Oil spill - Knowledge

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hired to effectively clean the various port structures. Oil spills are relatively regular occurrences in ports, as small spills often happen due to the large volume of boats, and these are not as well documented in the media as larger events are. However, these spills must still be dealt with, and they can still have damaging economic repercussions. Both the incident and the response require expensive and time-consuming management which is disruptive to port activity. Furthermore, special care must be taken during clean-up operations to ensure that the oil does not get stuck under the quayside, as this could act as a continual source of oil contamination. This can also be seen with sea defenses; should the oil penetrate deep into the structures, they may become a source of secondary pollution. Therefore, it is crucial for ports to manage and mitigate any oil spills, in order to limit the damage to ships and shipping operations. Otherwise, should large disruption occur, the economic damage can be extensive due to costly clean-up processes and delayed shipments.

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severe losses that many were forced to shut. Usually, the Gulf sees an average of 106,703 fishing trips per day, equating to 1 million metric tonnes of annual fishery landings. Therefore, the necessary fishing ban following the disaster was highly damaging. Similarly, following the sinking of the Prestige oil tanker near Galicia, Spain, in November 2002, 77,000 tonnes of crude oil were spilled into the ocean. This disaster has had severe economic consequences, alongside the environmental damage. Large zones were cordoned in which fishing was banned, with these bans lasting for more than eight months. This affected several groups, including fishermen, ship owners, and the companies who bought and sold the fish. Several compensatory actions were introduced, including tax benefits and aid. This resulted in expenses of approximately 113 million euros in an attempt to compensate for the halt in fishing activity. The examples of the Deepwater Horizon and the Prestige clearly illustrate the severe economic consequences when oil spills prevent commercial fishing.

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responses, response measures and monitoring strategies for oil-spills. The maps allow experts from varying fields to come together and work efficiently during fast-paced response operations. The process of making an ESI atlas involves GIS technology. The steps involve, first zoning the area that is to be mapped, and secondly, a meeting with local and regional experts on the area and its resources. Following, all the shoreline types, biological, and human use resources need to be identified and their locations pinpointed. Once all this information is gathered, it then becomes digitized. In its digital format, classifications are set in place, tables are produced and local experts refine the product before it gets released.

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cannot be used commercially due to safety reasons. Then, the oil can spread and sink below the water's surface. If fish swallow the oil, they are also inconsumable due to the health risk posed to humans. Therefore, massive economic damage is caused to the fishing industry following an oil spill, as the stock is vastly reduced. Furthermore, the oil can cause damage to the equipment and boats of fishermen. Clean-up operations can also interrupt usual fishing routes, and sometimes fishing bans are imposed. This further illustrates the damaging economic effects of oil spills on commercial fishing, which is particularly detrimental for regions whose economy relies heavily on fishing.

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beaches were reopened within a week, just a dozen seabirds were affected, and there were no reports of injured sea mammals. Nonetheless, 27 percent of hotels in Ibiza were negatively affected, with two thirds of these being seafront hotels. Thus, 32 claims were made by tourist firms, equating to approximately 1.5 million euros of compensation. This provides a clear example of an oil spill resulting in massive economic disaster. Furthermore, following the world's largest oil spill, the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill in 2010, the U.S. Travel Association estimated 23 billion dollars’ worth of associated costs for affected tourist infrastructure.

1352:. These chemicals can introduce adverse health effects when being inhaled into human body. In addition, these chemicals can be oxidized by oxidants in the atmosphere to form fine particulate matter after they evaporate into the atmosphere. These particulates can penetrate lungs and carry toxic chemicals into the human body. Burning surface oil can also be a source for pollution such as soot particles. During the cleanup and recovery process, it will also generate air pollutants such as nitric oxides and ozone from ships. Lastly, bubble bursting can also be a generation pathway for particulate matter during an oil spill. During the 1557: 2069:. Necessary when ranking and selecting species is their vulnerability to the oil spills themselves. This not only includes their reactions to such events but also their fragility, the scale of large clusters of animals, whether special life stages occur ashore, and whether any present species is threatened, endangered or rare. The way in which the biological resources are mapped is through symbols representing the species, and polygons and lines to map out the special extent of the species. The symbols also have the ability to identify the most vulnerable of a species life stages, such as the 3077:

immediate vicinity will have significantly fewer customers. Local car park owners and shopkeepers will be affected too. Then, this decline in tourists will cause further damage to travel agencies, tour guides, and transport companies. The beaches will likely stay shut for several days whilst clean-up operations take place, and there may be disruption caused by an increase in clean-up vehicles. Overall, several businesses will be negatively impacted by the spill in the short term, which can lead to further long-term damage should companies be forced to reduce staff or shut down entirely.

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as "elements" and are divided by functional group. Further classification divides each element into species groups with similar life histories and behaviors relative to their vulnerability to oil spills. There are eight element groups: birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, invertebrates, habitats and plants, wetlands, and marine mammals and terrestrial mammals. Element groups are further divided into sub-groups, for example, the ‘marine mammals’ element group is divided into

8350: 1542: 1802:. The reaction time for solidification of oil is controlled by the surface area or size of the polymer or dry pellets as well as the viscosity and thickness of the oil layer. Some solidifier product manufacturers claim the solidified oil can be thawed and used if frozen with dry ice or disposed of in landfills, recycled as an additive in asphalt or rubber products, or burned as a low ash fuel. A solidifier called C.I.Agent (manufactured by 1841: 3081:

with exaggerated stories of oil on beaches and deserted hotels. This aggravates the economic losses, as people continue to choose to travel elsewhere. Such a scenario is particularly damaging for regions which are very reliant on the tourism industry. For example, the Brazilian Northeast can be very vulnerable to drops in tourism, thus, they were badly impacted following a 2500 tonne crude oil spill from an unknown tanker in 2019.

1833:: oil can be sucked up along with the water, and then a centrifuge can be used to separate the oil from the water – allowing a tanker to be filled with near pure oil. Usually, the water is returned to the sea, making the process more efficient, but allowing small amounts of oil to go back as well. This issue has hampered the use of centrifuges due to a United States regulation limiting the amount of oil in water returned to the sea. 1638:

nutrient-rich emulsion creates a bloom of local, indigenous, pre-existing, hydrocarbon-consuming bacteria. Those specific bacteria break down the hydrocarbons into water and carbon dioxide, with EPA tests showing 98% of alkanes biodegraded in 28 days; and aromatics being biodegraded 200 times faster than in nature they also sometimes use the hydrofireboom to clean the oil up by taking it away from most of the oil and burning it.

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Tracking the scope of an oil spill may also involve verifying that hydrocarbons collected during an ongoing spill are derived from the active spill or some other source. This can involve sophisticated analytical chemistry focused on finger printing an oil source based on the complex mixture of substances present. Largely, these will be various hydrocarbons, among the most useful being

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in-depth research is then put back into the ESMs to develop their accuracy and allowing for tactical information to be stored in them as well. The finished maps are then used for drills and trainings for clean-up efficiency. Trainings also often help to update the maps and tweak certain flaws that might have occurred in the previous steps.

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Water pollution due to oil spills can be severe, often resulting in the death or injury of many sea creatures, including birds, sea mammals, fish, algae, and coral. The impact on fish caught in the spill has both immediate and longer-term impacts. Immediately, the fish are tainted with oil, and they

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Similarly, tourism in Ibiza was severely impacted in 2007. Just 20 tonnes of oil were spilled from the Don Pedro in July 2007, a relatively limited volume compared with other spills. Whilst this caused just a small amount of environmental damage, the economic damage was disproportionately large. Most

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Often, this process is intensified by disproportionate media attention. Usually, the affected area returns to normal relatively soon after an oil spill, as the clean-up process is fast. However, media stories will drive future tourists away, as they work to degrade the popular image of a destination

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in 2010. This amount only includes oil discharged directly into the Persian Gulf by the retreating Iraqi forces from January 19 to 28, 1991. However, according to the U.N. report, oil from other sources not included in the official estimates continued to pour into the Persian Gulf through June, 1991.

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Estimates for the Gulf War oil spill range from 4,000,000 to 11,000,000 barrels (1,700,000 m). The figure of 6,000,000 to 8,000,000 barrels (1,300,000 m) is the range adopted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the United Nations in the immediate aftermath of the war, 1991–1993,

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importance or cultural resource site, high-use recreational areas or shoreline access points, important protected management areas, and resource origins. Some examples include airports, diving sites, popular beach sites, marinas, hotels, factories, natural reserves or marine sanctuaries. When mapped,

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Environmental Sensitivity Indexes (ESI) are tools used to create Environmental Sensitivity Maps (ESM). ESM's are pre-planning tools used to identify sensitive areas and resources prior to an oil spill event in order to set priorities for protection and plan clean-up strategies. It is to date the most

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on the spill and retrieving the oil-soaked straw manually. Chemical remediation is the norm as of the early 21st century, using compounds that can herd and thicken oil for physical recovery, disperse oil in the water, or facilitate burning the oil off. The future of oil cleanup technology is likely

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in the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. Spills may take weeks, months or even years to

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In the short term, an oil spill will prevent tourists from partaking in usual recreational activities such as swimming, boating, diving, and angling. As such, the area will witness a decline in tourism. This will negatively impact several industries. Firstly, the hotels, restaurants, and bars in the

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Oil spilled from sabotaged fields in Kuwait during the 1991 Persian Gulf War pooled in approximately 300 oil lakes, estimated by the Kuwaiti Oil Minister to contain approximately 25,000,000 to 50,000,000 barrels (7,900,000 m) of oil. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, this figure does not

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Oil spill model systems are used by industry and government to assist in planning and emergency decision making. Of critical importance for the skill of the oil spill model prediction is the adequate description of the wind and current fields. There is a worldwide oil spill modelling (WOSM) program.

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with oil. The differing substrates between shoreline types vary in their response to oiling, and influence the type of cleanup that will be required to effectively decontaminate the shoreline. Hence ESI shoreline ranking helps committees identify which clean-up techniques are approved or detrimental

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type is classified by rank depending on how easy the target site would be to clean up, how long the oil would persist, and how sensitive the shoreline is. The ranking system works on a 10-point scale where the higher the rank, the more sensitive a habitat or shore is. The coding system usually works

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ESI's current most common use is within contingency planning. After the maps are calculated and produced, the most sensitive areas get picked out and authenticated. These areas then go through a scrutinization process throughout which methods of protection and resource assessments are obtained. This

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worked on the tool allowing ESI to extended maps to lakes, rivers, and estuary shoreline types. ESI maps have since become integral to collecting, synthesizing, and producing data which have previously never been accessible in digital formats. Especially in the United States, the tool has made

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Animals who rely on scent to find their babies or mothers cannot do so due to the strong scent of the oil. This causes a baby to be rejected and abandoned, leaving the babies to starve and eventually die. Oil can impair a bird's ability to fly, preventing it from foraging or escaping from predators.

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An oil spill represents an immediate negative effects on human health, including respiratory and reproductive problems as well as liver, and immune system damage. Oil spills causing future oil supply to decline also effects the everyday life of humans such as the potential closure of beaches, parks,

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Integrated Biodiversity Assessment Tool. There are varying types of coastal habitats and ecosystems and thus also many endangered species that need to be considered when looking at affected areas post oil spills. The habitats of plants and animals that may be at risk from oil spills are referred to

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ESI is the most frequently used sensitivity mapping tool yet. It was first applied in 1979 in response to an oil-spill near Texas in the Gulf of Mexico. To this time, ESI maps were prepared merely days in advance of one's arrival to an oil spill location. ESMs used to be atlases, maps consisting of

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Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. Physical cleanups of oil spills are also very expensive.

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The reduction in oil spill volume has also been substantial over the years. For instance, the 1990s recorded 1,134,000 tonnes lost, mainly from 10 major spills. This figure decreased to 196,000 tonnes in the 2000s and 164,000 tonnes in the 2010s. In the early 2020s, approximately 28,000 tonnes have

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As of 2007, accidental oil tank vessel spills accounted for approximately 8–13% of all oil spilled into the oceans. The main causes of oil tank vessel spills were collision (29%), grounding (22%), mishandling (14%) and sinking (12%), among others. Oil tanker spills are considered a major ecological

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Oil spills can be caused by human error, natural disasters, technical failures or deliberate releases. It is estimated that 30–50% of all oil spills are directly or indirectly caused by human error, with approximately 20–40% of oil spills being attributed to equipment failure or malfunction. Causes

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Middlebrook, A. M.; Murphy, D. M.; Ahmadov, R.; Atlas, E. L.; Bahreini, R.; Blake, D. R.; Brioude, J.; de Gouw, J. A.; Fehsenfeld, F. C.; Frost, G. J.; Holloway, J. S.; Lack, D. A.; Langridge, J. M.; Lueb, R. A.; McKeen, S. A.; Meagher, J. F.; Meinardi, S.; Neuman, J. A.; Nowak, J. B.; Parrish, D.

