258:(FDA) have endorsed the adoption of blunt-tip suture needles for suturing fascia and muscle. Hollow-bore needles pose a greater risk of injury than solid needles, but hollow-bore needle injuries are highly preventable: 25% of hollow-bore needle injuries to healthcare professionals can be prevented by using safer needles . Gloves can also provide better protection against injuries from tapered-tip as opposed to sharp-tipped needles. In addition, a Cochrane review showed that the use of two pairs of gloves (double gloving) can significantly reduce the risk of needle stick injury in surgical staff. Triple gloving may be more effective than double gloving, but using thicker gloves does not make a difference. A Cochrane review found low quality evidence showing that safety devices on IV start kits and venipuncture equipment reduce the frequency of needlestick injuries. However, these safety systems can increase the risk of exposure to splashed blood. Education with training for at-risk healthcare workers can reduce their risk of needlestick injuries. The
375:
objectively. Even though glove perforations can be objectively measured, it is still unclear what the relation is between glove perforations and needlestick injuries. Another problem is underreporting of needlestick injuries. It is estimated that half of all occupational needlestick injuries are not reported. Additionally, an unknown number of occupational needlestick injuries are reported by the affected employee, yet due to organizational failure, institutional record of the injury does not exist. This makes it difficult to determine what the exact risk of exposure is for various medical occupations. Most studies use databases of reported needlestick injuries to determine preventable causes. However this is different from establishing an exposure risk.
242:
changed so that they are less likely to lead to a sharps injury such as blunt or taper-point surgery needles and safety engineered scalpels. Needleless connectors (NCs) were introduced in the 1990s to reduce the risk of health care worker needlestick injuries. The second is to start using safe working practices such as the hands-free technique. The third line of prevention is increased personal protective equipment such as the use of two pairs of gloves. In addition to these preventive approaches, implementation measures are necessary because the measures are not universally taken up. To achieve better implementation, legislation, education and training are necessary among all health care workers at risk.
433:(GAO) determined that requiring hospitals to use safety-engineered needles would result in substantial savings due to the reduction in needlestick injuries requiring treatment. Costs of needlestick injuries include prophylaxis, wages and time lost by workers, quality of life, emotional distress, costs associated with drug toxicity, organizational liability, mortality, quality of patient care, and workforce reduction. Testing and follow-up treatment for healthcare workers who experienced a needlestick injury was estimated at $ 5,000 in the year 2000, depending upon the medical treatment provided. The
515:
149:
1.8%, but newer, larger surveys have shown only a 0.5% transmission rate. The overall risk of HIV infection after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected material in the health care setting is 0.3%. Individualized risk of blood-borne infection from a used biomedical sharp is further dependent upon additional factors. Injuries with a hollow-bore needle, deep penetration, visible blood on the needle, a needle located in a deep artery or vein, or a biomedical device contaminated with blood from a terminally ill patient increase the risk for contracting a blood-borne infection.
416:
the percentage of reports. Physicians are particularly likely to leave a needlestick unreported, citing worries about loss of respect or a low risk perception. Low risk perception can be caused by poor knowledge about risk, or an incorrect estimate of a particular patient's risk. Surveillance systems to track needlestick injuries include the
National Surveillance System for Healthcare Workers (NaSH), a voluntary system in the northeastern United States, and the Exposure Prevention Information Network (EPINet), a recording and tracking system that also gathers data.
227:
412:
injuries, 40.0 for perforations (95% CI, 19.2-83.5; 15 studies), and 5.8 for administrative injuries (95% CI, 2.7-12.2; 5 studies). Self-report probably overestimates the real risk and administrative data underestimate the risk considerably. Perforation data are probably the most valid indicators. Considering that the perforation rates provided here are much lower than the self-reported injuries used to calculate the burden of disease due to sharps injuries by the WHO, these calculations should be revised.
452:
523:
of the syringes. Blood on any sharp instrument may be infectious, whether or not the blood is fresh. HIV and the hepatitis C virus (HCV) are only viable for hours after blood has dried, but the hepatitis B virus (HBV) is stable even when dried. The risk of hepatitis B transmission in the community is also increased due to the higher prevalence of hepatitis B in the population than HIV and the high concentration of HBV in the blood.
42:
250:
surgical setting, especially in abdominal operations, blunt-tip suture needles were found to reduce needle stick injuries by 69%. Blunt-tip or tapered-tip suture needles can be used to sew muscle and fascia. Though they are more expensive than sharp-tipped needles, this cost is balanced by the reduction in injuries, which are expensive to treat. Sharp-tipped needles cause 51–77% of surgical needlestick injuries. The
104:, such as those of the eyes, with blood or body fluids, but needlestick injuries make up more than 80% of all percutaneous exposure incidents in the United States. Various other occupations are also at increased risk of needlestick injury, including law enforcement, laborers, tattoo artists, food preparers, and agricultural workers.
611:
who use injecting drugs can receive sterile syringes and injection equipment. Preventing the transmission of blood-borne disease requires sterile syringes and injection equipment for each unique injection, which is necessarily predicated upon access and availability of these materials at no cost for those using them.
100:(HIV). In healthcare and laboratory settings globally, there are over 25 distinct types of blood-borne diseases that can potentially be transmitted through needlestick injuries to workers. In addition to needlestick injuries, transmission of these viruses can also occur as a result of contamination of the
415:
In the United States, approximately half of all needlestick injuries affecting health care workers are not reported, citing the long reporting process and its interference with work as their reason for not reporting an incident. The availability of hotlines, witnesses, and response teams can increase
311:
The risk of hepatitis C seroconversion is estimated at 0.3–0.74%. Immunoglobulin and antivirals are not recommended for hepatitis C PEP. There is no vaccine for the hepatitis C virus (HCV); therefore, post-exposure treatment consists of monitoring for seroconversion. There is limited evidence for the
148:
and 10% having symptoms. Higher rates of hepatitis B vaccination among the general public and healthcare workers have reduced the risk of transmission; non-healthcare workers still have a lower HBV vaccination rate and therefore a higher risk. The transmission rate of hepatitis C has been reported at
140:
estimated that in 2000, 66,000 hepatitis B, 16,000 hepatitis C, and 1,000 HIV infections were caused by needlestick injuries. In places with higher rates of blood-borne diseases in the general population, healthcare workers are more susceptible to contracting these diseases from a needlestick injury.
