518:. The BAU "assists law enforcement agencies by their review and assessment of a criminal act, by interpreting the offender's behavior during the crime and the interactions between the offender and the victim during the commission of the crime and as expressed in the crime scene." The clinical practitioner approach focuses on looking at each case as unique, making the approach very individualistic. One practitioner, Turco, believed that all violent crimes were a result of the mother-child struggle where female victims represent the offender's mother. This is also recognized as the psychodynamic approach. Another practitioner, Copson, outlined some principles for profiling which include being custom made, interactive and reflexive. By following these principles, the profile should include advice that is unique and not from a stereotype, should be easy to understand for all levels of intelligence, and all elements in the profile should influence one another. The Scientific approach relies heavily on the multivariate analysis of behaviors and any other information from the crime scene that could lead to the offender's characteristics or psychological processes. According to this approach, elements of the profile are developed by comparing the results of the analysis to those of previously caught offenders.
467:
in the realm of criminal investigation. In addition to the lack of criteria as to what makes an expert in the field of criminal profiling, there is little empirical evidence supporting the accuracy of criminal profiling. There is an abundance of anecdotal support for criminal profiling, much of which originates from reports made by police officers and investigators regarding the performance of criminal profilers. However, law enforcement agents have been found to greatly support the use of criminal profiling, but studies have shown that detectives are poor profilers themselves. One study presented police officers with two different profiles for the same perpetrator, each of which varied greatly from the officers’ own description. It was found that the officers were unable to determine whether one profile was more accurate than the other, and felt that all profiles accurately described the perpetrator. Officers were able to find truth in whichever profile they viewed, believing it accurately described the perpetrator, demonstrating the presence of the
687:
should not be used in court until such processes can be reliably validated, but as seen, it is still used successfully to this day. The historical roots of criminal profiling in the United States and Europe have been discussed elsewhere (1). Many
European countries have now developed their own approaches to criminal profiling and established specialized academic research institutions and trained police units (1,6), for example, the German Bundeskriminalamt (7,8), implementing the first quality standards in 2003 (9,10), as well as Austria (11), Scandinavia (12), and the United Kingdom (13). Switzerland has only recently adopted ViCLAS, the computerized Violent Crime Linkage Analysis System, and is now training its own case analysis specialists (1,14,15)
436:
utility of criminal profiles generally provided in police investigations. Even over the years common criminal profiling methods have changed and been looked down upon due to weak definitions that differentiate the criminal's behaviors, assumptions and their psychodynamic process of the offender actions and characteristics that occur. In other words, this leads to poor and misleading profiles on offenders because they are based on opinions and decisions made up from one profiler conducting research on the offender. Research in 2007-2008 into profiling's effectiveness have prompted researchers to label the practice as
471:. In addition, an investigator's judgement of the accuracy of a profile is impacted by the perceived source of the information; if the officer believes that the profile was written by an “expert” or “professional”, they are likely to perceive it as more accurate than a profile written by someone who is identified as a consultant. This poses a genuine problem when considering that there are no true criteria which determine who may be considered a “professional” criminal profiler, and when considering that support for criminal profiling is largely based on the opinion of police officers.
792:
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features can be predicted from an assessment of particular configurations of specific behaviors occurring in short-term, highly traumatic situations seems an overly ambitious and unlikely possibility. Thus, until such inferential processes can be reliably verified, such claims should be treated with great caution in investigations and should be entirely excluded from consideration in court."
806:
161:. Lombroso studied 383 Italian inmates. Based on his studies, he suggested that there were three types of criminals. There were born criminals, degenerate and insane, who suffered from mental illness. Also, he studied and found specific physical characteristics. A few examples included asymmetry of the face, eye defects and peculiarities, ears of unusual size, etc.
534:(MO), ritual or fantasy-based behaviors exhibited, and the signature of the offender, help to establish a basis for a linkage analysis. An offender's modus operandi is the habits or tendencies during the killing of the victim. An offender's signature is the unique similarities in each of the kills. Mainly, linkage analysis is used when physical evidence, such as
1336:
identifying
Schutzstaffel (SS) camp officials and guards who had tortured prisoners, and unconvinced that witness testimony alone would suffice to identify perpetrators who had assumed the disguise of ordinary soldiers or airmen, Lionel Haward drew up a list of characteristics that high-ranking Nazi war criminals might display.