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The economic impact of oil spills on tourism, fishing, and ports is substantial and important to assess. Coordinated efforts are necessary to mitigate these impacts, including effective clean-up measures, public relations campaigns to restore the image of affected areas, and support for businesses

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Ports are major hubs for economic activity; thus, an oil spill in or near a port can have significant consequences. During and following a spill, all boats entering or leaving the port must be closely managed in order to prevent further spread. Furthermore, specialist cleaning contractors must be

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Estimates for the amount of oil burned in the Kuwaiti Oil Fires range from 500,000,000 barrels (79,000,000 m) to nearly 2,000,000,000 barrels (320,000,000 m). Between 605 and 732 wells were set ablaze, while many others were severely damaged and gushed uncontrolled for several months. It

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the human-use resources the need protecting must be certified by a local or regional policy maker. These resources are often extremely vulnerable to seasonal changes due to ex. fishing and tourism. For this category there are also a set of symbols available to demonstrate their importance on ESMs.

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and marshes tend to have higher ESI rankings due to the potentially long-lasting and damaging effects of both oil contamination and cleanup actions. Impermeable and exposed surfaces with high wave action are ranked lower due to the reflecting waves keeping oil from coming onshore, and the speed at

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The total volume of oil released from these spills in 2023 was approximately 2,000 tonnes. This contributes to a trend of decreased oil spill volumes and frequencies over the decades. Comparatively, the 1970s averaged 79 significant spills per year, which drastically reduced to an average of about

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In 2023, the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) documented a significant oil spill incident of over 700 tonnes and nine medium spills ranging between 7 and 700 tonnes. The major spill occurred in Asia involving heavy fuel oil, and the medium spills were scattered across Asia,

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Human-use resources are also often referred to as socio-economic features, which map inanimate resources that have the potential to be directly impacted by oil pollution. Human-use resources that are mapped within the ESI will have socio-economic repercussions to an oil spill. These resources are

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Oil can reach the oceans as oil and fuel from land-based sources. It is estimated that runoff oil and oil from rivers are responsible for 11% of oil pollution to the oceans. Such pollution can also be oil on roads from land vehicles, which is then flushed into the oceans during rainstorms. Purely

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accidents. As of 2007, operational discharges from vessels were estimated to account for 21% of oil releases from vessels. They occur as a consequence of failure to comply with regulations or arbitrary discharges of waste oil and water containing such oil residues. Such operational discharges are

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Ehrenhauser, Franz S.; Avij, Paria; Shu, Xin; Dugas, Victoria; Woodson, Isaiah; Liyana-Arachchi, Thilanga; Zhang, Zenghui; Hung, Francisco R.; Valsaraj, Kalliat T. (2014). "Bubble bursting as an aerosol generation mechanism during an oil spill in the deep-sea environment: laboratory experimental

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Oil spills can have devastating environmental impacts; however, we cannot allow these to overshadow their often equally detrimental economic consequences. These disasters do not only pose immediate threats to marine ecosystems, but also leave lasting impacts on local and regional economies. This

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Around 40-50% of all oil released into the oceans stems from natural seeps from seafloor rocks. This corresponds to approximately 600,000 tons annually on a global level. While natural seeps are the single largest source of oil spills, they are considered less problematic because ecosystems have

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Oil spills can have disastrous consequences for society; economically, environmentally, and socially. As a result, oil spill accidents have initiated intense media attention and political uproar, bringing many together in a political struggle concerning government response to oil spills and what

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After the Deepwater Horizon crisis, the Gulf of Mexico suffered an estimated 1.9-billion-dollar loss in revenue from fishing. This is because fishing closures were imposed due to fears of the safety of seafood, there was also a decline in demand, as seafood restaurants and markets suffered such

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The ESI depicts environmental stability, coastal resilience to maritime related catastrophes, and the configurations of a stress-response relationship between all things maritime. Created for ecological-related decision making, ESMs can accurately identify sensitive areas and habitats, clean-up

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to the surface of the water, forming gel-like agglomerations. Undetectable levels of hydrocarbons can be obtained in produced water and manageable water columns. By overspraying sheen with bioremediation accelerator, sheen is eliminated within minutes. Whether applied on land or on water, the

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In general, spilled oil can affect animals and plants in two ways: dirесt from the oil and from the response or cleanup process. Oil penetrates into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing their insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature

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protein. The majority of birds affected by oil spills die from complications without human intervention. Some studies have suggested that less than one percent of oil-soaked birds survive, even after cleaning, although the survival rate can also exceed ninety percent, as in the case of the

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Bioremediation Accelerator: a binder molecule that moves hydrocarbons out of water and into gels, when combined with nutrients, encourages natural bioremediation. Oleophilic, hydrophobic chemical, containing no bacteria, which chemically and physically bonds to both soluble and insoluble

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in colour, where warm colours are used for the increasingly sensitive types and cooler colours are used for robust shores. For each navigable body of water, there is a feature classifying its sensitivity to oil. Shoreline type mapping codes a large range of ecological settings including

1476:. While technologies for drilling in deep water have significantly improved in the past 30–40 years, oil companies move to drilling sites in more and more difficult places. This ambiguous development results in no clear trend regarding the frequency of offshore oil platform spills. 1416:. Around 90% of the world's oil transportation is through oil tankers, and the absolute amount of seaborne oil trade is steadily increasing. However, there has been a reduction of the number of spills from oil tankers and of the amount of oil released per oil tanker spill. In 1992, 1408:. Operational releases are frequent, but small in the amount of oil spilled per release, and are often not in the focus of attention regarding oil spills. There has been a steady decrease of operational discharges of oil, with an additional decrease of around 50% since the 1990s. 1382:(land based) were deliberate acts of war. The academic study of sources and causes of oil spills identifies vulnerable points in oil transportation infrastructure and calculates the likelihood of oil spills happening. This can then guide prevention efforts and regulation policies 2270:, are present in many crude oils. As a result, these compounds have great potential to supplement the existing suite of hydrocarbons targets to fine-tune source tracking of petroleum spills. Such analysis can also be used to follow weathering and degradation of crude spills. 51: 1364:

The majority of oil from an oil spill remains in the environment, hence a spill from an operation in the ocean is different from an operation on tundra or wetland. Wetlands are considered one of the most sensitive habitats to oil spills and the most difficult to clean.

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in water, therefore the removal of the solidified oil is easy and the oil will not leach out. Solidifiers have been proven to be relatively non-toxic to aquatic and wildlife and have been proven to suppress harmful vapors commonly associated with hydrocarbons such as

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Wolfaardt, AC; Williams, AJ; Underhill, LG; Crawford, RJM; Whittington, PA (2009). "Review of the rescue, rehabilitation and restoration of oiled seabirds in South Africa, especially African penguins Spheniscus demersus and Cape gannets Morus capegnsis, 1983–2005".

1589:. These bacteria occur naturally and will act to remove oil from an ecosystem, and their biomass will tend to replace other populations in the food chain. The chemicals from the oil which dissolve in water, and hence are available to bacteria, are those in the 5471:

Anderson, E.L., E. Howlett, K. Jayko, V. Kolluru, M. Reed, and M. Spaulding. 1993. The worldwide oil spill model (WOSM): an overview. Pp. 627–646 in Proceedings of the 16th Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program, Technical Seminar. Ottawa, Ontario: Environment

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of oil spills are further distinguished between deliberate releases, such as operational discharges or acts of war and accidental releases. Accidental oil spills are in the focus of the literature, although some of the largest oil spills ever recorded, the

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By observing the thickness of the film of oil and its appearance on the surface of the water, it is possible to estimate the quantity of oil spilled. If the surface area of the spill is also known, the total volume of the oil can be calculated.

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thousands of pages that could solely work with spills in the oceans. In the past 3 decades, this product has been transformed into a versatile online tool. This conversion allows sensitivity indexing to become more adaptable and in 1995 by the

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development of an additional oil spill recovery method. Oil bees have oleophilic properties in their hair-like protrusions that collect and store oil. This technique has been applied to textiles that can be used to remove oil from sea

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Li, R.; Palm, B. B.; Borbon, A.; Graus, M.; Warneke, C.; Ortega, A. M.; Day, D. A.; Brune, W. H.; Jimenez, J. L.; de Gouw, J. A. (5 November 2013). "Laboratory Studies on Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation from Crude Oil Vapors".

1739:. However, laboratory experiments showed that dispersants increased toxic hydrocarbon levels in fish by a factor of up to 100 and may kill fish eggs. Dispersed oil droplets infiltrate into deeper water and can lethally contaminate 1356:, significant air quality issues were found on the Gulf Coast, which is the downwind of DWH oil spill. Air quality monitoring data showed that criteria pollutants had exceeded the health-based standard in the coastal regions. 1498:

as sources of oil spills are estimated to contribute 1% of oil pollution to the oceans. Reasons for this are underreporting, and many oil pipeline leaks occur on land with only fractions of that oil reaching the oceans.

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NOAA (2002). Environmental Sensitivity Index Guidelines, version 3.0. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS OR&R 11. Seattle: Hazardous Response and Assessment Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

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which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. These can kill seabirds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms they coat. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly

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the natural environment. The exposure the shoreline has to wave energy and tides, substrate type, and slope of the shoreline are also taken into account—in addition to biological productivity and sensitivity.

1328:. Oil can also blind an animal, leaving it defenseless. The ingestion of oil causes dehydration and impairs the digestive process. Animals can be poisoned, and may die from oil entering the lungs or liver. 1750:

Watch and wait: in some cases, natural attenuation of oil may be most appropriate, due to the invasive nature of facilitated methods of remediation, particularly in ecologically sensitive areas such as

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dispersant had increased the toxicity of oil by up to 52 times. In 2019, the U.S. National Academies released a report analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of several response methods and tools.

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NOAA (2008). Introduction to Environmental Sensitivity Index maps. NOAA Technical Manual. Seattle: Hazardous Response and Assessment Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 56p.

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Cherukupally, P.; Sun, W.; Wong, A. P. Y.; Williams, D. R.; Ozin, G. A.; Bilton, A. M.; Park, C. B. (2019). "Surface-engineered sponges for recovery of crude oil microdroplets from wastewater".

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Carlos De Santana Ribeiro, Barreiro De Souza, Paulo Domingues and Souza Magalhães (2020). "Blue water turns black: economic impact of oil spill on tourism and fishing in Brazilian Northeast".

5435:(1994). Sensitivity Mapping for Oil Spill Response. International Maritime Organization/ International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association Report Series, Volume 1. 22p. 4678: 1966:

commonly used mapping tool for sensitive area plotting. The ESI has three components: A shoreline type ranking system, a biological resources section, and a human-use resource category.

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section will explore the multifaceted economic repercussions of oil spills, specifically considering: the decline in tourism, the reduction in fishing, and the impact on port activity.

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include the amount of oil absorbed by the ground, forming a layer of "tarcrete" over approximately five percent of the surface of Kuwait, fifty times the area occupied by the oil lakes.

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Sarbatly R.; Kamin, Z. & Krishnaiah D. (2016). "A review of polymer nanofibres by electrospinning and their application in oil-water separation for cleaning up marine oil spills".

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took over ten months to bring all of the wells under control. The fires alone were estimated to consume approximately 6,000,000 barrels (950,000 m) of oil per day at their peak.

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Jensen, John R.; Halls, Joanne N.; Michel, Jacqueline (1998). "A Systems Approach to Environmental Sensitivity lndex (ESI) Mapping for Oil Spill Contingency Planning and Response".

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A listing of appropriate protective clothing, safety equipment, and cleanup materials required for spill cleanup (gloves, respirators, etc.) and an explanation of their proper use;

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can spill oil into the ocean because of operational or human error and unpreparedness. The amounts are however small, and such oil spills are hard to track due to underreporting.

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The amount of this oil was estimated to be at least several hundred thousand barrels, and may have factored into the estimates above 8,000,000 barrels (1,300,000 m).

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in the US in 1974 which considered impacts to fish, crustaceans and molluscs. The paper was limited to 100 copies and was described as a draft document, not to be cited.

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into vessels, which reduces the risk and severity of a spill in case of a collision or grounding. Existing single-hull vessels can also be rebuilt to have a double hull.

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impressive advancements in developing tidal bay protection strategies, collecting seasonal information and generally in the modelling of sensitive areas. Together with

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D.; Peischl, J.; Perring, A. E.; Pollack, I. B.; Roberts, J. M.; Ryerson, T. B.; Schwarz, J. P.; Spackman, J. R.; Warneke, C.; Ravishankara, A. R. (28 December 2011).

5749: 1574:(formerly Fusobacteria), species demonstrate potential for future oil spill cleanup because of their ability to colonize and degrade oil slicks on the sea surface. 3364: 6332: 1488:. Pipeline oil spills can be caused by trawling of fishing boats, natural disasters, pipe corrosion, construction defects, sabotage, or an attack, as with the 3008:

One metric ton (tonne) of crude oil is roughly equal to 308 US gallons or 7.33 barrels approx.; 1 oil barrel (bbl) is equal to 35 imperial or 42 US gallons.

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Pezeshki, S. R.; Hester, M. W.; Lin, Q.; Nyman, J. A. (2000). "The effects of oil spill clean-up on dominant US Gulf coast marsh macrophytes: a review".

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land-based oil spills are different from maritime oil spills in that oil on land does not spread as quickly as in water, and effects thus remain local.

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Ritchie, Crotts, Zehrer and Zolsky (2014). "Understanding the Effects of a Tourism Crisis: The Impact of the BP Oil Spill on Regional Lodging Demand".

1468:. They can go on for months until relief wells have been drilled, resulting in enormous amounts of oil leaked. Notable examples of such oil spills are 6042:

Fiest, David L.; Boehm, Paul D.; Rigler, Mark W.; Patton, John S. (March 1981). "Ixtoc 1 oil spill: flaking of surface mousse in the Gulf of Mexico".