2075:
Mast EE, Weinbaum CM, Fiore AE, Alter MJ, Bell BP, Finelli L, Rodewald LE, Douglas JM, Janssen RS, Ward JW (2006). "A comprehensive immunization strategy to eliminate transmission of hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: recommendations of the
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices
614:
Needle exchange programs are an effective way of decreasing the risk associated with needlestick injuries. These programs remove contaminated syringes from the street, reducing the risk of inadvertent transmission of blood-borne infections to the surrounding community and to law enforcement. A study
594:
In the event that needlestick prevention programs are not put in place in a given community, a 1994 study suggests an alternative for "high risk" areas. The study proposed the implementation of a vaccination effort to give children a routine prophylaxis against hepatitis B to prevent the development
554:
Needlestick injuries that occur in children from discarded needles in community settings, such as parks and playgrounds, are especially concerning. While the exact number of needlestick injuries in children in the US is unknown, even one injury in a child is enough to cause public alarm. Studies in
542:
found that only 43.4% reported a needlestick injury they received; 42% of which occurred during their evening shift. Most of the needlestick injuries experienced by these workers occurred in their first 5 years of employment. In New York City, a study found a rate of 38.7 exposures (needlesticks and
217:
and for less experienced people; fatigue, high workload, shift work, high pressure, or high perception of risk can all increase the chances of a needlestick injury. During surgery, a surgical needle or other sharp instrument may inadvertently penetrate the glove and skin of operating room personnel;
522:
The
Coalition for Safe Community Needle Disposal estimates there are over 7.5 billion syringes used for home medical care in the United States. This large amount of home medical syringes has added to the problem of non-healthcare related needlestick injuries due to mishandling and improper disposal
505:
In the United States, the
Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act of 2000 and the subsequent Bloodborne Pathogens Standard of 2001 require safer needle devices, employee input, and records of all sharps injuries in healthcare settings. In the US, nonsurgical needlestick injuries decreased by 31.6% in
378:
Among healthcare workers, nurses and physicians appear especially at risk; those who work in an operating room environment are at the highest risk. An investigation among
American surgeons indicates that almost every surgeon experienced at least one such injury during their training. More than half
245:
Another large group at risk are nurses but their frequency of exposure is much less than in surgeons. Their main risk comes from the use and disposal of injection syringes. The same prevention approaches can be implemented here. There are many so-called safety engineered devices such as retractable
610:
as a response from the injecting-drug community to an influx of hepatitis B. Spurred to urgency by the introduction of HIV/AIDS, needle syringe programs quickly became an integral component of public health across the developed world. These programs function by providing facilities in which people
570:
programs (SSPs) or needle exchange programs (NEPs) have also proven to reduce the number of needles discarded in public areas. According to the CDC, these programs are effective in the prevention of HIV, and they help reduce the risk of infection with HCV. Additionally, in 2004, the
Environmental
558:
There are a number of ways in which needlestick injuries could be prevented. First and foremost, increased education in the community is vital. It is especially important to educate kids while they are young. Studies of injuries from discarded needles have reported that the average age of children
437:
found that a case of infection by blood-borne pathogens could cost $ 1 million for testing, follow-up, and disability payments. An estimated $ 1 billion annually is saved by preventing needlestick injuries among healthcare workers in the US, including fees associated with testing, laboratory work,
374:
It is difficult to establish correct figures for the risk of exposure or the incidence of needlestick injuries. First of all it is difficult to observe a needlestick injury, either in oneself or in other persons. Glove perforations in surgeons are considered a reasonable proxy that can be measured
623:
Data almost universally confirm the value of needle exchange programs, which substantially decrease the risk of HIV among injectable drug users and do not carry unintended negative consequences. US states that publicly fund exchange programs are associated with reduced rates of HIV transmission,
411:
have relatively low rates of injury. A systematic review of 45 studies of sharps injuries in surgical staff found that sharps injuries occur once in 10 operations per staff member. Per 100 person-years, the injury rate in surgical staff was 88.2 (95% CI, 61.3-126.9; 21 studies) for self-reported
325:
for PEP as soon as possible, preferably within three days of exposure. There is no vaccine for HIV. When the source of blood is known to be HIV positive, a 3-drug regimen is recommended by the CDC; those exposed to blood with a low viral load or otherwise low risk can use a 2-drug protocol. The
241:
The group most at risk are surgeons and surgical staff in the operating room who sustain injuries from suture needles and other sharps used in operations. There are basically three complementary approaches to prevention of these sharps injuries. The first one is the use of tools that have been
546:
Needlestick injuries are among the top three injuries that occur among material-recovery facility workers who sort through trash to remove recyclable items from the community-collected garbage. Housekeeping and janitorial workers in public sites, including hotels, airports, indoor and outdoor
249:
Some studies have found that safer needles attached to syringes reduce injuries, but others have shown mixed results or no benefit. The adherence to "no-touch" protocols that eliminate direct contact with needles during use and disposal greatly reduces the risk of needlestick injuries. In the
290:
The risk of hepatitis B (e antigen positive) seroconversion is estimated at 37–62%, significantly more than other blood borne pathogens. After exposure to the hepatitis B virus (HBV), appropriate and timely prophylaxis can prevent infection and subsequent development of chronic infection or
107:
Increasing recognition of the unique occupational hazard posed by needlestick injuries, as well as the development of efficacious interventions to minimize the largely preventable occupational risk, encouraged legislative regulation in the US, causing a decline in needlestick injuries among
534:, laborers, and agricultural workers. There is no standard system for collecting and tracking needlestick injuries in the community, which makes it difficult to measure the full impact of this problem. Law enforcement workers, like healthcare workers, under-report needlestick injuries. In
169:. Though some affected people have worsened anxiety during repeated testing, anxiety and other psychological effects typically abate after testing is complete. A minority of people affected by needlestick injuries may have lasting psychological effects, including
176:
In cases where an injury was sustained with a clean needle (i.e. exposure to body fluids had not occurred), the likelihood of infection is generally minimal. Nonetheless, workers are often obligated to report the incident as per the facility's protocol regarding
559:
injured is between five and eight years. In one study, 15% of injuries occurred in children pretending to use drugs. Therefore, children should be taught at a young age about the risks of handling needles and the correct actions to take if they find a syringe.
619:
found that needlestick injury rates among
Hartford police officers decreased after the introduction of a needle exchange program: six injuries in 1,007 drug-related arrests for the 6-month period before vs. two in 1,032 arrests for the 6-month period after.
1509:
Hasak, Jessica M.; Novak, Christine B.; Patterson, Jennifer Megan M.; Mackinnon, Susan E. (1 February 2018). "Prevalence of
Needlestick Injuries, Attitude Changes, and Prevention Practices Over 12 Years in an Urban Academic Hospital Surgery Department".
83:
or other sharp object that has been in contact with blood, tissue or other body fluids before the exposure. Even though the acute physiological effects of a needlestick injury are generally negligible, these injuries can lead to transmission of
624:
increased availability of sterile syringes among injecting drug users, and increased provision of health and social services to users. States that do not fund needle exchange programs are associated with increased rates of HIV/AIDS.
362:
estimated annual global needlestick injuries at 2 million per year, and another investigation estimated 3.5 million injuries yearly. The
European Biosafety Network estimated 1 million needlestick injuries annually in Europe. The US
320:
The risk of HIV transmission with a skin puncture is estimated at 0.3%. If the status of the source patient is unknown, their blood should be tested for HIV as soon as possible following exposure. The injured person can start
205:, or alternatively, employee failure to use provided equipment, increases the risk of occupational needlestick injuries. Needlestick injuries may also occur when needles are exchanged between personnel, loaded into a
3113:
Bramson, J; Des
Jarlais, DC; Arasteh, K; Nugent, A; Guardino, V; Feelemyer; Hodel D (2015). "State laws, syringe exchange, and HIV among persons who inject drugs in the United States: History and effectiveness".
3191:
3176:
1409:
Stringer, Bernadette; Haines, A. Ted; Goldsmith, Charles H.; Berguer, Ramon; Blythe, Jennifer (2009). "Is use of the hands-free technique during surgery, a safe work practice, associated with safety climate?".
218:
scalpel injuries tend to be larger than a needlestick. Generally, needlestick injuries cause only minor visible trauma or bleeding; however, even in the absence of bleeding the risk of viral infection remains.
1137:
Rachiotis, G; Papagiannis, D; Markas, D; Thanasias, E; Dounias, G; Hadjichristodoulou, C (2012). "Hepatitis B virus infection and waste collection: Prevalence, risk factors, and infection pathway".
1809:"Blunt-Tip Surgical Suture Needles Reduce Needlestick Injuries and the Risk of Subsequent Bloodborne Pathogen Transmission to Surgical Personnel: FDA, NIOSH and OSHA Joint Safety Communication"
506:
the five years following the passage of the Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act. However, this legislation did not affect surgical settings, where injuries increased 6.5% in the same period.
2794:
Papenburg J, Blais D, Moore D, Al-Hosni M, Laferrière C, Tapiero B, Quach C (2008). "Pediatric injuries from needles discarded in the community: epidemiology and risk of seroconversion".
