Parthian Empire - Knowledge

373: 2993: 15496: 5874:, p. 24, "It is impossible to doubt that the Parthians were Zoroastrians. The evidence from the Nisa ostraca and the Parthian parchment from Avroman suffice to prove this, by the use of the Zoroastrian calendar, which was restricted in use, as it had been previously, to communication with Iranians only, yielding to the Seleucid calendar whenever the Parthians dealt with non-Zoroastrians. There are indications, however, that the practice of Zoroastrianism had reserved a large place for the cult of divine images, either those of ancestors in the Fravashi cult, or of deities, and for the existence of sanctuaries dedicated to named deities other than Ahura Mazda, and including deities that are of a non-Avestan background. The Parthian god Sasan is a case in point, but better evidence comes from Armenia, where alongside Aramazd and Anahit, Mher and Vahagn, the West Semitic god Barshamin, and Babylonian Nane were worshipped, as well as the Anatolian Tork and the goddess Astghik of disputed origins." 5298:'Parthian frontality', as we are now accustomed to call it, deeply differs both from ancient Near Eastern and from Greek frontality, though it is, no doubt, an offspring of the latter. For both in Oriental art and in Greek art, frontality was an exceptional treatment: in Oriental art it was a treatment strictly reserved for a small number of traditional characters of cult and myth; in Greek art it was an option resorted to only for definite reasons, when demanded by the subject, and, on the whole, seldom made use of. With Parthian art, on the contrary, frontality becomes the normal treatment of the figure. For the Parthians frontality is really nothing but the habit of showing, in relief and in painting, all figures full-face, even at the expense (as it seems to us moderns) of clearness and intelligibility. So systematic is this use that it amounts to a complete banishment 2544: 4617:. The state rulers governed their own territories and minted their own coinage distinct from the royal coinage produced at the imperial mints. This was not unlike the earlier Achaemenid Empire, which also had some city-states, and even distant satrapies who were semi-independent but "recognised the supremacy of the king, paid tribute and provided military support", according to Brosius. However, the satraps of Parthian times governed smaller territories, and perhaps had less prestige and influence than their Achaemenid predecessors. During the Seleucid period, the trend of local ruling dynasties with semi-autonomous rule, and sometimes outright rebellious rule, became commonplace, a fact reflected in the later Parthian style of governance. 14933: 36: 14073: 12705: 2037: 13668: 2354: 2194: 17160: 4965: 13377: 16790: 4207: 4216: 15326: 5055: 13340: 12765: 3073:, which Crassus accepted. However, he was killed when one of his junior officers, suspecting a trap, attempted to stop him from riding into Surena's camp. Crassus' defeat at Carrhae was one of the worst military defeats of Roman history. Parthia's victory cemented its reputation as a formidable if not equal power with Rome. With his camp followers, war captives, and precious Roman booty, Surena traveled some 700 km (430 mi) back to Seleucia where his victory was celebrated. However, fearing his ambitions even for the Arsacid throne, Orodes had Surena executed shortly thereafter. 3231: 13919: 17512: 15553: 4320: 4506:

historians. Intentionally or unintentionally, because the translators and correctors of Arabic to Persian sources changed the letter "ġ" (غ) to "k" (ک) in all historical texts and also changed the word of "Persia" to "Iran", the true intention of the Islamic historical sources have been forgotten. As the consequence, these different dynastic branches have become a single dynasty in the form of the name Aškāniān (اشکانیان) in the new editions of Islamic sources. It is known, however, that the Arsacid royal family line survived within three ruling dynasties belonging to

4281: 4538: 3900: 14247: 3476: 13115: 5236: 17502: 3745: 12740: 14518: 13325: 4636: 3722: 16374: 4786: 16265: 12948: 4357:, which represent the majority of materials covering Parthian history, are not considered entirely reliable since they were written from the perspective of rivals and wartime enemies. These external sources generally concern major military and political events, and often ignore social and cultural aspects of Parthian history. The Romans usually depicted the Parthians as fierce warriors but also as a culturally refined people; recipes for Parthian dishes in the cookbook 4911: 2611: 21144: 14587: 2794: 3077: 5307: 4770: 21154: 5583:

husbands in battle with their own entourage. This was the reason why female members of the royal family could sometimes be taken captive by enemies and had to be ransomed, such as the famous occasion when the daughter of King Osroes was held captive by emperor Trajan from the occupation of Ctesiphon in 116 until 129, but also the reason why kings sometimes killed the women of his company after a defeat to prevent them from being taken prisoners.

4815:. The cataphracts were equipped with a lance for charging into enemy lines, but were not equipped with bows and arrows which were restricted to horse archers. Due to the cost of their equipment and armor, cataphracts were recruited from among the aristocratic class who, in return for their services, demanded a measure of autonomy at the local level from the Arsacid kings. The light cavalry was recruited from among the commoner class and acted as 15581: 18375: 4751: 3999: 2528:, followed by a local uprising where the Parthian governor of Babylonia was killed. Antiochus conquered Babylonia and occupied Susa, where he minted coins. After advancing his army into Media, the Parthians pushed for peace, which Antiochus refused to accept unless the Arsacids relinquished all lands to him except Parthia proper, paid heavy tribute, and released Demetrius from captivity. Arsaces released Demetrius and sent him to 1602: 16607: 4316:. For example, at the early Parthian capital of Mithradatkert/Nisa in Turkmenistan, large caches of pottery ostraca have been found yielding information on the sale and storage of items like wine. Along with parchment documents found at sites like Dura-Europos, these also provide valuable information on Parthian governmental administration, covering issues such as taxation, military titles, and provincial organization. 5211: 4331: 5504: 13599: 14695: 5388: 13512: 13335: 14690: 14242: 13914: 13507: 13320: 14807: 13769: 12752: 5423:), combined with trousers and made with fine, ornamented materials. The aristocratic elite of Hatra adopted the bobbed hairstyles, headdresses, and belted tunics worn by the nobility belonging to the central Arsacid court. The trouser-suit was even worn by the Arsacid kings, as shown on the reverse images of coins. The Parthian trouser-suit was also adopted in 2159:" to the moment when Seleucid control over Parthia ceased. However, Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis asserts that this was simply the year Arsaces was made chief of the Parni tribe. Homa Katouzian and Gene Ralph Garthwaite claim it was the year Arsaces conquered Parthia and expelled the Seleucid authorities, yet Curtis and Maria Brosius state that Andragoras was not 3369: 4736:, but this royal retinue was small. Garrisons were also permanently maintained at border forts; Parthian inscriptions reveal some of the military titles granted to the commanders of these locations. Military forces could also be used in diplomatic gestures. For example, when Chinese envoys visited Parthia in the late 2nd century BC, the 4672:. Specific government offices of Preferred Friend, Bodyguard and Treasurer are mentioned and the document also proves that "while there were local jurisdictions and proceedings to appointment to high office, the king could intervene on behalf of an individual, review a case and amend the local ruling if he considered it appropriate." 4827:, was a highly effective tactic. It appears that most of the Parthian army was cavalry, for tactical and strategic reasons. The light cavalry is thought to have carried a sword into battle as well, while cataphracts likely were also armed with short swords or knives. The Parthians also made use of the 5569:

The Parthian kings were polygamous and had several wives with the title "queen" (referred to with the Babylonian spelling šarratu or the Greek basilisse), as well as concubines. It is known that kings often married their sisters, but it is unknown if they were the kings' full sisters or half sisters.

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The size of the Parthian army is unknown, as is the size of the empire's overall population. However, archaeological excavations in former Parthian urban centers reveal settlements which could have sustained large populations and hence a great resource in manpower. Dense population centers in regions

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taken at Carrhae in 53 BC, as well as any surviving prisoners of war. The Parthians viewed this exchange as a small price to pay to regain the prince. Augustus hailed the return of the standards as a political victory over Parthia; this propaganda was celebrated in the minting of new coins, the

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Antony attempted to strike an alliance with Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, whose relations with Phraates IV had recently soured. This was abandoned when Antony and his forces withdrew from Armenia in 33 BC; they escaped a Parthian invasion while Antony's rival Octavian attacked his forces to

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Some of the Saka were enlisted in Phraates' forces against Antiochus. However, they arrived too late to engage in the conflict. When Phraates refused to pay their wages, the Saka revolted, which he tried to put down with the aid of former Seleucid soldiers, yet they too abandoned Phraates and joined

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in 211 BC. Yet Curtis and Brosius state that Arsaces II was the immediate successor of Arsaces I, with Curtis claiming the succession took place in 211 BC, and Brosius in 217 BC. Bivar insists that 138 BC, the last regnal year of Mithridates I, is "the first precisely established

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in dealing with Parthia and gained very little territory from these invasions. The primary motivations for war were the advancement of the personal glory and political position of the emperor, as well as defending Roman honor against perceived slights such as Parthian interference in the affairs of

3452:, Iraq), led a revolt against the Parthian governor of Babylonia. After defeating the latter, the two were granted the right to govern the region by Artabanus II, who feared further rebellion elsewhere. Anilai's Parthian wife poisoned Asinai out of fear he would attack Anilai over his marriage to a 4997:

On his coins, Arsaces I is depicted in apparel similar to Achaemenid satraps. According to A. Shahbazi, Arsaces "deliberately diverges from Seleucid coins to emphasize his nationalistic and royal aspirations, and he calls himself Kārny/Karny (Greek: Autocrator), a title already borne by Achaemenid

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was able to launch a counter-invasion against the Parthians in Mesopotamia. Despite early successes, the Seleucids were defeated and Demetrius himself was captured by Parthian forces and taken to Hyrcania. There Mithridates I treated his captive with great hospitality; he even married his daughter

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accompanied by music. However, their stories, composed in verse form, were not written down until the subsequent Sassanian period. In fact, there is no known Parthian-language literature that survives in original form; all of the surviving texts were written down in the following centuries. It is

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betrayed and killed him: Trajan crowned him the new king of Parthia. Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east. On Trajan's return north, the Babylonian settlements revolted against the Roman garrisons. Trajan was forced to retreat from Mesopotamia in 117 AD, overseeing a

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secluded from contact with men, and royal women were not allowed to participate in the royal banquets. Whether the royal women lived in seclusion from men is unknown, as no evidence of that has been found, but it is known that women at least participated in the royal banquets as entertainers, as

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Parthian art, with its distinct use of frontality in portraiture, was lost and abandoned with the profound cultural and political changes brought by the Sasanian Empire. However, even after the Roman occupation of Dura-Europos in 165 AD, the use of Parthian frontality in portraiture continued to

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briefly overthrew Phraates IV, who was able to quickly reestablish his rule with the aid of Scythian nomads. Tiridates fled to the Romans, taking one of Phraates' sons with him. In negotiations conducted in 20 BC, Phraates arranged for the release of his kidnapped son. In return, the Romans

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Royal women appear to have been less included in royal representation. Artwork depicts royal women dressed similarly to those of the Achaemenid period: in long-sleeved, many-folded dresses tied by a belt, with a tiara or a veil hanging down their back. While their names and titles did appear in

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at the cities of Hecatompylos, Seleucia, and Ecbatana. They most likely operated a mint at Mithridatkert/Nisa as well. From the empire's inception until its collapse, drachmas produced throughout the Parthian period rarely weighed less than 3.5 g or more than 4.2 g. The first Parthian

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The hereditary titles of the hierarchic nobility recorded during the reign of the first Sasanian monarch Ardashir I most likely reflect the titles already in use during the Parthian era. There were three distinct tiers of nobility, the highest being the regional kings directly below the King of

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In Islamic sources, the Parthian dynasty is mentioned with three dynastic branch names: Aškāniān (اشکانیان), Ašġāniān (اشغانیان), and Afquršāhān (افقورشاهان). The obvious differences between the names of Parthian dynastic branches in Islamic sources has been forgotten by modern Persian-speaking

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It is assumed that royal Parthian women could own and manage their own property, land and manufactures, as could their predecessors in the Achaemenid and Seleucid Empire and their successors in the Sasanian Empire. It is fully attested that royal women, as well as noblewomen, accompanied their

2532:, but refused the other demands. By spring 129 BC, the Medes were in open revolt against Antiochus, whose army had exhausted the resources of the countryside during winter. While attempting to put down the revolts, the main Parthian force swept into the region and killed Antiochus at the 10192:

Maria Brosius, "WOMEN i. In Pre-Islamic Persia", Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, 2021, available at WOMEN i. In Pre-Islamic Persia (accessed on 26 January 2021). Originally Published: January 1, 2000. Last Updated: March 15, 2010. Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, New York, 1996–

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of events. In contrast to Greek and Roman histories, the early Chinese histories maintained a more neutral view when describing Parthia, although the habit of Chinese chroniclers to copy material for their accounts from older works (of undetermined origin) makes it difficult to establish a

3590:. 88–105 AD) with a detailed report on the Roman Empire based on oral accounts of his Parthian hosts. William Watson speculates that the Parthians would have been relieved at the failed efforts by the Han Empire to open diplomatic relations with Rome, especially after Ban Chao's 5289:

the Parthians favored and emphasized frontality, meaning the person depicted by painting, sculpture, or raised-relief on coins faced the viewer directly instead of showing his or her profile. Although frontality in portraiture was already an old artistic technique by the Parthian period,

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on Parthian history remain scarce, with fewer of them available than for any other period of Iranian history. Most contemporary written records on Parthia contain Greek as well as Parthian and Aramaic inscriptions. The Parthian language was written in a distinct script derived from the

3403:. To ensure that her child Phraataces would inherit the throne without incident, Musa convinced Phraates IV to give his other sons to Augustus as hostages. Again, Augustus used this as propaganda depicting the submission of Parthia to Rome, listing it as a great accomplishment in his 4117:. 211–217 AD) deposed the kings of Osroene and Armenia to make them Roman provinces once more. He marched into Mesopotamia under the pretext of marrying one of Artabanus' daughters, but the marriage was not allowed. Consequently Caracalla made war on Parthia, conquering 3978:

during his withdrawal. His retreat was—in his intentions—temporary, because he wanted to renew the attack on Parthia in 118 AD and "make the subjection of the Parthians a reality," but Trajan died suddenly in August 117 AD. During his campaign, Trajan was granted the title

8757:, p. 138 for further analysis: "Curiously, at the same time as the Parthian was depicted as uncivilised, he was also 'orientalised' in traditional fashion, being described as luxury-loving, leading an effeminate lifestyle, and demonstrating excessive sexuality." 372: 3280:

The Parthians pursued and harassed Antony's army as it fled to Armenia. Eventually, the greatly weakened force reached Syria. Antony lured Artavasdes II into a trap with the promise of a marriage alliance. He was taken captive in 34 BC, paraded in Antony's mock

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in northern India largely guaranteed the security of Parthia's eastern border. Thus, from the mid-1st century BC onwards, the Arsacid court focused on securing the western border, primarily against Rome. A year following Mithridates II's subjugation of Armenia,

3958:. Trajan spent the winter of 115–116 at Antioch, but resumed his campaign in the spring. Marching down the Euphrates, he captured Dura-Europos, the capital Ctesiphon and Seleucia, and even subjugated Characene, where he watched ships depart to India from the 2892:, that the line of Parthian rulers can again be reliably traced. This system of split monarchy weakened Parthia, allowing Tigranes II of Armenia to annex Parthian territory in western Mesopotamia. This land would not be restored to Parthia until the reign of 10221:

Kaim, B. 2016. "Women, Dance and the Hunt: Splendour and Pleasures of Court Life in Arsacid and Early Sasanian Art." In V. S. Curtis, E. J. Pendleton, M. Alram and T. Daryaee (eds.), The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: Adaptation and Expansion, Oxford,

4953:("friends of the Greeks"). The word "philhellene" was inscribed on Parthian coins until the reign of Artabanus II. The discontinuation of this phrase signified the revival of Iranian culture in Parthia. Vologases I was the first Arsacid ruler to have the 5251:; and the art of Parthian Mesopotamia. The first genuine Parthian art, found at Mithridatkert/Nisa, combined elements of Greek and Iranian art in line with Achaemenid and Seleucid traditions. In the second phase, Parthian art found inspiration in 5544:

were part of the corpus of oral literature from Parthian times, although compiled much later. Although literature of the Parthian language was not committed to written form, there is evidence that the Arsacids acknowledged and respected written

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belief, Iranian cosmogony, and even echoes of Christianity ... may be regarded as a typical reflection of the mixed religious doctrines of the late Arsacid period, which the Zoroastrian orthodoxy of the Sasanians was soon to sweep away."