157:(1835-1909) was a criminologist who attempted to formally classify criminals based on age, gender, physical characteristics, education, and geographic region. When comparing these similar characteristics, he better understood the origin of motivation of criminal behavior, and in 1876, he published the book
686:
According to the BAU the probability of a profiler being used as "expert testimony" in court and leading to a guilty verdict is 85%. There is a difference between the hard sciences and the social sciences related to testimony and evidence in the courtroom. Some experts contend that offender profiling
529:
One type of criminal profiling is referred to as linkage analysis. Gerard N. Labuschagne defines linkage analysis as "a form of behavioral analysis that is used to determine the possibility of a series of crimes as having been committed by one offender." Gathering many aspects of the offender's crime
466:
The profession of criminal profiling is highly unregulated. There is no governing body which determines who is and who is not qualified to be a criminal profiler, and therefore those who identify themselves as criminal profilers may range from someone with minimal to someone with extensive experience
181:
and rage. Bond also tried to reconstruct the murder and interpret the behavior pattern of the offender. Bond's basic profile included that "The murderer must have been a man of physical strength and great coolness and daring... subject to periodic attacks of homicidal and erotic mania. The characters
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Less well known but perhaps more directly related to the practices that the FBI were later to develop were the efforts of a
British forensic psychologist who attempted to establish a means of identifying war criminals in the chaos that followed the liberation of camps like Bergen-Belsen. Tasked with
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A 2003 study which asked two different groups of police to rate how accurately a profile matched a description of the apprehended offender, with one group given a description of a completely fabricated offender instead of the real one, found that the profile was rated equally accurate in both cases.
757:
A survey of statements made in offender profiles done for major cases from 1992 to 2001 found that "72% included repetition of the details of what occurred in the offence (factual statements already known by the police), references to the profiler’s competence or caveats about using the material in
626:
Surveys of police officers in the United States, the United
Kingdom, and Canada have found an overwhelming majority consider profiling to be useful. A 2007 meta-analysis of existing research into offender profiling noted that there was "a notable incongruity between lack of empirical foundation and
753:
In a review of the literature by
Eastwood et al. (2006), one of the studies noted, Pinizzotto and Finkel (1990), showed that trained criminal profilers did not do any better than non-profilers in producing an accurate profile. A 2000 study also showed that profilers were not significantly better at
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There is a lack of clear, quantifiable evidence of a link between crime scene actions (A) and offender characteristics (C), a necessary supposition of the A to C paradigm proposed by Canter (1995). A 2002 review by Alison et al. concluded, "The notion that particular configurations of demographic
435:
As of 2021, although the practice of offender profiling is widely used, publicized and researched globally, there is a significant lack of empirical research or evidence to support the validity of psychological profiling in criminal investigations. Critics question the reliability, validity, and
541:
Labuschagne states that in gathering and incorporating these aspects of the offender's crime pattern, investigators must engage in five assessment procedures: One- Obtaining data from multiple sources. Two- Reviewing the data and identifying significant features of each crime across the series.
427:
assumption that psychological research has recognized as a mistake since the 1960s. Profilers have been noted to be very reluctant to participate in studies of profiling's accuracy. In a 2021 article it was noted that out of 243 cases, around 188 were solved with the help of criminal profiling.
426:
Fundamental assumptions that offender profiling relies upon, such as the homology assumption, have been proven outdated by advances in psychology and behavioral science. The majority of profiling approaches assume that behavior is primarily determined by personality, not situational factors, an
422:
Psychological profiling is described as a method of suspect identification which seeks to identify a person's mental, emotional, and personality characteristics based on things done or left at the crime scene. There are two major assumptions made when it comes to offender profiling: behavioral
176:
was asked to give his opinion on the extent of the murderer's surgical skill and knowledge. Bond's assessment was based on his own examination of the most extensively mutilated victim and the post mortem notes from the four previous canonical murders. In his notes, dated
November 10, 1888, Bond
525:
Five steps in profiling include: One- Analyzing the criminal act and comparing it to similar crimes in the past. Two- An in-depth analysis of the actual crime scene, Three- Considering the victim's background and activities for possible motives and connections, Four- Considering other possible
521:
Wilson, Lincon and Kocsis list three main paradigms of profiling: diagnostic evaluation, crime scene analysis, and investigative psychology. Ainsworth identified four: clinical profiling (synonymous with diagnostic evaluation), typological profiling (synonymous with crime scene analysis),
542:
Three- Classifying the significant features as either modus operandi or ritualistic. Four- Comparing the combination of modus operandi and ritual or fantasy-based features across the series to determine if a signature exists. Five- Compiling a written report highlighting the findings.
509:
There are three leading approaches in the area of offender profiling: the criminal investigative approach, the clinical practitioner approach, and the scientific statistical approach. The criminal investigative approach is what is used by law enforcement and more specifically by the
400:. David Canter assisted police detectives from the mid-1980s to an offender who had carried out a series of serious attacks, but Canter saw the limitations of offender profiling – in particular, the subjective, personal opinion of a psychologist. He and a colleague coined the term
253:
Offender profiling was first introduced to the FBI in the 1960s, when several classes were taught to the
American Society of crime lab directors. There was little public knowledge of offender profiling until publicization with TV. Later films based on the fictional works of author
556:
There are six stages to developing a criminal profile: profiling inputs, decision process models, crime assessment, criminal profiling, investigation, and apprehension. The FBI and BAU tend to study specific categories of crimes such as white collar and serial murder.
