Viking Press, New York, 1954, pp. 187-219

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pellets in North America and elsewhere today. As coking coal reserves decline, pig iron and

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that aims to address the connections and interdependence between human economies and natural

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Since anthracite resources are so far into the perpetual resource range and demand for

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Exploration of the ocean bottom in the last fifty years revealed manganese nodules and

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the one hand, a material (and its resources) can enter a time of shortage and become a

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David A. Anderson (2019). Environmental Economics and Natural Resource Management 5e,

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ASTM E60 "E2114-08 Standard Terminology for Sustainability", ASTM, 2008, pp. 615-618

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recovery operation in 2010; the manganese nodules recovered would average 27% to 30%

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Simon has stated that the supply of natural resources is infinite (i.e. perpetual)

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An important way of replacing a resource is by synthesis, for example, industrial

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Charles W. Merrill "Introduction" U.S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin 630, 1965, p. 2

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U.S. Geological Survey "Mineral Commodity Summary", Appendix C, 2008, p. C1-C3

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provides insight to the sustainability of welfare in an economy that uses

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production will use non-coke-using processes (i.e. electric steel). The

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in medical technology. Radium has been replaced by much cheaper

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Supply, demand and allocation of the Earth's natural resources

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formation, not much different from the input used to make

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The International Society for Ecological Economics (ISEE)

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overall social welfare levels, by their mere existence.

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Transitioning: perpetual resources to paleoresources