5453:. The earliest coins of Mithridates I show him wearing the soft cap, yet coins from the latter part of his reign show him for the first time wearing the royal Hellenistic diadem. Mithridates II was the first to be shown wearing the Parthian 3523:, to rule the region as an ally of Rome. Shortly before his death, Artabanus managed to force Tiridates from the throne using troops from Hyrcania. After Artabanus' death in 38 AD, a long civil war ensued between the rightful successor 3858:

into Parthia's eastern territories around 72 AD mentioned by Roman historians. Whereas Augustus and Nero had chosen a cautious military policy when confronting Parthia, later Roman emperors invaded and attempted to conquer the eastern

1853:. The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from 4565:. An indigenous historical source reveals that territories overseen by the central government were organized in a similar manner to the Seleucid Empire. They both had a threefold division for their provincial hierarchies: the Parthian 4946:

in religion, the arts, and even clothing fashions. Conscious of both the Hellenistic and Persian cultural roots of their kingship, the Arsacid rulers styled themselves after the Persian King of Kings and affirmed that they were also

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fastened in place with a belt, loose-fitting and many-folded trousers held by garters, and a diadem or band over his coiffed, bobbed hair. His outfit is commonly seen in relief images of Parthian coins by the mid-1st century BC.

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There are very few written and archeological sources about the position of women in the Parthian Empire, and the fragmentary information that does exist is only about royal women, whose position shows many similarities to their

4375:, who lived during the reign of Augustus, provides an account of Parthian territories, perhaps from a Parthian government survey. To a lesser extent, people and events of Parthian history were also included in the histories of 2985:. 80–58; 55–51 BC) against a rebellion in Egypt. Despite losing his Roman support, Mithridates managed to conquer Babylonia, and minted coins at Seleucia until 54 BC. In that year, Orodes' general, known only as 4679:

By the 1st century AD, the Parthian nobility had assumed great power and influence in the succession and deposition of Arsacid kings. Some of the nobility functioned as court advisers to the king, as well as holy priests.

2684:, located in modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan made an alliance with the Parthian Empire in the 1st century BC. Bivar claims that these two states considered each other political equals. After the Greek philosopher 3514:

on the throne of Armenia by assassinating the Parthian ally King Arsaces of Armenia. Artabanus II tried and failed to restore Parthian control of Armenia, prompting an aristocratic revolt that forced him to flee to

35: 2599:. c. 128–124 BC) shared a similar fate fighting nomads in the east. He claims Artabanus was killed by the Tokhari (identified as the Yuezhi), although Bivar believes Justin conflated them with the Saka. 4663:

to have married her own son, though this would be an extreme and isolated case. Brosius provides an extract from a letter written in Greek by King Artabanus II in 21 AD, which addresses the governor (titled

2583:(Scythian) tribes. The Saka were forced to move further west, where they invaded the Parthian Empire's northeastern borders. Mithridates I was thus forced to retire to Hyrcania after his conquest of Mesopotamia. 3950:, also captured Nisibis; its occupation was essential to securing all the major routes across the northern Mesopotamian plain. The following year, Trajan invaded Mesopotamia and met little resistance from only 3068:

With some 20,000 Romans dead, approximately 10,000 captured, and roughly another 10,000 escaping west, Crassus fled into the Armenian countryside. At the head of his army, Surena approached Crassus, offering a

9310:""From Terror to Tactical Usage: Elephants in the Partho-Sasanian Period," The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: Adaptation and Expansion, eds. V. Sarkhosh Curtis et. al., Oxford, 2016, pp. 36–41" 7321:, p. 80 asserts that permanent occupation was the obvious goal of the Parthians, especially after the cities of Roman Syria and even the Roman garrisons submitted to the Parthians and joined their cause. 2470:), where the tombs of the Arsacid kings were built and maintained. Ecbatana became the main summertime residence for the Arsacid royalty. Ctesiphon may not have become the official capital until the reign of 4698:, two groups from which "the kings were appointed." Of the great noble Parthian families listed at the beginning of the Sassanian period, only two are explicitly mentioned in earlier Parthian documents: the 5126:. Aside from the main gods and goddesses, each ethnic group and city had their own designated deities. As with Seleucid rulers, Parthian art indicates that the Arsacid kings viewed themselves as gods; this 15495: 4245:

Local and foreign written accounts, as well as non-textual artifacts, have been used to reconstruct Parthian history. Although the Parthian court maintained records, the Parthians had no formal study of

2739:. Pearls were also a highly valued import from China, while the Chinese purchased Parthian spices, perfumes, and fruits. Exotic animals were also given as gifts from the Arsacid to Han courts; in 87 AD 5430:

Parthian sculptures depict wealthy women wearing long-sleeved robes over a dress, with necklaces, earrings, bracelets, and headdresses bedecked in jewelry. Their many-folded dresses were fastened by a

3871:. The heightened aggression can be explained in part by Rome's military reforms. To match Parthia's strength in missile troops and mounted warriors, the Romans at first used foreign allies (especially 3796:. Even after the fall of the Parthian Empire, the Arsacid line lived on through the Armenian kings. However, not only did the Arsacid line continue through the Armenians, it also continued through the 4026:

border at the Euphrates, choosing not to invade Mesopotamia due to Rome's now limited military resources. Parthamaspates fled after the Parthians revolted against him, yet the Romans made him king of

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river. The two agreed that the river would serve as the border between Parthia and Rome, although several historians have argued that Sulla only had authority to communicate these terms back to Rome.

3456:. Following this, Anilai became embroiled in an armed conflict with a son-in-law of Artabanus, who eventually defeated him. With the Jewish regime removed, the native Babylonians began to harass the 2992: 9110: 5342:, but remained distinct from the two. The style is first attested at Mithridatkert/Nisa. The Round Hall of Nisa is similar to Hellenistic palaces, but different in that it forms a circle and 3792:, on the throne. Rhadamistus was eventually driven from power, and, beginning with the reign of Tiridates, Parthia would retain firm control over Armenia—with brief interruptions—through the 2649:. When this failed, Hyspaosines invaded Babylonia in 127 BC and occupied Seleucia. Yet by 122 BC, Mithridates II forced Hyspaosines out of Babylonia and made the kings of Characene 2938:

Tigranes the Younger, son of Tigranes II of Armenia, failed to usurp the Armenian throne from his father. He fled to Phraates III and convinced him to march against Armenia's new capital at

2950:, Tigranes the Younger was brought to Rome as a hostage. Phraates demanded Pompey return Tigranes the Younger to him, but Pompey refused. In retaliation, Phraates launched an invasion into 4444:(Greek: Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐν τῇ Μαργιανῇ). However, this could also have been a transliteration of "Arsaces", after the dynasty's eponymous founder. The works and historical authors include the 19646: 4846:

in battle. However, royal Parthian women accompanied the king on military campaigns and were known to have ridden on chariots and wagons. Similarly, the Parthians appeared to have used

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and Ctesiphon. Frequent civil wars between Parthian contenders to the throne proved more dangerous to the Empire's stability than foreign invasion, and Parthian power evaporated when

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As seen in Parthian coinage, the headdresses worn by the Parthian kings changed over time. The earliest Arsacid coins show rulers wearing the soft cap with cheek flaps, known as the

2881:," due to the lack of clear information on the events of this period in the empire, except a series of, apparently overlapping, reigns. It is only with the beginning of the reign of 22735: 22730: 4655:

relations, and was usually succeeded by his first-born son. Like the Ptolemies of Egypt, there is also record of Arsacid kings marrying their nieces and perhaps even half-sisters;

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accepted by historians. A fictitious claim was later made from the 2nd-century BC onwards by the Parthians, which represented them as descendants of the Achaemenid king of kings,

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was known during the Achaemenid period and earlier in smaller and subterranean structures, it was the Parthians who first built them on a monumental scale. The earliest Parthian

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would have found the bloody sacrifices of some Parthian-era Iranian cults to be unacceptable. However, there is evidence that Vologases I encouraged the presence of Zoroastrian

5018:. 404–358 BC) as a means to bolster their legitimacy in ruling over former Achaemenid territories, i.e. as being "legitimate successors of glorious kings" of ancient Iran. 3057:

and light infantry. Using a baggage train of about 1,000 camels, the Parthian army provided the horse archers with a constant supply of arrows. The horse archers employed the "

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Examples of clothing in Parthian inspired sculptures have been found in excavations at Hatra, in northwestern Iraq. Statues erected there feature the typical Parthian shirt (

2696:. c. 40–47 AD) in 42 AD, Vardanes provided him with the protection of a caravan as he traveled to Indo-Parthia. When Apollonius reached Indo-Parthia's capital 19636: 4961:

appear on his minted coins alongside the now almost illegible Greek. However, the use of Greek-alphabet legends on Parthian coins remained until the collapse of the empire.

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like Babylonia were no doubt attractive to the Romans, whose armies could afford to live off the land. The largest army raised by the Parthians appears to have been 50,000.

2295:) in return for his submission to Antiochus III as his superior. The Seleucids were unable to further intervene in Parthian affairs following increasing encroachment by the 3219:, northeast of Antioch. Pacorus was killed during the battle, and his forces retreated across the Euphrates. His death spurred a succession crisis in which Orodes II chose 3819:

rebelled against his father Vologases I in 55 AD, Vologases withdrew his forces from Armenia. Rome quickly attempted to fill the political vacuum left behind. In the

4166:, defeating him and establishing the Sasanian Empire. There is evidence, however, that suggests Vologases VI continued to mint coins at Seleucia as late as 228 AD. 11428:, vol. 2, London & New York: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., in association with the London Middle East Institute at SOAS and the British Museum, pp. 87–104, 5595:

of Elymais. Only two women are known to have ruled the Parthian Empire, one as monarch and one as regent. Musa of Parthia is the only woman confirmed to have ruled as

3946:. 98–117 AD) had the next Parthian nominee for the throne, Parthamasiris, killed in 114 AD, instead making Armenia a Roman province. His forces, led by 331: 306: 10436:, vol. 2, London & New York: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., in association with the London Middle East Institute at SOAS and the British Museum, pp. 26–36, 3421:, married him. The Parthian nobility, disapproving of the notion of a king with non-Arsacid blood, forced the pair into exile in Roman territory. Phraates' successor 3273:, with the intention of seizing the capital Praaspa, the location of which is now unknown. However, Phraates IV ambushed Antony's rear detachment, destroying a giant 22671: 12581: 10611:, vol. 2, London & New York: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., in association with the London Middle East Institute at SOAS and the British Museum, pp. 7–25, 3250:

Upon assuming the throne, Phraates IV eliminated rival claimants by killing and exiling his own brothers. One of them, Monaeses, fled to Antony and persuaded him to

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tetradrachms, weighing in principle around 16 g with some variation, appear after Mithridates I conquered Mesopotamia and were minted exclusively at Seleucia.

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noted that members of the Suren family, the first among the nobility, were given the privilege of crowning each new Arsacid King of Kings during their coronations.

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The Sassanians would not only assume Parthia's legacy as Rome's Persian nemesis, but they would also attempt to restore the boundaries of the Achaemenid Empire by

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yet did not achieve a desired military alliance against the confederation of the Xiongnu. The Parthian Empire was enriched by taxing the Eurasian caravan trade in

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The Parthian Empire, being culturally and politically heterogeneous, had a variety of religious systems and beliefs, the most widespread being those dedicated to

4728:, yet were able to quickly recruit troops in the event of local crises. There was a permanent armed guard attached to the person of the king, comprising nobles, 14028: 5255:, as exemplified by the investiture relief of Mithridates II at Mount Behistun. The third phase occurred gradually after the Parthian conquest of Mesopotamia. 3555:; he was captured and sent to Gotarzes, where he was allowed to live after having his ears mutilated, an act that disqualified him from inheriting the throne. 10568:

Chegini, N.N.; Nikitin, A.V. (1996). "Sasanian Iran - economy, society, arts and crafts". In Litvinsky, B.A.; Guang-da, Zhang; Samghabadi, R. Shabani (eds.).

3460:, forcing them to emigrate to Seleucia. When that city rebelled against Parthian rule in 35–36 AD, the Jews were expelled again, this time by the local 5282:

walls. The common motif of the Sasanian period showing two horsemen engaged in combat with lances first appeared in the Parthian reliefs at Mount Behistun.

3429:, who had adopted many Roman mannerisms during time in Rome. The Parthian nobility, angered by Vonones' sympathies for the Romans, backed a rival claimant, 2376:, holding a club in his left hand and a cup in his right hand; Greek inscription reading ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ "of the Great King Arsaces the 18155: 4498:, types of agricultural crops grown in Parthia, production of wine using grapes, itinerant merchants, and the size and location of Parthian territory. The 4074:) that soon ravaged the Roman world. Although they withdrew, from this point forward the city of Dura-Europos remained in Roman hands. When Roman emperor 2915:. 119–63 BC), an ally of Tigranes II of Armenia, requested aid from Parthia against Rome, but Sinatruces refused help. When the Roman commander 2392:. The locations of these are unknown. Yet the greatest expansion of Parthian power and territory took place during the reign of his brother and successor 4676:

Kings, the second being those related to the King of Kings only through marriage, and the lowest order being heads of local clans and small territories.

4066:

in 164 AD. The Romans captured and burnt Seleucia and Ctesiphon to the ground, yet they were forced to retreat once the Roman soldiers contracted a

10240:

J. Oelsner, "Recht im hellenistischen Babylon," in Legal Documents of the Hellenistic World, ed. M. J. Geller and H. Maehler, London, 1995, pp. 106–148.

5302:

of the side-view and of all intermediate attitudes. This singular state of things seems to have become established in the course of the 1st century A.D.

20805: 19658: 18748: 14157: 14033: 2700:, his caravan leader read Vardanes' official letter, perhaps written in Parthian, to an Indian official who treated Apollonius with great hospitality. 4742:

maintains that 20,000 horsemen were sent to the eastern borders to serve as escorts for the embassy, although this figure is perhaps an exaggeration.

22800: 20911: 17718: 2563:

While the Parthians regained the territories lost in the west, another threat arose in the east. In 177–176 BC the nomadic confederation of the

14450: 2752: 16789: 14072: 20325: 20316: 20060: 19572: 13888: 11443:

Waters, Kenneth H. (1974), "The Reign of Trajan, part VII: Trajanic Wars and Frontiers. The Danube and the East", in Temporini, Hildegard (ed.),

19557: 4125:, the Parthians were able to defeat the Romans, but both sides suffered heavy losses. After this debacle, the Parthians made a settlement with 21541: 5894:. Each ethnic group, each city, and each land or kingdom was able to adhere to its own gods, their respective cults and religious rituals. In 2023:

is viewed by some historians as a valid source for understanding aspects of society and culture that are otherwise absent in textual sources.