572:
In the United States, between 1971 and 1981, the FBI had only profiled cases on 192 occasions. By 1986, FBI profilers were requested in 600 investigations in a single year. By 1996, 12 FBI profilers were applying profiling to approximately 1,000 cases per year.
116:'s essay "Instruction to the Speaker", written in the 1st century AD. It included information about gestures used by people at that time. M. Woodworth and S. Porter believe that the first development on the topic of profiling should be considered the notorious
313:
suit, but edited out the many incorrect predictions he had made in his profile, claiming he had successfully predicted the bomber would be a Slav who lived in
Connecticut, when he had actually predicted he would be "born and educated in Germany," and live in
388:
invited local police to request profiles from the FBI. An article in the April 1980 issue, "The Lust
Murderer," introduced the dichotomy of "organized" and "disorganized" offenders. The August 1985 issue described a third, "mixed" category.
565:
Profiling has continuously gotten more accurate throughout the years. In the year 2008, only 42% of cases were solved using criminal profiling. In 2019 the FBI was able to solve 56% of the cases that were not solved back in the year 2008.
630:
Profiling's continued popularity has been speculatively attributed to broad use of anecdotes and testimonials, a focus on correct predictions over the number of incorrect ones, ambiguous profiles benefiting from the
104:. He defined profiling as the process of identifying all psychological characteristics of an individual and forming a general description of their personality based on an analysis of crimes they have committed.
423:
consistency and homology. Behavior consistency is the idea that an offender's crimes will tend to be similar to one another. Homology is the idea that similar crimes are committed by similar offenders.
250:
police, drew up a list of characteristics which high-ranking war criminals might display. These characteristics were used to identify high-ranking war criminals amongst captured soldiers and airmen.
375:
began an informal series of ad hoc interviews with 36 convicts starting in early 1978. Douglas and
Ressler later created a typology of sexually motivated violent offenders and formed the
1202:
Risinger, D. Michael; Loop, Jeffrey L. (2002). "Three Card Monte, Monty Hall, Modus Operandi and 'Offender Profiling': Some Lessons of Modern Cognitive Science for the Law of Evidence".
501:
Criminal profiling can also be ex-ante or ex-post. Descriptive profiling of a perpetrator is a type of ex-post profiling, and can be used to prevent a serial killer from striking again.
364:. They went on to develop the four subtypes of violent crime and the Hunter Integrated Telemetry System (HITS) database which compiled characteristics of violent crime for research.
142:(published 1841), who used the method of constructing a psychological portrait of the killer. The first work with a scientific approach (at the level of the 19th century) was
901:
Woodhams, Jessica; Toye, Kirsty (February 2007). "An empirical test of the assumptions of case linkage and offender profiling with serial commercial robberies".
1840:"The personality paradox in offender profiling: A theoretical review of the processes involved in deriving background characteristics from crime scene actions"
3001:
Criminal Investigative Research and Analysis (CiR&A) Group: Current research on evidence-based behavioural investigative practice in police investigations
758:
the investigation." Over 80% of the remaining statements, which made claims about the offender's characteristics, gave no justification for their conclusion.
46:
1296:
Analysis of The Personality of Adolph Hitler / With Predictions of His Future Behavior and Suggestions for Dealing With Him Now and After Germany's Surrender
150:(1872). It contained only a description of external manifestations, but it was already a systematization — the beginning of a scientific study of the issue.
2007:
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In the United Kingdom, 29 profilers provided 242 instances of profiling advice between 1981 and 1994, its usage increasing steadily over that period.
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1050:. L'uomo delinquente in rapporto all' antropologia, alla giurisprudenza ed alle discipline carcerarie : aggiuntavi La teoria della tutela penale
376:
287:
2724:
Kocsis, Richard N.; Irwin, Harvey J.; Hayes, Andrew F.; Nunn, Ronald (2000-03-01). "Expertise in Psychological Profiling A Comparative Assessment".
2605:
Labuschagne, GĂ©rard N. (2006-10-01). "The use of a linkage analysis as evidence in the conviction of the Newcastle serial murderer, South Africa".
2369:
Kocsis, Richard N.; Hayes, Andrew F. (April 2004). "Believing is Seeing? Investigating the Perceived Accuracy of Criminal Psychological Profiles".
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The most routinely used typology in profiling is categorizing crime scenes, and by extension offender's personalities, as either "organized" or "
414:
In 1999, the percentage of accurate criminal profilers was only estimated to be at 21%, whereas in 2020 the accuracy was estimated to be at 86%.