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Within the biological resources, the ESI maps protected areas as well as those with bio-diverse importance. These are usually identified through the

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Michel, Jacqueline; Fingas, Merv (2016). "Chapter 7: Oil spills: Causes, Consequences, Prevention and Countermeasures". In Crawley, Gerard M (ed.).

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The threat posed to birds, fish, shellfish and crustaceans from spilled oil was known in England in the 1920s, largely through observations made in

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Spilled oil can also contaminate drinking water supplies. For example, in 2013 two different oil spills contaminated water supplies for 300,000 in

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Patton, John S.; Rigler, Mark W.; Boehm, Paul D.; Fiest, David L. (1981). "Ixtoc 1 oil spill: flaking of surface mousse in the Gulf of Mexico".

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nowadays account for approximately 3% of oil spills in the oceans. Prominent offshore oil platform spills typically occurred as a result of a

5949: 5826: 2328:), but volume is a limited measure of damage or impact. Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the 1902: 1205:

oil spill impacted beach tourism and fishing along the Gulf Coast, and the responsible parties were required to compensate economic victims.

1336:

In addition, oil spills can also harm air quality. The chemicals in crude oil are mostly hydrocarbons that contains toxic chemicals such as

7072: 5404:

Gundlach, E.R. and M.O. Hayes (1978). Vulnerability of Coastal Environments to Oil Spill Impacts. Marine Technology Society. 12 (4): 18–27.

5221: 3987:"Ambient air concentrations exceeded health-based standards for fine particulate matter and benzene during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill" 4287:

Burgherr, Peter (2007). "In-depth analysis of accidental oil spills from tankers in the context of global spill trends from all sources".

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Surís-Regueiro, Garza-Gil and Varela-Lafuente (2007). "The Prestige oil spill and its economic impact on the Galician fishing sector".

6189: 5508: 4244: 1892: 1484:

As of 2010, overall, there has been a substantial increase of pipeline oil spills in the past four decades. Prominent examples include

6291: 4026: 2352:

Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin

3668: 6633:

Nelson, Grubesic and Rose (2017). "A Geospatial Evaluation of Oil Spill Impact Potential on Coastal Tourism in the Gulf of Mexico".

4785: 1391:

adapted to such regular releases. For instance, on sites of natural oil seeps, ocean bacteria have evolved to digest oil molecules.

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If only they'd tried the chilled-soup solution in Alaska" by John Bogert Daily Breeze (Torrance CA) local section page B1 2/17/1994

4857: 4635:

Kasai, Y; et al. (2002). "Predominant Growth of Alcanivorax Strains in Oil-contaminated and Nutrient-supplemented Sea Water".

1452: 8271: 5692: 2338: 1485: 6160: 2345:. Between 1970 and 2000, there were over 7,000 spills. Between 1956 and 2006, up to 1.5 million tons of oil were spilled in the 1489: 6213: 8314: 7052: 4943: 4123: 3235: 3126: 1597: 1214: 942: 7602: 7414: 7067: 5301: 216: 7567: 7460: 7130: 5744: 5677: 5428: 3131: 1633:

hydrocarbons. The accelerator acts as a herding agent in water and on the surface, floating molecules such as phenol and

1291:

imbalance. Some birds exposed to petroleum also experience changes in their hormonal balance, including changes in their

343: 263: 6258: 5618: 3368: 8332: 8309: 7488: 7148: 6013: 3151: 3136: 1134:

of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less

937: 851: 293: 6336: 5722: 2026:

environments. Floating oil slicks put the shoreline at particular risk when they eventually come ashore, covering the

1424:. This is considered to be a major reason for the reduction of oil tanker spills, alongside other innovations such as 8374: 8121: 8007: 7501: 7496: 5789: 5653: 4584: 4342: 4211:

Bertolini, Massimo; Bevilacqua, Maurizio (2006). "Oil pipeline spill cause analysis A classification tree approach".

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Bautista, H.; Rahman, K. M. M. (2016). "Review On the Sundarbans Delta Oil Spill: Effects On Wildlife and Habitats".

1456:

Chemical dispersants may be deployed from boats, planes, and underwater vehicles in response to an offshore oil spill

793: 698: 8441: 8301: 6940: 5850: 3321: 1984:, ESI integrates their techniques to successfully geographically reference the three different types of resources. 1412:

threat due to the large amount of oil spilled per accident and the fact that major sea traffic routes are close to

1228: 8047: 7784: 7174: 6474: 5710: 4455: 3458: 1349: 1201:

Contamination can have an economic impact on tourism and marine resource extraction industries. For example, the

1028: 738: 501: 83: 1193: 6878: 6853: 6815:

Sarder, Chad and Richard (2011). "Modeling Logistical & Economical Impact of Oil Spill on the Gulf Coast".

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Yamada, Yasuhira (October 2009). "The Cost of Oil Spills from Tankers in Relation to Weight of Spilled Oil".

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Mullin, Joseph V; Champ, Michael A (2003-08-01). "Introduction/Overview to in Situ Burning of Oil Spills".

1606: 1256: 511: 363: 338: 133: 6555: 2258:. In addition, both oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons, such as parent and alkyl homologues of 8426: 7938: 7592: 6985: 6970: 6950: 5769: 5461:

Metcalf & Eddy. Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and Reuse. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003. 98.

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Earthshots: Satellite Images of Environmental Change. U.S. Geological Survey. http://earthshots.usgs.gov

4899:"Dispersant makes oil 52 times more toxic – Technology & science – Science – LiveScience – NBC News" 4484: 8366: 8266: 8189: 7597: 7427: 7257: 6975: 5832:

Report To Congress United States Gulf Environmental Technical Assistance From January 27 – July 31 1991

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Mu, Lin; Wang, Lizhe; Yan, Jining (2019). "Emergency Response System for Marine Oil Spill Accidents".

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around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.

1168: 8069: 8027: 7989: 7554: 7348: 7022: 6871: 3615:, It can take over 1 year to solve the problem of an oil spill. GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg. 3167: 2255: 1590: 1578: 1425: 1399:

Vessels can be the source of oil spills either through operational releases of oil or in the case of

753: 718: 678: 331: 298: 148: 6306:"A 14-year-long oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico verges on becoming one of the worst in U.S. history" 3582:"Effects of Crude Oil Pollution in the Tropical Rainforest Biodiversity of Ecuadorian Amazon Region" 1645:

can effectively reduce the amount of oil in water, if done properly. But it can only be done in low

8436: 8064: 7587: 7528: 7439: 7057: 2694: 1560:

A US Navy oil spill response team drills with a "Harbour Buster high-speed oil containment system".

1556: 1345: 748: 368: 303: 240: 3685: 8431: 8276: 8042: 7572: 7123: 6997: 6925: 5868: 5509:

www.scientificamerican.com 20150-04-20 How BP's Blowout Ranks among Top 5 Oil Spills in 1 Graphic

2483: 1815: 1625: 1465: 778: 733: 353: 5569: 2335:

because of the remoteness of the site or the difficulty of an emergency environmental response.

1898:

Secondary containment – methods to prevent releases of oil or hydrocarbons into the environment.

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Gracia, Murawski and Vázquez-Bader (2019). "Impacts of Deep Oil Spills on Fish and Fisheries".

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Gracia, Murawski and Vázquez-Bader (2019). "Impacts of Deep Oil Spills on Fish and Fisheries".

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Updated Scientific Report on the Environmental Effects of the Conflict between Iraq and Kuwait

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van Bernem, Karl-Heinz (2001). "Chapter 7: Conceptual Models for Ecology-Related Decisions".

3557:"Global Marine Oil Pollution Information Gateway • Facts • Effects of oil on marine wildlife" 1736: 1297: 886: 728: 594: 506: 203: 6756: 6396: 4621: 1048: 8012: 7667: 7363: 6752: 6692: 6642: 6517: 6392: 6094: 6051: 5334: 5089: 4759: 4644: 4532:"Enrichment of Fusobacteria in Sea Surface Oil Slicks from the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill" 4296: 4167: 3911: 3721: 3638: 3522: 1819: 1807: 1420:

was amended and made it mandatory for large tankers (5,000 dwt and more) to be fitted with

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Wout Broekema (April 2015). "Crisis-induced learning and issue politicization in the EU".

1234: 1079:. The term is usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or 8: 8421: 8079: 8017: 7984: 7923: 7855: 7720: 7715: 7693: 7267: 7037: 7032: 6935: 6765: 6740: 6405: 6380: 5174:"Passive water collection with the integument: mechanisms and their biomimetic potential" 4923: 4789: 2804: 2665: 1803: 763: 708: 673: 599: 526: 476: 471: 456: 113: 6696: 6654: 6646: 6521: 6098: 6055: 5971: 5338: 5093: 4877: 4763: 4648: 4300: 4171: 3915: 3725: 3642: 3526: 1743:. Research indicates that some dispersants are toxic to corals. A 2012 study found that 1657: 8392: 8353: 8286: 8261: 8256: 8074: 7951: 7745: 7617: 7381: 7252: 7179: 7116: 7047: 7027: 6920: 6110: 6067: 5914: 5350: 5203: 5105: 4969: 4957: 4558: 4531: 4410: 4188: 4155: 3878: 3851: 3737: 3197: 3190: 3183: 3050: 2728: 2517: 2279: 1858: 1673: 1582: 1495: 1375: 997: 758: 634: 396: 178: 118: 88: 34: 5495: 5002: 4771: 8281: 8141: 7961: 7870: 7838: 7755: 7708: 7635: 7607: 7376: 7371: 7169: 6960: 6718: 6704: 6533: 6164: 5626: 5354: 5302:"Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) Maps and Data | response.restoration.noaa.gov" 5195: 5109: 5056: 5006: 4961: 4949: 4939: 4660: 4656: 4600: 4563: 4414: 4338: 4312: 4193: 4119: 4056: 4008: 3963: 3927: 3883: 3538: 3207: 2610: 2401: 2297: 2284:

Crude oil and refined fuel spills from tanker ship accidents have damaged vulnerable

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Beach Raking: coagulated oil that is left on the beach can be picked up by machinery.

1760: 1614: 1507: 1473: 1440:

6.3 per year in the 2010s, and has maintained a similar level in the current decade.

1379: 1283:

damage. Together with their diminished foraging capacity, this can rapidly result in

1153: 1053: 646: 569: 562: 516: 383: 173: 168: 78: 6529: 6217: 5545:"'Ecocide' movement pushes for a new international crime: Environmental destruction" 5207: 3741: 3534: 1704: 8225: 8126: 8084: 8052: 7946: 7900: 7860: 7767: 7735: 7703: 7688: 7672: 7647: 7432: 7386: 7002: 6894: 6760: 6708: 6700: 6650: 6586: 6525: 6508:

Cirer-Costa, Joan Carles (2015). "Tourism and its hypersensitivity to oil spills".

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Buckley, R.C. (1982). "Environmental sensitivity mapping – what, why and how".

5023:"A slick idea" by Cara Murphy Beach Reporter Manhattan Beach section ll/14/1992 4441: 4115: 3982: 3390: 2888: 2618: 2574: 2293: 2083: 1662: 1571: 1175: 1080: 1009: 813: 713: 668: 661: 656: 413: 108: 6238: 5101: 4224: 4179: 3824: 3806: 3780: 3556: 8415: 8387: 8156: 8057: 7843: 7772: 7544: 7292: 7156: 7007: 6965: 6915: 6682: 6590: 5630: 4813:. International Tanker Operators Pollution Federation Limited. Archived from 4709:"S-200 | NCP Product Schedule | Emergency Management | US EPA" 4335:

Information Engineering of Emergency Treatment for Marine Oil Spill Accidents

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exposed to oil spills are affected in similar ways. Oil coats the fur of

1292: 1284: 1224: 1116: 1112: 1068: 783: 481: 461: 98: 6803: 5654:"Nigeria's agony dwarfs the Gulf oil spill. The US and Europe ignore it" 5241: 1732: 8291: 7908: 7223: 7216: 7199: 7184: 7077: 6930: 6734: 6732: 5346: 5190: 5173: 3959: 3295: 2767: 2699: 2305: 2058: 2019: 1901:

Oil Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) program by the

1830: 1778: 1692: 1680: 1541: 1400: 1313: 1288: 1088: 833: 589: 93: 6713: 4027:"Moratorium on Oil and Gas Leasing In Lake Pontchartrain: An Analysis" 3923: 3413:"Kentucky Crude Oil Spill may reach river, contaminate drinking water" 1757:: for oils dispersed with detergents and other oils denser than water. 1565:

Until the 1960s, the best method for remediation consisted of putting

1255:. The subject was also explored in a scientific paper produced by the 8220: 8172: 8146: 7928: 7890: 7640: 7630: 7302: 7164: 7139: 7087: 7017: 6955: 6106: 6063: 5482:

Wang, Z.; Fingas, M.; Page, D.S. (1999). "Oil spill identification".

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are among the worst on the planet and is often used as an example of

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Sorbents: large absorbents that absorb oil and adsorb small droplets

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Staff (8 October 2022). "Oil on the waters". Notebook—50 years ago.

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and other road equipment: typically used to clean up oil on beaches

1774: 1754: 1727:. They will cause the oil slick to break up and form water-soluble 1708: 1429: 1317: 1179: 1135: 1115:) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as 1108: 1100: 273: 6817:

Proceedings of the 2011 Industrial Engineering Research Conference

6667: 6617: 6576: 6139: 6138:. International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation. Archived from 4924:

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2019).