22785: 14828: 14549: 14460: 14149: 13864: 13806: 13802: 12574: 11757:(a website featuring the history, geography, coins, arts and culture of ancient Parthia, including a bibliographic list of scholarly sources) 2637:

Following the Seleucid withdrawal from Mesopotamia, the Parthian governor of Babylonia, Himerus, was ordered by the Arsacid court to conquer

2724: 2536:

in 129 BC. His body was sent back to Syria in a silver coffin; his son Seleucus was made a Parthian hostage and a daughter joined Phraates'

19848: 14106: 14102: 13810: 4090:. c. 191–208 AD), the Romans once again marched down the Euphrates and captured Seleucia and Ctesiphon. After assuming the title 5973: 19626: 18743: 17515: 14553: 14360: 13931: 13894: 13860: 13435: 13431: 12764: 551: 216: 19994: 19510: 17159: 13718: 13562: 13427: 13423: 12704: 11605:

Zhang, Guanuda (2002), "The Role of the Sogdians as Translators of Buddhist Texts", in Juliano, Annette L. and Judith A. Lerner (ed.),

9102: 4998:

supreme generals, such as Cyrus the Younger." In line with Achaemenid traditions, rock-relief images of Arsacid rulers were carved at

3142:

was unable to lead the Roman defense against Parthia due to his departure to Italy, where he amassed his forces to confront his rival

2403:

Relations between Parthia and Greco-Bactria deteriorated after the death of Diodotus II, when forces under Mithridates I captured two

22725: 14446: 14442: 14356: 14153: 12910: 11782: 11424:

Wang, Tao (2007), "Parthia in China: a Re-examination of the Historical Records", in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Sarah Stewart (ed.),

4170: 1630: 4976:. When the head of Crassus was brought to Orodes II, he, alongside Armenian king Artavasdes II, were busy watching a performance of 22780: 18799: 18148: 14557: 13814: 12567: 12167: 5665: 11628: 22765: 19545: 18360: 12121: 11995: 5587:

official documents, Parthian women were rarely depicted in art. Only two royal women were ever depicted on Parthian coins: queen

4630: 1524: 10607:

Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh (2007), "The Iranian Revival in the Parthian Period", in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Sarah Stewart (ed.),

5411:

of a Parthian nobleman found at Shami, Elymais. Standing 1.9 m (6 ft), the figure wears a V-shaped jacket, a V-shaped

4270: 3215:

As a result, Pacorus I temporarily withdrew from Syria. When he returned in the spring of 38 BC, he faced Ventidius at the

20170: 20021: 19784: 13960: 13714: 13694: 3061:" tactic: feigning retreat to draw enemy out, then turning and shooting at them when exposed. This tactic, executed with heavy 2516:. After defeating Diodotus Tryphon, Antiochus initiated a campaign in 130 BC to retake Mesopotamia, now under the rule of 13667: 13376: 4972:

Greek cultural influence did not disappear from the Parthian Empire, however, and there is evidence that the Arsacids enjoyed

4121:

and sacking the Parthian tombs there. Caracalla was assassinated the next year on the road to Carrhae by his soldiers. At the

4109:(d. 224 AD) rebelled against him and gained control over a greater part of the empire. Meanwhile, the Roman emperor 22755: 22494: 21876: 20516: 20346: 20291: 20160: 20026: 18924: 17711: 17669: 17622: 17592: 11981: 11698: 11638: 11614: 11595: 11576: 11528: 11433: 11414: 11395: 11352: 11325: 11306: 11157: 11049: 11030: 11008: 10883: 10861: 10828: 10809: 10731: 10676: 10635: 10616: 10532: 10511: 10491: 10441: 10364: 10339: 10312: 10264: 8195: 5825: 5719: 4039: 3706: 3208:, Turkey) in 39 BC. Shortly afterward, a Parthian force in Syria led by general Pharnapates was defeated by Ventidius at the 5266:

of Arsacid kings. Use of these motifs extended to include portrayals of local rulers. Common art mediums were rock-reliefs,

5160:, did not proclaim his first religious revelation until 228/229 AD, Bivar asserts that his new faith contained "elements of 2244:, formed an alliance with Arsaces I against the Seleucids, but Arsaces was temporarily driven from Parthia by the forces of 22770: 19678: 19668: 11841: 10547:

The Iranian Expanse: Transforming Royal Identity Through Architecture, Landscape, and the Built Environment, 550 BCE–642 CE

5408: 3809: 2798: 1965: 1830: 22400: 20876: 20826: 20552: 20086: 18490: 18141: 17774: 15916: 13411: 13263: 13120: 11974: 7757:, pp. 137–138 for more information on Roman coins depicting Parthians returning the lost military standards to Rome. 4863: 4577:, and hyparchy. The Parthian Empire also contained several subordinate semi-autonomous kingdoms, including the states of 3820: 3726: 3698: 3563: 2704: 10197: 5375:

are also commonly found in the ancient temples of Hatra and perhaps modeled on the Parthian style. The largest Parthian

22546: 21546: 20101: 20090: 20035: 19983: 19838: 19641: 16586: 14265: 11135: 10558: 5185: 4292:

coins issued by each ruler. These represent a "transition from non-textual to textual remains," according to historian

3097: 2587:

sides with the Saka. Phraates II marched against this combined force, but he was killed in battle. The Roman historian

10878:, Ann Arbor: Cushing Malloy Inc., Journal of Roman Archaeology: Supplementary Series Number Eighteen, pp. 67–90, 5457:, embroidered with pearls and jewels, a headdress commonly worn in the late Parthian period and by Sasanian monarchs. 22715: 21190: 20531: 20475: 20455: 20271: 20246: 20142: 20066: 19968: 19598: 19440: 18217: 11557: 11501: 11472: 11259: 11186: 11078: 10988: 10922: 10790: 10760: 10705: 10597: 10470: 10422: 10393: 10293: 8564: 8544: 5680: 3983:

by the Senate and coins were minted proclaiming the conquest of Parthia. However, only the 4th-century AD historians

2419:

in 148 or 147 BC; the region had been destabilized by a recent Seleucid suppression of a rebellion there led by

2285:

he was unsuccessful, but did negotiate a peace settlement with Arsaces II. The latter was granted the title of king (

20365: 14932: 7517:, p. 81 for analysis on Rome's shift of attention away from Syria to the Upper Euphrates, starting with Antony. 2772: 2543: 20996: 20562: 18881: 17704: 11232: 3270: 3261:, Artavasdes II of Armenia once again switched alliances by sending Antony additional troops. Antony invaded Media 3242:. c. 38–2 BC). Inscription reading ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΕΥΕΡΓΕΤΟΥ ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ "of the 3131: 5363:

and open on one side. Use of the barrel vault replaced the Hellenic use of columns to support roofs. Although the

4502:

also mentions that the Parthians kept records by "writing horizontally on strips of leather," that is, parchment.

4193:. Nevertheless, for a period of more than 400 years, they succeeded the Parthian realm as Rome's principal rival. 3254:. Antony defeated Parthia's Judaean ally Antigonus in 37 BC, installing Herod as a client king in his place. 22745: 22720: 22172: 20506: 20046: 19882: 19877: 19616: 19243: 16580: 11988: 3881:

force to complement their heavy legionary infantry. The Romans eventually maintained regiments of horse archers (

1717: 991: 21334: 4371:

wrote histories focusing on Parthia, which are now lost and survive only as quoted extracts in other histories.

2977:, the Roman proconsul of Syria, marched in support of Mithridates to the Euphrates, but had to turn back to aid 2946:. He promised Pompey that he would act as a guide through Armenia, but, when Tigranes II submitted to Rome as a 22750: 21111: 20936: 20816: 20800: 20286: 20221: 20122: 20071: 19843: 19794: 19779: 19683: 19673: 19653: 19445: 19104: 18794: 18778: 16653: 16200: 16124: 11520: 10550: 10432:

Bivar, A.D.H. (2007), "Gondophares and the Indo-Parthians", in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Sarah Stewart (ed.),

5559: 5339: 4582: 4446: 4288:

The most valuable indigenous sources for reconstructing an accurate chronology of Arsacid rulers are the metal

3730: 3531:. After Vardanes was assassinated during a hunting expedition, the Parthian nobility appealed to Roman emperor 3018:, who was now proconsul of Syria, invaded Parthia in 53 BC in belated support of Mithridates. As his army 2662: 2415:. c. 170–145 BC). Turning his sights on the Seleucid realm, Mithridates I invaded Media and occupied 1881: 1558: 733: 20744: 19515: 19455: 17910: 10522: 22610: 20970: 20411: 20394: 20301: 20276: 20132: 20040: 20030: 18820: 17505: 17485: 16767: 16674: 16659: 16497: 16367: 16168: 15867: 15552: 12936: 11775: 11113:, Historia: Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte, vol. 122 (in German), Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, pp. 355–364 5346:

inside a square space. However, the artwork of Nisa, including marble statues and the carved scenes on ivory

4578: 4158:

began subjugating the surrounding territories in defiance of Arsacid rule. He confronted Artabanus IV at the

3769: 3702: 1623: 3835:

was soundly defeated by Parthian forces and fled Armenia. Following a peace treaty, Tiridates I traveled to

2462:

had served as the first Parthian capital, Mithridates I established royal residences at Seleucia, Ecbatana,

2281:

Antiochus III launched a massive campaign to retake Parthia and Bactria in 210 or 209 BC. Despite some

22605: 22489: 20974: 20810: 20526: 20266: 20256: 20004: 19860: 19460: 18830: 18565: 18108: 17306: 17115: 17091: 16491: 15471: 12160: 12023: 10255:

An, Jiayao (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China", in Juliano, Annette L. and Judith A. Lerner (ed.),

8557:

Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London, 21–26 August 2006, Volumes 1–3

7410: 7408: 5563: 4986:(c. 480–406 BC). The producer of the play decided to use Crassus' actual severed head in place of the 3992: 3491:

depicted on the obverse, and on the reverse a Parthian man kneeling in submission while offering the Roman

3201: 2512:. 138–129 BC), a brother of Demetrius, assumed the Seleucid throne and married the latter's wife 2339:) eventually ascended the Parthian throne. Phraates I ruled Parthia without further Seleucid interference. 1745: 20740: 4835:

where a Parthian force defeated a much larger Roman army under Crassus. Light infantry units, composed of

4300:

astronomical tablets and colophons discovered in Babylonia. Indigenous textual sources also include stone

1825:, and regional cultures. For about the first half of its existence, the Arsacid court adopted elements of 22775: 22615: 21652: 20765: 20759: 20710: 20521: 20351: 20230: 19855: 18886: 18768: 18763: 18698: 18374: 16728: 15767: 15566: 15113: 15107: 13354: 12710: 12116: 12100: 5640: 5043: 2784: 2148: 2143:

Why the Arsacid court retroactively chose 247 BC as the first year of the Arsacid era is uncertain.

1834: 1595: 1583: 422: 7405: 6437: 6435: 5247:

Parthian art can be divided into three geo-historical phases: the art of Parthia proper; the art of the

2555:. c. 124–91 BC). Reverse side: seated archer carrying a bow; inscription reading "of the 2270:), was unable to immediately retaliate because his troops were engaged in putting down the rebellion of 22790: 20980: 20441: 20306: 19774: 19552: 19450: 18891: 18500: 17355: 17211: 16974: 16665: 16475: 15821: 15483: 15451: 15445: 13652: 12266: 11954: 11867: 11831: 11549: 11493: 11464: 11251: 11178: 11070: 10980: 10914: 10782: 10752: 10723: 10697: 10589: 10462: 10414: 10385: 10285: 4964: 4823:

and were able to shoot at enemies while riding and facing away from them; this technique, known as the

4801:

The combination of horse archers and cataphracts formed an effective backbone for the Parthian military

4626: 3793: 3582:

was the only means to reach Rome. Discouraged by this, Gan Ying returned to the Han court and provided

3196:

Despite these successes, the Parthians were soon driven out of the Levant by a Roman counteroffensive.

2348: 2229: 2225: 1957: 1956:

of the 7th century AD, although the Arsacid dynasty lived on through branches of the family that ruled

1873: 1553: 1514: 8483: 8481: 2166:

It is unclear who immediately succeeded Arsaces I. Bivar and Katouzian affirm that it was his brother

22573: 21721: 21285: 21084: 20675: 20445: 20226: 20152: 20014: 19989: 19912: 19663: 19562: 19505: 18917: 18575: 18390: 17492: 17100: 16986: 16968: 16818: 16480: 16344: 16045: 15860: 14757: 12482: 12298: 12250: 12176: 12064: 12059: 12051: 12009: 12002: 11836: 11815: 10893: 6432: 5995:

Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.".

4973: 4915: 4251: 4007: 3970: 3801: 3710: 3104:

Emboldened by the victory over Crassus, the Parthians attempted to capture Roman-held territories in

2966: 2600: 2548: 2160: 2101: 2067: 1961: 1729: 1495: 1399: 658: 41: 10999:

Mawer, Granville Allen (2013), "The Riddle of Cattigara", in Nichols, Robert; Woods, Martin (eds.),

5252: 5149:. The Sasanian court would later adopt Zoroastrianism as the official state religion of the empire. 4142:

The Parthian Empire, weakened by internal strife and wars with Rome, was soon to be followed by the

3399:

Along with the prince, Augustus also gave Phraates IV an Italian slave-girl, who later became Queen

2850:

Despite this agreement, in 93 or 92 BC Parthia fought a war in Syria against the tribal leader

2759:, and fine leather. Caravans traveling through the Parthian Empire brought West Asian and sometimes 1817:, religious beliefs, and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed 22760: 22710: 22531: 22506: 22356: 22015: 22010: 20795: 20585: 20465: 20416: 20388: 20251: 19789: 19703: 19432: 18530: 18172: 17478: 17123: 17120: 17043: 17013: 16956: 16942: 16348: 15332: 15070: 14487: 14271: 13114: 12498: 12490: 12474: 12458: 12378: 12226: 12030: 11768: 11659: 8478: 5645: 5546: 4206: 3966: 3955: 3832: 3520: 3437:. c. 10–38 AD), who eventually defeated Vonones and drove him into exile in Roman Syria. 3251: 3216: 3197: 3034:. 53–34 BC). Orodes persuaded Artavasdes to a marriage alliance between the crown prince 3027: 2955: 2908: 2393: 2361: 2097: 1921: 1753: 1616: 1578: 1573: 1563: 352: 15325: 12145: 10667:

Demiéville, Paul (1986), "Philosophy and religion from Han to Sui", in Twitchett and Loewe (ed.),

5145:

priests at court and sponsored the compilation of sacred Zoroastrian texts which later formed the

4215: 1778:

from the Seleucids. At its height, the Parthian Empire stretched from the northern reaches of the

22795: 22598: 22479: 22020: 21973: 21916: 21615: 21559: 21307: 21026: 21000: 20991: 20861: 20821: 20425: 20361: 20321: 20056: 19907: 19764: 19723: 18981: 18840: 18773: 18667: 18520: 18438: 18433: 17859: 17138: 17066: 17040: 17016: 17010: 16995: 16907: 16843: 16808: 16752: 16701: 16274: 14751: 14532: 14277: 13585: 13043: 12538: 12450: 12386: 12370: 12330: 12153: 12044: 11968: 11748: 11127: 7103:

writes that Lucius Afranius reoccupied the region without confronting the Parthian army, whereas

5675: 5655: 5318:, dated 245 AD, which Curtis and Schlumberger describe as a fine example of 'Parthian frontality' 5011: 4550: 4364: 4343: 4339: 4122: 4106: 4098: 4031: 3824: 3738: 3507: 3430: 3405: 3389: 3377: 3362: 3344: 3186: 3149:

After Syria was occupied by Pacorus' army, Labienus split from the main Parthian force to invade

3112:

Pacorus I and his commander Osaces raided Syria as far as Antioch in 51 BC, but were repulsed by

3011: 2997: 2942:. When this siege failed, Tigranes the Younger once again fled, this time to the Roman commander 2814: 2806: 2788: 2666: 2260: 2180: 2144: 2003:

documents, much of Parthian history is only known through external sources. These include mainly

1945: 1925: 1897: 1141: 897: 478: 199: 11722: 8187: 5054: 5026:' heritage. The Arsacid kings chose typical Zoroastrian names for themselves and some from the " 4159: 4094:, he retreated in late 198 AD, failing as Trajan once did to capture Hatra during a siege. 22620: 22521: 22516: 22204: 22152: 22072: 22005: 21909: 21894: 21787: 21554: 21508: 21349: 21236: 21116: 20755: 20496: 20451: 20175: 20137: 19865: 19621: 18871: 18723: 18482: 17301: 17291: 17081: 17076: 17071: 17031: 17022: 16965: 16945: 16939: 16933: 16930: 16921: 16849: 16846: 16837: 16737: 16716: 16330: 16104: 16036: 15946: 15690: 15684: 15165: 14620: 14479: 14044: 13825: 13365: 13339: 13299: 12942: 12715: 12426: 12242: 11744: 10969:

Lukonin, V.G. (1983). "Political, Social and Administrative Institutions: Taxes and Trade". In

10356: 10350: 6922:, p. 70; for an archaeological survey of Roman glasswares in ancient Chinese burials, see 5953: 5930:, p. 149-150, "Buddhism was practiced in the easternmost reaches of the Parthian Empire." 5887: 5711: 5701: 5324: 5315: 4532: 4190: 4083: 4059: 3828: 3816: 3789: 3781: 3528: 3511: 3320: 3161:. They subdued all settlements along the Mediterranean coast as far south as Ptolemais (modern 3113: 2970: 2932: 2863: 2851: 2828: 2592: 2245: 2237: 2176: 2167: 2012: 1953: 1889: 1458: 961: 435: 165: 17612: 13918: 12947: 10874:(1996), "Parthia and Rome: eastern perspectives", in Kennedy, David L.; Braund, David (eds.), 9950: 9948: 5734:

urge. The kings built or occupied numerous cities as their capitals, the most important being

4831:

in armed combat. The heavy and light cavalry of Parthia proved to be a decisive factor in the

22551: 22511: 22324: 22199: 21263: 21253: 21212: 21183: 20404: 20356: 20331: 20051: 19799: 19577: 19495: 19112: 19069: 18540: 18026: 17661:

Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History

17582: 17545: 17467: 17344: 17004: 16980: 16936: 16924: 16918: 16915: 16870: 16864: 16840: 16805: 16761: 16749: 16746: 16743: 16731: 16725: 16713: 16707: 16526: 16436: 16433: 16424: 15987: 14064: 12354: 12282: 12202: 12037: 11851: 11740: 10853: 10840:

Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel

5579:

women are shown in archeological images entertaining at such occasions with music and dance.