543:
human bites) per 10,000 police officers. In Tijuana, Mexico, 15.3% of police officers reported ever having a needlestick injury, with 14.3% reporting a needlestick within the past year.
346:. All of these drugs can have severe side effects. PEP may be discontinued if the source of blood tests HIV-negative. Follow-up of all exposed individuals includes counseling and
2724:
Thompson, Brenda; Moro, Pedro L.; Hancy, Kattrina; Ortega-Sánchez, Ismael R.; Santos-Preciado, José I.; Franco-Paredes, Carlos; Weniger, Bruce G.; Chen, Robert T. (June 2010).
2667:
Mittal, María Luisa; Beletsky, Leo; Patiño, Efraín; Abramovitz, Daniela; Rocha, Teresita; Arredondo, Jaime; Bañuelos, Arnulfo; Rangel, Gudelia; Strathdee, Steffanie A. (2016).
956:
Phillips, EK; Conaway, M; Parker, G; Perry, J; Jagger, J (2013). "Issues in Understanding the Impact of the Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act on Hospital Sharps Injuries".
201:. Injuries also commonly occur during needle recapping or via improper disposal of devices into an overfilled or poorly located sharps container. Lack of access to appropriate
165:. These effects can cause self-destructive behavior or functional impairment in relationships and daily life. This is not mitigated by knowledge about disease transmission or
350:
for at least six months after exposure. Such tests are done at baseline, 6 weeks, 12 weeks, and 6 months and longer in specific circumstances, such as co-infection with HCV.
1947:"Updated US Public Health Service guidelines for the management of occupational exposures to human immunodeficiency virus and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis"
555:
Canada have reported 274 injuries from needlesticks in children with the majority being boys (64.2%) and occurring from needles discarded in streets and/or parks (53.3%).
1363:
2164:
Jones, L; Pickering, L; Sumnall, H; McVeigh, J; Bellis, MA (2010). "Optimal provision of needle and syringe programmes for injecting drug users: A systematic review".
739:
Tarigan, Lukman H.; Cifuentes, Manuel; Quinn, Margaret; Kriebel, David (1 July 2015). "Prevention of needle-stick injuries in healthcare facilities: a meta-analysis".
270:
After a needlestick injury, certain procedures can minimize the risk of infection. Lab tests of the recipient should be obtained for baseline studies, including HIV,
2408:
3284:
518:
Four U.S. states have banned the disposal of any syringes into the trash, requiring the use of waste collection centers, mail-back programs, or other alternatives.
3050:"HIV Infection, Risk, Prevention, and Testing Behaviors among Persons Who Inject Drugs – National HIV Behavioral Surveillance: Injection Drug Use, 20 U.S. Cities"
1387:
Slater, Karen, Cooke, Marie, Fullerton, Fiona, et al. Peripheral intravenous catheter needleless connector decontamination study-Randomized controlled trial.
271:
2470:
2114:
Wodak, A; Cooney, A (2006). "Do needle syringe programs reduce HIV infection among injecting drug users: A comprehensive review of the international evidence".
3256:
3246:
1945:
Kuhar, DT; Henderson, DK; Struble, KA; Heneine, W; Thomas, V; Cheever, LW; Gomaa, A; Panlilio, AL; US Public Health Service Working, Group (September 2013).
367:(OSHA) estimates 5.6 million workers in the healthcare industry are at risk of occupational exposure to blood-borne diseases via percutaneous injury. The US
275:
259:
3069:"Are needle and syringe programmes associated with a reduction in HIV transmission among people who inject drugs: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
1818:
246:
needles, needle shields/sheaths, needle-less IV kits, and blunt or valved ends on IV connectors. The use of extra gloves is less common among nurses.
278:. Unless already known, the infectious status of the source needs to be determined. Unless the source is known to be negative for HBV, HCV, and HIV,
462:
335:
2208:"Effectiveness of structural-level needle/syringe programs to reduce HCV and HIV infection among people who inject drugs: A systematic review"
3293:
2606:
MacDonald, M; Law, M; Kaldor, J; Hales, J; Dore, G (2003). "Effectiveness of needle and syringe programmes for preventing HIV transmission".
364:
2298:
Pruss-Ustun, A (2005). "Estimation of the global burden of disease attributable to contaminated sharps injuries among health-care workers".
1283:
562:
More outreach programs for addiction treatment and infection prevention programs for injection drug users would be very beneficial. Public
3067:
Aspinall, EJ; Nambiar, D; Goldberg, DJ; Hickman, M; Weir, A; Van Velzen, E; Palmateer, N; Doyle, JS; Hellard, ME; Hutchinson, SJ (2014).
1832:
Tarigan, LH; Cifuentes, M; Quinn, M; Kriebel, D (2015). "Prevention of needle-stick injuries in healthcare facilities: a meta-analysis".
3269:
699:
368:
331:
547:
recreational venues, theaters, retails stores, and schools are at daily risk of exposure to contaminated syringes. A small study of
1357:"Sharps injuries among hospital workers in Massachusetts, 2010: findings from the Massachusetts Sharps Injury Surveillance System"
627:
Nevertheless, the US government has explicitly prohibited federal funding for needle exchange programs since 1988, as part of the
1087:
67:
2889:
1356:
693:"The National Surveillance System for Healthcare Workers (NaSH) Summary Report for Blood and Body Fluid Exposure (1995–2007)"
3309:
2206:
Abdul-Quader, AS; Feelemyer, J; Modi, S; Stein, ES; Briceno, A; Semaan, S; Horvath, T; Kennedy, GE; Des Jarlais, DC (2013).
1452:
Mischke, Christina; Verbeek, Jos H.; Saarto, Annika; Lavoie, Marie-Claude; Pahwa, Manisha; Ijaz, Sharea (1 January 2014).
2401:
2766:
2885:
Bloodborne Infectious Diseases: HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C. (30 September 2016). Retrieved 16 March 2017, from
1454:"Gloves, extra gloves or special types of gloves for preventing percutaneous exposure injuries in healthcare personnel"
2463:
631:
drug policy in that country. Needle exchange programs have therefore been sparsely implemented in the United States.
492:
339:
1091:
1911:"Recommendations for prevention and control of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and HCV-related chronic disease".
1886:
1624:
Kirchner, B (2012). "Safety in ambulatory surgery centers: Occupational Safety and Health Administration surveys".
430:
327:
1177:
Makary, MA; Al-Attar, A; Holzmueller, CG; Sexton, JB; Syin, D; Gilson, MM; Sulkowski, MS; Pronovost, PJ (2007).
1982:
1307:
3344:
3299:
1084:"Occupational safety: Selected cost and benefit implications of needlestick prevention devices for hospitals"
434:
202:
170:
2255:
Verbeek, Jos (2018). "Incidence of sharps injuries in surgical units, a meta-analysis and meta-regression".
1813:
1808:
255:
251:
197:
drug, or performing any procedure involving sharps, accidents can occur and facilitate the transmission of
371:(CDC) estimates more than 600,000 needlestick injuries occur among healthcare workers in the US annually.
3334:
2669:"Prevalence and correlates of needle-stick injuries among active duty police officers in Tijuana, Mexico"
1305:
Wald, J (2009). "The psychological consequences of occupational blood and body fluid exposure injuries".
300:
1453:
238:
The prevention of needlestick injuries should focus on those health care workers that are most at risk.
144:
Hepatitis B carries the greatest risk of transmission, with 10% of exposed workers eventually showing
3314:
603:
387:. Within the medical field, specialties differ in regard to the risk of needlestick injury: surgery,
359:
279:
166:
137:
2905:
Wyatt R, Sodroski J (1998). "The HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins: fusogens, antigens, and immunogens".