1960:
1712:
Goodwill, Alasdair M.; Lehmann, Robert J. B.; Beauregard, Eric; Andrei, Andreea (2014-10-01). "An action phase approach to offender profiling".
1624:
Youngs, Donna; Canter, David (2009). "An emerging research agenda for investigative interviewing: hypotheses from the narrative action system".
1693:
Vettor, Shannon; Woodhams, Jessica; Beech, Anthony (2013). "Offender profiling: A review and critique of the approaches and major assumption".
850:
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Woodworth, M.; Porter, S. (1999). "Historical foundations and current applications of criminal profiling in violent crime investigations".
1078:
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234:, a psychiatrist, to draw up a profile of Adolf Hitler and hypothesize their response to various scenarios including losing the
458:. Other critics described criminal profiling as an investigative tool hidden behind a lack of scientific evidence and support.
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Journey Into Darkness: The FBI's Premier Investigator Penetrates the Minds and Motives of the Most Terrifying Serial Killers
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Kocsis, Richard N. (June 2004). "Psychological Profiling of Serial Arson Offenses an Assessment of Skills and Accuracy".
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483:". The idea of classifying crime scenes according to organized/disorganized dichotomy is credited to the FBI profiler
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2308:
Paper presented at the Fifth Biannual Conference of Investigative Psychology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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Pinizzotto, Anthony J.; Finkel, Norman J. (1990). "Criminal personality profiling: An outcome and process study".
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The Postcard Killer: The True Story of America's First Profiled Serial Killer and how the Police Brought Him Down
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173:
97:
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1870:
1004:
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680:
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Alison, Laurence; Smith, Matthew D.; Morgan, Keith (2003). "Interpreting the accuracy of offender profiles".
2065:"What have we learned from offender profiling? A systematic review and meta-analysis of 40 years of research"
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Profiling as an investigative tool has a high level of acceptance among both the general public and police.
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to link cases that may have been committed by the same perpetrator. The originator of modern profiling was
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motives. Five- Developing a description of the possible offender that can be compared with previous cases.
397:
384:
223:
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408:
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Chifflet, Pascale (2014). "Questioning the validity of criminal profiling: an evidence-based approach".
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delivered a lecture in which he analyzed the unknown murderer of a local boy named Joey Joseph, dubbed "
122:("Hammer of Witches"), written in the 15th century, since it contains psychological profiles of alleged
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categorizes them as either power–assertive, power–reassurance, anger–retaliatory, or anger–excitation.
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statistically proven to correlate with certain criminal conduct can be effective law enforcement tools
1975:
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Whoever Fights Monsters: The True Story of the Brilliant FBI Detective Behind Silence of the Lambs
2176:
Snook, Brent; Cullen, Richard M.; Bennell, Craig; Taylor, Paul J.; Gendreau, Paul (October 2008).
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Jackson, Craig; Wilson, David; Rana, Baljit Kaur (2011). "The usefulness of criminal profiling".
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551:
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38:
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Ethnic Profiling and Counter-terrorism: Examples of European Practice and Possible Repercussions
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and began trying to approach the subject from what they saw as a more scientific point of view.
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Kocsis, Richard N. (April 2003). "Criminal Psychological Profiling: Validities and Abilities".
672:
315:
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The Casebook of Forensic Detection: How Science Solved 100 of the World's Most Baffling Crimes
1215:
2857:
Canter, D.V. (1995). "The psychology of offender profiling". In Bull, R.; Carson, D. (eds.).
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In 1932, Dr. Dudley Schoenfeld gave the authorities his predictions about the personality of
659:, a German criminologist, who developed an early profiling scheme for the police of Berlin;
182:
of the mutilations indicate that the man may be in a condition sexually, that may be called
2006:
Snook, Brent; Eastwood, Joseph; Gendreau, Paul; Goggin, Claire; Cullen, Richard M. (2007).
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Snook, Brent; Cullen, Richard M.; Bennell, Craig; Taylor, Paul J.; Gendreau, Paul (2008).
8:
2233:
Snook, Brent; Gendreau, Paul; Bennell, Craig; Taylor, Paul (2008). "Criminal Profiling".
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118:
3021:
Offender Profiling: An Introduction to the Sociopsychological Analysis of Violent Crime
172:, a serial killer who had murdered a series of prostitutes in the 1880s. Police surgeon
2888:
Professionalizing Offender Profiling: Forensic and Investigative Psychology in Prectice
2795:
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2502:
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Muller, Damon A. (2000). "Criminal Profiling: Real Science or Just Wishful Thinking?".