4761: 4433: 4415: 3984: 3903: 3422: 3209: 3117: 2904: 2893: 2740: 2681: 2505: 2282: 2217: 2171: 839: 759: 697: 155: 22439: 17659: 17511: 13324: 11567:

Yü, Ying-shih (1986), "Han Foreign Relations", in Twitchett, Denis and Michael Loewe (ed.),

11336: 3230: 469: 22644: 22474: 22444: 22319: 22250: 22221: 22140: 21474: 21312: 21302: 20955: 20857: 20750: 20690: 20665: 20644: 20624: 20597: 20399: 20341: 20236: 19999: 19964: 19728: 18910: 18758: 18718: 18197: 16912: 16861: 16770: 16764: 16734: 16336: 16289: 16277: 16101: 16042: 15666: 15560: 15383: 14910: 14058: 13579: 12996: 12194: 11872: 10645:

De Jong, Albert (2008). "Regional Variation in Zoroastrianism: The Case of the Parthians".

10307:. 8: Papers Presented to David Sellwood. Istituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali. 9945: 5857: 5474: 5343: 5335: 5007: 4354: 4350: 4319: 4284:

A Sarmatian-Parthian gold necklace and amulet, 2nd century AD. Located in Tamoikin Art Fund

4174: 3611: 3189:(r. 40–37 BC); the latter was made king of Judea while Herod fled to his fort at 3035: 2962: 2954:(southeastern Turkey) where, according to two conflicting Roman accounts, the Roman consul 2744: 2499: 2494: 2073: 2045: 2008: 2004: 1721: 1568: 184: 22424: 16373: 11283:

Shayegan, Rahim M. (2007), "On Demetrius II Nicator's Arsacid Captivity and Second Rule",

4490:

invasion of Parthia and valuable political and geographical information. For example, the

2751:. 75–88 AD). Besides silk, Parthian goods purchased by Roman merchants included 2629:

was perhaps the most lucrative luxury item the Parthians traded at the western end of the

8: 22336: 22216: 22182: 22084: 21904: 21899: 21711: 21430: 21366: 21241: 21226: 20695: 20384: 20117: 20009: 19608: 19603: 19567: 19500: 19349: 19037: 18845: 18753: 18728: 18535: 18510: 18062: 18007: 17921: 17828: 17806: 17417: 17272: 16977: 16927: 16852: 16802: 16755: 16740: 16719: 16418: 16404: 16292: 16225: 16048: 15939: 15881: 15645: 15318: 15158: 14877: 14682: 14499: 14312: 13628: 12839: 12274: 11887: 11690: 11109:

Posch, Walter (1998), "Chinesische Quellen zu den Parthern", in Weisehöfer, Josef (ed.),

5707: 5291: 5259: 5035: 4987: 4892:, was the standard currency used throughout the Parthian Empire. The Arsacids maintained 4598: 4023: 3935: 3923: 3685: 3634: 3591: 3544: 3488: 2978: 2855: 2685: 1795: 1301: 1171: 600: 396: 226: 137: 22052: 22042: 4968:

A ceramic Parthian water spout in the shape of a man's head, dated 1st or 2nd century AD

4280: 4042: AD began when Vologases invaded Armenia and Syria, retaking Edessa. Roman emperor 4038:. c. 147–191 AD) who ushered in a period of peace and stability. However, the 3502:

Although at peace with Parthia, Rome still interfered in its affairs. The Roman emperor

3301:

the west. After the defeat and suicides of Antony and Cleopatra in 30 BC, Parthian ally

3026:, southeastern Turkey), Orodes II invaded Armenia, cutting off support from Rome's ally 22449: 22429: 22412: 22363: 22228: 22037: 21988: 21921: 21839: 21780: 21775: 21770: 21726: 21696: 21588: 21486: 21354: 21329: 21059: 21021: 20966: 20961: 20866: 20781: 20421: 20281: 20241: 20081: 20076: 19974: 19959: 19718: 19520: 19341: 19310: 19203: 18960: 18835: 18804: 18703: 18550: 18467: 17770: 17643: 17457: 17334: 16895: 16834: 16828: 16356: 16320: 16233: 16214: 16110: 16107: 16060: 16026: 16023: 15978: 15669: 15654: 15639: 15315: 15312: 15303: 15062: 14237: 13965: 13238: 13091: 13008: 12811: 11960: 11545:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

11513: 11489:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

11460:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

11345:

Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume XIII/4: Iran V. Peoples of Iran–Iran IX. Religions of Iran

11247:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

11221: 11213: 11174:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

11119: 11066:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10976:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10957: 10949: 10910:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10778:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10748:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10693:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10654: 10585:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10458:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10410:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10381:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

10281:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(2): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods

8178: 6012: 5396: 5392: 5003: 4939: 4507: 4483: 4376: 4324: 3988: 3757: 3548: 3266: 3135: 3121: 3093: 2989:

after his noble family's clan name, recaptured Seleucia, and Mithridates was executed.

2670: 2588: 2533: 2467: 2385: 2353: 2300: 2175:

regnal date of Parthian history." Due to these and other discrepancies, Bivar outlines

1854: 1822: 1504: 1291: 911: 382: 76: 16113: 11299:

Arsacids and Sasanians: Political Ideology in Post-Hellenistic and Late Antique Persia

4537: 4494:(ch. 123) describes diplomatic exchanges, exotic gifts given by Mithridates II to the 3899: 3543:

to challenge Gotarzes. This backfired when Meherdates was betrayed by the governor of

2439:

ceremony. While Mithridates I retired to Hyrcania, his forces subdued the kingdoms of

2259:

tribe, Arsaces I led a counterattack and recaptured Parthia. Seleucus II's successor,

1880:

in the north. However, as Parthia expanded westward, they came into conflict with the

22558: 22454: 22390: 22385: 22314: 22211: 21926: 21854: 21849: 21691: 21620: 21603: 21598: 21593: 21393: 21344: 21153: 21069: 20986: 20892: 20882: 20791: 20700: 20685: 20680: 20649: 20639: 20629: 20619: 20606: 20461: 20165: 19979: 19917: 19892: 19872: 19822: 19742: 19590: 19219: 19211: 19136: 19088: 18825: 18682: 18677: 18662: 18597: 18515: 18472: 18192: 18187: 18053: 18043: 17665: 17618: 17588: 16881: 16855: 16831: 16813: 16613: 16534: 16442: 16311: 16283: 16098: 16066: 16057: 15999: 15996: 15993: 15981: 15969: 15884: 15805: 15657: 15651: 15618: 15612: 15183: 15056: 14920: 14742: 14468: 14067: 14061: 13869: 13837: 13382: 12591: 12090: 12016: 11933: 11694: 11634: 11610: 11591: 11572: 11553: 11524: 11497: 11468: 11429: 11410: 11391: 11362:

Strugnell, Emma (2006), "Ventidius' Parthian War: Rome's Forgotten Eastern Triumph",

11348: 11321: 11302: 11255: 11225: 11182: 11153: 11131: 11074: 11045: 11026: 11004: 10984: 10961: 10918: 10879: 10857: 10824: 10805: 10786: 10756: 10727: 10717: 10701: 10672: 10631: 10612: 10593: 10554: 10542: 10528: 10507: 10487: 10481: 10466: 10437: 10418: 10389: 10360: 10335: 10318: 10308: 10303:

Assar, Gholamreza F. (2006). "A Revised Parthian Chronology of the Period 91–55 BC".

10289: 10260: 8560: 8540: 8191: 6042: 5965: 5849: 5821: 5715: 5492: 5484: 5470: 5067: 4958: 4931: 4832: 4478: 4372: 4075: 3847:. 54–68 AD) ceremoniously crowned him king of Armenia by placing the royal 3805: 3797: 3583: 3579: 3496: 3441: 3393: 3354: 3331:

in 31 BC, Octavian consolidated his political power and in 27 BC was named

3294: 3277:

meant for the siege of Praaspa; after this, Artavasdes II abandoned Antony's forces.

3019: 3015: 3001: 2878: 2723:

of China sent a delegation to Mithridates II's court in 121 BC. The Han embassy

2712: 2524:. c. 132–127 BC). The Parthian general Indates was defeated along the 2133: 2117: 2109: 1984: 1972: 1901: 1849:

where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous,

1842: 1826: 1331: 1231: 1221: 931: 921: 879: 779: 723: 97: 15045: 10932:

Lightfoot, C.S. (1990), "Trajan's Parthian War and the Fourth-Century Perspective",

5814:

Humanism, Culture, and Language in the Near East: Studies in Honor of Georg Krotkoff

5434:

at one shoulder. Their headdresses also featured a veil which was draped backwards.

3308: 2935:

he reaffirmed with Lucullus the Euphrates as the boundary between Parthia and Rome.

2862:. 95–92? BC), killing the latter. When one of the last Seleucid monarchs, 22407: 22194: 22189: 22145: 22132: 22062: 22030: 22025: 21889: 21884: 21866: 21827: 21760: 21743: 21684: 21674: 21669: 21610: 21566: 21536: 21496: 21479: 21462: 21425: 21176: 21040: 21031: 20941: 20931: 20887: 20727: 20715: 20669: 20614: 20431: 20296: 20127: 20096: 19941: 19922: 19631: 19251: 18738: 18733: 18637: 18632: 18627: 18617: 18612: 18602: 18418: 18275: 18260: 18244: 18239: 18234: 18212: 18103: 17541: 17453: 17399: 17330: 17317: 17296: 17261: 17110: 16898: 16867: 16722: 16698: 16466: 16463: 16457: 16412: 16305: 16286: 16280: 16236: 16219: 16063: 16054: 16051: 15975: 15972: 15810: 15695: 15282: 14372: 14306: 14294: 13987: 13534: 12824: 11923: 11846: 11371: 11205: 10941: 10871: 9317: 7363: 7361: 7359: 6087: 6004: 5853: 5841: 5805: 5670: 5541: 5323:

flourish there. This is exemplified by the early 3rd-century AD wall murals of the

5193: 5039: 5027: 4879: 4602: 4562: 4511: 4384: 3860: 3672: 3328: 3127: 2768: 2626: 2529: 2486: 2137: 2125: 2036: 1683: 1650: 1361: 1051: 1021: 12559: 10572:. Vol. III: The Crossroads of Civilization: AD 250 to 750. UNESCO Publishing. 7906: 5532: 5391:

A sculpted head (broken off from a larger statue) of a Parthian soldier wearing a

3965:

In the last months of 116 AD, Trajan captured the Persian city of Susa. When

3854:

A long period of peace between Parthia and Rome ensued, with only the invasion of

3780:. 51–55 AD) invade Armenia to depose the Roman client king Mithridates, 3475: 22740: 22625: 22593: 22466: 22434: 22417: 22373: 22368: 22346: 22341: 22299: 22292: 22267: 22127: 22122: 21963: 21844: 21738: 21733: 21701: 21526: 21516: 21410: 21403: 21383: 21339: 21221: 21207: 21074: 21011: 20946: 20921: 20906: 20845: 20634: 20486: 20376: 20198: 19897: 19833: 19737: 19585: 19487: 19259: 19235: 19171: 19152: 19120: 19005: 18947: 18672: 18647: 18642: 18622: 18570: 18555: 18545: 18525: 18495: 18447: 18443: 18413: 18120: 18084: 18074: 17784: 17462: 17448: 17423: 17376: 17339: 17325: 17149: 16998: 16858: 16823: 16695: 16690: 16618: 16592: 16448: 16323: 16317: 16302: 16295: 16249: 16239: 16072: 16017: 16011: 16008: 15954: 15902: 15738: 15672: 15660: 15648: 15636: 15621: 15600: 15519: 15423: 15420: 15394: 15309: 15288: 15276: 15243: 15237: 15207: 15129: 14939: 14291: 14246: 14200: 14194: 14184: 13974: 13074: 13052: 12819: 12338: 11882: 11644: 11543: 11539: 11487: 11483: 11458: 11454: 11340: 11245: 11241: 11172: 11168: 11147: 11064: 11060: 11018: 10974: 10970: 10908: 10904: 10776: 10772: 10746: 10742: 10691: 10687: 10583: 10579: 10456: 10452: 10408: 10404: 10379: 10375: 10279: 10275: 10201: 5833: 5809: 5660: 5650: 5625: 5588: 5526: 5248: 5063: 5023: 4943: 4885: 4656: 4614: 4561:

Compared with the earlier Achaemenid Empire, the Parthian government was notably

4542: 4404: 4289: 4274: 4143: 4067: 4063: 4043: 3676: 3626: 3578:, where Parthian authorities convinced him that an arduous sea voyage around the 3400: 3324: 3205: 3182: 3041:

Surena, with an army entirely on horseback, rode to meet Crassus. Surena's 1,000

2732: 2576: 2397: 2357: 2201: 2113: 2085: 2041: 2016: 1996: 1980: 1949: 1818: 1749: 1713: 1241: 1191: 1091: 1061: 1001: 941: 859: 829: 769: 564: 409: 361: 324: 311: 22047: 17501: 12739: 11588:

Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC – AD 305

7356: 6350: 6348: 4030:. Osroes I died during his conflict with Vologases III, the latter succeeded by 3744: 3368: 3138:

in 40 BC; the following year he invaded Syria alongside Pacorus I. The triumvir

22568: 22563: 22526: 22501: 22484: 22395: 22380: 22351: 22309: 22157: 22117: 22112: 22067: 21993: 21953: 21943: 21933: 21748: 21627: 21521: 21388: 21270: 20916: 20436: 20261: 19749: 19713: 19376: 19294: 19227: 19053: 18652: 18058: 17360: 16904: 16797: 16686: 16639: 16600: 16543: 16445: 16381: 16299: 16258: 16252: 16242: 16230: 16014: 16002: 15990: 15910: 15799: 15753: 15663: 15633: 15597: 15461: 15306: 15285: 15279: 15270: 15222: 15192: 15174: 15149: 15137: 15049: 14906: 14777: 14628: 14490: 14484: 14387: 14379: 14315: 14288: 14252: 14085: 13852: 13849: 13750: 13158: 12923: 12829: 12806: 12698: 11938: 11928: 11892: 11877: 11663: 11624: 5845: 5512: 5488: 5404: 5311: 5189: 5153: 5134: 4999: 4954: 4703: 4699: 4265: 4237: 4082:. 193–211 AD) invaded Mesopotamia in 197 AD during the reign of 3947: 3907: 3892: 3650: 3607: 3492: 3385: 3349: 2974: 2736: 2646: 2513: 2389: 2296: 2275: 2205: 2129: 2121: 1904:

in 53 BC, and in 40–39 BC, Parthian forces captured the whole of the

1885: 1814: 1771: 1351: 1031: 1011: 951: 587: 498: 132: 11209: 4635: 3574:

at Hecatompylos before departing towards Rome. He traveled as far west as the

3076: 2969:, after which Orodes turned on Mithridates, forcing him to flee from Media to 2482:

ceremony and the representational city of the Arsacids, according to Brosius.

2193: 22704: 22686: 22673: 22649: 22536: 22331: 22304: 22277: 22255: 22233: 22000: 21983: 21968: 21812: 21765: 21753: 21679: 21571: 21445: 21440: 21415: 21297: 21147: 21051: 21036: 21006: 20951: 20831: 20786: 20735: 20705: 19408: 19302: 19267: 18989: 18452: 18300: 18207: 17966: 17962: 17795: 17655: 17578: 17563: 17435: 17367: 17247: 16892: 16889: 16642: 16636: 16596: 16552: 16460: 16421: 16255: 16194: 16095: 16092: 16020: 16005: 15966: 15963: 15906: 15845: 15727: 15433: 15426: 15403: 15297: 15291: 15255: 15177: 15133: 15090: 14882: 14780: 14774: 14732: 14631: 14434: 14396: 14169: 14055: 13969: 13779: 13730: 13485: 13469: 13162: 13088: 13049: 13023: 13017: 12978: 12919: 12890: 12615: 12095: 12085: 11375: 10403:

Bivar, A.D.H. (1983). "The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids". In

10322: 10212:

Lerouge, Ch. 2007. L’image des Parthes dans le monde gréco-romain. Stuttgart.