2620:
1120:
1024:"Blunt versus sharp suture needles for preventing percutaneous exposure incidents in surgical staff"
3329:
3206:
1664:"Reducing needle stick injuries in healthcare occupations: an integrative review of the literature"
539:
88:, placing those exposed at increased risk of infection from disease-causing pathogens, such as the
2033:"Devices for preventing percutaneous exposure injuries caused by needles in healthcare personnel"
1568:"Devices for preventing percutaneous exposure injuries caused by needles in healthcare personnel"
1275:
474:
190:
2615:
322:
189:
Needlestick injuries occur in the healthcare environment. When drawing blood, administering an
2382:
Anderson JM (2008). "Needle stick injuries: prevention and education key. (Clinical report)".
2010:
213:
are tied off while still connected to the needle. Needlestick injuries are more common during
53:
is a recommended method for collecting needles while reducing the risk of needlestick injuries
3266:
1998:
1107:
1022:
Parantainen, Annika; Verbeek, Jos H.; Lavoie, Marie-Claude; Pahwa, Manisha (1 January 2011).
616:
347:
161:, anxiety about disclosure or transmission to a sexual partner, trauma-related emotions, and
692:
551:
in Mexico City found that 34% reported needlestick injuries while working in the past year.
470:
2914:
808:
514:
900:"Needlestick injuries among health care workers: Occupational hazard or avoidable hazard?"
8:
3195:
392:
296:
198:
194:
178:
85:
2918:
1486:
812:
571:
Protection Agency came up with a number of program options for safe disposal including:
3200:
3139:
3023:
2998:
2974:
2949:
2865:
2819:
2701:
2668:
2532:
2507:
2359:
2334:
2280:
2232:
2207:
2139:
1974:
1857:
1744:
1719:
1690:
1663:
1592:
1567:
1543:
1332:
1247:
1222:
1056:
1023:
981:
924:
899:
829:
796:
772:
379:
of needlestick injuries that occur during surgery happen while surgeons are sewing the
63:
3279:
2652:
2629:
3339:
3217:
3131:
3090:
3028:
2979:
2930:
2886:
2857:
2811:
2758:
2750:
2706:
2688:
2581:
2576:
2559:
2537:
2464:"New Study Quantifies Needlestick Injury Rates for Material RecoveryFacility Workers"
2445:
2364:
2350:
2315:
2272:
2237:
2181:
2131:
2087:
2054:
1966:
1920:
1849:
1790:
1749:
1695:
1641:
1597:
1535:
1527:
1491:
1473:
1427:
1324:
1252:
1200:
1154:
1061:
1043:
973:
929:
880:
834:
764:
756:
396:
226:
162:
89:
80:
58:
3143:
2869:
2823:
2745:
2284:
2143:
1978:
1861:
1547:
1336:
985:
776:
3123:
3080:
3018:
3010:
2969:
2961:
2922:
2849:
2803:
2740:
2696:
2680:
2625:
2571:
2527:
2519:
2354:
2346:
2307:
2264:
2227:
2219:
2173:
2123:
2049:
2044:
2032:
1958:
1841:
1780:
1739:
1731:
1685:
1675:
1633:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1519:
1481:
1469:
1465:
1419:
1392:
1316:
1242:
1234:
1221:
Elmiyeh, B; Whitaker, IS; James, MJ; Chahal, CA; Galea, A; Alshafi, K (July 2004).
1190:
1146:
1051:
1039:
1035:
965:
919:
911:
870:
824:
816:
748:
650:
595:
of the illness in the event that a child encounters an improperly disposed needle.
531:
101:
50:
2926:
655:
3349:
3273:
3211:
2893:
2177:
1769:"Precautions Advised to Prevent Needlestick Injuries Among US Healthcare Workers"
1523:
567:
563:
548:
527:
429:
There are indirect and direct costs associated with needlestick injuries. The US
343:
210:
3304:
3289:
3261:
3253:
What Every Worker Should Know: How to Protect Yourself From Needlestick Injuries
2853:
2725:
538:, 30% of police reported needle sticks. A study of 1,333 police officers in the
3222:
2840:
Moore JP (1997). "Coreceptors: implications for HIV pathogenesis and therapy".
2523:
2508:"Analysis: The impact of needle, syringe, and lancet disposal in the community"
2268:
1637:
1423:
1396:
1238:
640:
628:
158:
145:
2223:
2127:
1355:
Laramie, AK; Davis, LK; Miner, C; Pun, VC; Laing, J; DeMaria, A (March 2012).
1320:
915:
820:
3323:
2754:
2692:
1785:
1768:
1531:
1477:
1047:
859:"Epidemiology of occupational injury among cleaners in the healthcare sector"
760:
665:
292:
206:
93:
3185:
2335:"Surgeons' concern and practices of protection against bloodborne pathogens"
1223:"Needle-stick injuries in the National Health Service: a culture of silence"
875:
858:
262:(NIOSH) has a campaign (Stop Sticks) to educate at-risk healthcare workers.
3252:
3242:
3135:
3094:
2983:
2965:
2815:
2807:
2762:
2710:
2684:
2541:
2449:
2319:
2276:
2241:
2185:
2135:
2091:
2058:
1970:
1853:
1794:
1753:
1699:
1645:
1601:
1539:
1495:
1431:
1328:
1256:
1204:
1158:
1065:
977:
933:
884:
838:
768:
660:
157:
The psychological effects of occupational needlestick injuries can include
3032:
2934:
2861:
2585:
2368:
1924:
1680:
3236:
3127:
3085:
3068:
3014:
2560:"Community-based programs for safe disposal of used needles and syringes"
1195:
1178:
1083:
645:
400:
129:
125:
3315:
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety: Needlestick Injuries
3168:
1878:
1845:
752:
2564:
Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology
2311:
1735:
1150:
408:
388:
231:
214:
1718:
Boden, LI; Petrofsky, YV; Hopcia, K; Wagner, GR; Hashimoto, D (2015).
3267:
International Healthcare Worker Safety Center, University of Virginia
2469:. Environmental Research & Education Foundation. 28 August 2018.
607:
535:
404:
3300:
OSHA Bloodborne Pathogens Workplace Safety Standards and Regulations
1946:
116:
While needlestick injuries have the potential to transmit bacteria,
1962:
1136:
969:
133:
117:
41:
282:(PEP) should be initiated, ideally within one hour of the injury.
274:(HAV IgM, HBsAg, HB core IgM, HCV) and for immunized individuals,
234:. A protective cap (pink) protects the needle after it is removed.
35:
Percutaneous injury, percutaneous exposure incident, sharps injury
797:"California's nurse-to-patient ratio law and occupational injury"
2558:
Macalino GE, Springer KW, Rahman ZS, Vlahov D, Jones TS (1998).
2332:
3180:
3112:
2723:
2436:
Tatelbaum, MF (2001). "Needlestick safety and prevention act".
2333:
Patterson, JM; Novak, CB; Mackinnon, SE; Patterson, GA (1998).
1176:
801:
International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health
384:
380:
121:
3310:
OSHA Standard – Bloodborne Pathogens Training for handling BBP
3066:
2726:"Needlestick injuries among sanitation workers in Mexico City"
2666:
2205:
1408:
1021:
897:
526:
Many professions are at risk of needlestick injury including
2557:
2163:
1944:
1831:
1720:"Understanding the hospital sharps injury reporting pathway"
1508:
1082:
Office, U. S. Government Accountability (17 November 2000).
738:
3049:
2793:
2078:
1717:
1451:
1220:
955:
2655:. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 4 May 2015.
898:
Wicker, S; Ludwig, A; Gottschalk, R; Rabenau, HF (2008).