2402:
2351:
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Ribeiro, Rita Alexandra Brilha; Soeiro, Cristina Branca Bento de Matos (January 2021).
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James Brussel was a psychiatrist who rose to fame after his profile of New York City's
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Wolffram, Heather (30 January 2020). "Forensic Psychology in Historical Perspective".
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667:, who has an IQ of 187, can read 20,000 words per minute, and has an eidetic memory;
227:
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in 1956. The media dubbed him "The Sherlock Holmes of the Couch." In his 1968 book
260:
235:
231:
2120:"Analysing criminal profiling validity: Underlying problems and future directions"
1467:
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was published in 1992, and introduced the term "criminal investigative analysis."
2576:
2427:
1813:
1176:
1132:
Canter, David (January 2004). "Offender Profiling and Investigative Psychology".
875:
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131:
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Alison, Laurence; Bennell, Craig; Mokros, Andreas; Ormerod, David (March 2002).
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1079:"Criminal Profiling: The Original Mind Hunter | Psychology Today United Kingdom"
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2135:
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636:
635:, and the popular appeal of the fantasy of a sleuth with deductive powers like
531:
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368:
298:
239:
183:
143:
101:
1959:
Eastwood, Joseph; Cullen, Richard M; Kavanagh, Jennifer; Snook, Brent (2006).
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The earliest reference to the use of profiling, according to R.S. Feldman, is
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Devery, Christopher (2010). "Criminal Profiling and Criminal Investigation".
1257:
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mentioned the sexual nature of the murders coupled with elements of apparent
309:, Brussel relates how he predicted that the bomber would wear a buttoned-up
2958:
Profiles in Evil: Chilling Case Histories from the FBI's Violent Crime Unit
2826:
2398:
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2151:
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783:
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592:
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212:
126:. There is also an opinion that the first "professional profiler" was the
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dictator's response to various scenarios, including losing the war. The
2815:"Beyond 'Offender Profiling': The Need for an Investigative Psychology"
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2080:
1725:
797:
113:
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One of the first offender profiles was assembled by detectives of the
2371:
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
2320:
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
451:
349:
93:
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Applied criminal psychology: a guide to forensic behavioral sciences
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Criminal profiling : An introd. to behavioral evidence analysis
791:
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The effectiveness of profiling from a national security perspective
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Dangerous Minds: Criminal profiling made easy, by Malcolm Gladwell
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596:
584:
89:
2821:. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 171–205.
1002:
24:
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Bourque, J.; LeBlanc, S.; Utzschneider, A.; Wright, C. (2009).
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66:
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123:
3011:
University of Liverpool Forensic Psychology – with articles
2005:
1958:
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Journal of Current Issues in Crime, Law and Law Enforcement
216:
2607:
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling
2232:
1837:
1626:
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling
1134:
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling
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Applications of nonverbal behavioral theories and research
3016:
History of Criminal Profiling – with links to other sites
2654:"'Mindhunter' Inspiration Revisits Atlanta Child Murders"
535:
515:
271:
258:
that caught the public eye as a profession in particular
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1901:
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creating a profile than any other participating groups.
663:, who predicted Hitler's behavior and eventual suicide;
73:(1841–1901), one of the precursors of offender profiling
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1025:
Nonverbal communication in human interaction Wadsworth
522:
investigative psychology, and geographical profiling.
3006:
Swiss scientific research site on criminal profiling
2723:
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Fox, Bryanna; Farrington, David P. (December 2018).
2001:
1999:
1997:
1995:
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1831:
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1236:
Egger, Steven A. (1999). "Psychological Profiling".
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Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology
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490:A typology of serial sexual homicides advocated by
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270:(1991). The fastest development occurred when the
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1992:
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1601:. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Archived from
1491:. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Archived from
1426:
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1283:. Washington, D.C.: Office of Strategic Services.
377:National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime
288:National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime
3032:
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2574:
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1968:Canadian Journal of Police and Security Services
1961:"A review of the validity of criminal profiling"
1190:
1105:Evans, Stewart P.; Skinner, Keith (2013-07-01).
1095:
148:The Expression of Emotions in humans and animals
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2717:
2595:
2419:("Organized Vs Disorganized Serial Predators",
1954:
1952:
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1948:
1880:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1743:
967:
2575:Fulero, Solomon; Wrightsman, Lawrence (2008).
1415:
579:The usage of profiling has been documented in
398:"Railway Rapists" John Duffy and David Mulcahy
2906:Principles of Geographical Offender Profiling
2885:
2513:
2117:
2062:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1455:
851:Statistical correlations of criminal activity
2812:
2806:
1945:
1740:
1623:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1201:
1104:
900:
873:
2604:
2368:
2304:Smith, M., & Alison, L. (2001, March).