10194: 6345: 6030: 5969: 5596: 5479: 5466: 5235: 5173: 5127: 5082:. Greek and Iranian deities were often blended together as one. For example, 4949: 4824: 4820: 4812: 4792: 4725: 4719: 4486:. They provide information on the nomadic migrations leading up to the early 4421: 4293: 4261: 4256: 4151: 3911: 3716: 3417:. c. 2 BC – 4 AD), Musa ruled alongside him, and according to 3340: 3290: 3282: 3274: 3243: 3166: 3062: 3058: 2823: 2556: 2286: 1909: 1838: 1803: 1430: 1419: 1161: 1081: 1041: 488: 448: 114: 22077: 22057: 14517: 12132: 11122:(2013). "Arsacid, Elymaean, and Persid Coinage". In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.). 3788:. c. 51–77 AD) planned to invade and place his brother, the later 3570:

on a diplomatic mission to reach the Roman Empire. Gan visited the court of

2870:), Parthia sent military aid to the inhabitants and Demetrius was defeated. 22541: 22282: 22272: 22238: 22167: 22162: 22089: 21879: 21861: 21822: 21817: 21797: 21792: 21664: 21657: 21647: 21642: 21637: 21531: 21469: 21450: 21435: 21371: 21079: 21064: 21016: 20925: 20470: 20336: 19759: 19708: 19416: 19400: 19384: 19326: 18457: 18270: 18202: 18099: 17608: 17405: 17283: 17217: 17135: 17126: 17057: 16983: 16886: 16630: 16531: 16454: 16308: 16264: 16144: 16069: 16029: 15960: 15957: 15951: 15890: 15842: 15830: 15744: 15721: 15714: 15630: 15624: 15594: 15406: 15378: 15360: 15351: 15300: 15093: 15087: 15081: 14986: 14956: 14762: 14674: 14571: 14508: 14456: 14285: 14010: 13945: 13935: 13846: 13797: 13682: 13662: 13658: 13443: 13307: 13167: 13147: 13100: 13059: 12846: 12801: 12650: 12635: 12530: 12506: 12290: 11918: 11900: 10771:

Frye, R.N. (1983). "The Political History of Iran Under the Sasanians". In

5891: 5739: 5608: 5465:

As culturally and religiously tolerant as the Parthians were, they adopted

5445:). This may have derived from an Achaemenid-era satrapal headdress and the 5360: 5262:

of the Parthian period include scenes of royal hunting expeditions and the

5215: 5205: 5095: 5079: 5075: 5019: 4847: 4839:

and mercenaries, were used to disperse enemy troops after cavalry charges.

4836: 4816: 4757: 4062:

invaded Armenia in 163 AD, followed by the invasion of Mesopotamia by

4051: 4003: 3959: 3864: 3721: 3667: 3658: 3575: 3336: 3200:, an officer under Mark Antony, defeated and then executed Labienus at the 3162: 3154: 3109: 3105: 3050: 3046: 2947: 2924: 2920: 2658: 2459: 2408: 2081: 2020: 1913: 1893: 1810: 1791: 1548: 1477: 1440: 1408: 1371: 1341: 1261: 1101: 667: 68: 17886: 17696: 11569:

Cambridge History of China: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220

11092:"The Sacral Kingship of the early Arsacids. I. Fire Cult and Kingly Glory" 10669:

Cambridge History of China: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220

9321: 5607:, is the only other woman believed to have been a ruler, in her case as a 4918:. The clothing is Parthian, while the style is Hellenistic (sitting on an 2603:(r. c. 124–91 BC) later recovered the lands lost to the Saka in 2147:

concludes that this was the year the Seleucids lost control of Parthia to

22260: 22245: 22094: 21807: 21716: 21706: 21632: 21280: 21275: 21157: 21121: 20872: 20557: 20480: 20311: 18876: 18866: 18657: 18589: 18462: 18350: 18164: 17928: 17816: 17766: 17728: 17420: 17411: 17266: 17220: 17205: 17196: 17190: 17132: 17034: 16992: 16962: 16959: 16901: 16758: 16710: 16621: 16540: 16537: 16520: 16430: 16245: 16188: 16185: 16182: 16157: 16147: 16135: 15984: 15925: 15878: 15854: 15848: 15839: 15833: 15778: 15741: 15724: 15708: 15642: 15627: 15615: 15603: 15574: 15541: 15538: 15400: 15375: 15372: 15366: 15273: 15234: 15231: 15219: 15204: 15201: 15189: 15096: 15084: 15075: 15024: 15018: 14968: 14965: 14953: 14950: 14886: 14863: 14846: 14832: 14823: 14593: 14522: 14512: 14364: 14349: 14343: 14327: 14324: 14227: 14206: 14116: 14079: 14002: 13843: 13633: 13558: 13553: 13546: 13516: 13502: 13465: 13315: 13224: 13139: 13109: 13095: 12864: 12850: 12795: 12730: 12660: 12630: 12522: 12434: 12402: 12322: 12234: 11383: 7100: 5817: 5604: 5537: 5263: 5180:(fl. 2nd century AD), a Parthian nobleman and Buddhist monk, traveled to 5157: 5087: 4978: 4923: 4910: 4893: 4889: 4859: 4855: 4785: 4733: 4691: 4686: 4495: 4460: 4392: 4301: 3773: 3753: 3692: 3599: 3373: 3358: 3302: 3235: 3220: 3174: 3139: 3085: 2760: 2756: 2720: 2657:. After Mithridates II extended Parthian control further west, occupying 2642: 2614: 2517: 2452: 2436: 2428: 2377: 2373: 2241: 2216:

by taking advantage of the invasion of Seleucid territory in the west by

2156: 1976: 1917: 1799: 1783: 1775: 1720:

from 247 BC to 224 AD. Its latter name comes from its founder,

1606: 1251: 1211: 971: 849: 103: 40:

The Parthian Empire in 94 BC at its greatest extent, during the reign of

14586: 11607:

Silk Road Studies: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road

11571:, vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462, 11217: 10671:, vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 808–872, 10658: 10628:

A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)

10257:

Silk Road Studies: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road

4639:

A statue of a young Palmyran in fine Parthian trousers, from a funerary

3827:

achieved some military successes against the Parthians while installing

3049:

were outnumbered roughly four to one by Crassus' army, comprising seven

2877:

succeeded him. He reigned during a period coined in scholarship as the "

2610: 2140:

and other languages in the multilingual territories they would conquer.

22287: 22104: 21978: 21938: 21871: 20511: 19902: 19424: 19392: 19318: 19286: 19096: 18408: 18403: 17429: 17426: 17408: 17385: 17370: 17364: 17244: 17241: 17199: 17187: 17181: 17166: 17037: 17028: 17025: 17019: 17001: 16971: 16779: 16704: 16645: 16511: 16451: 16314: 16208: 16179: 16176: 16173: 16161: 16153: 16141: 16129: 15875: 15851: 15836: 15772: 15734: 15711: 15705: 15609: 15348: 15180: 15078: 15037: 15027: 15021: 14983: 14980: 14977: 14971: 14959: 14947: 14944: 14914: 14860: 14857: 14670: 14649: 14625: 14601: 14430: 14321: 14318: 14309: 14300: 14219: 14110: 13996: 13951: 13939: 13783: 13621: 13617: 13566: 13387: 13295: 13221: 13217: 12961: 12834: 12784: 12778: 12442: 12418: 12410: 12394: 12346: 12258: 12218: 12210: 9200: 9198: 6016: 5503: 5450: 5446: 5327:, a temple in the same city dedicated to Palmyrene gods, and the local 5034:, according to V.G. Lukonin. The Parthians also adopted the use of the 4808: 4776: 4652: 4586: 4185:. 590–628 AD). However, they would lose these territories to 4178: 4147: 4133:. 217–218) where the Romans paid Parthia over two-hundred million 3969:

gathered forces in eastern Parthia to challenge the Romans, his cousin

3951: 3888: 3883: 3872: 3661:), a site that is one of the suggested locations for the port city of " 3571: 3540: 3524: 3457: 3410: 3314: 3286: 3262: 3042: 2874: 2793: 2708: 2689: 2669:

in 97 BC, taking his son Tigranes hostage, who would later become

2654: 2479: 2471: 2322: 2304: 2233: 1933: 1467: 1381: 1201: 1181: 1151: 1111: 1071: 903: 869: 789: 743: 388: 18133: 15580: 11482:

Widengren, Geo (1983). "Sources of Parthian and Sasanian History". In

10953: 10084:, pp. 279–280 for comparison with Achaemenid satrapal headdresses 5306: 4566: 4429: 4426: 3954:

of Adiabene, since Osroes was engaged in a civil war to the east with

22177: 21948: 21832: 21802: 21583: 21457: 21248: 19637:

International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)

19357: 19334: 19128: 19061: 19029: 18713: 18398: 18285: 18222: 17978: 17948: 17438: 17381: 17238: 17208: 17202: 17193: 17178: 17172: 17154: 17129: 17007: 16989: 16776: 16773: 16633: 16560: 16546: 16517: 16505: 16427: 16398: 16138: 16132: 15897: 15827: 15784: 15781: 15730: 15513: 15430: 15416: 15413: 15369: 15363: 15345: 15267: 15258: 15228: 15225: 15216: 15198: 15195: 15033: 15030: 14894: 14890: 14866: 14814: 14801: 14771: 14666: 14662: 14540: 14400: 14137: 14132: 14128: 14097: 14014: 13991: 13955: 13840: 13763: 13686: 13678: 13645: 13542: 13526: 13498: 13461: 13330: 13288: 13105: 12984: 12870: 12514: 12362: 12314: 12306: 11727:, vol. 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 526–535 11347:. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 348–366. 11198:

The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland

10903:

Kurz, Otto (1983). "Cultural Relations Between Parthia and Rome". In

5735: 5371:

are found at Seleucia, built in the early 1st century AD. Monumental

5328: 5177: 5161: 5138: 5099: 4983: 4935: 4769: 4455: 4305: 4297: 4186: 4110: 3868: 3662: 3465: 3440:

During the reign of Artabanus II, two Jewish commoners and brothers,

3426: 2931:. c. 71–58). Phraates did not send aid to either, and after the 2882: 2844: 2832: 2728: 2638: 2630: 2622: 2525: 2463: 2444: 2424: 2420: 2256: 2000: 1988: 1877: 1858: 1787: 1779: 1311: 1281: 1271: 981: 819: 677: 60: 11091: 9309: 9195: 6008: 5952:

Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006).

5058:

Parthian votive relief from Khūzestān Province, Iran, 2nd century AD

4296:. Other Parthian sources used for reconstructing chronology include 3116:, who ambushed and killed Osaces. The Arsacids sided with Pompey in 3092:(right), issued in 41 BC to celebrate the establishment of the 21578: 21361: 21319: 21258: 20547: 19887: 19769: 19021: 18850: 18505: 18428: 18423: 18330: 18315: 18310: 18265: 17972: 17957: 17953: 17937: 17903: 17891: 17879: 17854: 17388: 17214: 17175: 17169: 17046: 16627: 16624: 16569: 16566: 16508: 16439: 16389: 16352: 16205: 15747: 15606: 15588: 15571: 15509: 15436: 15410: 15357: 15339: 15249: 15124: 15015: 15006: 14994: 14962: 14926: 14902: 14852: 14820: 14796: 14768: 14738: 14726: 14719: 14705: 14699: 14634: 14544: 14526: 14438: 14416: 14412: 14297: 14223: 14052: 14006: 13983: 13978: 13909: 13904: 13873: 13690: 13614: 13610: 13603: 13481: 13402: 13247: 13079: 13069: 13064: 13055: 12991: 12974: 12745: 12692: 12466: 12175: 10945: 7104: 5518: 5286: 5271: 5169: 4991: 4919: 4750: 4707: 4660: 4594: 4590: 4515: 4473: 4465: 4408: 4400: 4388: 4335: 4135: 4126: 4071: 3998: 3931: 3749: 3642: 3567: 3559: 3552: 3532: 3503: 3484: 3480: 3449: 3445: 3418: 3381: 3332: 3150: 3143: 3089: 2951: 2939: 2923:

in 69 BC, Mithridates VI and Tigranes II requested the aid of

2916: 2840: 2771:, served as the primary middlemen of this vital silk trade between 2604: 2432: 2416: 2369: 2291: 2213: 1929: 1131: 1121: 687: 574: 158: 142: 64: 17617:. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). 16606: 11760: 11196:

Sellwood, David (1976). "The Drachms of the Parthian "Dark Age"".

4006:, depicted as a prisoner of war in chains held by a Roman (left); 21491: 21420: 21376: 21231: 21090: 19013: 18607: 18335: 18325: 18290: 18280: 18031: 17996: 17990: 17984: 17874: 17842: 17821: 17441: 17269: 17250: 17235: 17229: 17223: 16557: 16502: 16395: 16392: 16340: 16191: 15933: 15872: 15793: 15787: 15528: 15522: 15294: 15264: 15119: 15009: 14974: 14765: 14708: 14609: 14578: 14282: 13831: 13774: 13703: 13598: 13590: 13455: 13390: 13197: 13194: 13179: 13175: 12987: 12981: 12965: 12843: 12080: 5915: 5895: 5837: 5727: 5635: 5575: 5438: 5424: 5279: 5181: 5176:

into Iran proper. However, it is known from Chinese sources that

5123: 5107: 5071: 4851: 4843: 4644: 4610: 4574: 4570: 4546: 4359: 4330: 4313: 4247: 4225: 4163: 4155: 4027: 4015: 3877: 3734: 3680: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3595: 3516: 3469: 3453: 3309:

Peace with Rome, court intrigue and contact with Chinese generals

3258: 3178: 3120:

and even sent troops to support the anti-Caesarian forces at the

2958:

forced the Parthians out by either military or diplomatic means.

2836: 2802: 2564: 2490: 2440: 2404: 2197: 2105: 1992: 1937: 1866: 1733: 1321: 809: 640: 630: 620: 538: 511: 109: 21292: 14694: 4651:

The King of Kings headed the Parthian government. He maintained

3938:, son of Pacorus II, without consulting Rome. The Roman emperor 21324: 21199: 20896: 20216: 19045: 18355: 18305: 18227: 17232: 17226: 17184: 17095: 16563: 16514: 16089:

Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos")

15887: 15790: 15775: 15759: 15504: 15489: 15354: 15261: 15252: 15186: 15143: 15012: 15003: 15000: 14997: 14898: 14870: 14811: 14702: 14597: 14424: 14303: 14215: 14203: 13834: 13791: 13756: 13737: 13709: 13606: 13538: 13476: 13419: 13371: 13280: 13251: 13207: 13204: 13154: 13084: 13002: 12955: 12905: 12880: 12875: 12854: 12671: 12645: 12620: 10231:

N. C. Debevoise, A Political History of Parthia, Chicago, 1938.

9279: 9277: 9275: 9273: 6566: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5592: 5431: 5347: 5275: 5267: 5146: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5031: 4819:; they wore a simple tunic and trousers into battle. They used 4681: 4665: 4606: 4554: 4469: 4396: 4380: 4368: 4309: 3939: 3848: 3836: 3461: 3190: 3158: 3081: 3070: 3023: 3005: 2986: 2943: 2867: 2764: 2697: 2650: 2579:; the Yuezhi then migrated west into Bactria and displaced the 2568: 2451:. By this time, Parthian authority extended as far east as the 2384:

Phraates I is recorded as expanding Parthia's control past the

2365: 2212:

For a time, Arsaces I consolidated his position in Parthia and

2152: 1941: 1905: 1862: 1850: 1846: 1741: 707: 610: 84: 18902: 14689: 14241: 13913: 13511: 13506: 13334: 13319: 10578:

Colpe, Carsten (1983). "Development of Religious Thought". In

5387: 4526: 4260:, was not compiled until the reign of the last Sasanian ruler 3891:

in their eastern provinces. Yet the Romans had no discernible

3146:

and eventually conducted negotiations with him at Brundisium.

2485:

The Seleucids were unable to retaliate immediately as general

1668: 21958: 19754: 18708: 18345: 18340: 18320: 17837: 17432: 17414: 15929: 15535: 15516: 14582: 14493: 14464: 14391: 14123: 13787: 13674: 13593: 13521: 13398: 13394: 13276: 13214: 13210: 13171: 12958: 12900: 12895: 12885: 12858: 12640: 11810: 11805: 11721:

Schippmann, Klaus (1987), "Arsacid ii. The Arsacid dynasty",

11609:, vol. 7, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, pp. 75–78, 10352:

The Persians, from the earliest days to the twentieth century

10259:, vol. 7, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, pp. 79–94, 8801: 8799: 8441: 6033: 5911: 5890:, "The Parthians and the peoples of the Parthian empire were 5731: 5630: 5620: 5600: 5571: 5454: 5412: 5224: 5210: 5091: 4828: 4738: 4640: 4229: 4118: 3975: 3855: 3725:

Map of the troop movements during the first two years of the

3654: 3646: 3603: 3539:. 41–54 AD) in 49 AD to release the hostage prince 3170: 2572: 2537: 2271: 2093: 2089: 2077: 1944:, revolted against the Arsacids and killed their last ruler, 1888:. Rome and Parthia competed with each other to establish the 1725: 515: 80: 14806: 13768: 11023:

The Provinces of the Roman Empire: From Caesar to Diocletian

10741:

Emmerick, R.E. (1983). "Buddhism Among Iranian Peoples". In

9270: 5756: 5754: 1689: 1662: 1659: 19534: 18997: 18933: 18295: 17833: 16386: 16150: 16077: 15921: 15677: 14788: 14643: 14565: 14406: 14334: 14163: 14049: 13880: 13855: 13743: 13724: 13493: 13451: 13406: 13346: 13284: 13231: 13200: 13129: 13029: 12971: 12968: 12915: 12759: 12751: 12721: 12681: 12665: 12655: 12625: 11445:

Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Principat. II.2

11003:, Canberra: National Library of Australia, pp. 38–39, 10451:

Boyce, Mary (1983). "Parthian Writings and Literature". In

7011: 5743: 5427:, Syria, along with the use of Parthian frontality in art. 5355: 5240: 5228: 5219: 5142: 5103: 5083: 4729: 4695: 4694:

that the Council of Parthia consisted of noble kinsmen and

4690:, preserved a claim by the Greek philosopher and historian 4669: 4487: 4441: 4233: 3840: 3761: 3649:

dated to the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and his predecessor

3054: 2810: 2661:

in 113 BC, he became embroiled in a conflict with the

2618: 2580: 2448: 2155:

who rebelled against them. Hence, Arsaces I "backdated his

1737: 1695: 1665: 528: 72: 21168: 11754: 10686:

Duchesne-Guillemin, J. (1983). "Zoroastrian religion". In

10332:

Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd Edition

9852: 9850: 8796: 5274:. Geometric and stylized plant patterns were also used on 4419:

chronological order of events. The Chinese called Parthia

2478:. c. 90–80 BC). It became the site of the royal 2108:. The latter was a northeastern province, first under the 2062:) with the Greek language inscription ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ "of Arsaces" 20512:

Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)

14383: 10892:

Koshelenko, G.A.; Pilipko, V.N., eds. (1996). "Parthia".