97:
3243:
Preventing Needlestick Injuries in Health Care Settings
2605:
1280:
EPINet Multihospital Sharps Injury Surveillance Network
2074:
794:
3257:
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
3247:
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
260:
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
3158:
2996:
1354:
795:
Leigh, JP; Markis, CA; Iosif, A; Romano, PS (2015).
3280:
https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/bbp/emergnedl.html
3056:. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2012.
2887:https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/bbp/disposal.html
2402:"Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act. H.R. 5178"
2030:
312:use of antivirals in acute hepatitis C infection.
1282:. International Healthcare Worker Safety Center.
1179:"Needlestick Injuries among surgeons in training"
326:antivirals are taken for 4 weeks and can include
16:Accidental puncture of skin causing contamination
3321:
3305:NIOSH Bloodborne Infectious Diseases Topic Page
3290:Bloodborne Pathogens and Needlestick Prevention
3262:NIOSH Bloodborne Infectious Diseases Topic Page
336:Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
3294:Occupational Safety and Health Administration
2904:
2881:
2879:
1362:. Massachusetts Department of Public Health.
1276:"Needlestick and Sharp-Object Injury Reports"
459:The examples and perspective in this section
365:Occupational Safety and Health Administration
2789:
2787:
2431:
2429:
2248:
2947:
2553:
2551:
2381:
2297:
2113:
2037:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1951:Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology
1834:Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology
1619:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1458:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1132:
1130:
1028:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
958:Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology
741:Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology
598:
332:nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors
328:nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
3044:
3042:
2997:Wyatt JP, Robertson CE, Scobie WG (1994).
2876:
2512:Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology
2076:(ACIP). Part II: Immunization of adults".
1661:
590:Residential waste special pick-up programs
587:Household hazardous waste collection sites
477:, or create a new section, as appropriate.
369:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
40:
3084:
3022:
2973:
2784:
2744:
2700:
2673:Journal of the International AIDS Society
2619:
2575:
2531:
2435:
2426:
2358:
2326:
2231:
2048:
2031:Lavoie, M; Verbeek, JH; Pahwa, M (2014).
1784:
1743:
1689:
1679:
1591:
1485:
1246:
1194:
1055:
923:
874:
856:
852:
850:
848:
828:
493:Learn how and when to remove this message
3285:OSHA Bloodborne Pathogen Standard (BBPS)
2950:"Needle stick injuries in the community"
2835:
2833:
2548:
1623:
1608:
1227:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
1127:
513:
225:
152:
3039:
2501:
2499:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2491:
2384:Journal of Controversial Medical Claims
2300:American Journal of Industrial Medicine
2254:
2070:
2068:
1766:
1760:
1724:American Journal of Industrial Medicine
1350:
1348:
1346:
1139:American Journal of Industrial Medicine
1088:United States General Accounting Office
3322:
3237:http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-01-60R
3108:
3106:
3104:
2999:"Out of hospital needlestick injuries"
2647:
2645:
2643:
2641:
2639:
2601:
2599:
2597:
2595:
2505:
2201:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2101:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2020:
1906:
1904:
1873:
1871:
1657:
1655:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1081:
1017:
1015:
845:
419:
2898:
2839:
2830:
2733:Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública
2257:American Journal of Infection Control
1940:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1565:
1412:American Journal of Infection Control
1270:
1268:
1266:
1216:
1214:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1013:
1011:
1009:
1007:
1005:
1003:
1001:
999:
997:
995:
951:
949:
947:
945:
943:
734:
732:
730:
728:
726:
724:
722:
720:
509:
303:is recommended for added protection.
2608:International Journal of Drug Policy
2488:
2394:
2166:International Journal of Drug Policy
2065:
1343:
1304:
1077:
1075:
790:
788:
786:
687:
685:
683:
681:
445:
79:is the penetration of the skin by a
3101:
3060:
2636:
2592:
2192:
2150:
2098:
2043:(3. Art. No.: CD009740): CD009740.
2017:
1901:
1868:
1652:
1554:
1438:
1298:
1183:The New England Journal of Medicine
13:
3054:HIV Surveillance Special Report 11
2375:
1931:
1825:
1821:from the original on 22 July 2017.
1706:
1263:
1211:
1165:
992:
940:
717:
606:were first established in 1981 in
14:
3361:
3154:
2772:from the original on 22 July 2018
2414:from the original on 3 March 2017
1985:from the original on 23 June 2019
1889:from the original on 15 July 2017
1286:from the original on 5 March 2016
1094:from the original on 4 March 2016
1072:
783:
705:from the original on 22 June 2017
678:
438:counseling, and follow-up costs.
111:
2577:10.1097/00042560-199802001-00019
2476:from the original on 7 June 2019
2351:10.1097/00000658-199808000-00017
2086:(RR-16). CDC: 1–33, quiz CE1–4.
450:
431:Government Accountability Office
2990:
2941:
2746:10.1590/S1020-49892010000600009
2717:
2660:
2456:
2291:
1801:
1502:
1402:
1381:
1369:from the original on 8 May 2016
1308:Disability & Rehabilitation
656:Scalpel § Scalpel injuries
584:Home needle destruction devices
353:
2050:10.1002/14651858.CD009740.pub2
1584:10.1002/14651858.cd009740.pub3
1470:10.1002/14651858.CD009573.pub2
1040:10.1002/14651858.CD009170.pub2
904:Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift
891:
441:
306:
285:
171:post-traumatic stress disorder
1:
2927:10.1126/science.280.5371.1884
2630:10.1016/s0955-3959(03)00133-6
671:
435:American Hospital Association
295:. The mainstay of PEP is the
221:
203:personal protective equipment
2954:Paediatrics and Child Health
2653:"Access to sterile syringes"
2178:10.1016/j.drugpo.2010.02.001
1814:Food and Drug Administration
1524:10.1097/sla.0000000000002178
299:; in certain circumstances,
265:
256:Food and Drug Administration
252:American College of Surgeons
98:human immunodeficiency virus
7:
2854:10.1126/science.276.5309.51
1662:Yang, L; Mullan, B (2011).
634:
473:, discuss the issue on the
10:
3366:
2524:10.1177/193229681100500404
2269:10.1016/j.ajic.2018.10.003
1919:(RR-19). CDC: 1–39. 1998.
1638:10.1016/j.aorn.2012.08.010
1572:Cochrane Database Syst Rev
1424:10.1016/j.ajic.2009.02.014
1397:10.1016/j.ajic.2019.11.030
1239:10.1177/014107680409700705
857:Alamgir, H; Yu, S (2008).
301:hepatitis B immunoglobulin
124:, the risk of contracting
3162:
2224:10.1007/s10461-013-0593-y
2128:10.1080/10826080600669579
1321:10.1080/09638280902874147
916:10.1007/s00508-008-1011-8
821:10.1007/s00420-014-0977-y
578:Syringe exchange programs
575:Drop-off collection sites
360:World Health Organization
280:post-exposure prophylaxis
230:Blood being drawn with a
167:post-exposure prophylaxis
138:World Health Organization
57:
48:
39:
31:
26:
3272:10 February 2012 at the
1786:10.1161/01.cir.101.3.e38
604:Needle exchange programs
599:Needle exchange programs
540:Denver Police Department
403:have high risk, whereas
184:
1391:2020;48(9):1013–1018.
1389:Am. J. Infect. Control.
424:
3116:J Public Health Policy
2808:10.1542/peds.2008-0290
2685:10.7448/IAS.19.4.20874
1115:Cite journal requires
519:
315:
235:
1879:"Stop Sticks – NIOSH"
876:10.1093/occmed/kqn028
863:Occupational Medicine
617:Hartford, Connecticut
517:
272:acute hepatitis panel
229:
153:Psychological effects
3345:Occupational hazards
3245:, an alert from the
3128:10.1057/jphp.2014.54
3015:10.1136/adc.70.3.245
2966:10.1093/pch/13.3.205
2948:Moore D. L. (2008).