4389:"World Seaborne Trade with Oil: One of Main Cause for Oil Spills?" 3710: 1271:, birds may ingest the oil coating their feathers, irritating the 7826: 7329: 7307: 7194: 7189: 5866: 5594: 5032:"Zapping Oil Spills with Dry Ice and Ingenuity" by Gordon Dillow 3512: 3161: 2342: 2050: 2015: 1799: 1791: 1767: 1744: 1728: 1700: 1688: 1642: 1527: 1341: 1337: 1320:, reducing its insulating effect, and leading to fluctuations in 1127: 5619:"How an ecocide law could prevent another Nigerian oil disaster" 3627:"Oil Pollution and Seabird Populations [and Discussion]" 3262:"Hindsight and Foresight, 20 Years After the Exxon Valdez Spill" 3157:

National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan

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Spill response procedures should include elements such as;

50: 8215: 7336: 7324: 7240: 5765: 5079: 3631:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B

3459:"The Seven Seas are an Open Sewer (oil spill impacts 1974)" 2733: 2526: 1873:

Chemical and biological agents: helps to break down the oil

1646: 1634: 1167:

killed eleven oil rig workers. The fire resulting from the

896: 143: 138: 103: 55: 6549: 6547: 4456:"Construction Requirements for Oil Tankers – Double Hulls" 4243:

Dell'Amore, Christine; Nunez, Christina (March 25, 2014).

4156:"The Threats from Oil Spills: Now, Then and in the Future" 1814:

in granular form, as well as in Marine and Sheen Booms at

1436:

Africa, Europe, and America, involving various oil types.

6632: 5242:"NOAA's Ocean Service Office of Response and Restoration" 4529: 3760:

Frankston and Somerville Standard (Vic. : 1921–1939)

2975: 2938: 2893: 2856: 2819: 2779: 2742: 2704: 2670: 2627: 2623: 2583: 2579: 2539: 2535: 2493: 2489: 2451: 2447: 2415: 2411: 1977:

US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

1766:

Solidifying: Solidifiers are composed of tiny, floating,

1131: 6814: 6741:"Studies of fishermen's economic loss due to oil spills" 6381:"Studies of fishermen's economic loss due to oil spills" 5124:"Quebec tragedy unlikely to slow oil shipments via rail" 4679:"Oil and natural gas eating bacteria to clear-up spills" 4337:. Taylor & Francis Group: CRC Press. pp. 1–30. 3508: 3506: 1186:. In 2000, springs were contaminated by an oil spill in 6837:, Elek Scientific, London, 1972; Plenum, New York, 1973 6544: 5869:"Gulf Spill Is the Largest of Its Kind, Scientists Say" 3944: 3259: 1811: 1763:: Requires calm waters at all times during the process. 6745:

IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science

6385:

IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science

6084: 6041: 5939: 5706: 5704: 4988: 3980: 3624: 3116:

and communities that must bear the economic downturn.

2990: 2985: 2980: 2953: 2948: 2943: 2911: 2905: 2899: 2871: 2866: 2861: 2834: 2829: 2824: 2794: 2789: 2784: 2757: 2752: 2747: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2685: 2680: 2675: 2644: 2638: 2632: 2600: 2594: 2588: 2556: 2550: 2544: 2508: 2503: 2498: 2468: 2462: 2456: 2430: 2425: 2420: 1951:, mechanism for harvesting flower oils has led to the 5991: 5867:

Campbell Robertson; Clifford Krauss (2 August 2010).

3991:

Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association

3625:

Dunnet, G.; Crisp, D.; Conan, G.; Bourne, W. (1982).

3503: 2776:, 700 nmi (1,300 km; 810 mi) offshore 6448: 6446: 6444: 6330: 4245:"3 Surprising Sources of Oil Pollution in the Ocean" 3666:

Untold Seabird Mortality due to Marine Oil Pollution

3391:"Ecuador oil spill threatens Brazilian water supply" 3062: 1932:

Disposal containers for spill cleanup materials; and

5701: 4927:

