321:, Terence Hawkes writes that the fundamental close reading technique is based on the assumption that "the subject and the object of study—the reader and the text—are stable and independent forms, rather than products of the unconscious process of signification," an assumption which he identifies as the "ideology of liberal humanism," which is attributed to the New Critics who are "accused of attempting to disguise the interests at work in their critical processes." For Hawkes, ideally, a critic ought to be considered to " the finished work by his reading of it, and remain simply an inert consumer of a 'ready-made' product."
325:
Critics have preferred to stress the writing rather than the writer, so have they given less stress to the reader—to the reader's response to the work. Yet no one in his right mind could forget the reader. He is essential for 'realizing' any poem or novel. ... Reader response is certainly worth studying." However, Brooks tempers his praise for the reader-response theory by noting its limitations, pointing out that, "to put meaning and valuation of a literary work at the mercy of any and every individual would reduce the study of literature to reader psychology and to the history of taste."
122:
taking this approach under the influence of nineteenth-century German scholarship. The New
Critics felt that this approach tended to distract from the text and meaning of a poem and entirely neglect its aesthetic qualities in favor of teaching about external factors. On the other hand, the New Critics disparaged the literary appreciation school, which limited itself to pointing out the "beauties" and morally elevating qualities of the text, as too subjective and emotional. Condemning this as a version of Romanticism, they aimed for a newer, systematic and objective method.
881:
141:) was a staple of French literary studies, but in the United States, aesthetic concerns and the study of modern poets were the province of non-academic essayists and book reviewers rather than serious scholars. The New Criticism changed this. Though their interest in textual study initially met with resistance from older scholars, the methods of the New Critics rapidly predominated in American universities until challenged by
125:
It was felt, especially by creative writers and by literary critics outside the academy, that the special aesthetic experience of poetry and literary language was lost in the welter of extraneous erudition and emotional effusions. Heather Dubrow notes that the prevailing focus of literary scholarship
324:
In response to critics like Hawkes, Cleanth Brooks, in his essay "The New
Criticism" (1979), argued that the New Criticism was not diametrically opposed to the general principles of reader-response theory and that the two could complement one another. For instance, he stated, "If some of the New
129:
New
Critics believed the structure and meaning of the text were intimately connected and should not be analyzed separately. In order to bring the focus of literary studies back to analysis of the texts, they aimed to exclude the reader's response, the author's intention, historical and cultural
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New
Criticism developed as a reaction to the older philological and literary history schools of the US North, which focused on the history and meaning of individual words and their relation to foreign and ancient languages, comparative sources, and the biographical circumstances of the authors,
328:
Another objection against New
Criticism is that it misguidedly tries to turn literary criticism into an objective science, or at least aims at "bringing literary study to a condition rivaling that of science." One example of this is Ransom's essay "Criticism, Inc.", in which he advocated that
126:
was on "the study of ethical values and philosophical issues through literature, the tracing of literary history, and ... political criticism". Literature was approached via its moral, historical and social background and literary scholarship did not focus on analysis of texts.
226:", which served as a kind of sister essay to "The Intentional Fallacy" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the
339:
The New
Criticism is not supported by Feminist Theory which is often concerned with sexual identity and the human body. Nor is it aligned with post-colonial theory which deals with dual-identity, personal experience and political bias in writing.
313:
It was frequently alleged that the New
Criticism treated literary texts as autonomous and divorced from historical context, and that its practitioners were "uninterested in the human meaning, the social function and effect of literature."
219:, or "intended meaning" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting.
200:, is a very elusive beast", meaning that there was no clearly defined "New Critical" manifesto, school, or stance. Nevertheless, a number of writings outline inter-related New Critical ideas.
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289:) are still fundamental tools of literary criticism, underpinning a number of subsequent theoretic approaches to literature including poststructuralism, deconstruction theory,
38:, particularly of poetry, to discover how a work of literature functioned as a self-contained, self-referential aesthetic object. The movement derived its name from
392:
333:, however, argued against this by noting that a number of the New Critics outlined their theoretical aesthetics in contrast to the "objectivity" of the sciences.