2124:International Journal of Law and Psychiatry
1390:
1012:. Ottawa: Canadian Human Rights Commission.
894:
2850:
2470:
1535:
1485:"Behavioral Research and Instruction Unit"
1312:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology
1158:
1125:
2975:Ressler, Robert; Schachtman, Tom (1992).
2519:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1469:Author Unknown: On the Trail of Anonymous
1281:A Psychological Analysis of Adolph Hitler
1222:
741:Learn how and when to remove this message
2859:Handbook of Psychology in Legal Contexts
2819:Handbook of Psychology in Legal Contexts
1753:
1663:. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
1553:Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice
1430:
1308:
1238:Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice
1068:, Charles C Thomas Publisher, 2009, pp.7
1047:
1022:
932:(2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Acad. press.
65:
49:of all important aspects of the article.
2955:
2941:. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
2886:Alison, Laurence; Rainbow, Lee (2011).
2545:
1512:
1510:
1396:
1371:
1056:
1023:Napp, Mark L.; Hall, Judith A. (2002).
952:
877:The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook
874:Skinner, Keith; Evans, Stewart (2013).
333:, who was skeptical of psychiatry, the
84:, is an investigative strategy used by
16:Law enforcement investigative technique
3033:
2918:Douglas, John; Olshaker, Mark (1997).
2856:
2476:
2446:. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 16–17.
2317:
2258:
1677:
1550:
1461:
1321:10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.639
1293:
1278:
1131:
927:
721:Please improve this section by adding
627:the degree of support for the field."
45:Please consider expanding the lead to
2932:
2904:Canter, David; Youngs, Donna (2008).
2813:Canter, David; Youngs, Donna (2003).
2522:Offender profiling and crime analysis
2300:
2298:
2254:
2252:
2250:
2248:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2171:
2169:
1516:
1374:"George Metesky | American terrorist"
1235:
292:Violent Criminal Apprehension Program
286:. It led to the establishment of the
2306:Barnum effects in offender profiles.
2008:"Taking Stock of Criminal Profiling"
1658:
1507:
869:
867:
694:
646:
461:
18:
1714:Legal and Criminological Psychology
1372:Lambert, Laura (October 29, 2019).
1315:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
202:the kidnapper of the Lindbergh baby
13:
2861:. Chichester; New York: J. Wiley.
2817:. In Bull, R.; Carson, D. (eds.).
2295:
2245:
2219:
2166:
1847:Psychology, Public Policy, and Law
1595:"Critical Incident Response Group"
1519:The Casebook of Forensic Detection
1108:Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell
903:Psychology, Public Policy, and Law
846:Residential Burglary Expert System
14:
3082:
2994:
2726:Journal of Interpersonal Violence
2178:"The Criminal Profiling Illusion"
1904:"The Criminal Profiling Illusion"
864:
655:, who profiled sexual predators;
348:Investigations of serial killers
2908:. New York: Ashgate Publishing.
1399:Casebook of a Crime Psychiatrist
1349:"Criminal Profiling Part 1 of 7"
804:
790:
776:
699:
318:. In 1964, Brussel profiled the
307:Casebook of a Crime Psychiatrist
23:
2880:Cited works and further reading
2646:
2633:
2555:Handout from Psychlotron.org.uk
2538:
2433:
2413:
2362:
2311:
2111:
2056:
1652:
1617:
1587:
1477:
1365:
1341:
1302:
1287:
1272:
1152:
1071:
396:in the United Kingdom profiled
37:may be too short to adequately
3046:1888 establishments in England
2524:. Devon Portland, Or: Willan.
1041:
1016:
996:
961:
946:
921:
47:provide an accessible overview
1:
2261:Criminal Justice and Behavior
2185:Criminal Justice and Behavior
2015:Criminal Justice and Behavior
1911:Criminal Justice and Behavior
857:
723:secondary or tertiary sources
560:
545:
504:
474:
139:The Murders in the Rue Morgue
2548:"What is Offender Profiling"
1814:10.1080/09627251.2011.576014
1052:(in Italian). Torino: Bocca.
880:. Little, Brown Book Group.
671:, who worked on the case of
430:
385:FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin
382:The March 1980 issue of the
329:In 1972, after the death of
224:Office of Strategic Services
7:
2784:10.1080/1068316031000116274
2772:Psychology, Crime & Law
2491:10.1177/1088767900004003003
2421:https://www.psychologytoday
1401:. Bernard Geis Associates.
1250:10.1177/1043986299015003003
953:Feldman, Robert S. (1992).
769:
690:
409:Crime Classification Manual
299:"Mad Bomber" George Metesky
189:In 1912, a psychologist in
10:
3087:
3066:Law enforcement techniques
2979:. New York: Pocket Books.