The Use of Dispersants in Marine Oil Spill Response

4622:"Biological Agents – Emergency Management – US EPA" 4242: 4210: 3186:, the first intentional deepwater oil and gas spill 2090: 1171:killed 47 and destroyed half of the town's centre. 6360:"Black tide: When the British bombed an oil spill" 5648: 5646: 4386: 3586:Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences 1876:Vacuums: remove oil from beaches and water surface 6441: 5268: 4803: 4601:"The Environmental Literacy Council – Oil Spills" 4530:Gutierrez T, Berry D, Teske A, Aitken MD (2016). 4359:"MARPOL Annex I – Prevention of Pollution by Oil" 3900: 3322:"Memorial service honors 11 dead oil rig workers" 3320:Welch, William M.; Joyner, Chris (May 25, 2010). 3236:"Lingering Lessons of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill" 3230: 3228: 1577:There are three kinds of oil-consuming bacteria. 1368: 1263:fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. 8413: 6208: 6206: 5985: 5271:Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing 5057:"Advances in Oil Spill Cleanup Lag Since Valdez" 4047:"Background on Oil Spills. Cause and Response". 1935:The first aid procedures that might be required. 6358:Bell, Bethan; Cacciottolo, Mario (2017-03-17). 6357: 6263:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 6153: 6018:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 5972:"Big Oil Plans Rapid Response to Future Spills" 5844:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 5643: 5048: 3856:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1444:been lost, predominantly from major incidents. 1126:Oil spills penetrate into the structure of the 5481: 5424: 5422: 4858:"Slick Death: Oil-spill treatment kills coral" 4828: 4733:"Emergency Response: Responding to Oil Spills" 4519:(Paper). Vol. 202, no. 7. p. 4. 3579: 3482: 3238:. Commondreams.org. 2004-03-22. Archived from 3225: 3101: 1687:. A dispersant is either a non-surface active 1143:actions can best prevent them from happening. 7124: 6879: 6203: 5827:United States Environmental Protection Agency 5766:National Aeronautics and Space Administration 5681:Environmental Exposure Report: Oil Well Fires 4855: 4836:"Spill Response – Dispersants Kill Fish Eggs" 4213:Journal of Quality in Maintenance Engineering 3281: 3275: 2036:which natural processes will remove the oil. 1961:Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) mapping 1903:United States Environmental Protection Agency 1197:Ballsh, Mallakaster, Albania 2019 – Crude Oil 1029: 6603:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6493:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 5451:, (IMO/IPIECA report series). Volume 1, p.28 5412: 5410: 5286: 5284: 5282: 5280: 5222:"Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) Maps" 4974:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4849: 4727: 4725: 4523: 4387:Galieriková, Andrea; Materna, Matúš (2020). 4103: 3686:"Expert Recommends Killing Oil-Soaked Birds" 1926:Appropriate evacuation zones and procedures; 1719:large amounts of certain oil types from the 1672:Volunteers cleaning up the aftermath of the 6794: 6779: 6507: 5736: 5734: 5695:Kuwait still recovering from Gulf War fires 5419: 4749: 3829:Telegraph (Brisbane, Qld. : 1872–1947) 3807:"England: The Magic Pipe | #TheOutlawOcean" 3319: 3048:and is still current, as cited by NOAA and 1982:Geographic Information System Mapping (GIS) 1929:Availability of fire suppression equipment; 1585:, while general aerobic bacteria (GAB) are 7131: 7117: 6886: 6872: 5449:Sensitivity Mapping for Oil Spill Response 5393:Sensitivity mapping for oil spill response 5367: 4485:"Oil Tanker Spill Statistics 2023 – ITOPF" 1969: 1893:Offshore oil spill prevention and response 1486:oil spills of pipelines in the Niger Delta 1394: 1075:, due to human activity, and is a form of 1036: 1022: 49: 6764: 6712: 6428: 6426: 6424: 6422: 6420: 6418: 6416: 6404: 6231: 6130: 6128: 6126: 6124: 5407: 5277: 5189: 4722: 4557: 4547: 4404: 4332: 4187: 4002: 3985:; Bullard, Robert D. (13 November 2015). 3946:demonstration of the transport pathway". 3877: 3867: 3785:Herald (Melbourne, Vic. : 1861–1954) 3675:, Elements Online Environmental Magazine. 3650: 3309:https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10390693/ 2082:divided into four major classifications: 1447: 27:Release of petroleum into the environment 6739:Alvernia, Utomo and Herdiansyah (2021). 6556:"9 of the Biggest Oil Spills in History" 6379:Alvernia, Utomo and Herdiansyah (2021). 5992:Khatchadourian, Raffi (March 14, 2011). 5731: 5717:Iraq and Kuwait: 1972, 1990, 1991, 1997. 5595:"UNPO: Ogoni: An Ecocide in the Making?" 5165: 5054: 4788:. Library.thinkquest.org. Archived from 4286: 4153: 1987: 1839: 1667: 1656: 1555: 1540: 1521: 1451: 1233: 1218: 1208: 1192: 1047: 8272:Pollutant release and transfer register 6795:O'Brien (2006). "Oil Spills in ports". 6780:O'Brien (2006). "Oil spills in ports". 6324: 5940:Consumer Energy Report (20 June 2010). 5324: 5171: 4752:Spill Science & Technology Bulletin 4034:The Lake Pontchartrain Basin Foundation 3580:Bautista, H.; Rahman, K. M. M. (2016). 3088: 2039: 1517: 14: 8414: 6413: 6121: 5787: 4479: 4477: 4475: 4427: 3904:Environmental Science & Technology 3804: 3260:NOAA Ocean Media Center (2010-03-16). 2076: 1915:Thick-hulled railroad transport tanks. 1581:(SRB) and acid-producing bacteria are 1526:A U.S. Air Force Reserve plane sprays 1359: 1160:that caused respiratory distress. The 7112: 6867: 6849:Oil Spills: Background and Governance 6432: 5443: 5441: 5387: 5385: 5383: 5381: 5379: 5264: 5262: 5260: 5258: 4634: 4628: 4512: 4508: 4506: 4504: 4382: 4380: 4378: 4328: 4326: 4282: 4280: 4278: 4276: 4274: 4272: 4270: 4268: 4266: 4264: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4149: 4147: 4145: 4143: 4141: 4139: 4137: 4135: 4099: 4097: 4095: 3127:Automated Data Inquiry for Oil Spills 3071: 2273: 1617:to break down or remove oil; such as 1598:Wendy Schmidt Oil Cleanup X Challenge 1215:Oil pollution toxicity to marine fish 1119:, or the spill of any oily refuse or 1071:into the environment, especially the 8362: 7603:Electromagnetic radiation and health 7068:Shutdown of thermohaline circulation 6893: 6856:, Washington, DC, September 15, 2017 6553: 5715:Campbell, Robert Wellman, ed. 1999. 8378: 8370: 7461:Radium and radon in the environment 6655:10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2017.10.001 6331:Information Services (7 May 2010). 6216:. The Mariner Group. Archived from 5893: 5814:Gulf Oil Spill Is Bad, but How Bad? 5678:United States Department of Defense 5611: 5587: 5562: 5537: 4472: 4460:International Maritime Organization 4363:International Maritime Organization 3438:Cairns Post (Qld. : 1909–1954) 3132:Environmental issues with petroleum 2057:(seals, sea lions & walruses), 264:Radium and radon in the environment 24: 6841:Oil Spill Case Histories 1967–1991 6826: 5848:Incident News: Arabian Gulf Spills 5790:"California's legendary oil spill" 5438: 5376: 5255: 5036:South Bay section page 1 2/24/1994 4754:. In-Situ Burning of Spilled Oil. 4737:Office of Response and Restoration 4501: 4375: 4323: 4261: 4231: 4132: 4092: 4079:Office of Response and Restoration 4019: 3152:Low-temperature thermal desorption 3137:Environmental issues with shipping 1945:Adaptation of the oil bee's, e.g. 1570:the use of microorganisms such as 1227:covered in oil as a result of the 25: 8463: 6452: 3714:African Journal of Marine Science 3063:The economic impact of oil spills 2005: 2000: 1602:Methods for cleaning up include: 8396: 8386: 8377: 8369: 8361: 8349: 8348: 6941:Environmental impact of shipping 6835:Oil Pollution and Marine Ecology 6788: 6773: 6705:10.1111/j.1467-7717.2007.01004.x 6676: 6661: 6626: 6611: 6570: 6501: 6468: 6372: 6351: 6298: 6280: 6251: 6178: 6078: 6035: 6006: 5964: 5933: 5887: 5860: 5837: 5820: 5370:Models in Environmental Research 4685:. April 30, 2014. Archived from 4657:10.1046/j.1462-2920.2002.00275.x 4603:. Enviroliteracy.org. 2008-06-25 4583:Patents and patent applications 4393:Transportation Research Procedia 3041: 2091:Estimating the volume of a spill 1502: 1385: 1350:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 1229:2007 San Francisco Bay oil spill 1152:fisheries and fire hazards. The 1146: 1056:in the Timor Sea, September 2009 1003: 991: 7175:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 6530:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.12.027 5806: 5781: 5759: 5711:United States Geological Survey 5686: 5671: 5513: 5502: 5475: 5465: 5454: 5398: 5361: 5318: 5294: 5244:. Response.restoration.noaa.gov 5234: 5214: 5178:Journal of Experimental Biology 5141: 5116: 5073: 5039: 5026: 5017: 4982: 4917: 4891: 4778: 4743: 4701: 4671: 4614: 4593: 4574: 4448: 4421: 4351: 4204: 4067: 4040: 3974: 3948:Environ. Sci.: Process. Impacts 3938: 3894: 3842: 3817: 3798: 3773: 3748: 3704: 3678: 3659: 3618: 3596: 3573: 3549: 3535:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.03.037 3476: 3451: 3426: 3031: 3021: 3010:Approximate conversion factors. 3002: 1703:, to improve the separation of 1238:A bird covered in oil from the 84:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 6854:Congressional Research Service 6766:10.1088/1755-1315/802/1/012002 6435:Technical Information Paper 12 6406:10.1088/1755-1315/802/1/012002 5149:"Oil Spill Response Procedure" 5055:Fountain, Henry (2010-06-24). 4811:"Spill Response – Dispersants" 4289:Journal of Hazardous Materials 3485:International Research Journal 3405: 3383: 3357: 3332: 3313: 3302: 3253: 1369:Sources and rate of occurrence 953:Least polluted cities by PM2.5 13: 1: 7663:Electrical resistance heating 7138: 5896:"Oil disaster by the numbers" 5570:"Fighting ecocide in Nigeria" 5496:10.1016/S0021-9673(99)00120-X 5372:. Springer. pp. 127–145. 5306:response.restoration.noaa.gov 5172:Comanns, Philipp (May 2018). 5003:10.1016/s0269-7491(99)00244-4 4772:10.1016/S1353-2561(03)00076-8 4549:10.3390/microorganisms4030024 4309:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.07.030 4004:10.1080/10962247.2015.1114044 3981:Nance, Earthea; King, Denae; 3805:Urbina, Ian (April 5, 2019). 3219: 2339:Oil spills in the Niger Delta 1886: 424:Electrical resistance heating 7315:Persistent organic pollutant 5788:Harvey, Steve (2010-06-13). 5721:, revised 14 February 1999. 5327:Minerals and the Environment 4874:10.1002/scin.2007.5591720502 4581:Oil spill cleanup technology 3781:"Penguin guard stands watch" 3734:10.2989/ajms.2009.31.1.3.774 1844:Bags of oily waste from the 1723:by transferring it into the 1479: 1428:, sectioning of vessels and 1257:National Academy of Sciences 134:Persistent organic pollutant 7: 8325:Least polluted cities by PM 6951:Fish diseases and parasites 5817:, last updated 20 May 2010. 5770:Goddard Space Flight Center 5484:Journal of Chromatography A 4683:www.oilandgastechnology.net 4406:10.1016/j.trpro.2020.02.039 4075:"How do oil spills happen?" 3119: 3102:The impact on port activity 2314:Deepwater Horizon oil spill 1939: 1824:Deepwater Horizon oil spill 1545:Clean-up efforts after the 1490:Caño Limón-Coveñas pipeline 1354:Deepwater Horizon oil spill 1064:is the release of a liquid 10: 8468: 8267:Pollution haven hypothesis 8190:Brain health and pollution 7428:Ecological light pollution 7258:Internal combustion engine 6579:Journal of Travel Research 6239:"Oil Spills and Disasters" 5725:February 19, 2013, at the 5391:IPIECA, IMO, OGP. (2012). 4637:Environmental Microbiology 4587:November 10, 2011, at the 4442:10.5957/mtsn.2009.46.4.219 4116:10.1142/9789814699983_0007 3602:C. Michael Hogan (2008)., 3340:"Lac-Megantic devastation" 3110: 2277: 1890: 1595: 1346:poly-aromatic hydrocarbons 1246: 1212: 1105:refined petroleum products 8346: 8300: 8249: 8198: 8165: 8070:Nonpoint source pollution 7998: 7990:War and environmental law 7937: 7899: 7881: 7681: 7616: 7553: 7479: 7448: 7413: 7397: 7362: 7349:Volatile organic compound 7155: 7146: 7023:Nonpoint source pollution 6901: 6510:Marine Pollution Bulletin 6477:Current Issues in Tourism 5102:10.1038/s41893-019-0446-4 4225:10.1108/13552510610667192 4180:10.1007/s13280-010-0085-5 4055:(6): 165–166. June 2010. 3825:"Oil Menace to Sea Birds" 3756:"A Naturalist's Jottings" 3515:Marine Pollution Bulletin 3168:Oil Pollution Act of 1990 2256:polyaromatic hydrocarbons 2106: 2103: 1854:Equipment used includes: 1683:can be used to dissipate 1591:water associated fraction 1579:Sulfate-reducing bacteria 679:War and environmental law 299:Health effects from noise 149:Volatile organic compound 7529:Marine mammals and sonar 7440:Radio spectrum pollution 7058:Plastic pellet pollution 6591:10.1177/0047287513482775 6558:. Encyclopedia Brittania 5683:(updated August 2, 2000) 5395:(OGP Report Number 477). 3831:. 1934-08-23. p. 33 3497:10.18454/IRJ.2016.43.143 3194:(used for degrading oil) 1693:surface-active substance 304:Marine mammals and sonar 8442:Product safety scandals 8375:WikiProject Environment 8333:Most polluted countries 8277:Polluter pays principle 8008:Agricultural wastewater 6926:Cultural eutrophication 6757:2021E&ES..802a2002A 6397:2021E&ES..802a2002A 6290:. ITOPF. Archived from 4991:Environmental Pollution 4154:Jernelöv, Arne (2010). 