1353: 1204:had been in an iffy supply status ever since the 3192: 1735:by Peter Senge et al. Retrieved on: 2011-05-03. 1717: 985: 1750: 1153: 2107: 1070:within the ecological constraints of earth's 959: 2078:The International Journal of Green Economics 1465: 1471:Global geochemical cycles critical for life 1003:Click on image areas for more information. 2114: 2100: 1108:is a 1938 economic model of non-renewable 966: 952: 75:Learn how and when to remove this message 1785:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 1008: 3193: 1149:Perpetual resources vs. exhaustibility 1049: 2121: 2095: 1265:Comprehensive natural resource models 1215:An important way of getting around a 1179:foil for tin foil and polymer lined 1001:The three pillars of sustainability. 24: 1758:Article Topic: ecological economics 1014:independently from the environment. 13: 2047: 1058:field of academic research within 981: 14: 3222: 2066: 1782:(2008). "exhaustible resources," 1729:The Power of Sustainable Thinking 1354:Trend towards perpetual resources 1066:. Its focus is how to operate an 3175: 3174: 1698: 1686: 1517: 1503: 1489: 1475: 1285:industry could shift from using 1054:Natural resource economics is a 933: 921: 106: 29: 2032: 2008: 1999: 1987: 1971: 1962: 1953: 1947: 1938: 1929: 1920: 1911: 1902: 1893: 1884: 1875: 1866: 1857: 1839: 1830: 1161:strategic and critical material 208:Concepts, theory and techniques 1821: 1812: 1803: 1794: 1773: 1762: 1738: 1305:or anhydrite. Metals such as 1: 1769:Wordnet Search: Earth science 1745:http://www.uri.edu/cels/enre/ 1711: 2140:Pollution / quality 7: 3211:Natural resource management 1531: 1187:packaging substituting for 1154:Background and introduction 55:the claims made and adding 10: 3227: 1994:http://www.dieoff.org/page 1661:Tragedy of the anticommons 1019:Natural resource economics 18: 3170: 3111: 2976: 2969: 2850: 2711:Types / location 2710: 2701: 2511: 2306: 2219: 2189: 2138: 2129: 1725:"3 Sustainability Models" 1466:Global geochemical cycles 1289:to using anorthosite and 1733:The Necessary Revolution 1092:environmental management 196:JEL classification codes 1756:Encyclopedia of Earth. 1646:Sustainable development 1594:Environmental economics 1143:non-renewable resources 382:Industrial organization 239:Computational economics 1666:Tragedy of the commons 1588:Energy and Environment 1321:will be obtained from 1015: 995: 234:Experimental economics 1012: 994: 3086:remnant natural area 2723:storage and recovery 2389:habitat conservation 2207:Deforestation (REDD) 2083:Curated bibliography 2056:New York: Routledge. 1731:by Bob Doppelt, and 1723:Willard, B. (2011). 1565:Ecological economics 1224:for bauxite to make 1096:environmental policy 461:Social choice theory 3040:Earth Overshoot Day 2614:Marine conservation 2595:non-timber products 1631:Population dynamics 1556:(policy think tank) 1549:Calculation in kind 1110:resource management 1050:Areas of discussion 928:Business portal 249:Operations research 229:National accounting 3201:Resource economics 3025:Ecosystem services 2148:Ambient standards 1614:Low-carbon economy 1599:Industrial ecology 1244:and many kinds of 1016: 996: 259:Industrial complex 254:Middle income trap 40:possibly contains 3188: 3187: 3166: 3165: 2965: 2964: 2644:genetic resources 2580:genetic resources 2215: 2214: 2123:Natural resources 1983:978-0-8031-5768-2 1641:Social metabolism 1575:Energy accounting 1388:phosphate nodules 1323:manganese nodules 1189:tin electroplated 1072:natural resources 1056:transdisciplinary 1039:natural resources 1007: 1006: 976: 975: 85: 84: 77: 42:original research 3218: 3206:Energy economics 3178: 3177: 3129: 3076:Natural heritage 3035:overexploitation 2974: 2973: 2708: 2707: 2654:herbal medicines 2634:FAO Plant Treaty 2174: 2151: 2136: 2135: 2116: 2109: 2102: 2093: 2092: 2042: 2036: 2030: 2029: 2027: 2026: 2012: 2006: 2003: 1997: 1991: 1985: 1975: 1969: 1966: 1960: 1957: 1951: 1945: 1942: 1936: 1933: 1927: 1924: 1918: 1915: 1909: 1906: 1900: 1897: 1891: 1888: 1882: 1879: 1873: 1870: 1864: 1861: 1855: 1852: 1846: 1843: 1837: 1834: 1828: 1825: 1819: 1816: 1810: 1807: 1801: 1798: 1792: 1777: 1771: 1766: 1760: 1754: 1748: 1742: 1736: 1721: 1703: 1702: 1691: 1690: 1682: 1604:Jevons's paradox 1581:Energy Economics 1521: 1507: 1493: 1479: 1433:blackboard, and 1393:manganese nodule 1122:rate of interest 1114:Harold Hotelling 1106:Hotelling's rule 984: 978: 977: 968: 961: 954: 940:Money portal 938: 937: 936: 926: 925: 422:Natural resource 214:Economic systems 110: 87: 86: 80: 73: 69: 66: 60: 57:inline citations 33: 32: 25: 21:Land (economics) 3226: 3225: 3221: 3220: 3219: 3217: 3216: 3215: 3191: 3190: 3189: 3184: 3162: 3127: 3107: 3093:Systems ecology 3059:Natural capital 2961: 2846: 2835:reclaimed water 2697: 2659:UPOV Convention 2507: 2302: 2211: 2185: 2181:Ozone depletion 2172: 2149: 2125: 2120: 2069: 2050: 2048:Further reading 2045: 2037: 2033: 2024: 2022: 2014: 2013: 2009: 2004: 2000: 1992: 1988: 1976: 1972: 1967: 1963: 1958: 1954: 1948: 1943: 1939: 1934: 1930: 1925: 1921: 1916: 1912: 1907: 1903: 1898: 1894: 1889: 1885: 1880: 1876: 1871: 1867: 1862: 1858: 1853: 1849: 1844: 1840: 1835: 1831: 1826: 1822: 1817: 1813: 1808: 1804: 1799: 1795: 1788:, 2nd Edition. 