1196:10.1056/NEJMoa070378
471:improve this section
461:may not represent a
323:antiretroviral drugs
199:blood-borne diseases
136:is the highest. The
108:healthcare workers.
86:blood-borne diseases
3278:Worker Information
2919:1998Sci...280.1884W
2892:25 May 2020 at the
2570:(Supp 1): S111–19.
1846:10.1017/ice.2015.50
1767:SoRelle, R (2000).
1681:10.5402/2011/315432
813:2015IAOEH..88..477L
753:10.1017/ice.2015.50
420:Society and culture
393:otorhinolaryngology
340:protease inhibitors
297:hepatitis B vaccine
276:HB surface antibody
179:occupational safety
3335:Industrial hygiene
3086:10.1093/ije/dyt243
2312:10.1002/ajim.20230
2009:has generic name (
1736:10.1002/ajim.22392
1151:10.1002/ajim.22057
581:Mail-back programs
549:sanitation workers
520:
510:Outside healthcare
236:
77:needlestick injury
68:Infectious disease
64:Emergency medicine
27:Needlestick injury
3232:
3231:
2913:(5371): 1884–88.
2339:Annals of Surgery
2212:AIDS and Behavior
1566:Reddy, V (2017).
1512:Annals of Surgery
910:(15–16): 486–92.
503:
502:
495:
397:internal medicine
344:fusion inhibitors
94:hepatitis C virus
90:hepatitis B virus
81:hypodermic needle
73:
72:
21:Medical condition
3357:
3160:
3159:
3148:
3147:
3110:
3099:
3098:
3088:
3064:
3058:
3057:
3046:
3037:
3036:
3026:
2994:
2988:
2987:
2977:
2945:
2939:
2938:
2902:
2896:
2883:
2874:
2873:
2837:
2828:
2827:
2791:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2777:
2771:
2748:
2730:
2721:
2715:
2714:
2704:
2664:
2658:
2656:
2649:
2634:
2633:
2623:
2603:
2590:
2589:
2579:
2555:
2546:
2545:
2535:
2503:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2481:
2475:
2468:
2460:
2454:
2453:
2433:
2424:
2423:
2421:
2419:
2413:
2406:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2379:
2373:
2372:
2362:
2330:
2324:
2323:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2235:
2203:
2190:
2189:
2161:
2148:
2147:
2122:(6–7): 777–813.
2116:Subst Use Misuse
2111:
2096:
2095:
2072:
2063:
2062:
2052:
2028:
2015:
2014:
2008:
2004:
2002:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1942:
1929:
1928:
1908:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1875:
1866:
1865:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1788:
1764:
1758:
1757:
1747:
1715:
1704:
1703:
1693:
1683:
1659:
1650:
1649:
1621:
1606:
1605:
1595:
1578:(11): CD009740.
1563:
1552:
1551:
1506:
1500:
1499:
1489:
1449:
1436:
1435:
1406:
1400:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1376:
1374:
1368:
1361:
1352:
1341:
1340:
1302:
1296:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1272:
1261:
1260:
1250:
1218:
1209:
1208:
1198:
1174:
1163:
1162:
1134:
1125:
1124:
1118:
1113:
1111:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1079:
1070:
1069:
1059:
1034:(11): CD009170.
1019:
990:
989:
953:
938:
937:
927:
895:
889:
888:
878:
854:
843:
842:
832:
792:
781:
780:
736:
715:
714:
712:
710:
704:
697:
689:
651:Pin prick attack
532:waste collectors
498:
491:
487:
484:
478:
454:
453:
446:
102:mucous membranes
51:sharps container
44:
24:
23:
3365:
3364:
3360:
3359:
3358:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3330:Medical hygiene
3320:
3319:
3274:Wayback Machine
3233:
3228:
3227:
3171:
3157:
3152:
3151:
3111:
3102:
3073:Int J Epidemiol
3065:
3061:
3048:
3047:
3040:
2995:
2991:
2946:
2942:
2903:
2899:
2894:Wayback Machine
2884:
2877:
2848:(5309): 51–52.
2838:
2831:
2792:
2785:
2775:
2773:
2769:
2728:
2722:
2718:
2665:
2661:
2651:
2650:
2637:
2621:10.1.1.636.9789
2614:(5–6): 353–57.
2604:
2593:
2556:
2549:
2506:Gold K (2011).
2504:
2489:
2479:
2477:
2473:
2466:
2462:
2461:
2457:
2434:
2427:
2417:
2415:
2411:
2404:
2400:
2399:
2395:
2380:
2376:
2331:
2327:
2296:
2292:
2253:
2249:
2204:
2193:
2162:
2151:
2112:
2099:
2073:
2066:
2029:
2018:
2006:
2005:
1996:
1995:
1988:
1986:
1943:
1932:
1910:
1909:
1902:
1892:
1890:
1877:
1876:
1869:
1830:
1826:
1817:. 30 May 2012.
1807:
1806:
1802:
1765:
1761:
1716:
1707:
1660:
1653:
1622:
1609:
1564:
1555:
1507:
1503:
1464:(3): CD009573.
1450:
1439:
1407:
1403:
1386:
1382:
1372:
1370:
1366:
1359:
1353:
1344:
1315:(23): 1963–69.
1303:
1299:
1289:
1287:
1274:
1273:
1264:
1219:
1212:
1189:(26): 2693–99.
1175:
1166:
1135:
1128:
1116:
1114:
1105:
1104:
1097:
1095:
1080:
1073:
1020:
993:
954:
941:
896:
892:
855:
846:
793:
784:
737:
718:
708:
706:
702:
695:
691:
690:
679:
674:
637:
601:
568:syringe service
564:needle disposal
528:law enforcement
512:
499:
488:
482:
479:
468:
455:
451:
444:
427:
422:
356:
318:
309:
288:
268:
224:
187:
155:
114:
22:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3363:
3353:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3318:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3287:
3282:
3276:
3264:
3259:
3250:
3240:
3230:
3229:
3226:
3225:
3214:
3203:
3188:
3172:
3167:
3166:
3164:
3163:Classification
3156:
3155:External links
3153:
3150:
3149:
3100:
3059:
3038:
3003:Arch Dis Child
2989:
2940:
2897:
2875:
2829:
2783:
2716:
2679:(4S3): 20874.
2659:
2635:
2591:
2547:
2487:
2455:
2438:Pain Physician
2425:
2393:
2374:
2325:
2306:(6): 482–490.
2290:
2263:(4): 448–455.
2247:
2218:(9): 2878–92.
2191:
2149:
2097:
2064:
2016:
1963:10.1086/672271
1930:
1900:
1867:
1824:
1800:
1759:
1705:
1651:
1607:
1553:
1501:
1437:
1401:
1380:
1342:
1297:
1262:
1210:
1164:
1126:
1117:|journal=
1086:(GAO-01-60R).
1071:
991:
970:10.1086/671733
939:
890:
844:
782:
716:
676:
675:
673:
670:
669:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
641:Needle spiking
636:
633:
629:zero tolerance
600:
597:
592:
591:
588:
585:
582:
579:
576:
511:
508:
501:
500:
465:of the subject
463:worldwide view
458:
456:
449:
443:
440:
426:
423:
421:
418:
355:
352:
317:
314:
308:
305:
287:
284:
267:
264:
254:(ACS) and the
223:
220:
186:
183:
159:health anxiety
154:
151:
146:seroconversion
120:, viruses and
113:
112:Health effects
110:
71:
70:
61:
55:
54:
46:
45:
37:
36:
33:
29:
28:
20:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3362:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3295:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3277:
3275:
3271:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3254:
3251:
3248:
3244:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3234:
3224:
3220:
3219:
3215:
3213:
3209:
3208:
3204:
3202:
3198:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3187:
3183:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3173:
3170:
3165:
3161:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3122:(2): 212–30.