457:
Lauter, Paul (June 1995). ""Versions of
Nashville, Visions of American Studies": Presidential Address to the American Studies Association, October 27, 1994".
81:
also made significant contributions to New criticism. It was
Wimsatt who gave the idea of intentional and affective fallacy. Also very influential were the
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237:
The hey-day of the New
Criticism in American high schools and colleges was the Cold War decades between 1950 and the mid-seventies. Brooks and Warren's
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Studying a passage of prose or poetry in New Critical style required careful, exacting scrutiny of the passage itself. Formal elements such as
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would go on to develop the aesthetics that came to be known as the New Criticism. Indeed, for Paul Lauter, a Professor of American Studies at
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69:, which offered what was claimed to be an empirical scientific approach, were important to the development of a New Critical methodology.
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234:, was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his essay "Literature in the Reader" (1970).
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Although the New Criticism is no longer a dominant theoretical model in American universities, some of its methods (like
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For an overview, see Gerald Graff, Professing Literature, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1987.
643:. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. Available online in PDF from the University of Washington
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contexts, and moralistic bias from their analysis. These goals were articulated in Ransom's "Criticism, Inc." and
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113:, and his insistence that poetry must be impersonal, greatly influenced the formation of the New Critical canon.
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Although the New Critics were never a formal group, an important inspiration was the teaching of
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Duvall, John N. "Eliot's Modemism and Brook's New Criticism: poetic and religious thinking".
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Wellek defended the New Critics in his essay "The New Criticism: Pro and Contra" (1978).
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The Cambridge History of American Literature volume 8: Poetry and Criticism (1940–1995)
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T.S. Eliot's essays "Tradition and the Individual Talent" and "Hamlet and His Problems"
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Russo, John Paul. "The Tranquilized Poem: The Crisis of New Criticism in the 1950s."
653:. Swallow, 2008. Anthology that includes some of the keys texts of the New Criticism.
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Pivato, Joseph. "Echo: Essays on Other Literatures." Toronto: Guernica, 1994, 2003.
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Lentricchia, Frank. "After the New Criticism". University of Chicago Press, 1980.
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to help establish the single best and most unified interpretation of the text.
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Brooks, Cleanth. "Criticism and Literary History: Marvell's Horatian Ode".
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school of literary theory. One of the leading theorists from this school,
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of the text. In addition to the theme, the New Critics also looked for
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and for showing significant ideological and historical parallels with
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published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled "
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639:, 2nd edition. Edited by Michael Groden, Martin Kreiswirth, and
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Texts and Contexts: Writing about Literature with Critical Theory
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Ransom's essays "Criticism, Inc" and "The Ontological Critic"
297:. It has been credited with anticipating the insights of the
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215:", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an
689:. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1987.
443:
Dubrow, Heather. "Twentieth Century Shakespeare Criticism."
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in the 1970s. Other schools of critical theory, including,
34:
in the middle decades of the 20th century. It emphasized
524:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 13–14.
393:
The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry
547:Wellek, René. "The New Criticism: Pro and Contra."
450:
1897:
376:Tate's essay "Miss Emily and the Bibliographer"
551:, Vol. 4, No. 4. (Summer, 1978), pp. 611–624.
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508:. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2001.
506:The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism
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562:
560:
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736:
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637:The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory
571:The Cultural Politics of the New Criticism
710:. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
704:A History of Modern Criticism, 1750–1950.
573:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
568:
697:Texas Studies in Literature and Language
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543:
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192:, New Criticism is a reemergence of the
398:Warren's essay "Pure and Impure Poetry"
134:'s "Miss Emily and the Bibliographer".
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606:Ransom, John Crowe. "Criticism, Inc."
593:Brooks, Cleanth. "The New Criticism."
491:Brooks, Cleanth. "The New Criticism."
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262:, and plot were used to identify the
247:both became staples during this era.