3869:10.1073/pnas.1110052108 3787:. 1954-07-03. p. 1 3762:. 1925-08-14. p. 7 3465:. 1974-06-01. p. 4 3440:. 1923-03-23. p. 5 3344:Fire Fighting in Canada 2232:Colors are much darker 1970:History and development 1908:Double-hulling – build 1626:Methylocella silvestris 1460:Accidental spills from 1414:Large Marine Ecosystems 1395:Oil tankers and vessels 1169:Lac-Mégantic derailment 1103:, as well as spills of 779:Freshwater salinization 699:Agricultural wastewater 8393:Environment portal 7626:Agricultural pollution 7063:Point source pollution 5946:Consumer Energy Report 5857:, updated 18 May 2010. 4856:Barry Carolyn (2007). 3652:10.1098/rstb.1982.0051 2192:Bright bands of color 1851: 1737:oil-in-water emulsions 1676: 1665: 1561: 1553: 1538: 1537:in the Gulf of Mexico. 1457: 1448:Offshore oil platforms 1404:regulated through the 1331: 1279:function, and causing 1243: 1231: 1198: 1188:Clark County, Kentucky 1057: 998:Environment portal 8048:Industrial wastewater 7914:Clutter (advertising) 7822:Municipal solid waste 7668:Soil guideline values 7512:Sustainable transport 7405:Information pollution 7205:Open burning of waste 6846:Ramseur, Jonathan L. 6142:on September 28, 2007 5775:1991 Kuwait Oil Fires 5082:Nature Sustainability 3284:Public Administration 2729:Nowruz Field Platform 2212:Colors begin to dull 2172:First trace of color 1988:Usage and application 1891:Further information: 1843: 1671: 1660: 1559: 1544: 1525: 1455: 1237: 1222: 1213:Further information: 1209:Environmental effects 1196: 1051: 739:Industrial wastewater 507:Municipal solid waste 429:Soil guideline values 8452:Disasters in Nigeria 8320:Most polluted cities 8013:Biological pollution 7924:Overhead power lines 7073:Silver nanoparticles 5447:IPIECA, IMO (1994). 4049:Congressional Digest 3089:Reduction in fishing 2040:Biological resources 1820:Fort Morgan, Alabama 1808:Louisville, Kentucky 1530:dispersant over the 1518:Cleanup and recovery 948:Most polluted cities 600:Overhead power lines 8383:WikiProject Ecology 8080:Ocean acidification 7985:Unexploded ordnance 7856:Post-consumer waste 7716:Foam food container 7694:Biodegradable waste 7268:Global distillation 7038:Ocean deoxygenation 7033:Ocean acidification 6697:2007Disas..31..201S 6647:2018CEUS...68...26N 6522:2015MarPB..91...65C 6214:"Oil Spill History" 6167:on October 19, 2007 6099:1981Natur.290..235P 6056:1981Natur.290..235P 5894:CNN (1 July 2010). 5339:1982MinEn...4..151B 5094:2019NatSu...3..136C 4764:2003SSTB....8..323M 4649:2002EnvMi...4..141K 4301:2007JHzM..140..245B 4249:National Geographic 4172:2010Ambio..39..353J 3916:2013EnST...4712566L 3910:(21): 12566–12574. 3862:(50): 20280–20285. 3726:2009AfJMS..31...31W 3643:1982RSPTB.297..413D 3527:2016MarPB.106....8S 2805:Castillo de Bellver 2666:Trinidad and Tobago 2439:Kuwaiti Oil Lakes 2381:Tonnes of crude oil 2368: 2077:Human-use resources 1810:) is being used by 1804:C.I.Agent Solutions 1715:. They may rapidly 1432:in narrow straits. 1360:Ecosystems, habitat 1182:; 80,000 people in 1052:Oil slick from the 764:Ocean acidification 674:Unexploded ordnance 595:Advertising clutter 527:Post-consumer waste 472:Foam food container 457:Biodegradable waste 114:Global distillation 8427:Technology hazards 8403:Ecology portal 8287:Waste minimisation 8262:Industrial ecology 8257:Cleaner production 8075:Nutrient pollution 7952:Herbicidal warfare 7746:Construction waste 7382:Introduced species 7253:Indoor air quality 7180:Chlorofluorocarbon 7028:Nutrient pollution 6921:Aquatic toxicology 6782:Ports and Harbours 6455:"Economic Effects" 6186:"Tanker Incidents" 6161:"Atlantic Empress" 6136:"Major Oil Spills" 5952:on 14 October 2012 5925:has generic name ( 5873:The New York Times 5853:2010-08-04 at the 5752:2010-07-28 at the 5525:www.britannica.com 5347:10.1007/BF02085976 5191:10.1242/jeb.153130 4905:. 30 November 2012 4081:. February 5, 2019 3960:10.1039/C3EM00390F 3671:2001-02-16 at the 3611:2012-06-07 at the 3605:Magellanic Penguin 3296:10.1111/padm.12170 3198:S-200 (fertilizer) 3191:Pseudomonas putida 3184:Project Deep Spill 3072:Decline in tourism 3051:The New York Times 3015:2014-06-21 at the 2894:September 23, 2004 2518:Gulf War oil spill 2486:, California, USA 2366:Largest oil spills 2364: 2280:List of oil spills 2274:Largest oil spills 1948:Macropis fulvipes' 1852: 1677: 1674:Prestige oil spill 1666: 1562: 1554: 1539: 1508:Recreational boats 1458: 1376:Gulf War Oil Spill 1244: 1232: 1199: 1093:offshore platforms 1058: 1010:Ecology portal 635:Herbicidal warfare 179:Introduced species 119:Indoor air quality 89:Chlorofluorocarbon 58:after an oil spill 8409: 8408: 8282:Pollution control 7962:Nuclear holocaust 7871:Thermal treatment 7839:Plastic pollution 7756:Mercury poisoning 7709:Battery recycling 7608:Radioactive waste 7377:Genetic pollution 7372:Biological hazard 7170:Air quality index 7106: 7105: 6961:Friendly Floatees 6797:Ports and Harbors 6093:(5803): 235–238. 6050:(5803): 235–238. 5794:Los Angeles Times 5698:, 3 January 2003. 5576:. 5 February 2014 5034:Los Angeles Times 4945:978-0-309-47818-2 4430:Marine Technology 4125:978-981-4699-99-0 3924:10.1021/es402265y 3637:(1087): 413–427. 3561:oils.gpa.unep.org 3371:on 4 October 2013 3208:Spill containment 2998: 2997: 2939:November 10, 1988 2928:off the coast of 2568:Deepwater Horizon 2402:Kuwaiti Oil Fires 2298:Galapagos Islands 2251: 2250: 1731:that are rapidly 1615:biological agents 1533:Deepwater Horizon 1470:Deepwater Horizon 1406:MARPOL convention 1380:Kuwaiti Oil Fires 1203:Deepwater Horizon 1163:Deepwater Horizon 1154:Kuwaiti oil fires 1130:of birds and the 1054:Montara oil spill 1046: 1045: 981: 980: 647:Nuclear holocaust 570:Urban heat island 384:Radioactive waste 169:Biological hazard 79:Air quality index 16:(Redirected from 8459: 8401: 8400: 8399: 8391: 8390: 8381: 8380: 8373: 8372: 8365: 8364: 8352: 8351: 8226:Legacy pollution 8085:Oil exploitation 7947:Chemical warfare 7861:Waste management 7768:Industrial waste 7736:Biomedical waste 7704:Electronic waste 7689:Advertising mail 7673:Phytoremediation 7648:Land degradation 7433:Overillumination 7387:Invasive species 7133: 7126: 7119: 7110: 7109: 7003:Invasive species 6895:Marine pollution 6888: 6881: 6874: 6865: 6864: 6821: 6820: 6812: 6801: 6800: 6792: 6786: 6785: 6777: 6771: 6770: 6768: 6736: 6727: 6726: 6716: 6680: 6674: 6673: 6665: 6659: 6658: 6630: 6624: 6623: 6615: 6609: 6608: 6602: 6594: 6574: 6568: 6567: 6565: 6563: 6554:Rafferty, J. P. 6551: 6542: 6541: 6505: 6499: 6498: 6492: 6484: 6472: 6466: 6465: 6463: 6461: 6450: 6439: 6438: 6430: 6411: 6410: 6408: 6376: 6370: 6369: 6367: 6366: 6355: 6349: 6348: 6346: 6344: 6328: 6322: 6321: 6319: 6318: 6302: 6296: 6295: 6294:on May 25, 2009. 6288:"Case Histories" 6284: 6278: 6277: 6275: 6274: 6265:. Archived from 6255: 6249: 6248: 6246: 6245: 6235: 6229: 6228: 6226: 6225: 6210: 6201: 6200: 6198: 6197: 6192:on June 23, 2009 6188:. Archived from 6182: 6176: 6175: 6173: 6172: 6157: 6151: 6150: 6148: 6147: 6132: 6119: 6118: 6107:10.1038/290235a0 6082: 6076: 6075: 6064:10.1038/290235a0 6039: 6033: 6032: 6030: 6029: 6020:. Archived from 6010: 6004: 6003: 5989: 5983: 5982: 5980: 5979: 5974:. Abcnews.go.com 5968: 5962: 5961: 5959: 5957: 5948:. Archived from 5937: 5931: 5930: 5924: 5920: 5918: 5910: 5908: 5906: 5891: 5885: 5884: 5882: 5880: 5875:. New York Times 5864: 5858: 5841: 5835: 5824: 5818: 5810: 5804: 5803: 5801: 5800: 5785: 5779: 5778:, 21 March 2003. 5763: 5757: 5738: 5729: 5708: 5699: 5690: 5684: 5675: 5669: 5668: 5666: 5665: 5650: 5641: 5640: 5638: 5637: 5615: 5609: 5608: 5606: 5605: 5591: 5585: 5584: 5582: 5581: 5574:theecologist.org 5566: 5560: 5559: 5557: 5556: 5541: 5535: 5534: 5532: 5531: 5517: 5511: 5506: 5500: 5499: 5490:(1–2): 369–411. 5479: 5473: 5469: 5463: 5458: 5452: 5445: 5436: 5426: 5417: 5414: 5405: 5402: 5396: 5389: 5374: 5373: 5365: 5359: 5358: 5322: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5312: 5298: 5292: 5288: 5275: 5274: 5266: 5253: 5252: 5250: 5249: 5238: 5232: 5231: 5229: 5228: 5218: 5212: 5211: 5193: 5169: 5163: 5162: 5160: 5159: 5153: 5145: 5139: 5138: 5136: 5134: 5120: 5114: 5113: 5077: 5071: 5070: 5068: 5067: 5052: 5046: 5043: 5037: 5030: 5024: 5021: 5015: 5014: 4986: 4980: 4979: 4973: 4965: 4921: 4915: 4914: 4912: 4910: 4895: 4889: 4888: 4886: 4885: 4876:. 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Archived from 3361: 3355: 3354: 3352: 3351: 3336: 3330: 3329: 3317: 3311: 3306: 3300: 3299: 3279: 3273: 3272: 3270: 3269: 3257: 3251: 3250: 3248: 3247: 3242:on June 13, 2010 3232: 3056: 3045: 3039: 3035: 3029: 3025: 3019: 3006: 2992: 2987: 2982: 2977: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2940: 2913: 2907: 2901: 2895: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2836: 2831: 2826: 2821: 2796: 2791: 2786: 2781: 2759: 2754: 2749: 2744: 2743:February 4, 1983 2721: 2716: 2711: 2706: 2687: 2682: 2677: 2672: 2656:Atlantic Empress 2646: 2640: 2634: 2629: 2625: 2602: 2596: 2590: 2585: 2581: 2558: 2552: 2546: 2541: 2540:January 28, 1991 2537: 2536:January 19, 1991 2510: 2505: 2500: 2495: 2491: 2470: 2464: 2458: 2453: 2449: 2432: 2427: 2422: 2417: 2416:November 6, 1991 2413: 2412:January 16, 1991 2369: 2363: 2319:Atlantic Empress 2107:Quantity spread 2099: 2098: 1822:, to aid in the 1649:, and can cause 1378:(sea based) and 1322:body temperature 1311: 1073:marine ecosystem 1038: 1031: 1024: 1008: 1007: 1006: 996: 995: 927: 926: 630:Chemical warfare 532:Waste management 492:Industrial waste 467:Electronic waste 452:Advertising mail 434:Phytoremediation 409:Land degradation 349:Depleted uranium 234:Overillumination 184:Invasive species 53: 30: 29: 21: 8467: 8466: 8462: 8461: 8460: 8458: 8457: 8456: 8437:Ocean pollution 8412: 8411: 8410: 8405: 8397: 8395: 8385: 8342: 8328: 8296: 8245: 8194: 8161: 8100:Pharmaceuticals 8090:Oil exploration 7994: 7966:Nuclear fallout 7933: 7895: 7877: 7851:Packaging waste 7805:Deep sea mining 7731:Hazardous waste 7677: 7658:Open defecation 7612: 7578:Nuclear fallout 7573:Nuclear fission 7549: 7475: 7444: 7415:Electromagnetic 7409: 7393: 7358: 7278:Ozone depletion 7151: 7142: 7137: 7107: 7102: 7098:Water pollution 7013:Mercury in fish 6897: 6892: 6861: 6859: 6829: 6827:Further reading 6824: 6813: 6804: 6793: 6789: 6778: 6774: 6737: 6730: 6681: 6677: 6670:Deep Oil Spills 6666: 6662: 6635:Deep Oil Spills 6631: 6627: 6620:Deep Oil Spills 6616: 6612: 6596: 6595: 6575: 6571: 6561: 6559: 6552: 6545: 6506: 6502: 6486: 6485: 6473: 6469: 6459: 6457: 6451: 6442: 6431: 6414: 6377: 6373: 6364: 6362: 6356: 6352: 6342: 6340: 6329: 6325: 6316: 6314: 6311:Washington Post 6304: 6303: 6299: 6286: 6285: 6281: 6272: 6270: 6257: 6256: 6252: 6243: 6241: 6237: 6236: 6232: 6223: 6221: 6212: 6211: 6204: 6195: 6193: 6184: 6183: 6179: 6170: 6168: 6159: 6158: 6154: 6145: 6143: 6134: 6133: 6122: 6083: 6079: 6040: 6036: 6027: 6025: 6012: 6011: 6007: 5990: 5986: 5977: 5975: 5970: 5969: 5965: 5955: 5953: 5938: 5934: 5922: 5921: 5912: 5911: 5904: 5902: 5892: 5888: 5878: 5876: 5865: 5861: 5855:Wayback Machine 5842: 5838: 5825: 5821: 5811: 5807: 5798: 5796: 5786: 5782: 5764: 5760: 5756:, 8 March 1993. 5754:Wayback Machine 5739: 5732: 5727:Wayback Machine 5709: 5702: 5691: 5687: 5676: 5672: 5663: 5661: 5652: 5651: 5644: 5635: 5633: 5617: 5616: 5612: 5603: 5601: 5593: 5592: 5588: 5579: 5577: 5568: 5567: 5563: 5554: 5552: 5543: 5542: 5538: 5529: 5527: 5519: 5518: 5514: 5507: 5503: 5480: 5476: 5470: 5466: 5459: 5455: 5446: 5439: 5427: 5420: 5415: 5408: 5403: 5399: 5390: 5377: 5366: 5362: 5323: 5319: 5310: 5308: 5300: 5299: 5295: 5289: 5278: 5267: 5256: 5247: 5245: 5240: 5239: 5235: 5226: 5224: 5220: 5219: 5215: 5170: 5166: 5157: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5146: 5142: 5132: 5130: 5128:BostonGlobe.com 5122: 5121: 5117: 5078: 5074: 5065: 5063: 5053: 5049: 5044: 5040: 5031: 5027: 5022: 5018: 4987: 4983: 4967: 4966: 4946: 4922: 4918: 4908: 4906: 4897: 4896: 4892: 4883: 4881: 4854: 4850: 4841: 4839: 4834: 4833: 4829: 4820: 4818: 4809: 4808: 4804: 4795: 4793: 4784: 4783: 4779: 4748: 4744: 4731: 4730: 4723: 4714: 4712: 4707: 4706: 4702: 4692: 4690: 4689:on May 14, 2014 4677: 4676: 4672: 4633: 4629: 4620: 4619: 4615: 4606: 4604: 4599: 4598: 4594: 4589:Wayback Machine 4579: 4575: 4528: 4524: 4511: 4502: 4493: 4491: 4483: 4482: 4473: 4464: 4462: 4454: 4453: 4449: 4426: 4422: 4385: 4376: 4367: 4365: 4357: 4356: 4352: 4345: 4331: 4324: 4285: 4262: 4253: 4251: 4241: 4232: 4209: 4205: 4152: 4133: 4126: 4102: 4093: 4084: 4082: 4073: 4072: 4068: 4046: 4045: 4041: 4029: 4025: 4024: 4020: 3983:Wright, Beverly 3979: 3975: 3943: 3939: 3899: 3895: 3847: 3843: 3834: 3832: 3823: 3822: 3818: 3803: 3799: 3790: 3788: 3779: 3778: 3774: 3765: 3763: 3754: 3753: 3749: 3709: 3705: 3695: 3693: 3684: 3683: 3679: 3673:Wayback Machine 3664: 3660: 3623: 3619: 3613:Wayback Machine 3601: 3597: 3578: 3574: 3565: 3563: 3555: 3554: 3550: 3511: 3504: 3481: 3477: 3468: 3466: 3457: 3456: 3452: 3443: 3441: 3432: 3431: 3427: 3417: 3415: 3411: 3410: 3406: 3396: 3394: 3389: 3388: 3384: 3374: 3372: 3363: 3362: 3358: 3349: 3347: 3338: 3337: 3333: 3318: 3314: 3307: 3303: 3280: 3276: 3267: 3265: 3258: 3254: 3245: 3243: 3234: 3233: 3226: 3222: 3217: 3179:Penguin sweater 3122: 3113: 3104: 3091: 3074: 3065: 3060: 3059: 3046: 3042: 3036: 3032: 