8569: 5751: 5168:

There is scant archaeological evidence for the spread of

3425:

lasted just two years on the throne, and was followed by

3357:

to house the standards, and even in fine art such as the

1869:), although several other sites also served as capitals. 1701: 22736:

States and territories disestablished in the 3rd century

22731:

States and territories established in the 3rd century BC

17552:. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. 11538:

Yarshater, Ehsan (1983). "Iranian National History". In

11407:

Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History

10821:

The City of the Moon God: Religious Traditions of Harran

9977: 9975: 9973: 9971: 9919: 9917: 9025: 9023: 7028: 7026: 4105:. c. 208–222 AD) took the throne, his brother 2423:. This victory was followed by the Parthian conquest of 1782:, in what is now central-eastern Turkey, to present-day 14020: 12676: 11025:, vol. 2, Piscataway (New Jersey): Gorgias Press, 9847: 8654: 8652: 8097: 7813: 7811: 5902:

continued to be the main deity alongside the goddesses

5010:. Moreover, the Arsacids claimed familial descent from 3922:

Hostilities between Rome and Parthia were renewed when

3641:. 146–168 AD). Although it could be coincidental, 2255:). After spending some time in exile among the nomadic 1952:, which ruled Iran and much of the Near East until the 17531:

Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional.

11515:

The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia

10486:. Translated by W. J. Smyth. Cambridge: Polity Press. 10374:

Bickerman, Elias J. (1983). "The Seleucid Period". In

8605: 7107:

asserts that Afranius drove him out by military means.

6318: 5918:, was revered alongside a multiplicity of other gods." 5517:

It is known that during the Parthian period the court

5395:, from the Parthian royal residence and necropolis of 4934:

of the Seleucids was widely adopted by peoples of the

4440:), perhaps after the Greek name for the Parthian city 4224:

Parthian gold jewelry items found at a burial site in

3693:

Continuation of Roman hostilities and Parthian decline

2120:

as the official court language, speaking it alongside

15052:

Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu

9968: 9914: 9574: 9572: 9020: 7023: 6981: 6979: 6335: 6333: 5771: 5769: 5353:

A signature feature of Parthian architecture was the

4807:

The main striking force of the Parthian army was its

3930:. c. 109–128 AD) deposed the Armenian king 3506:(r. 14–37 AD) became involved in a plot by 3246:

Arsaces the Renowned/Manifest Benefactor Philhellene"

3185:

were defeated by the Parthians and their Jewish ally

2076:

founded the Arsacid dynasty, he was chieftain of the

1698: 1692: 14120:

Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter

11269:

Shahbazi, Shahpur A. (1987), "Arsacids. I. Origin",

10804:, Oxford & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing, Ltd., 9789: 9787: 9785: 9783: 9781: 9768: 9766: 9764: 9762: 9613: 9611: 8944: 8772: 8664: 8649: 8593: 8431: 8429: 8427: 7808: 7549: 7547: 6215: 6213: 6211: 5840:

was the medium of everyday writing, and it provided

5379:

at that site have a span of 15 m (50 ft).

5350:

vessels, is unquestionably influenced by Greek art.