16:Formalist movement in literary theory
176:, whose students (all Southerners),
63:The Principles of Literary Criticism
635:Searle, Leroy. "New Criticism" in
521:Metamodernism: The Future of Theory
447:2nd ed. Houghton Mifflin, 1997: 35.
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91:Tradition and the Individual Talent
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1136:Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling
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504:Leitch, Vincent B. , et al., eds.
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1937:
291:New Testament narrative criticism
1926:20th-century American literature
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379:Wimsatt and Beardsley's essays "
351:Principles of Literary Criticism
319:reader-response school of theory
671:Carton, Evan and Gerald Graff.
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518:Storm, Jason Josephson (2021).
109:, his liking for the so-called
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1176:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
1131:Anne Louise Germaine de Staël
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609:The Virginia Quarterly Review
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7:
1916:English-language literature
1872:Plain Folk of the Old South
1830:Ode to the Confederate Dead
143:feminist literary criticism
10:
1942:
1171:Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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1643:Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
1036:Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux
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846:Reader-response criticism
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680:The Mississippi Quarterly
445:The Riverside Shakespeare
401:Wellek and Warren's book
1086:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
841:Psychoanalytic criticism
569:Jancovich, Mark (1993).
365:Seven Types of Ambiguity
155:deconstructionist theory
30:that dominated American
1141:Samuel Taylor Coleridge
425:. Addison-Wesley, 2001.
381:The Intentional Fallacy
213:The Intentional Fallacy
95:Hamlet and His Problems
1879:The Unregenerate South
861:Sociological criticism
831:Postcolonial criticism
766:Biographical criticism
295:reader-response theory
67:The Meaning of Meaning
1885:Vanderbilt University
1783:Frank Lawrence Owsley
1778:Herman Clarence Nixon
1306:Ferdinand de Saussure
889:Theorists and critics
687:Professing Literature
385:The Affective Fallacy
245:Understanding Fiction
224:The Affective Fallacy
99:objective correlative
1837:Lee in the Mountains
1211:James Russell Lowell
1186:Francesco De Sanctis
1166:Percy Bysshe Shelley
1146:Wilhelm von Humboldt
991:Lodovico Castelvetro
776:Cultural materialism
761:Archetypal criticism
403:Theory of Literature
240:Understanding Poetry
139:explication de texte
1855:The American Review
1773:Andrew Nelson Lytle
1753:John Gould Fletcher
1311:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss
1246:Friedrich Nietzsche
1201:Ralph Waldo Emerson
1161:Thomas Love Peacock
1156:Arthur Schopenhauer
1106:Mary Wollstonecraft
791:Descriptive poetics
781:Darwinian criticism
699:30 (1988): 198–227.
682:: 46 (1992): 23–38.
668:55 (1947): 199–222.
355:Practical Criticism
222:In another essay, "
59:Practical Criticism
1911:Literary criticism
1803:Robert Penn Warren
1720:Southern Agrarians
1613:Hans-Georg Gadamer
1445:Philip Wheelwright
1435:Simone de Beauvoir
1231:Charles Baudelaire
1126:William Wordsworth
1121:Friedrich Schlegel
1116:Friedrich Schiller
946:Christine de Pizan
856:Semiotic criticism
801:Feminist criticism
745:Literary criticism
595:The Sewanee Review
495:87: 4 (1979): 592.
493:The Sewanee Review
459:American Quarterly
317:Indicative of the
303:logical positivism
217:author's intention
205:William K. Wimsatt
194:Southern Agrarians
186:Robert Penn Warren
151:post-structuralism
137:Close reading (or
111:metaphysical poets
57:, especially his
32:literary criticism
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1808:Richard M. Weaver
1788:John Crowe Ransom
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1668:Oswald de Andrade
1505:Hans Robert Jauss
1480:E. D. Hirsch, Jr.