2738:10.1177/088626000015003006
2136:10.1016/j.ijlp.2020.101670
1159:McLaughlin, Vance (2006).
679:, who worked on a wave of
651:Notable profilers include
549:
356:were performed in 1984 by
107:
2956:Jeffers, H. Paul (1991).
2520:Ainsworth, Peter (2001).
2440:Mareile Kaufmann (2010).
1974:: 118–124. Archived from
1859:10.1037/1076-8971.8.1.115
1165:. Thunder's Mouth Press.
928:Turvey, Brent E. (2003).
915:10.1037/1076-8971.13.1.59
417:
337:of the FBI was formed by
2960:. London: Warner Books.
2639:("Behavioral Analysts",
2383:10.1177/0306624x03258481
2332:10.1177/0306624x03251092
2273:10.1177/0093854803262586
2197:10.1177/0093854808321528
2027:10.1177/0093854806296925
1923:10.1177/0093854808321528
1802:Criminal Justice Matters
1768:10.1177/0004865814530732
1565:10.1177/1043986210377108
681:child murders in Atlanta
512:Behavioral Analysis Unit
402:investigative psychology
324:Boston Police Department
280:Behavioral Analysis Unit
246:, while working for the
153:An Italian psychologist
86:law enforcement agencies
2922:. London: Arrow Books.
2890:. New York: Routledge.
1397:Brussel, James (1968).
1378:Encyclopedia Britannica
1083:www.psychologytoday.com
982:10.1023/A:1016655103536
552:FBI method of profiling
538:, cannot be collected.
335:Behavioral Science Unit
211:developed a profile of
3051:Criminal investigation
2827:10.1002/0470013397.ch7
2683:Law and Human Behavior
2069:Psychological Bulletin
1661:Criminal investigation
1298:. O.S.S. Confidential.
1294:Murray, H. A. (1943).
1279:Walter, C. L. (1943).
710:relies excessively on
675:'s assassination; and
673:Martin Luther King Jr.
450:compared profiling to
316:White Plains, New York
215:that hypothesized the
168:on the personality of
74:
2933:Evans, Colin (1996).
1517:Evans, Colin (1998).
1434:(November 12, 2007).
1111:. The History Press.
1048:Lombroso, C. (1878).
661:Walter Charles Langer
301:was published in the
92:and has been used by
69:
2581:. Cengage Learning.
2546:Simmons, A. (2015).
1659:Berg, B. L. (2008).
1605:on November 19, 2015
1027:. Thomson learning.
836:Presumption of guilt
267:Silence of the Lambs
191:Lackawanna, New York
3061:Forensic psychology
2641:https://www.fbi.gov
2578:Forensic Psychology
1495:on October 10, 2015
1062:Richard N. Kocsis,
831:Forensic psychology
195:The Postcard Killer
166:Metropolitan Police
119:Malleus Maleficarum
88:to identify likely
3056:English inventions
3041:Offender profiling
2695:10.1007/BF01352750
2426:2013-07-20 at the
2081:10.1037/bul0000170
1726:10.1111/lcrp.12069
1204:Cardozo Law Review
957:. N.J.: Hillsdale.
826:Forensic profiling
367:At the FBI's BSU,
284:Quantico, Virginia
82:criminal profiling
78:Offender profiling
75:
2986:978-0-671-71561-8
2967:978-0-708-85449-5
2948:978-0-471-07650-6
2928:978-1-439-19981-7
2914:978-0-754-62549-0
2897:978-0-415-66878-1
2868:978-0-471-94182-8
2836:978-0-471-49874-2
2531:978-1-903240-21-2
2191:(10): 1257–1276.
2075:(12): 1247–1274.
1917:(10): 1257–1276.
1436:"Dangerous Minds"
1432:Gladwell, Malcolm
1408:978-0-583-11804-0
812:Psychology portal
751:
750:
743:
647:Notable profilers
514:(BAU) within the
462:Unregulated usage
360:and psychologist
238:. After the war,
228:William L. Langer
132:Edgar Allan Poe's
64:
63:
3078:
2990:
2971:
2952:
2940:
2901:
2873:
2872:
2854:
2848:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2810:
2804:
2803:
2767:
2758:
2757:
2721:
2715:
2714:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2662:. August 2, 2019
2650:
2644:
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2631:
2630:
2602:
2593:
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2572:
2566:
2565:
2563:
2561:
2552:
2542:
2536:
2535:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2479:Homicide Studies
2474:
2468:
2467:
2462:
2460:
2437:
2431:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2315:
2309:
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2293:
2292:
2256:
2243:
2242:
2230:
2217:
2216:
2182:
2173:
2164:
2163:
2115:
2109:
2108:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2045:. Archived from
2012:
2003:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1986:
1980:
1965:
1956:
1943:
1942:
1908:
1899:
1878:
1877:
1875:
1869:. Archived from
1844:
1835:
1826:
1825:
1797:
1788:
1787:
1751:
1738:
1737:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1690:
1675:
1674:
1656:
1650:
1649:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1612:
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1591:
1585:
1584:
1548:
1533:
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1514:
1505:
1504:
1502:
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1481:
1475:
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1448:
1428:
1413:
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1387:
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1384:
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1306:
1300:
1299:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1276:
1270:
1269:
1233:
1220:
1219:
1210:(195): 193–285.