4905: 2396:(r. c. 171–132 BC), whom Katouzian compares to 1924:. Several Roman emperors invaded Mesopotamia in the 1704: 1656: 12589: 11708:Neusner, J. (1963), "Parthian Political Ideology", 9333: 9331: 9173: 9171: 6524: 6522: 5812:; Krotkoff, Georg; Zahniser, A. H. Mathias (eds.). 5449:depicted in the Achaemenid reliefs at Behistun and 5137:is debated in modern scholarship. The followers of 4414:Parthian history can also be reconstructed via the 4363:exemplifies their admiration for Parthian cuisine. 3839:and Rome in 63 AD. At both sites the Roman emperor 3468:. The exiled Jews fled to Ctesiphon, Nehardea, and 1928:of the next few centuries, capturing the cities of 1686: 1653: 13923:(King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 11512: 11090: 10685: 9697: 9649: 9569: 9563: 9444: 9442: 9103:"Strabo, Geography, Book 11, chapter 9, section 3" 8177: 7286: 7284: 6976: 6946: 6944: 6754: 6330: 6284: 6282: 6242: 6240: 6225: 5766: 4922:). The Greek inscription reads "King Arsaces, the 10891: 10188: 10186: 10184: 10182: 10180: 10178: 10176: 10174: 10059: 9778: 9759: 9608: 8956: 8424: 8228: 8179:"Emperor Trajan, 98–117: Greatest Extent of Rome" 7544: 6208: 5927: 4273:of the Achaemenids, and later developed into the 3065:on the flat plain, devastated Crassus' infantry. 2116:. After conquering the region, the Parni adopted 1979:and other languages, are scarce when compared to 1786:and western Pakistan. The empire, located on the 22702: 11167:Schlumberger, Daniel (1983). "Parthian Art". In 10850:The Persians: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Iran 10274:Asmussen, J.P. (1983). "Christians in Iran". In 9328: 9168: 8045: 7211: 7209: 7050: 6819: 6817: 6519: 6306: 6269: 6267: 6198: 6196: 6181: 5951: 5530:believed that such stories as the romantic tale 5294:explains the innovation of Parthian frontality: 4521: 4323:Parthian golden necklace, 2nd century AD, Iran, 4162:on 28 April 224 AD, perhaps at a site near 3831:as a Roman client. However, Corbulo's successor 1829:, though it eventually saw a gradual revival of 19573:December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum 11040:Morton, William S.; Lewis, Charlton M. (2005), 11001:Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia 9503: 9501: 9439: 9427: 8175: 7281: 6941: 6674: 6279: 6237: 5933: 5788: 5786: 5784: 5730:that the kings themselves maintained was their 5570:According to Roman sources, Parthian kings had 5552: 5022:named one of his sons Darius and laid claim to 4569:, xšatrap, and dizpat, similar to the Seleucid 2400:(d. 530 BC), founder of the Achaemenid Empire. 1872:The earliest enemies of the Parthians were the 19659:2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests 19558:March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum 10567: 10305:Parthica. Incontri di Culture Nel Mondo Antico 10171: 8447: 6045: 4842:The Parthians do not appear to have ever used 4196: 3657:, Vietnam (among other Roman artefacts in the 3319:Following the defeat and deaths of Antony and 2873:Following the rule of Mithridates II, his son 2813:, along the Persian Gulf), now located at the 2342: 21184: 19441:Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) 18918: 18149: 17712: 12575: 12161: 12137: 11776: 11453:Watson, William (1983). "Iran and China". In 11447:, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 415–427 11320:, London & Portland: Valentine Mitchell, 11240:Sellwood, David (1983). "Parthian Coins". In 7393: 7206: 6814: 6264: 6193: 5954:"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" 4811:, heavy cavalry with man and horse decked in 3863:, the heart of the Parthian Empire along the 3173:, the pro-Roman Jewish forces of high priest 3038:(d. 38 BC) and Artavasdes' sister. 1624: 269:2,800,000 km (1,100,000 sq mi) 22641:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 20517:Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO) 17566:. cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. 17540: 15044:: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk 13637:"King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 11739:Various articles from Iran Chamber Society ( 11166: 10625: 9993: 9962: 9939: 9908: 9892: 9880: 9856: 9841: 9809: 9498: 9480: 9468: 8555:International Congress of Byzantine Studies 7873: 7837: 5988: 5781: 5742:, which they built from the ancient town of 4150:, the local Iranian ruler of Persis (modern 3764:. 2nd–3rd century AD. Louvre Museum Sb 7302. 2031: 2017:desire to form alliances against the Xiongnu 1845:; indeed, they accepted many local kings as 19627:2009 Iranian presidential election protests 18744:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 17726: 17576: 16793:Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon 11633:. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–432. 11426:The Age of the Parthians: The Ideas of Iran 11039: 10609:The Age of the Parthians: The Ideas of Iran 10434:The Age of the Parthians: The Ideas of Iran 7857: 5832:In the Middle Persian period (Parthian and 4527:Central authority and semi-autonomous kings 3602:. However, Chinese records maintain that a 3257:The following year, when Antony marched to 2559:Arsaces the Renowned/Manifest Philhellene." 2466:and his newly founded city, Mithradatkert ( 1948:, in 224 AD. Ardashir established the 1770:BC) greatly expanded the empire by seizing 21191: 21177: 20133:Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament) 19995:Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran 19511:1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election 18925: 18911: 18156: 18142: 17763:Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 17719: 17705: 12582: 12568: 12168: 12154: 11783: 11769: 11684: 10799: 10719:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China 10666: 10195:https://iranicaonline.org/articles/women-i 9954: 9837: 9749: 9709: 9693: 9629: 9519: 9460: 9417: 9260: 9240: 9208: 8938: 8734: 8718: 8682: 8635: 8611: 8475:, p. 44, who mentions this in passing 8334: 8270: 8214: 7947: 7677: 7605: 7506: 7462: 7251: 7235: 7180: 7139:, pp. 94–95 mentions this in passing. 6867: 6855: 6760: 6712: 6696: 6660: 6628: 6592: 6509: 6497: 6465: 6453: 6426: 6231: 5945: 5359:, an audience hall supported by arches or 5334:Parthian architecture adopted elements of 4058:. 161–169 AD) guard Syria while 2961:Phraates III was assassinated by his sons 2431:, where Mithridates I had coins minted at 2364:, showing him wearing a beard and a royal 1631: 1617: 34: 19642:Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) 17493:Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia 14089:"King of the four quarters of the world" 11537: 11481: 11361: 11318:Rome's Wars in Parthia: Blood in the Sand 11301:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 11118: 10931: 10847: 10479: 10373: 10355:, New York: St. Martin's Press, pp. 9673: 9578: 9405: 8950: 8917:, Tahouri Publishers, Tehran, pp. 95-111. 8805: 8790: 8778: 8766: 8702: 8686: 8670: 8658: 8639: 8599: 8587: 8575: 8499: 8472: 8418: 8330: 8314: 8246: 8222: 8218: 8147: 8135: 7609: 7581: 7450: 7418: 7371: 7350: 7247: 7164: 7120: 7005: 6748: 6720: 6636: 6219: 6115: 6091: 5994: 5507:Parthian long-necked lute, c. 3 BC – 3 AD 4173:the Levant, Anatolia, and Egypt from the 3483:struck in 19 BC during the reign of 3227:. c. 38–2 BC) as his new heir. 2240:in Central Asia. The latter's successor, 1806:, became a center of trade and commerce. 1716:political and cultural power centered in 22801:1st-millennium disestablishments in Asia 19461:Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020) 17664:. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. 11658: 11337:"Iran vi. Iranian languages and scripts" 11296: 11282: 11268: 11239: 11195: 11088: 10895:History of Civilizations of Central Asia 10740: 10570:History of Civilizations of Central Asia 10520: 10273: 10247: 10081: 9737: 9713: 9602: 9551: 9507: 9389: 9377: 9365: 9301: 9283: 8915:Indo-Parthians and the Rise of Sasanians 8103: 7538: 7032: 7017: 7001: 6612: 6580: 6560: 5666:List of Zoroastrian states and dynasties 5502: 5386: 5310:A wall mural depicting a scene from the 5305: 5234: 5209: 5053: 4963: 4909: 4634: 4536: 4329: 4318: 4279: 3997: 3991:allege that he attempted to establish a 3898: 3748:Parthian king making an offering to god 3743: 3720: 3564:Protector-General of the Western Regions 3519:. The Romans released a hostage prince, 3474: 3367: 3229: 3075: 2991: 2792: 2609: 2542: 2352: 2192: 2035: 22465: 20247:Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) 18163: 17638: 17636: 17634: 17509: 11668:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 5 11623: 11334: 11315: 11204:(1). Cambridge University Press: 2–25. 11059:Neusner, J. (1983). "Jews in Iran". In 11058: 11017: 10968: 10870: 10644: 10501: 10348: 10165: 10125: 10109: 10093: 10065: 10053: 10005: 9981: 9958: 9935: 9923: 9833: 9821: 9805: 9793: 9772: 9677: 9637: 9617: 9590: 9547: 9535: 9523: 9337: 9314:The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires 9307: 9295: 9256: 9244: 9236: 9224: 9220: 9204: 9177: 9162: 9158: 9146: 9142: 9130: 9089: 9077: 9065: 9053: 9041: 9029: 9014: 9002: 8990: 8974: 8962: 8926: 8897: 8885: 8817: 8754: 8706: 8690: 8643: 8539:pp 22 Jewish Publication Society, 1979 8487: 8468: 8406: 8374: 8326: 8298: 8282: 8091: 8079: 8063: 8051: 8039: 8011: 7963: 7935: 7754: 7693: 7673: 7657: 7633: 7514: 7478: 7446: 7442: 7426: 7422: 7375: 7330: 7318: 7306: 7290: 7275: 7259: 7231: 7184: 7136: 7072: 7044: 6985: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6950: 6883: 6871: 6847: 6804: 6780: 6680: 6668: 6632: 6552: 6528: 6493: 6481: 6445: 6406: 6378: 6362: 6358: 6339: 6324: 6288: 6246: 6175: 6159: 6143: 6127: 6074: 5939: 5883: 5871: 5760: 5498: 5382: 5223:at the entrance at the ancient site of 5199: 4850:infrequently. There is one mention, by 4631:List of rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms 4022:. 117–138 AD) reaffirmed the 3804:, and for many centuries afterwards in 3625:) in 166 AD, during the reigns of 2170:, who in turn was succeeded by his son 2092:tribes within the confederation of the 1999:coins, and the chance survival of some 22703: 19785:History of democracy in classical Iran 17374: 16604: 16402: 14182: 14173:(Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 14077: 13001: 11630:The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History 11452: 11442: 11404: 11145: 10837: 10606: 10541: 10113: 10097: 10077: 10041: 10029: 9904: 9868: 9464: 9448: 9433: 9421: 9401: 9361: 9349: 8978: 8904:, p. 90 for a similar translation 8845: 8495: 8410: 8390: 8302: 8266: 8131: 7829: 7817: 7641: 7577: 7565: 7526: 7510: 7188: 6935: 6851: 6792: 6776: 6716: 6648: 6600: 6576: 6441: 6418: 6273: 6202: 6171: 6119: 6062: 5976:from the original on 17 September 2016 5775: 5699: 5156:(216–276 AD), the founding prophet of 4900: 3380:, showing a Parthian man returning to 2866:, attempted to besiege Beroea (modern 2839:, convened with the Parthian diplomat 2817:. Dated 50 BC-150 AD, Parthian School. 2711:into Central Asia during the reign of 1896:. The Parthians destroyed the army of 21172: 20583: 20507:Defense Industries Organization (DIO) 20292:Iran and the World Trade Organization 20196: 19939: 19820: 18945: 18906: 18137: 18119: 18098: 18088: 18006: 17977: 17909: 17885: 17700: 17654: 17499: 17466: 17461: 17452: 17404: 17343: 17338: 17329: 17324: 17315: 17305: 17300: 17295: 17290: 17281: 17147: 17119: 17114: 17109: 17099: 17090: 17080: 17075: 17064: 17055: 16949: 16684: 16591: 16489: 16479: 16365: 16213: 16122: 15944: 15937: 15895: 15819: 15797: 15765: 15751: 15720: 15704: 15578: 15550: 15526: 15481: 15442: 15387: 15323: 15156: 15141: 15118: 15105: 15068: 14918: 14875: 14749: 14725: 14717: 14680: 14618: 14607: 14577: 14561: 14530: 14497: 14477: 14455: 14422: 14331: 14263: 14251: 14210: 14122: 14114: 14042: 13823: 13577: 13570: 13532: 13459: 13441: 13410: 13363: 13329: 13314: 13306: 13293: 13274: 13262: 13245: 13229: 13192: 13145: 13119: 13041: 13006: 12934: 12758: 12727: 12720: 12709: 12690: 12563: 12149: 12136: 11764: 11604: 11585: 11409:, Durham: The Durham Academic Press, 11108: 10998: 10818: 10715: 10577: 10450: 10431: 10402: 10302: 10161: 10149: 10137: 10017: 9753: 9725: 9689: 9661: 9633: 9492: 8833: 8821: 8738: 8722: 8623: 8511: 8491: 8435: 8414: 8394: 8378: 8362: 8350: 8338: 8294: 8262: 8250: 8234: 8210: 8163: 8151: 8127: 8115: 8027: 8015: 7999: 7987: 7975: 7951: 7931: 7919: 7889: 7885: 7802: 7790: 7778: 7766: 7741: 7729: 7717: 7705: 7689: 7669: 7653: 7637: 7621: 7593: 7553: 7502: 7490: 7474: 7438: 7414: 7399: 7367: 7346: 7334: 7302: 7271: 7255: 7227: 7215: 7200: 7176: 7160: 7148: 7132: 7116: 7096: 7084: 7068: 7056: 6997: 6919: 6835: 6823: 6808: 6772: 6744: 6732: 6708: 6692: 6664: 6624: 6596: 6572: 6556: 6540: 6513: 6469: 6449: 6422: 6402: 6390: 6374: 6354: 6312: 6300: 6258: 6187: 6155: 6139: 6123: 5804: 5792: 5560:predecessors in the Achaemenid Empire 4050:. 161–180 AD) had co-ruler 3875:), but later established a permanent 3733:, detailing the Roman offensive into 3409:. When Phraataces took the throne as 2919:marched against the Armenian capital 2735:, the most highly priced luxury good 1841:", as a claim to be the heirs to the 22786:Historical geography of Turkmenistan 19679:2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 19669:2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 17631: 17607: 11590:, London & New York: Routledge, 11510: 11423: 11382: 11111:Das Partherreich und seine Zeugnisse 10902: 10842:, Jefferson: McFarland & Company 10770: 10506:, London & New York: Routledge, 10334:, London & New York: Routledge, 10329: 9264: 9189: 8901: 8881: 8869: 8857: 8750: 8559:pp 29. Ashgate Pub Co, 30 sep. 2006 8523: 8067: 7893: 7853: 7841: 7387: 6907: 6895: 6103: 6046: 4858:, of the use of one war elephant by 3810:Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania 3289:, Egypt, and eventually executed by 2996:A Roman marble head of the triumvir 2799:Bronze statue of a Parthian nobleman 2571:from their homelands in what is now 2435:in 141 BC and held an official 1971:Native Parthian sources, written in 20912:Chicago Persian antiquities dispute 20553:Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone 20527:National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) 20326:UN Security Council Resolution 1747 20061:UN Security Council Resolution 1747 11996:Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC 11790: 11687:The Parthians: The Forgotten Empire 11390:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 11152:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 11124:The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran 5239:The Parthian Temple of Charyios in 5133:The extent of Arsacid patronage of 4271:Imperial Aramaic chancellery script 4189:—the last Roman emperor before the 3558:In 97 AD, the Chinese general 3118:the civil war against Julius Caesar 2778: 2743:sent lions and Persian gazelles to 2493:in 142 BC. However, by 140 BC 13: 19451:Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–) 17587:. Getty Publications. p. 14. 17506:Chronology of the Neolithic period 17158: 16788: 16605: 16587:First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt 16372: 16263: 15579: 15551: 15494: 15324: 14931: 14585: 12946: 11677: 11566: 10898:. Vol. II. UNESCO Publishing. 10254: 7869: 7833: 6923: 3053:and auxiliaries including mounted 2671:Tigranes II "the Great" of Armenia 2665:. His forces defeated and deposed 2407:of the latter kingdom, then under 2228:. This conflict with Ptolemy, the 1809:The Parthians largely adopted the 14: 22812: 20522:Iran Electronics Industries (IEI) 20143:Supreme National Security Council 19969:Persian Constitutional Revolution 19599:Interim Government of Iran (1981) 19506:Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–) 19496:Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975) 17163:Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint. 15499:Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos 13310:("made the land of Elam submit") 11733: 10527:, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 5958:Journal of World-Systems Research 5693: 5681:Royal formula of Parthian coinage 5564:successors in the Sasanian Empire 5130:was perhaps the most widespread. 4906:Hellenism and the Iranian revival 4264:(r. 632–651 AD). Indigenous 3305:reassumed the throne of Armenia. 3134:, sided with Parthia against the 3130:, a general loyal to Cassius and 2096:. The Parni most likely spoke an 22726:Seleucid Empire successor states 21152: 21143: 21142: 20118:Assembly (or Council) of Experts 18882:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary 18373: 17648: 17601: 17584:Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins 17570: 17556: 17534: 17525: 17510: 17500: 14805: 14693: 14688: 14516: 14245: 14240: 14071: 13917: 13912: 13767: 13666: 13597: 13510: 13505: 13375: 13338: 13333: 13323: 13318: 13113: 12763: 12750: 12738: 12703: 10716:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999), 10234: 10225: 10215: 10206: 10155: 10143: 10131: 10119: 10103: 10087: 10071: 10047: 10035: 10023: 10011: 9999: 9987: 9929: 9898: 9886: 9874: 9862: 9827: 9815: 9799: 9743: 9731: 9719: 9703: 9683: 9667: 9655: 9643: 9623: 9596: 9584: 9557: 9541: 9529: 9513: 9486: 9474: 9454: 9411: 9395: 9383: 9371: 9355: 9343: 9289: 9250: 9230: 9214: 9183: 9152: 9136: 9124: 9095: 9083: 9071: 9059: 9047: 9035: 9008: 8996: 8984: 8968: 8932: 8920: 8907: 8891: 8875: 8863: 8851: 8839: 8827: 8811: 8784: 8760: 8744: 8728: 8712: 8696: 8676: 8629: 8617: 8581: 8549: 8529: 8517: 8505: 8462: 8453: 8400: 8384: 8368: 8356: 8344: 8320: 8308: 8288: 8276: 8256: 8240: 8204: 8169: 8157: 8141: 8121: 8109: 8085: 8073: 8057: 8033: 8021: 8005: 7993: 7981: 7969: 7957: 7941: 7925: 7913: 7899: 7879: 7863: 7847: 7823: 7796: 7784: 7772: 7760: 7747: 7735: 7723: 7711: 7699: 7683: 7663: 7647: 7627: 7615: 7599: 7587: 7571: 7559: 7532: 7520: 7496: 7484: 7468: 7456: 7432: 5070:cults. Aside from a minority of 4942:, the Parthian era witnessed an 4784: 4768: 4749: 4214: 4205: 3271:Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene 3269:), then ruled by Parthia's ally 3153:while Pacorus and his commander 2232:(246–241 BC), also allowed 1748:, who was rebelling against the 1682: 1649: 1600: 371: 329: 304: 16:Iranian empire (247 BC – 224 AD) 22781:Ancient history of the Caucasus 20317:Military equipment manufactured 19883:Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests 19647:United States withdrawal (2018) 19568:Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981) 18932: 16581:Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt 12122:Rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms 10800:Garthwaite, Gene Ralph (2005), 10483:A History of the Roman Republic 10164:, pp. 1154–1155; see also 9113:from the original on 2016-12-21 7381: 7340: 7324: 7312: 7296: 7265: 7241: 7221: 7194: 7170: 7154: 7142: 7126: 7110: 7090: 7078: 7062: 7038: 6991: 6956: 6929: 6913: 6901: 6889: 6877: 6861: 6841: 6829: 6798: 6786: 6766: 6738: 6726: 6702: 6686: 6654: 6642: 6618: 6606: 6586: 6546: 6534: 6503: 6487: 6475: 6459: 6412: 6396: 6384: 6368: 6294: 6252: 6165: 6149: 6133: 6109: 6097: 6080: 6068: 6056: 6023: 5038:with names from the Achaemenid 4791:Relief of an infantryman, from 4668:") and citizens of the city of 4097:Around 212 AD, soon after 2801:from the sanctuary at Shami in 2725:opened official trade relations 2489:led a rebellion at the capital 2327: 2309: 2265: 2250: 2200:, shaded yellow, alongside the 2185: 2177:two distinct royal chronologies 2050: 1758: 46: 22766:Ancient history of Afghanistan 20877:modern / contemporary 20123:Expediency Discernment Council 19446:1908 bombardment of the Majlis 19435:Caucasus (18th–20th centuries) 18959: 18439:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) 18434:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) 17516:Rulers of Ancient Central Asia 16654:Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt 16201:Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt 16125:Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt 14687:"Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" 11521:University of California Press 11285:Bulletin of the Asia Institute 11042:China: Its History and Culture 10647:Bulletin of the Asia Institute 10551:University of California Press 5921: 5877: 5865: 5798: 5599:of the Parthian Empire, while 4452:Records of the Grand Historian 3737:and capture of the country by 3165:), with the lone exception of 3045:(armed with lances) and 9,000 2903:Following the outbreak of the 2015:, prompted by the Han Chinese 1987:sources. Aside from scattered 1: 20091:state-sponsorship allegations 19821: 18821:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 18218:Tigris–Euphrates river system 17486:Muslim conquest of the Levant 16732:Cleopatra II Philometor Soter 16675:Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 16660:Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt 16498:Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt 16368:Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt 16169:Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt 15868:Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt 11982:Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 11335:Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2004). 