3121:
3117:
3109:
3107:
3105:
3096:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3079:(1): 235–48.
3078:
3074:
3070:
3063:
3055:
3051:
3045:
3043:
3034:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3009:(3): 245–46.
3008:
3004:
3000:
2993:
2985:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2960:(3): 205–10.
2959:
2955:
2951:
2944:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2901:
2895:
2891:
2888:
2882:
2880:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2836:
2834:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2802:(2): 487–92.
2801:
2797:
2790:
2788:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2739:(6): 467–68.
2738:
2734:
2727:
2720:
2712:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2663:
2654:
2648:
2646:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2631:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2602:
2600:
2598:
2596:
2587:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2554:
2552:
2543:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2518:(4): 848–50.
2517:
2513:
2509:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2494:
2492:
2472:
2465:
2459:
2451:
2447:
2444:(2): 193–95.
2443:
2439:
2432:
2430:
2410:
2403:
2397:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2370:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2345:(2): 266–72.
2344:
2340:
2336:
2329:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2294:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2251:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2196:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2172:(5): 335–42.
2171:
2167:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2154:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2080:
2071:
2069:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2012:
2007:|first9=
2000:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1957:(9): 875–92.
1956:
1952:
1948:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1907:
1905:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1874:
1872:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1840:(7): 823–29.
1839:
1835:
1828:
1820:
1816:
1815:
1810:
1804:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1763:
1755:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1730:(3): 282–89.
1729:
1725:
1721:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1658:
1656:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1632:(5): 540–45.
1631:
1627:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1603:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1518:(2): 291–96.
1517:
1513:
1505:
1497:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1418:(9): 766–72.
1417:
1413:
1405:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1384:
1365:
1358:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1309:
1301:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1258:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1233:(7): 326–27.
1232:
1228:
1224:
1217:
1215:
1206:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1145:(7): 650–55.
1144:
1140:
1133:
1131:
1122:
1109:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1078:
1076:
1067:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1012:
1010:
1008:
1006:
1004:
1002:
1000:
998:
996:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
964:(9): 935–39.
963:
959:
952:
950:
948:
946:
944:
935:
931:
926:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
894:
886:
882:
877:
872:
869:(6): 393–99.
868:
864:
860:
853:
851:
849:
840:
836:
831:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
807:(4): 477–84.
806:
802:
798:
791:
789:
787:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
747:(7): 823–29.
746:
742:
735:
733:
731:
729:
727:
725:
723:
721:
701:
698:. CDC. 2011.
694:
688:
686:
684:
682:
677:
667:
666:Medical glove
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
638:
632:
630:
625:
621:
618:
612:
609:
605:
596:
589:
586:
583:
580:
577:
574:
573:
572:
569:
565:
560:
556:
552:
550:
544:
541:
537:
533:
529:
524:
516:
507:
497:
494:
486:
483:February 2016
476:
472:
466:
464:
457:
448:
447:
439:
436:
432:
417:
413:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
376:
372:
370:
366:
361:
358:In 2007, the
351:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
324:
313:
304:
302:
298:
294:
293:liver disease
283:
281:
277:
273:
263:
261:
257:
253:
247:
243:
239:
233:
228:
219:
216:
212:
208:
207:needle driver
204:
200:
196:
192:
191:intramuscular
182:
180:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
150:
147:
142:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
109:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
82:
78:
69:
65:
62:
60:
56:
52:
47:
43:
38:
34:
30:
25:
19:
3216:
3205:
3190:
3175:
3119:
3115:
3076:
3072:
3062:
3053:
3006:
3002:
2992:
2957:
2953:
2943:
2910:
2906:
2900:
2845:
2841:
2799:
2795:
2776:17 September
2774:. Retrieved
2736:
2732:
2719:
2676:
2672:
2662:
2611:
2607:
2567:
2563:
2515:
2511:
2478:. Retrieved
2458:
2441:
2437:
2416:. Retrieved
2396:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2342:
2338:
2328:
2303:
2299:
2293:
2260:
2256:
2250:
2215:
2211:
2169:
2165:
2119:
2115:
2083:
2077:
2040:
2036:
1999:cite journal
1987:. Retrieved
1954:
1950:
1916:
1912:
1891:. Retrieved
1882:
1837:
1833:
1827:
1812:
1803:
1776:
1772:
1762:
1727:
1723:
1671:
1668:ISRN Nursing
1667:
1629:
1626:AORN Journal
1625:
1575:
1571:
1515:
1511:
1504:
1461:
1457:
1415:
1411:
1404:
1388:
1383:
1371:. Retrieved
1312:
1306:
1300:
1288:. Retrieved
1279:
1230:
1226:
1186:
1182:
1142:
1138:
1108:cite journal
1096:. Retrieved
1031:
1027:
961:
957:
907:
903:
893:
866:
862:
804:
800:
744:
740:
709:10 September
707:. Retrieved
661:Sharps waste
626:
622:
613:
602:
593:
561:
557:
553:
545:
525:
521:
504:
489:
480:
460:
428:
414:
377:
373:
357:
354:Epidemiology
319:
310:
289:
269:
248:
244:
240:
237:
215:night shifts
188:
175:
156:
143:
115:
106:
76:
74:
18:
3292:, from the
3255:, from the
1893:27 February
1773:Circulation
1373:23 February
1290:25 February
646:Peggy Ferro
442:Legislation
401:dermatology
348:HIV testing
307:Hepatitis C
286:Hepatitis B
195:intravenous
130:hepatitis C
126:hepatitis B
96:(HCV), and
32:Other names
3324:Categories
3218:DiseasesDB
2796:Pediatrics
1779:(3): E38.
1098:30 October
672:References
409:pediatrics
389:anesthesia
342:(PIs), or
338:(NNRTIs),
334:(NtRTIs),
232:Vacutainer
222:Prevention
209:, or when
163:depression
2755:1020-4989
2693:1758-2652
2616:CiteSeerX
1532:0003-4932
1478:1469-493X
1048:1469-493X
761:1559-6834
608:Amsterdam
536:San Diego
475:talk page
405:radiology
330:(NRTIs),
266:Treatment
59:Specialty
3340:Injuries
3270:Archived
3144:12007017
3136:25590514
3095:24374889
2984:19252702
2890:Archived
2870:33262844
2824:12916388
2816:18676535
2767:Archived
2763:20721448
2711:27435711
2542:21880224
2471:Archived
2450:16902692
2409:Archived
2407:. 2000.
2320:16299710
2285:54487905
2277:30502112
2242:23975473
2186:20189375
2144:38282874
2136:16809167
2092:17159833
2059:24610008
1983:Archived
1979:17032413
1971:23917901
1887:Archived
1862:20953913
1854:25765502
1819:Archived
1795:10645936
1754:25308763
1700:22007320
1674:: 1–11.