3026: 3022: 3017:Wayback Machine 3007: 3003: 2887:United States, 2573:United States, 2479:Lakeview Gusher 2392: 2387: 2382: 2282: 2276: 2132:Barely visible 2124:gal/sq mi 2104:Film thickness 2093: 2079: 2042: 2008: 2003: 1990: 1972: 1963: 1942: 1895: 1889: 1707:and to prevent 1600: 1520: 1505: 1482: 1450: 1397: 1388: 1371: 1362: 1348:and oxygenated 1334: 1307: 1306:Heavily furred 1273:digestive tract 1249: 1217: 1211: 1149: 1042: 1004: 1002: 990: 983: 982: 882: 874: 873: 847: 839: 838: 774:Pharmaceuticals 754:Nonpoint source 694: 684: 683: 652:Nuclear fallout 625: 615: 614: 585: 575: 574: 565: 555: 554: 545: 537: 536: 522:Packaging waste 487:Hazardous waste 447: 439: 438: 399: 389: 388: 359:Nuclear fallout 354:Nuclear fission 334: 324: 323: 289: 279: 278: 254: 246: 245: 219: 217:Electromagnetic 209: 208: 199: 191: 190: 164: 154: 153: 124:Ozone depletion 69: 59: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8465: 8455: 8454: 8449: 8444: 8439: 8434: 8432:Bird mortality 8429: 8424: 8407: 8406: 8347: 8344: 8343: 8341: 8340: 8335: 8330: 8326: 8322: 8317: 8315:Law by country 8312: 8306: 8304: 8298: 8297: 8295: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8264: 8259: 8253: 8251: 8247: 8246: 8244: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8202: 8200: 8196: 8195: 8193: 8192: 8187: 8186: 8185: 8180: 8169: 8167: 8163: 8162: 8160: 8159: 8154: 8149: 8144: 8139: 8137:Surface runoff 8134: 8129: 8124: 8119: 8118: 8117: 8112: 8102: 8097: 8092: 8087: 8082: 8077: 8072: 8067: 8062: 8061: 8060: 8050: 8045: 8040: 8035: 8030: 8025: 8023:Eutrophication 8020: 8015: 8010: 8004: 8002: 7996: 7995: 7993: 7992: 7987: 7982: 7980:Scorched earth 7977: 7974:nuclear winter 7970:nuclear famine 7959: 7949: 7943: 7941: 7935: 7934: 7932: 7931: 7926: 7921: 7916: 7911: 7905: 7903: 7897: 7896: 7894: 7893: 7887: 7885: 7879: 7878: 7876: 7875: 7874: 7873: 7868: 7858: 7853: 7848: 7847: 7846: 7836: 7831: 7830: 7829: 7819: 7818: 7817: 7815:Uranium mining 7812: 7807: 7802: 7800:Surface mining 7797: 7792: 7782: 7777: 7776: 7775: 7765: 7764: 7763: 7758: 7753: 7751:Lead poisoning 7748: 7743: 7741:Chemical waste 7738: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7712: 7711: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7685: 7683: 7679: 7678: 7676: 7675: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7655: 7653:Bioremediation 7650: 7645: 7644: 7643: 7638: 7633: 7622: 7620: 7614: 7613: 7611: 7610: 7605: 7600: 7595: 7590: 7585: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7568:Bioremediation 7565: 7559: 7557: 7551: 7550: 7548: 7547: 7542: 7539: 7536: 7533: 7532: 7531: 7521: 7516: 7515: 7514: 7509: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7489:Transportation 7485: 7483: 7477: 7476: 7474: 7473: 7468: 7463: 7458: 7452: 7450: 7446: 7445: 7443: 7442: 7437: 7436: 7435: 7430: 7419: 7417: 7411: 7410: 7408: 7407: 7401: 7399: 7395: 7394: 7392: 7391: 7390: 7389: 7379: 7374: 7368: 7366: 7360: 7359: 7357: 7356: 7351: 7346: 7345: 7344: 7334: 7333: 7332: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7311: 7310: 7305: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7280: 7275: 7270: 7265: 7263:Global dimming 7260: 7255: 7250: 7249: 7248: 7238: 7237: 7236: 7234:Diesel exhaust 7226: 7221: 7220: 7219: 7209: 7208: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7192: 7182: 7177: 7172: 7167: 7161: 7159: 7153: 7152: 7147: 7144: 7143: 7136: 7135: 7128: 7121: 7113: 7104: 7103: 7101: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7083:Surface runoff 7080: 7075: 7070: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7040: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6989: 6988: 6983: 6981:North Atlantic 6978: 6973: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6946:Eutrophication 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6902: 6899: 6898: 6891: 6890: 6883: 6876: 6868: 6858: 6857: 6844: 6838: 6833:Nelson-Smith, 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6822: 6802: 6787: 6772: 6728: 6691:(2): 201–215. 6675: 6660: 6625: 6610: 6569: 6543: 6500: 6467: 6440: 6412: 6371: 6350: 6339:on 12 May 2012 6323: 6297: 6279: 6250: 6230: 6202: 6177: 6152: 6120: 6077: 6034: 6005: 5999:The New Yorker 5994:"The Gulf War" 5984: 5963: 5932: 5886: 5859: 5836: 5819: 5805: 5780: 5758: 5741:United Nations 5730: 5700: 5685: 5670: 5642: 5625:. 2011-08-22. 5610: 5586: 5561: 5536: 5512: 5501: 5474: 5464: 5453: 5437: 5418: 5406: 5397: 5375: 5360: 5333:(4): 151–155. 5317: 5293: 5276: 5254: 5233: 5213: 5164: 5154:. Chemstore UK 5140: 5115: 5088:(2): 136–143. 5072: 5061:New York Times 5047: 5038: 5025: 5016: 4997:(2): 129–139. 4981: 4944: 4936:10.17226/25161 4916: 4890: 4848: 4827: 4802: 4777: 4758:(4): 323–330. 4742: 4721: 4700: 4670: 4627: 4613: 4592: 4573: 4536:Microorganisms 4522: 4500: 4471: 4447: 4436:(4): 219–228. 4420: 4374: 4350: 4343: 4322: 4260: 4230: 4219:(2): 186–198. 4203: 4131: 4124: 4091: 4066: 4039: 4018: 3997:(2): 224–236. 3973: 3937: 3893: 3841: 3816: 3797: 3772: 3747: 3703: 3690:Spiegel Online 3677: 3658: 3617: 3595: 3572: 3548: 3502: 3475: 3450: 3434:"Oil For Fuel" 3425: 3404: 3382: 3356: 3331: 3312: 3301: 3290:(2): 381–398. 3274: 3252: 3223: 3221: 3218: 3216: 3215: 3210: 3205: 3200: 3195: 3187: 3181: 3176: 3171: 3165: 3159: 3154: 3149: 3144: 3139: 3134: 3129: 3123: 3121: 3118: 3112: 3109: 3103: 3100: 3090: 3087: 3073: 3070: 3064: 3061: 3058: 3057: 3040: 3030: 3020: 3000: 2999: 2996: 2995: 2993: 2988: 2983: 2978: 2976:March 18, 1967 2973: 2967: 2959: 2958: 2956: 2951: 2946: 2941: 2936: 2926: 2918: 2917: 2915: 2909: 2903: 2897: 2891: 2889:Gulf of Mexico 2885: 2877: 2876: 2874: 2869: 2864: 2859: 2857:March 16, 1978 2854: 2848: 2840: 2839: 2837: 2832: 2827: 2822: 2820:August 6, 1983 2817: 2808: 2800: 2799: 2797: 2792: 2787: 2782: 2777: 2771: 2763: 2762: 2760: 2755: 2750: 2745: 2740: 2731: 2725: 2724: 2722: 2717: 2712: 2707: 2702: 2697: 2695:Fergana Valley 2691: 2690: 2688: 2683: 2678: 2673: 2668: 2663: 2661:Aegean Captain 2651: 2650: 2648: 2642: 2636: 2630: 2628:March 23, 1980 2621: 2619:Gulf of Mexico 2615: 2607: 2606: 2604: 2598: 2592: 2586: 2580:April 20, 2010 2577: 2575:Gulf of Mexico 2571: 2563: 2562: 2560: 2554: 2548: 2542: 2533: 2520: 2514: 2513: 2511: 2506: 2501: 2496: 2494:September 1911 2490:March 14, 1910 2487: 2481: 2475: 2474: 2472: 2466: 2460: 2454: 2445: 2440: 2436: 2435: 2433: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2409: 2404: 2398: 2397: 2394: 2389: 2384: 2379: 2376: 2373: 2372:Spill / Tanker 2294:Gulf of Mexico 2278:Main article: 2275: 2272: 2249: 2248: 2245: 2242: 2239: 2236: 2233: 2229: 2228: 2225: 2222: 2219: 2216: 2213: 2209: 2208: 2205: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2189: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2179: 2176: 2173: 2169: 2168: 2165: 2162: 2159: 2156: 2153: 2152:Silvery sheen 2149: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2139: 2136: 2133: 2129: 2128: 2125: 2122: 2119: 2116: 2113: 2109: 2108: 2105: 2102: 2092: 2089: 2084:archaeological 2078: 2075: 2041: 2038: 2007: 2006:Shoreline type 2004: 2002: 2001:ESI Categories 1999: 1989: 1986: 1971: 1968: 1962: 1959: 1958: 1957: 1941: 1938: 1937: 1936: 1933: 1930: 1927: 1924: 1917: 1916: 1913: 1906: 1899: 1888: 1885: 1884: 1883: 1877: 1874: 1871: 1868: 1867:: skim the oil 1862: 1838: 1837: 1834: 1827: 1816:Dauphin Island 1764: 1758: 1752: 1748: 1663:Lake Maracaibo 1661:Oil slicks on 1655: 1654: 1639: 1630: 1611:microorganisms 1607:Bioremediation 1572:Fusobacteriota 1519: 1516: 1504: 1501: 1481: 1478: 1449: 1446: 1396: 1393: 1387: 1384: 1370: 1367: 1361: 1358: 1333: 1330: 1309:marine mammals 1248: 1245: 1210: 1207: 1148: 1145: 1081:coastal waters 1044: 1043: 1041: 1040: 1033: 1026: 1018: 1015: 1014: 1013: 1012: 1000: 985: 984: 979: 978: 977: 976: 968: 967: 963: 962: 961: 960: 955: 950: 945: 943:Law by country 940: 932: 931: 925: 924: 919: 914: 909: 904: 899: 894: 889: 883: 880: 879: 876: 875: 872: 871: 870: 869: 864: 854: 848: 845: 844: 841: 840: 837: 836: 831: 826: 821: 816: 814:Surface runoff 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 766: 761: 756: 751: 746: 741: 736: 731: 726: 721: 716: 714:Eutrophication 711: 706: 701: 695: 690: 689: 686: 685: 682: 681: 676: 671: 669:Scorched earth 666: 665: 664: 662:Nuclear winter 659: 657:Nuclear famine 654: 644: 643: 642: 632: 626: 621: 620: 617: 616: 613: 612: 607: 602: 597: 592: 586: 581: 580: 577: 576: 573: 572: 566: 561: 560: 557: 556: 553: 552: 546: 543: 542: 539: 538: 535: 534: 529: 524: 519: 514: 509: 504: 499: 494: 489: 484: 479: 474: 469: 464: 459: 454: 448: 445: 444: 441: 440: 437: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 414:Bioremediation 411: 406: 400: 395: 394: 391: 390: 387: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 361: 356: 351: 346: 344:Bioremediation 341: 335: 330: 329: 326: 325: 322: 321: 316: 311: 306: 301: 296: 294:Transportation 290: 285: 284: 281: 280: 277: 276: 271: 266: 261: 255: 252: 251: 248: 247: 244: 243: 241:Radio spectrum 238: 237: 236: 231: 220: 215: 214: 211: 210: 207: 206: 200: 197: 196: 193: 192: 189: 188: 187: 186: 176: 171: 165: 160: 159: 156: 155: 152: 151: 146: 141: 136: 131: 126: 121: 116: 111: 109:Global dimming 106: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 70: 65: 64: 61: 60: 54: 46: 45: 39: 38: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8464: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8445: 8443: 8440: 8438: 8435: 8433: 8430: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8419: 8417: 8404: 8394: 8389: 8384: 8376: 8368: 8359: 8355: 8345: 8339: 8336: 8334: 8331: 8329: 8323: 8321: 8318: 8316: 8313: 8311: 8308: 8307: 8305: 8303: 8299: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8268: 8265: 8263: 8260: 8258: 8255: 8254: 8252: 8248: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8203: 8201: 8197: 8191: 8188: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8175: 8174: 8171: 8170: 8168: 8164: 8158: 8157:Water quality 8155: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8143: 8140: 8138: 8135: 8133: 8130: 8128: 8125: 8123: 8120: 8116: 8113: 8111: 8108: 8107: 8106: 8103: 8101: 8098: 8096: 8093: 8091: 8088: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8068: 8066: 8063: 8059: 8056: 8055: 8054: 8051: 8049: 8046: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8026: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8005: 8003: 8001: 7997: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7983: 7981: 7978: 7975: 7971: 7967: 7963: 7960: 7957: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7944: 7942: 7940: 7936: 7930: 7927: 7925: 7922: 7920: 7919:Traffic signs 7917: 7915: 7912: 7910: 7907: 7906: 7904: 7902: 7898: 7892: 7889: 7888: 7886: 7884: 7880: 7872: 7869: 7867: 7864: 7863: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7854: 7852: 7849: 7845: 7844:Microplastics 7842: 7841: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7834:Nanomaterials 7832: 7828: 7825: 7824: 7823: 7820: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7787: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7774: 7773:Lead smelting 7771: 7770: 7769: 7766: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7733: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7710: 7707: 7706: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7686: 7684: 7680: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7649: 7646: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7628: 7627: 7624: 7623: 7621: 7619: 7615: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7593:Radioactivity 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7560: 7558: 7556: 7552: 7546: 7545:Noise control 7543: 7540: 7537: 7534: 7530: 7527: 7526: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7492: 7491: 7490: 7487: 7486: 7484: 7482: 7478: 7472: 7469: 7467: 7464: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7453: 7451: 7447: 7441: 7438: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7425: 7424: 7421: 7420: 7418: 7416: 7412: 7406: 7403: 7402: 7400: 7396: 7388: 7385: 7384: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7369: 7367: 7365: 7361: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7343: 7340: 7339: 7338: 7335: 7331: 7328: 7327: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7309: 7306: 7304: 7301: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7293:Metal working 7291: 7289: 7286: 7285: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7247: 7244: 7243: 7242: 7239: 7235: 7232: 7231: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7218: 7215: 7214: 7213: 7210: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7187: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7162: 7160: 7158: 7154: 7150: 7145: 7141: 7134: 7129: 7127: 7122: 7120: 7115: 7114: 7111: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7008:Marine debris 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6987: 6986:South Pacific 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6971:Great Pacific 6969: 6968: 6967: 6966:Garbage patch 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6916:Anoxic waters 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6903: 6900: 6896: 6889: 6884: 6882: 6877: 6875: 6870: 6869: 6866: 6862: 6855: 6851: 6850: 6845: 6842: 6839: 6836: 6832: 6831: 6818: 6811: 6809: 6807: 6798: 6791: 6783: 6776: 6767: 6762: 6758: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6742: 6735: 6733: 6724: 6720: 6715: 6710: 6706: 6702: 6698: 6694: 6690: 6686: 6679: 6671: 6664: 6656: 6652: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6629: 6621: 6614: 6606: 6600: 6592: 6588: 6584: 6580: 6573: 6557: 6550: 6548: 6539: 6535: 6531: 6527: 6523: 6519: 6515: 6511: 6504: 6496: 6490: 6482: 6478: 6471: 6456: 6449: 6447: 6445: 6436: 6429: 6427: 6425: 6423: 6421: 6419: 6417: 6407: 6402: 6398: 6394: 6391:(1): 012002. 