10630:, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, 10521:Burstein, Stanley M. (2004), 10504:The Persians: An Introduction 9938:, pp. 111–112, 127–128; 9239:, pp. 116–118; see also 8471:, pp. 100–101; see also 8150:, pp. 117–118; see also 7840:, pp. 239–240; see also 5928:Koshelenko & Pilipko 1996 5700:Fattah, Hala Mundhir (2009). 4522:Government and administration 4146:. Indeed, shortly afterward, 4040:Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 4002:A Parthian (right) wearing a 3707:Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 2886: 2331: 2313: 2268: 222 – 187 BC 2253: 246 – 225 BC 2188: 404 – 358 BC 2102:northwestern Iranian language 2054: 1762: 748: 712: 592: 579: 556: 543: 520: 503: 453: 440: 427: 414: 401: 277: 100:(official, court, literature) 22756:Empires and kingdoms of Iran 20548:Asaluyeh industrial corridor 19940: 19849:twin towns and sister cities 19155:Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224) 19032:Mannai (10th–7th century BC) 19008:Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC) 16035:Fourth Babylonian dynasty (" 12769:(Uruk influence or control) 12024:Battle of the Cilician Gates 11989:Antony's Atropatene campaign 11519:, Berkeley and Los Angeles: 11089:Olbrycht, Marek Jan (2016). 10934:The Journal of Roman Studies 10349:Bausani, Alessandro (1971), 5611:instead of a queen regnant. 5553:Women in the Parthian Empire 4884:Usually made of silver, the 3202:Battle of the Cilician Gates 2719:. 141–87 BC), the 2625:, 2nd century BC, silk from 2321:) succeeded Arsaces II, and 7: 22771:Ancient history of Pakistan 21198: 20827:Water supply and sanitation 20584: 20558:Kish Island Free Trade Zone 20197: 19617:KDPI insurgency (1989–1996) 18992:civilization (3100–2700 BC) 18946: 18887:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary 18769:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations 18764:Indus-Mesopotamia relations 16729:Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator 15768:Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt 15567:Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt 15114:Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt 15108:Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt 14368:(Vassals of the Akkadians) 13355:Indus-Mesopotamia relations 12756:(Anonymous "King-priests") 12711:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations 12552:usurpers or rival claimants 11975:Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 11316:Sheldon, Rose Mary (2010), 11297:Shayegan, Rahim M. (2011), 10838:Howard, Michael C. (2012), 10626:de Crespigny, Rafe (2007), 9463:, pp. 80–81; see also 9404:, pp. 14–15; see also 9092:, pp. 104–105, 117–118 8297:, pp. 90–91; see also 8066:, pp. 87–88; see also 7676:, pp. 97–99; see also 7636:, pp. 96–97, 136–137; 7449:, pp. 80–81; see also 7119:, pp. 48–49; see also 5614: 5460: 5049: 4873: 4864:Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 4724:The Parthian Empire had no 4713: 4620: 4197:Native and external sources 3821:Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 3727:Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 3699:Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 2763:to China. The merchants of 2591:reports that his successor 2368:on his head. Reverse side: 2343:Expansion and consolidation 2224:. 246–222 BC) of 2208:(purple) around 200 BC 10: 22817: 20307:Economy of the Middle East 19684:2021–2022 Iranian protests 19674:2019–2020 Iranian protests 19654:2017–2018 Iranian protests 19115:Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17) 18892:Chicago Hittite Dictionary 17521: 17356:Sasanian conquest of Egypt 16783: 16666:Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt 16550: 16524: 16476:Assyrian conquest of Egypt 15822:Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt 15587:Third Babylonian dynasty ( 15484:Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt 15446:Second Intermediate Period 14256:(vassal of the Akkadians) 13644: 12789:Early or legendary kings: 11664:"Army i. Pre-Islamic Iran" 11550:Cambridge University Press 11494:Cambridge University Press 11465:Cambridge University Press 11252:Cambridge University Press 11179:Cambridge University Press 11071:Cambridge University Press 10981:Cambridge University Press 10915:Cambridge University Press 10876:The Roman Army in the East 10852:, New Haven & London: 10783:Cambridge University Press 10753:Cambridge University Press 10724:Cambridge University Press 10698:Cambridge University Press 10590:Cambridge University Press 10480:Bringmann, Klaus (2007) . 10463:Cambridge University Press 10415:Cambridge University Press 10386:Cambridge University Press 10286:Cambridge University Press 8448:Chegini & Nikitin 1996 6034: 5726:One characteristic of the 5603:, mother of underage king 5574:full of female slaves and 5510: 5483:in the empire. The native 5203: 4877: 4717: 4627:Seven Great Houses of Iran 4624: 4530: 4416:Chinese historical records 3918:. c. 110–147 AD) 3794:Arsacid dynasty of Armenia 3772:Pharasmanes I had his son 3714: 3703:Trajan's Parthian campaign 3696: 3612:arrived at the Han capital 3606:, perhaps only a group of 3312: 2900:. c. 78–69 BC). 2782: 2677:. c. 95–55 BC). 2346: 2161:overthrown by the Arsacids 2065: 2026: 1884:, and eventually the late 22634: 22586: 22103: 21507: 21206: 21138: 21104: 21050: 20853: 20844: 20774: 20726: 20658: 20605: 20596: 20592: 20579: 20540: 20532:National Development Fund 20495: 20452:Telecommunications and IT 20446:Anglo-Persian Oil Company 20375: 20272:Foreign direct investment 20217:Bonyad (charitable trust) 20209: 20205: 20192: 20151: 20110: 19952: 19948: 19935: 19829: 19816: 19696: 19563:1979 Khuzestan insurgency 19553:Interim Government (1979) 19532: 19480: 19473: 19369: 19279: 19196: 19187: 19164: 19081: 18974: 18967: 18958: 18954: 18941: 18859: 18813: 18787: 18691: 18588: 18481: 18389: 18382: 18371: 18253: 18180: 18171: 18116: 18095: 18083: 18080: 18073: 18070: 18052: 18042: 18025: 18018: 18016: 17982: 17970: 17961: 17952: 17947: 17919: 17902: 17873: 17858: 17853: 17832: 17827: 17815: 17805: 17793: 17783: 17765: 17762: 17752: 17747: 17742: 17735: 17490: 17483: 17476: 17447: 17397: 17394: 17353: 17312: 17278: 17259: 17101:Parthamaspates of Parthia 17087: 17052: 16911: 16879: 16672: 16651: 16578: 16575: 16481:Assyrian conquest of Elam 16474: 16362: 16328: 16262: 16223: 16087: 16076: 16033: 15861:Third Intermediate Period 15676: 15547: 15391:Second Babylonian dynasty 15336:("Old Babylonian Period") 15102: 15054: 14818: 14786: 14758:Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt 14730: 14714: 14661: 14658: 14641: 14563: 14548: 14507: 14474: 14420: 14404: 14378: 14370: 14341: 14266:First Intermediate Period 14260: 14236: 14192: 14177: 14161: 14136: 14127: 14101: 14096: 13908: 13887: 13868: 13859: 13820: 13795: 13778: 13754: 13741: 13736: 13722: 13707: 13698: 13650: 13626: 13551: 13491: 13474: 13439: 13418: 13412:Early Dynastic Period III 13360: 13344: 13272: 13270: 13259: 13186: 13137: 13127: 13038: 13015: 12931: 12862: 12793: 12776: 12773: 12714: 12687: 12614: 12598: 12550: 12190: 12143: 12138:Links to related articles 12109: 12073: 12052:Parthian war of Caracalla 12010:Battle of Ctesiphon (198) 12003:Battle of Ctesiphon (165) 11947: 11911: 11860: 11824: 11816:Parni conquest of Parthia 11798: 11210:10.1017/S0035869X00132988 11146:Roller, Duane W. (2010), 11044:, New York: McGraw-Hill, 10819:Green, Tamara M. (1992), 8184:Atlas of Military History 5914:'s main god, the sun-god 4916:Mithridates II of Parthia 4434:Old Chinese pronunciation 4008:Arch of Septimius Severus 3971:Parthamaspates of Parthia 3802:Arsacid dynasty of Iberia 3711:Parthian war of Caracalla 3084:bearing the portraits of 2967:Mithridates IV of Parthia 2068:Parni conquest of Parthia 2032:Origins and establishment 283: 273: 265: 260: 256: 246: 236: 232: 222: 212: 208: 193: 178: 174: 164: 151: 125: 90: 56: 33: 28: 21: 22716:Former countries in Asia 20282:International oil bourse 20047:Ministry of Intelligence 19632:Syrian civil war (2011–) 19456:1921 Persian coup d'état 17744:Northwestern Mesopotamia 17479:Muslim conquest of Egypt 16943:Antiochus XIII Asiaticus 16774:Cleopatra VII Philopator 16271:Eight Babylonian Dynasty 15333:First Babylonian dynasty 15071:Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt 14575:(vassal of the Gutians) 14272:Seventh Dynasty of Egypt 13264:Early Dynastic Period II 12031:Battle of Mount Gindarus 11685:Ellerbrock, Uwe (2021). 11376:10.1556/AAnt.46.2006.3.3 10848:Katouzian, Homa (2009), 9808:, p. 127; see also 9308:Daryaee, Touraj (2016). 8900:, p. 118; see also 8753:, p. 564; see also 8329:, p. 100; see also 8221:, p. 120; see also 8176:Dr. Aaron Ralby (2013). 8094:, pp. 9–10, 231–235 7135:, pp. 48–49; also, 5686: 5646:Assyria (Roman province) 5641:Augustus' Eastern policy 5409:the famous bronze statue 5393:Hellenistic-style helmet 4944:Iranian cultural revival 4760:, now on display at the 3967:Sanatruces II of Parthia 3956:Vologases III of Parthia 3887:) and even mail-armored 3833:Lucius Caesennius Paetus 3823: AD, the commander 3653:have been discovered at 3521:Tiridates III of Parthia 3355:building of a new temple 3217:Battle of Mount Gindarus 3198:Publius Ventidius Bassus 3096:by Octavian, Antony and 3028:Artavasdes II of Armenia 2909:Mithridates VI of Pontus 2769:Eastern Iranian language 2098:eastern Iranian language 1790:trade route between the 20806:scientists and scholars 20312:Milad Tower and complex 20102:Women's rights movement 20097:White Revolution (1963) 19765:Peoples of the Caucasus 19107:Armenia (321 BC–AD 428) 19000:dynasties (2700–540 BC) 17564:"Rulers of Mesopotamia" 17307:Province of Mesopotamia 17116:Province of Mesopotamia 17092:Province of Mesopotamia 17067:Roman conquest of Egypt 16908:Antigonus II Mattathias 16702:Ptolemy II Philadelphus 16275:Ninurta-kudurri-usur II 14752:Middle Kingdom of Egypt 14278:Eighth Dynasty of Egypt 13586:Fourth Dynasty of Egypt 13121:Early Dynastic Period I 13044:Second Dynasty of Egypt 12101:Roman–Iranian relations 12045:Battle of Nisibis (217) 11586:Young, Gary K. (2001), 11405:Torday, Laszlo (1997), 11128:Oxford University Press 10502:Brosius, Maria (2006), 10056:, pp. 108, 134–135 9716:, pp. 928, 933–934 9698:Duchesne-Guillemin 1983 9650:Duchesne-Guillemin 1983 9564:Duchesne-Guillemin 1983 9352:, pp. 9, 11–12, 16 8498:, p. 14; see also 7907:"Louvre Museum Sb 7302" 7858:Morton & Lewis 2005 7608:, p. 80; see also 7513:, p. 13; see also 7453:, pp. 239, 245–246 7183:, p. 79; see also 6631:, p. 77; see also 6484:, pp. 103, 110–113 5703:A Brief History of Iraq 5656:Battle of Nisibis (217) 5188:and translated several 5086:was often equated with 5012:Artaxerxes II of Persia 4482:(Book of Later Han) by 4365:Apollodorus of Artemita 4344:National Museum of Iran 4312:documents, and pottery 4139:with additional gifts. 4107:Artabanus IV of Parthia 4099:Vologases VI of Parthia 4032:Vologases IV of Parthia 3825:Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo 3739:Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo 3633:. 161–180 AD) and 3508:Pharasmanes I of Iberia 3431:Artabanus II of Parthia 3406:Res Gestae Divi Augusti 3390:Marcus Licinius Crassus 3378:Augustus of Prima Porta 3372:A close-up view of the 3363:Augustus of Prima Porta 3345:Tiridates II of Parthia 3187:Antigonus II Mattathias 3012:Marcus Licinius Crassus 2998:Marcus Licinius Crassus 2815:National Museum of Iran 2785:Roman–Persian relations 2761:Roman luxury glasswares 2667:Artavasdes I of Armenia 2261:Antiochus III the Great 2181:Artaxerxes II of Persia 1898:Marcus Licinius Crassus 423:Shulaveri–Shomu culture 22746:240s BC establishments 22721:Former empires in Asia 21117:Anti-Iranian sentiment 21112:Science and technology 20937:Intellectual movements 20817:International rankings 20801:Intellectual movements 20287:International rankings 19780:Heads of state of Iran 19586:Nojeh coup plot (1980) 19147:Empire (247 BC–AD 224) 18984:culture (3400–2000 BC) 18724:Babylonian mathematics 17904:Middle Hittite Kingdom 17164: 16946:Philip II Philoromaeus 16940:Antiochus XII Dionysus 16934:Demetrius III Eucaerus 16931:Antiochus XI Epiphanes 16922:Antiochus IX Cyzicenus 16794: 16762:Cleopatra VI Tryphaena 16717:Arsinoe III Philopator 16610: 16378: 16268: 16105:Ninurta-kudurri-usur I 16037:Second Dynasty of Isin 15584: 15557: 15500: 15329: 15212:(Non-dynastic usurpers 14936: 14621:Tenth Dynasty of Egypt 14590: 14480:Ninth Dynasty of Egypt 14045:Sixth Dynasty of Egypt 13826:Fifth Dynasty of Egypt 13653:Second kingdom of Mari 13366:Third Dynasty of Egypt 13300:Dumuzid, the Fisherman 12952: 12943:First Dynasty of Egypt 11955:Seleucid–Parthian Wars 11689:. Abingdon-on-Thames: 11511:Wood, Frances (2002), 11496:. pp. 1261–1283. 11181:. pp. 1027–1054. 11149:Cleopatra: a biography 10524:The Reign of Cleopatra 10465:. pp. 1151–1165. 10330:Ball, Warwick (2016), 10080:, p. 8; see also 9632:, pp. 68, 83–84; 9080:, pp. 99–100, 104 8537:The Jews of Arab Lands 5997:Social Science History 5508: 5405:Parthian riding outfit 5400: 5325:Dura-Europos synagogue 5319: 5316:Dura-Europos synagogue 5304: 5244: 5232: 5078:, most Parthians were 5059: 4969: 4927: 4648: 4647:, early 3rd century AD 4558: 4553:), and his wife Queen 4533:List of Parthian kings 4346: 4327: 4285: 4275:Pahlavi writing system 4084:Vologases V of Parthia 4060:Marcus Statius Priscus 4011: 3995:in lower Mesopotamia. 3934:and replaced him with 3919: 3896:Rome's client states. 3829:Tigranes VI of Armenia 3817:Vardanes II of Parthia 3790:Tiridates I of Armenia 3782:Vologases I of Parthia 3765: 3741: 3499: 3458:local Jewish community 3396: 3247: 3114:Gaius Cassius Longinus 3101: 3008: 2864:Demetrius III Eucaerus 2854:and her Seleucid ally 2829:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 2819: 2737:imported by the Romans 2634: 2567:dislodged the nomadic 2560: 2381: 2349:Seleucid–Parthian wars 2246:Seleucus II Callinicus 2238:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 2236:to rebel and form the 2209: 2168:Tiridates I of Parthia 2104:spoken at the time in 2063: 962:Masmughans of Damavand 436:Zayandeh River Culture 248:• Disestablished 22751:224 disestablishments 22687:33.09361°N 44.58083°E 22611:Medieval great powers 20405:Shetab Banking System 20395:Banking and insurance 20357:Tehran Stock Exchange 20277:Intellectual property 19622:PJAK conflict (2004–) 19395:Turcomans (1378–1508) 19387:Turcomans (1374–1468) 19336:Ilkhanate (1256–1335) 19139:Pontus (281 BC–AD 62) 18027:Neo-Babylonian Empire 17860:Old Babylonian Empire 17775:Early Dynastic period 17550:The Ancient Near East 17468:Byzantine Mesopotamia 17382:Province of Asoristan 17345:Byzantine Mesopotamia 17162: 17155:Province of Asoristan 16937:Philip I Philadelphus 16925:Seleucus VI Epiphanes 16919:Antiochus VIII Grypus 16916:Seleucus V Philometor 16871:Antiochus VII Sidetes 16865:Antiochus VI Dionysus 16792: 16765:Berenice IV Epiphanea 16726:Ptolemy VI Philometor 16714:Ptolemy IV Philopator 16711:Berenice II Euergetis 16708:Ptolemy III Euergetes 16609: 16527:Neo-Babylonian Empire 16437:Marduk-apla-iddina II 16434:Marduk-zakir-shumi II 16425:Marduk-apla-iddina II 16376: 16331:Humban-Tahrid dynasty 16267: 15988:Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur 15678:Middle Elamite period 15583: 15555: 15498: 15328: 14935: 14589: 14344:Third kingdom of Mari 14065:Merenre Nemtyemsaf II 13140:First kingdom of Mari 12950: 12937:Early Dynastic Period 12779:Proto-Dynastic period 12065:Bactrian–Parthian War 12060:Armenian–Parthian War 12038:Battle of Amanus Pass 11724:Encyclopaedia Iranica 11271:Encyclopaedia Iranica 11233:registration required 10854:Yale University Press 10248:References or sources 9322:10.2307/j.ctvh1dkb6.7 9161:, pp. 116, 122; 9107:www.perseus.tufts.edu 8888:, pp. 90–91, 122 8808:, pp. 1265, 1267 8769:, pp. 1261, 1264 7421:, pp. 239, 245; 7187:, pp. 94–95 and 5511:Further information: 5506: 5390: 5309: 5296: 5238: 5231:, built c. 50 AD 5213: 5204:Further information: 5057: 5006:(r. 522–486 BC) made 4967: 4913: 4878:Further information: 4762:Palazzo Madama, Turin 4718:Further information: 4638: 4625:Further information: 4540: 4442:Antiochia in Margiana 4333: 4322: 4283: 4001: 3902: 3747: 3724: 3715:Further information: 3510:to place his brother 3478: 3423:Orodes III of Parthia 3371: 3339:, becoming the first 3313:Further information: 3233: 3210:Battle of Amanus Pass 3079: 2995: 2905:Third Mithridatic War 2796: 2773:Parthia and Han China 2741:Pacorus II of Parthia 2727:with Parthia via the 2688:visited the court of 2682:Indo-Parthian Kingdom 2613: 2546: 2506:Antiochus VII Sidetes 2356: 2218:Ptolemy III Euergetes 2196: 2172:Arsaces II of Parthia 2100:, in contrast to the 2066:Further information: 2039: 1995:, rock inscriptions, 1991:tablets, fragmentary 1740:'s northeast, then a 1676:), also known as the 840:Indo-Parthian Kingdom 794:3rd-century BC–132 BC 760:Kingdom of Cappadocia 716: 6th century BC 698:Neo-Babylonian Empire 91:Common languages 49: 124–91 BC 22621:European colonialism 22606:Ancient great powers 20366:Technology start-ups 20267:Environmental issues 20257:Economic Reform Plan 20171:Provincial governors 19861:Environmental issues 19609:Iran Air Flight 655 19350:Jalayirid Sultanate 19222:Caliphate (750–1258) 19064:Kingdom (652–625 BC) 18719:Babylonian astronomy 18198:Mesopotamian Marshes 17754:Southern Mesopotamia 17749:Northern Mesopotamia 16913:Alexander II Zabinas 16777:Ptolemy XV Caesarion 16753:Ptolemy XI Alexander 16735:Ptolemy VIII Physcon 16290:Marduk-zakir-shumi I 16278:Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina 16102:Eulmash-shakin-shumi 16043:Marduk-kabit-ahheshu 15667:Marduk-apla-iddina I 15561:New Kingdom of Egypt 15384:Early Kassite rulers 14678:(Vassals of Ur III) 14659:(Vassals of UR III) 14059:Merenre Nemtyemsaf I 14029:Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II 13580:Old Kingdom of Egypt 11745:The Art of Parthians 11691:Taylor & Francis 11552:. pp. 359–480. 11467:. pp. 537–558. 11388:The Roman Revolution 11254:. pp. 279–298. 11073:. pp. 909–923. 10983:. pp. 681–746. 10917:. pp. 559–567. 10785:. pp. 116–180. 10755:. pp. 949–964. 10700:. pp. 866–908. 10592:. pp. 819–865. 10288:. pp. 924–948. 10152:, pp. 1158–1159 10112:, pp. 101–102; 10096:, pp. 101–102; 9942:, pp. 1037–1041 9911:, pp. 1052–1053 9883:, pp. 1052–1053 9844:, pp. 1049–1050 9812:, pp. 1041–1043 8913:Kalani, Reza. 2022. 8793:, pp. 1265–1266 8626:, pp. 1151–1152 8578:, pp. 1261–1262 8186:. Parragon. p. 8042:, pp. 67, 87–88 7872:, pp. 460–461; 7836:, pp. 460–461; 7832:, pp. 543–544; 7580:, pp. 138–151; 6854:, pp. 540–542; 5499:Literature and music 5383:Clothing and apparel 5200:Art and architecture 4888:coin, including the 4177:during the reign of 4175:Eastern Roman Empire 4160:Battle of Hormozdgān 3906:of Parthian king at 3600:eastern Central Asia 3566:, sent his emissary 3361:scene on his statue 3343:. Around this time, 3036:Pacorus I of Parthia 2963:Orodes II of Parthia 2933:fall of Tigranocerta 2745:Emperor Zhang of Han 2500:Rhodogune of Parthia 2495:Demetrius II Nicator 1876:in the west and the 22683: / 22616:Modern great powers 20766:Freedom of religion 20352:Supreme Audit Court 20231:Automotive industry 19878:Iranian Balochistan 19604:1987 Mecca incident 19501:Iran crisis of 1946 19490:dynasty (1925–1979) 19419:Dynasty (1751–1794) 19360:dynasty (1338–1357) 19352:dynasty (1335–1432) 19344:dynasty (1314–1393) 19329:dynasty (1244–1381) 19313:dynasty (1077–1231) 19297:dynasty (1011–1215) 19214:Caliphate (661–750) 19206:Caliphate (632–661) 19174:Empire (AD 224–651) 19091:Empire (550–330 BC) 19072:Empire (626–539 BC) 19056:Empire (678–549 BC) 19040:Empire (911–609 BC) 18800:Destruction by ISIL 18754:Sumerian literature 18729:Akkadian literature 18165:Ancient Mesopotamia 18008:Neo-Assyrian Empire 17922:Bronze Age Collapse 17855:Old Hittite Kingdom 17829:Old Assyrian period 17807:Third Dynasty of Ur 17418:Shapur-i Shahrvaraz 16928:Antiochus X Eusebes 16756:Ptolemy XII Auletes 16747:Ptolemy X Alexander 16741:Ptolemy IX Lathyros 16720:Ptolemy V Epiphanes 16405:Neo-Assyrian Empire 16293:Marduk-balassu-iqbi 16226:Neo-Assyrian Empire 16049:Ninurta-nadin-shumi 15940:Syro-Hittite states 15646:Shagarakti-Shuriash 15319:Ashur-nadin-ahhe II 14313:Neferkare Pepiseneb 14212:Akkadian Governors: 12716:Pre-Dynastic period 11969:Roman–Parthian Wars 11670:. pp. 489–499. 11660:