1376:John Crowe Ransom
1271:Stéphane Mallarmé
1241:Søren Kierkegaard
1061:Giambattista Vico
851:Russian formalism
816:Marxist criticism
531:978-0-226-78665-0
170:John Crowe Ransom
163:Reception studies
75:John Crowe Ransom
44:The New Criticism
40:John Crowe Ransom
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1465:Gaston Bachelard
1430:Jean-Paul Sartre
1415:Monroe Beardsley
1371:Georges Bataille
1351:Boris Eikhenbaum
1326:Viktor Shklovsky
1196:John Stuart Mill
1181:Giacomo Leopardi
1026:Pierre Corneille
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1286:Antonio Gramsci
1281:Benedetto Croce
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360:William Empson
357:
345:
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310:
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182:Cleanth Brooks
174:Kenyon College
118:
115:
71:Cleanth Brooks
55:I. A. Richards
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1938:
1927:
1924:
1922:
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1914:
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1909:
1907:
1906:New Criticism
1904:
1903:
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1866:New Criticism
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1401:Kenneth Burke
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1391:György Lukács
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580:0-521-41652-3
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390:Brooks' book
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147:structuralism
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79:W. K. Wimsatt
76:
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56:
52:
49:The works of
47:
45:
42:'s 1941 book
41:
37:
36:close reading
33:
29:
25:
21:
20:New Criticism
1877:
1870:
1865:
1853:
1738:Herbert Agar
1653:André Breton
1628:M. H. Abrams
1623:Peter Szondi
1618:Paul Ricoeur
1608:Hayden White
1545:Stanley Fish
1535:Harold Bloom
1485:Noam Chomsky
1440:Ronald Crane
1346:Leon Trotsky
1251:Walter Pater
1081:Edward Young
1066:Edmund Burke
956:Rajashekhara
951:Bharata Muni
871:Thing theory
836:Postcritique
820:
811:Geocriticism
796:Ecocriticism
707:
703:
696:
686:
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672:
665:
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602:
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316:
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284:
249:
244:
238:
236:
232:Stanley Fish
221:
202:
167:
138:
136:
128:
124:
120:
66:
62:
58:
48:
43:
26:movement in
19:
18:
1813:Stark Young
1678:Octavio Paz
1583:René Girard
1564:Susan Gubar
1550:Edward Said
1530:Paul de Man
1396:Paul Valéry
1331:T. S. Eliot
1316:T. E. Hulme
1291:Umberto Eco
1276:Leo Tolstoy
1266:Oscar Wilde
1046:John Dennis
1031:John Dryden
641:Imre Szeman
331:René Wellek
89:, such as "
87:T. S. Eliot
1900:Categories
1793:Allen Tate
1728:Associated
1256:Émile Zola
1151:John Keats
1071:David Hume
1041:John Locke
706:Volume 6:
465:(2): 195.
409:References
178:Allen Tate
165:followed.
132:Allen Tate
1921:Semiotics
1861:Fugitives
1822:Key works
1341:Carl Jung
1236:Karl Marx
941:Boccaccio
901:Aristotle
806:Formalism
309:Criticism
272:ambiguity
254:, meter,
203:In 1946,
51:Cambridge
24:formalist
1839:" (1934)
1832:" (1928)
1658:Mina Loy
926:Boethius
916:Plotinus
911:Longinus
383:" and "
362:'s book
53:scholar
1847:Related
1730:writers
1673:Hu Shih
981:Liu Xie
961:Valmiki
931:Aquinas
629:Sources
479:2713279
280:tension
268:paradox
256:setting
93:" and "
971:Cao Pi
906:Horace
577:
528:
477:
293:, and
278:, and
184:, and
161:, and
157:, the
153:, and
107:Dryden
103:Milton
77:, and
22:was a
976:Lu Ji
936:Dante
896:Plato
475:JSTOR
276:irony
264:theme
252:rhyme
198:Snark
1576:and
1562:and
1413:and
575:ISBN
526:ISBN
353:and
243:and
207:and
145:and
105:and
65:and
467:doi
172:of
85:of
1902::
559:^
540:^
473:.
463:47
461:.
305:.
274:,
270:,
258:,
180:,
73:,
61:,
46:.
1835:"
1828:"
1712:e
1705:t
1698:v
737:e
730:t
723:v
646:.
583:.
554:.
534:.
481:.
469::
387:"
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