6390: 6386: 6382: 6375: 6361: 6354: 6338: 6334: 6327: 6313: 6312: 6307: 6301: 6293: 6289: 6283: 6269:on 2008-10-27 6268: 6264: 6260: 6259:"Amoco Cadiz" 6254: 6240: 6234: 6220:on 2012-08-05 6219: 6215: 6209: 6207: 6191: 6187: 6181: 6166: 6162: 6156: 6141: 6137: 6131: 6129: 6127: 6125: 6116: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6081: 6073: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6045: 6038: 6024:on 2012-05-03 6023: 6019: 6015: 6009: 6001: 6000: 5995: 5988: 5973: 5967: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5936: 5928: 5923:|author= 5916: 5901: 5897: 5890: 5874: 5870: 5863: 5856: 5852: 5849: 5845: 5840: 5834: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5816: 5815: 5809: 5795: 5791: 5784: 5777: 5776: 5771: 5767: 5762: 5755: 5751: 5748: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5735: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5718: 5712: 5707: 5705: 5697: 5696: 5689: 5682: 5679: 5674: 5659: 5655: 5649: 5647: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5614: 5600: 5596: 5590: 5575: 5571: 5565: 5550: 5546: 5540: 5526: 5522: 5516: 5510: 5505: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5478: 5468: 5462: 5457: 5450: 5444: 5442: 5434: 5430: 5425: 5423: 5413: 5411: 5401: 5394: 5388: 5386: 5384: 5382: 5380: 5371: 5364: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5321: 5307: 5303: 5297: 5287: 5285: 5283: 5281: 5272: 5265: 5263: 5261: 5259: 5243: 5237: 5223: 5217: 5209: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5168: 5150: 5144: 5129: 5125: 5119: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5076: 5062: 5058: 5051: 5042: 5035: 5029: 5020: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4985: 4977: 4971: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4928: 4920: 4904: 4900: 4894: 4880:on 2008-03-02 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4852: 4837: 4831: 4817:on 2013-11-14 4816: 4812: 4806: 4792:on 2007-01-24 4791: 4787: 4781: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4746: 4738: 4734: 4728: 4726: 4710: 4704: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4674: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4643:(3): 141–47. 4642: 4638: 4631: 4623: 4617: 4602: 4596: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4577: 4569: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4526: 4518: 4517: 4509: 4507: 4505: 4490: 4486: 4480: 4478: 4476: 4461: 4457: 4451: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4424: 4416: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4383: 4381: 4379: 4364: 4360: 4354: 4346: 4344:9780429289101 4340: 4336: 4329: 4327: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4283: 4281: 4279: 4277: 4275: 4273: 4271: 4269: 4267: 4265: 4250: 4246: 4239: 4237: 4235: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4207: 4199: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4150: 4148: 4146: 4144: 4142: 4140: 4138: 4136: 4127: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4108: 4100: 4098: 4096: 4080: 4076: 4070: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4043: 4035: 4028: 4022: 4014: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3977: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3941: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3897: 3889: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3845: 3830: 3826: 3820: 3812: 3808: 3801: 3786: 3782: 3776: 3761: 3757: 3751: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3707: 3692:. May 6, 2010 3691: 3687: 3681: 3674: 3670: 3667: 3662: 3653: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3621: 3614: 3610: 3607: 3606: 3599: 3592:(2): 249–254. 3591: 3587: 3583: 3576: 3562: 3558: 3552: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3521:(1–2): 8–16. 3520: 3516: 3509: 3507: 3498: 3494: 3491:(43): 93–96. 3490: 3486: 3479: 3464: 3460: 3454: 3439: 3435: 3429: 3414: 3408: 3392: 3386: 3370: 3366: 3360: 3345: 3341: 3335: 3327: 3323: 3316: 3310: 3305: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3278: 3263: 3256: 3241: 3237: 3231: 3229: 3224: 3214: 3211: 3209: 3206: 3204: 3201: 3199: 3196: 3193: 3192: 3188: 3185: 3182: 3180: 3177: 3175: 3172: 3169: 3166: 3163: 3160: 3158: 3155: 3153: 3150: 3148: 3145: 3143: 3140: 3138: 3135: 3133: 3130: 3128: 3125: 3124: 3117: 3108: 3099: 3095: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3069: 3053: 3052: 3044: 3034: 3024: 3018: 3014: 3011: 3005: 3001: 2994: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2974: 2972: 2968: 2966: 2965: 2964:Torrey Canyon 2961: 2960: 2957: 2952: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2925: 2924: 2920: 2919: 2916: 2910: 2904: 2898: 2892: 2890: 2886: 2884: 2883: 2882:Taylor Energy 2879: 2878: 2875: 2870: 2865: 2860: 2855: 2853: 2849: 2847: 2846: 2842: 2841: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2816: 2812: 2809: 2807: 2806: 2802: 2801: 2798: 2793: 2788: 2783: 2778: 2775: 2772: 2770: 2769: 2765: 2764: 2761: 2756: 2751: 2746: 2741: 2739: 2735: 2732: 2730: 2727: 2726: 2723: 2718: 2713: 2708: 2705:March 2, 1992 2703: 2701: 2698: 2696: 2693: 2692: 2689: 2684: 2679: 2674: 2671:July 19, 1979 2669: 2667: 2664: 2662: 2658: 2657: 2653: 2652: 2649: 2643: 2637: 2631: 2622: 2620: 2616: 2614: 2613: 2609: 2608: 2605: 2599: 2593: 2587: 2584:July 15, 2010 2578: 2576: 2572: 2570: 2569: 2565: 2564: 2561: 2555: 2549: 2543: 2534: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2521: 2519: 2516: 2515: 2512: 2507: 2502: 2497: 2488: 2485: 2482: 2480: 2477: 2476: 2473: 2467: 2461: 2455: 2452:November 1991 2446: 2444: 2441: 2438: 2437: 2434: 2429: 2424: 2419: 2410: 2408: 2405: 2403: 2400: 2399: 2395: 2390: 2385: 2380: 2377: 2374: 2371: 2370: 2367: 2362: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2334: 2332: 2327: 2326: 2321: 2320: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2281: 2271: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2246: 2243: 2240: 2237: 2234: 2231: 2230: 2226: 2223: 2220: 2217: 2214: 2211: 2210: 2206: 2203: 2200: 2197: 2194: 2191: 2190: 2186: 2183: 2180: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2170: 2166: 2163: 2160: 2157: 2154: 2151: 2150: 2146: 2143: 2140: 2137: 2134: 2131: 2130: 2126: 2123: 2120: 2117: 2114: 2111: 2110: 2101: 2100: 2097: 2088: 2085: 2074: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2047: 2037: 2034: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2012: 1998: 1994: 1985: 1983: 1978: 1967: 1954: 1950: 1949: 1944: 1943: 1934: 1931: 1928: 1925: 1922: 1921: 1920: 1914: 1911: 1907: 1904: 1900: 1897: 1896: 1894: 1881: 1878: 1875: 1872: 1869: 1866: 1863: 1860: 1857: 1856: 1855: 1850: 1848: 1842: 1835: 1832: 1828: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1773: 1770:pellets, and 1769: 1765: 1762: 1759: 1756: 1753: 1749: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1679: 1678: 1675: 1670: 1664: 1659: 1652: 1651:air pollution 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1631: 1628: 1627: 1622: 1621: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1603: 1599: 1594: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1575: 1573: 1568: 1558: 1551: 1549: 1543: 1536: 1534: 1529: 1524: 1515: 1511: 1509: 1503:Other sources 1500: 1497: 1493: 1492:in Colombia. 1491: 1487: 1477: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1462:oil platforms 1454: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1409: 1407: 1402: 1392: 1386:Natural seeps 1383: 1381: 1377: 1366: 1357: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1329: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1310: 1304: 1302: 1300: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1264: 1260: 1258: 1254: 1241: 1236: 1230: 1226: 1221: 1216: 1206: 1204: 1195: 1191: 1189: 1185: 1184:Coca, Ecuador 1181: 1177: 1172: 1170: 1166: 1164: 1159: 1158:air pollution 1155: 1147:Human impacts 1144: 1140: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1124: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1097:drilling rigs 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1067: 1063: 1055: 1050: 1039: 1034: 1032: 1027: 1025: 1020: 1019: 1017: 1016: 1011: 1001: 999: 994: 989: 988: 987: 986: 975: 972: 971: 970: 969: 965: 964: 959: 956: 954: 951: 949: 946: 944: 941: 939: 936: 935: 934: 933: 929: 928: 923: 920: 918: 915: 913: 910: 908: 905: 903: 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 888: 885: 884: 878: 877: 868: 865: 863: 860: 859: 858: 855: 853: 850: 849: 843: 842: 835: 832: 830: 829:Water quality 827: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 790: 787: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 765: 762: 760: 757: 755: 752: 750: 747: 745: 742: 740: 737: 735: 732: 730: 727: 725: 722: 720: 717: 715: 712: 710: 707: 705: 702: 700: 697: 696: 693: 688: 687: 680: 677: 675: 672: 670: 667: 663: 660: 658: 655: 653: 650: 649: 648: 645: 641: 638: 637: 636: 633: 631: 628: 627: 624: 619: 618: 611: 608: 606: 605:Traffic signs 603: 601: 598: 596: 593: 591: 588: 587: 584: 579: 578: 571: 568: 567: 564: 559: 558: 551: 548: 547: 541: 540: 533: 530: 528: 525: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 512:Nanomaterials 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 478: 475: 473: 470: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 449: 443: 442: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 401: 398: 393: 392: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 374:Radioactivity 372: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 357: 355: 352: 350: 347: 345: 342: 340: 337: 336: 333: 328: 327: 320: 319:Soundproofing 317: 315: 314:Noise control 312: 310: 309:Noise barrier 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 291: 288: 283: 282: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 256: 250: 249: 242: 239: 235: 232: 230: 227: 226: 225: 222: 221: 218: 213: 212: 205: 202: 201: 195: 194: 185: 182: 181: 180: 177: 175: 172: 170: 167: 166: 163: 158: 157: 150: 147: 145: 142: 140: 137: 135: 132: 130: 127: 125: 122: 120: 117: 115: 112: 110: 107: 105: 102: 100: 97: 95: 92: 90: 87: 85: 82: 80: 77: 75: 72: 71: 68: 63: 62: 57: 52: 48: 47: 44: 41: 40: 36: 32: 31: 19: 18:Oil pollution 8447:Road hazards 8236:Point source 8178:Heavy metals 8152:Urban runoff 8132:Sulfur water 8110:Septic tanks 8094: 7956:Agent Orange 7810:Mining waste 7636:Manure waste 7466:Volcanic ash 7342:Black carbon 7298:Oil refining 7283:Particulates 7212:Construction 7093:Urban runoff 7053:Plastic bags 7042: 6976:Indian Ocean 6911:Anoxic event 6860: 6848: 6840: 6834: 6816: 6796: 6790: 6781: 6775: 6748: 6744: 6688: 6684: 6678: 6669: 6663: 6638: 6634: 6628: 6619: 6613: 6599:cite journal 6585:(1): 12–25. 6582: 6578: 6572: 6560:. Retrieved 6516:(1): 65–72. 6513: 6509: 6503: 6489:cite journal 6480: 6476: 6470: 6458:. Retrieved 6434: 6388: 6384: 6374: 6363:. Retrieved 6353: 6341:. Retrieved 6337:the original 6326: 6315:. Retrieved 6309: 6300: 6292:the original 6282: 6271:. Retrieved 6267:the original 6253: 6242:. Retrieved 6233: 6222:. Retrieved 6218:the original 6194:. Retrieved 6190:the original 6180: 6169:. Retrieved 6165:the original 6155: 6144:. Retrieved 6140:the original 6090: 6086: 6080: 6047: 6043: 6037: 6026:. Retrieved 6022:the original 6008: 5997: 5987: 5976:. Retrieved 5966: 5954:. Retrieved 5950:the original 5945: 5935: 5903:. Retrieved 5899: 5889: 5877:. Retrieved 5872: 5862: 5839: 5831: 5822: 5813: 5808: 5797:. Retrieved 5793: 5783: 5774: 5761: 5745: 5716: 5694: 5688: 5680: 5673: 5662:. Retrieved 5660:. 2010-05-29 5658:The Guardian 5657: 5634:. Retrieved 5623:The Guardian 5622: 5613: 5602:. Retrieved 5598: 5589: 5578:. Retrieved 5573: 5564: 5553:. Retrieved 5551:. 2021-04-07 5548: 5539: 5528:. Retrieved 5524: 5515: 5504: 5487: 5483: 5477: 5467: 5460: 5456: 5448: 5400: 5392: 5369: 5363: 5330: 5326: 5320: 5309:. Retrieved 5305: 5296: 5273:: 1003–1014. 5270: 5246:. Retrieved 5236: 5225:. Retrieved 5216: 5181: 5177: 5167: 5156:. Retrieved 5143: 5131:. Retrieved 5127: 5118: 5085: 5081: 5075: 5064:. Retrieved 5060: 5050: 5041: 5033: 5028: 5019: 4994: 4990: 4984: 4926: 4919: 4907:. Retrieved 4902: 4893: 4882:. Retrieved 4878:the original 4865: 4862:Science News 4861: 4851: 4840:. Retrieved 4830: 4819:. Retrieved 4815:the original 4805: 4794:. Retrieved 4790:the original 4786:"Oil Spills" 4780: 4755: 4751: 4745: 4736: 4713:. Retrieved 4703: 4691:. Retrieved 4687:the original 4682: 4673: 4640: 4636: 4630: 4616: 4605:. Retrieved 4595: 4576: 4539: 4535: 4525: 4516:Science News 4514: 4492:. Retrieved 4488: 4463:. Retrieved 4459: 4450: 4433: 4429: 4423: 4396: 4392: 4366:. Retrieved 4362: 4353: 4334: 4292: 4288: 4252:. 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