1646:23107034
1602:29190036
1548:10024783
1540:28221166
1496:24610769
1487:10766138
1432:19647344
1364:Archived
1337:29903130
1329:19479544
1284:Archived
1257:15229257
1205:17596603
1159:22544469
1092:Archived
1066:22071864
986:25667952
978:23917907
934:18820853
885:18356143
839:25216822
777:20953913
769:25765502
700:Archived
635:See also
469:You may
118:protozoa
3249:(NIOSH)
3212:D016602
3033:8135572
3024:1029753
2975:2529409
2935:9632381
2915:Bibcode
2907:Science
2862:9122710
2842:Science
2702:4951532
2586:9663633
2533:3192588
2418:15 July
2369:9712573
2360:1191469
2233:6509353
1989:25 June
1925:9790221
1883:cdc.gov
1745:5077298
1691:3169876
1593:6491125
1248:1079524
1057:7387125
925:7088025
830:6597253
809:Bibcode
395:(ENT),
211:sutures
92:(HBV),
3350:Gloves
3296:(OSHA)
3201:E920.5
3142:
3134:
3093:
3031:
3021:
2982:
2972:
2933:
2868:
2860:
2822:
2814:
2761:
2753:
2709:
2699:
2691:
2618:
2584:
2540:
2530:
2480:6 June
2448:
2367:
2357:
2318:
2283:
2275:
2240:
2230:
2184:
2142:
2134:
2090:
2057:
1977:
1969:
1923:
1860:
1852:
1793:
1752:
1742:
1698:
1688:
1644:
1600:
1590:
1546:
1538:
1530:
1494:
1484:
1476:
1430:
1335:
1327:
1255:
1245:
1203:
1157:
1064:
1054:
1046:
984:
976:
932:
922:
883:
837:
827:
775:
767:
759:
399:, and
385:fascia
381:muscle
132:, and
122:prions
3223:31976
3140:S2CID
2866:S2CID
2820:S2CID
2770:(PDF)
2729:(PDF)
2474:(PDF)
2467:(PDF)
2412:(PDF)
2405:(PDF)
2390:: 12.
2281:S2CID
2140:S2CID
1975:S2CID
1858:S2CID
1544:S2CID
1367:(PDF)
1360:(PDF)
1333:S2CID
982:S2CID
773:S2CID
703:(PDF)
696:(PDF)
185:Cause
3207:MeSH
3196:9-CM
3132:PMID
3091:PMID
3029:PMID
2980:PMID
2931:PMID
2858:PMID
2812:PMID
2778:2019
2759:PMID
2751:ISSN
2707:PMID
2689:ISSN
2582:PMID
2538:PMID
2482:2019
2446:PMID
2420:2016
2365:PMID
2316:PMID
2273:PMID
2238:PMID
2182:PMID
2132:PMID
2088:PMID
2079:MMWR
2055:PMID
2011:help
1991:2019
1967:PMID
1921:PMID
1913:MMWR
1895:2016
1850:PMID
1791:PMID
1750:PMID
1696:PMID
1672:2011
1642:PMID
1598:PMID
1576:2017
1536:PMID
1528:ISSN
1492:PMID
1474:ISSN
1462:2014
1428:PMID
1375:2016
1325:PMID
1292:2016
1253:PMID
1201:PMID
1155:PMID
1121:help
1100:2015
1062:PMID
1044:ISSN
1032:2016
974:PMID
930:PMID
881:PMID
835:PMID
765:PMID
757:ISSN
711:2017
566:and
425:Cost
407:and
3239:GAO
3192:ICD
3186:W46
3177:ICD
3124:doi
3081:doi
3019:PMC
3011:doi
2970:PMC
2962:doi
2923:doi
2911:280
2850:doi
2846:276
2804:doi
2800:122
2741:doi
2697:PMC
2681:doi
2626:doi
2572:doi
2528:PMC
2520:doi
2355:PMC
2347:doi
2343:228
2308:doi
2265:doi
2228:PMC
2220:doi
2174:doi
2124:doi
2045:doi
1959:doi
1842:doi
1781:doi
1777:101
1740:PMC
1732:doi
1686:PMC
1676:doi
1634:doi
1588:PMC
1580:doi
1520:doi
1516:267
1482:PMC
1466:doi
1420:doi
1393:doi
1317:doi
1243:PMC
1235:doi
1191:doi
1187:356
1147:doi
1052:PMC
1036:doi
966:doi
920:PMC
912:doi
908:120
871:doi
825:PMC
817:doi
749:doi
615:in
383:or
316:HIV
193:or
134:HIV
3326::
3221::
3210::
3199::
3184::
3181:10
3138:.
3130:.
3120:36
3118:.
3103:^
3089:.
3077:43
3075:.
3071:.
3052:.
3041:^
3027:.
3017:.
3007:70
3005:.
3001:.
2978:.
2968:.
2958:13
2956:.
2952:.
2929:.
2921:.
2909:.
2878:^
2864:.
2856:.
2844:.
2832:^
2818:.
2810:.
2798:.
2786:^
2765:.
2757:.
2749:.
2737:27
2735:.
2731:.
2705:.
2695:.
2687:.
2677:19
2675:.
2671:.
2638:^
2624:.
2612:14
2610:.
2594:^
2580:.
2568:18
2566:.
2562:.
2550:^
2536:.
2526:.
2514:.
2510:.
2490:^
2440:.
2428:^
2388:15
2386:.
2363:.
2353:.
2341:.
2337:.
2314:.
2304:48
2302:.
2279:.
2271:.
2261:47
2259:.
2236:.
2226:.
2216:17
2214:.
2210:.
2194:^
2180:.
2170:21
2168:.
2152:^
2138:.
2130:.
2120:41
2118:.
2100:^
2084:55
2082:.
2067:^
2053:.
2039:.
2035:.
2019:^
2003::
2001:}}
1997:{{
1981:.
1973:.
1965:.
1955:34
1953:.
1949:.
1933:^
1917:47
1915:.
1903:^
1885:.
1881:.
1870:^
1856:.
1848:.
1838:36
1836:.
1811:.
1789:.
1775:.
1771:.
1748:.
1738:.
1728:58
1726:.
1722:.
1708:^
1694:.
1684:.
1670:.
1666:.
1654:^
1640:.
1630:96
1628:.
1610:^
1596:.
1586:.
1574:.
1570:.
1556:^
1542:.
1534:.
1526:.
1514:.
1490:.
1480:.
1472:.
1460:.
1456:.
1440:^
1426:.
1416:37
1414:.
1345:^
1331:.
1323:.
1313:31
1311:.
1278:.
1265:^
1251:.
1241:.
1231:97
1229:.
1225:.
1213:^
1199:.
1185:.
1181:.
1167:^
1153:.
1143:55
1141:.
1129:^
1112::
1110:}}
1106:{{
1090:.
1074:^
1060:.
1050:.
1042:.
1030:.
1026:.
994:^
980:.
972:.
962:34
960:.
942:^
928:.
918:.
906:.
902:.
879:.
867:58
865:.
861:.
847:^
833:.
823:.
815:.
805:88
803:.
799:.
785:^
771:.
763:.
755:.
745:36
743:.
719:^
680:^
530:,
391:,
181:.
173:.
128:,
75:A
66:,
49:A
3194:-
3179:-
3169:D
3146:.
3126::
3097:.
3083::
3035:.
3013::
2986:.
2964::
2937:.
2925::
2917::
2872:.
2852::
2826:.
2806::
2780:.
2743::
2713:.
2683::
2657:.
2632:.
2628::
2588:.
2574::
2544:.
2522::
2516:5
2484:.
2452:.
2442:4
2422:.
2371:.
2349::
2322:.
2310::
2287:.
2267::
2244:.
2222::
2188:.
2176::
2146:.
2126::
2094:.
2061:.
2047::
2041:3
2013:)
1993:.
1961::
1927:.
1897:.
1864:.
1844::
1797:.
1783::
1756:.
1734::
1702:.
1678::
1648:.
1636::
1604:.
1582::
1550:.
1522::
1498:.
1468::
1434:.
1422::
1399:.
1395::
1377:.
1339:.
1319::
1294:.
1259:.
1237::
1207:.
1193::
1161:.
1149::
1123:)
1119:(
1102:.
1068:.
1038::
988:.
968::
936:.
914::
887:.
873::
841:.
819::
811::
779:.
751::
713:.
496:)
490:(
485:)
481:(
467:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.