1199:
1188:
1187:
1185:
1184:
1175:. Archived from
1156:
1150:
1149:
1129:
1123:
1122:
1102:
1093:
1092:
1090:
1089:
1075:
1069:
1060:
1054:
1053:
1045:
1039:
1038:
1020:
1014:
1013:
1011:
1000:
994:
993:
965:
959:
958:
950:
944:
943:
925:
919:
918:
898:
892:
891:
871:
841:Racial profiling
814:
809:
808:
807:
800:
795:
794:
786:
781:
780:
779:
746:
739:
735:
732:
726:
703:
695:
665:Dr. Spencer Reid
530:pattern such as
442:Malcolm Gladwell
438:pseudoscientific
320:Boston Strangler
276:training academy
232:Walter C. Langer
209:Walter C. Langer
197:" in the press.
159:The Criminal Man
144:Charles Darwin's
80:, also known as
59:
56:
50:
27:
19:
3086:
3085:
3081:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3076:
3075:
3031:
3030:
2997:
2987:
2968:
2949:
2898:
2882:
2877:
2876:
2869:
2855:
2851:
2841:
2839:
2837:
2811:
2807:
2768:
2761:
2722:
2718:
2679:
2675:
2665:
2663:
2652:
2651:
2647:
2638:
2634:
2603:
2596:
2589:
2573:
2569:
2559:
2557:
2550:
2543:
2539:
2532:
2518:
2514:
2475:
2471:
2458:
2456:
2454:
2438:
2434:
2428:Wayback Machine
2418:
2414:
2367:
2363:
2316:
2312:
2303:
2296:
2257:
2246:
2231:
2220:
2180:
2174:
2167:
2116:
2112:
2061:
2057:
2049:
2010:
2004:
1993:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1963:
1957:
1946:
1906:
1900:
1881:
1873:
1842:
1836:
1829:
1798:
1791:
1752:
1741:
1710:
1706:
1691:
1678:
1671:
1657:
1653:
1638:10.1002/jip.105
1622:
1618:
1608:
1606:
1593:
1592:
1588:
1549:
1536:
1529:
1515:
1508:
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1496:
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1482:
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1444:
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1416:
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1119:
1103:
1096:
1087:
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1077:
1076:
1072:
1061:
1057:
1046:
1042:
1035:
1021:
1017:
1009:
1001:
997:
970:Expert Evidence
966:
962:
951:
947:
940:
926:
922:
899:
895:
888:
872:
865:
860:
855:
810:
805:
803:
796:
789:
782:
777:
775:
772:
747:
736:
730:
727:
720:
716:primary sources
704:
693:
677:John E. Douglas
649:
641:Sherlock Holmes
563:
554:
548:
507:
477:
464:
440:. At the time,
433:
420:
339:Patrick Mullany
331:J. Edgar Hoover
311:double-breasted
248:Royal Air Force
170:Jack the Ripper
155:Cesare Lombroso
110:
60:
54:
51:
44:
32:This article's
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3084:
3074:
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3053:
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3043:
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3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
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2995:External links
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2613:(3): 183–191.
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1876:on 2021-02-10.
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1534:
1528:978-1440620539
1527:
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1463:Foster, Donald
1454:
1441:The New Yorker
1414:
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960:
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787:
771:
768:
749:
748:
707:
705:
698:
692:
689:
683:in the 1980s.
648:
645:
637:Hercule Poirot
562:
559:
550:Main article:
547:
544:
532:modus operandi
506:
503:
496:Richard Walter
476:
473:
463:
460:
447:The New Yorker
432:
429:
419:
416:
369:Robert Ressler
362:Richard Walter
303:New York Times
109:
106:
102:Robert Ressler
62:
61:
41:the key points
31:
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9:
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4:
3:
2:
3083:
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3071:Pseudoscience
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1981:on 2017-10-25
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821:Criminology
621:Netherlands
589:New Zealand
274:opened its
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135:short story
128:protagonist
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1358:2020-01-29
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1088:2022-05-05
858:References
798:Law portal
712:references
619:, and the
561:Popularity
546:FBI method
505:Approaches
475:Typologies
184:Satyriasis
114:Quintilian
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261:Manhunter
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