1778: 1774: 1767: 1763: 1755: 1751: 1743: 1739: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1709: 1697: 1685: 1677: 1675: 1656:Thermoeconomics 1651:Systems ecology 1554:Earth Economics 1534: 1527: 1522: 1513: 1508: 1499: 1494: 1485: 1480: 1468: 1422: 1374:amorphous metal 1356: 1267: 1156: 1151: 1139:Hartwick's rule 1052: 1021:deals with the 1002: 993: 982: 972: 934: 932: 920: 913: 912: 883: 873: 872: 871: 870: 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Arden Pope 1542: 1540: 1537: 1536: 1526: 1520: 1515: 1512: 1506: 1501: 1498: 1492: 1487: 1484: 1478: 1473: 1470: 1469: 1463: 1460: 1455: 1450: 1447: 1444:Pennsylvania 1442: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1417: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1398: 1394: 1391:developing a 1389: 1384: 1382: 1378: 1375: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1351: 1347: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1327: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1262: 1258: 1255: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1238: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1209: 1207: 1206:Belgian Congo 1203: 1199: 1197: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1173: 1169: 1164: 1162: 1146: 1144: 1140: 1137:Furthermore, 1135: 1132: 1129: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1083: 1079: 1077: 1076:earth science 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1047: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1011: 1000: 999: 980: 979: 969: 964: 962: 957: 955: 950: 949: 947: 946: 941: 931: 929: 924: 919: 918: 917: 916: 909: 906: 903: 899: 896: 894: 891: 889: 886: 885: 882: 877: 876: 867: 866: 862: 860: 857: 855: 852: 850: 847: 845: 842: 840: 837: 835: 832: 830: 827: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 790: 787: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 765: 762: 760: 757: 755: 752: 750: 747: 745: 742: 740: 737: 735: 732: 730: 727: 725: 722: 720: 717: 715: 712: 710: 707: 705: 702: 700: 697: 695: 692: 690: 687: 685: 682: 680: 677: 675: 672: 670: 667: 665: 662: 660: 657: 655: 652: 650: 647: 645: 642: 640: 637: 635: 632: 630: 627: 625: 622: 620: 617: 615: 612: 610: 607: 605: 602: 600: 597: 595: 592: 590: 587: 585: 582: 580: 577: 575: 572: 570: 567: 565: 562: 560: 557: 555: 552: 550: 547: 545: 542: 540: 537: 535: 532: 530: 529:de Mandeville 527: 526: 521: 515: 514: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 462: 458: 457:Public choice 455: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 433: 432:Participation 430: 428: 425: 423: 420: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 392:Institutional 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 353: 350: 348: 345: 343: 342:Expeditionary 340: 338: 335: 333: 332:Environmental 330: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 274: 268: 267: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 211: 205: 204: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 168: 165: 163: 162:International 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 148: 145: 144: 141: 138:Branches and 135: 134: 129: 126: 124: 121: 119: 116: 115: 114: 113: 109: 105: 104: 101: 98: 97: 93: 89: 88: 79: 76: 68: 58: 54: 50: 44: 43: 38:This article 36: 27: 26: 22: 3156: / 3030:Exploitation 3007: 2915:Conservation 2858:Desalination 2793: 2686:conservation 2521:Biodiversity 2469:conservation 2316:Agricultural 2244:Fossil fuels 2039:Paul Averitt 2034: 2023:. 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518:Notable 466:Regional 442:Planning 417:Monetary 347:Feminist 292:Cultural 287:Business 92:a series 90:Part of 2981:Commons 2970:Related 2935:Quality 2851:Aspects 2777:glacial 2718:Aquifer 2624:Pasture 2575:Forests 2501:reserve 2276:Nuclear 2246: ( 2202:Trading 2197:Airshed 1996:113.htm 1727:citing 1679:Portals 1301:, then 1299:pyrites 1287:bauxite 1254:bismuth 1232:and/or 1226:alumina 1222:alunite 1185:aseptic 1068:economy 1033:of the 908:Schools 900: ( 859:Piketty 854:Krugman 719:Kuznets 709:Kalecki 684:Polanyi 574:Cournot 569:Bastiat 554:Ricardo 544:Malthus 534:Quesnay 506:Welfare 476:Service 147:Applied 123:Outline 118:History 47:Please 2991:global 2955:policy 2900:Supply 2863:Floods 2830:Sewage 2803:Marine 2795:huerta 2629:Plants 2619:Meadow 2479:health 2457:rights 2445:copper 2423:mining 2321:arable 2221:Energy 2161:Indoor 1981: 1671:World3 1435:radium 1377:alloys 1332:silver 1317:, and 1315:nickel 1307:copper 1303:gypsum 1234:nickel 1217:cobalt 1202:Cobalt 1196:copper 1172:rubber 1094:, and 1029:, and 1027:demand 1023:supply 844:Thaler 824:Ostrom 819:Becker 814:Sowell 794:Baumol 699:Myrdal 694:Sraffa 689:Frisch 679:Knight 674:Keynes 649:Fisher 644:Veblen 629:Pareto 609:Menger 604:George 599:Jevons 594:Walras 584:Gossen 452:Public 447:Policy 402:Labour 367:Health 224:Market 3134:Curse 2940:Right 2782:polar 2772:bergs 2735:Fresh 2703:Water 2416:metal 2340:Field 2291:shade 2281:Solar 2271:Hydro 2156:Index 1431:slate 1427:flint 1279:steel 1181:steel 1035:Earth 881:Lists 849:Hoppe 834:Lucas 799:Solow 789:Arrow 779:Simon 744:Lange 739:Hicks 714:Röpke 704:Hayek 654:Pigou 624:Clark 539:Smith 501:Urban 481:Socio 471:Rural 171:Macro 167:Micro 128:Index 3069:good 3018:land 2996:land 2808:Rain 2664:wood 2639:food 2602:Game 2513:Life 2464:Soil 2440:peak 2433:sand 2308:Land 2298:Wind 2173:(US) 2150:(US) 1979:ISBN 1459:coal 1361:salt 1338:and 1336:gold 1319:lead 1311:zinc 1291:clay 1271:iron 1170:and 865:more 589:Marx 579:Mill 564:List 2868:Law 2767:Ice 2607:law 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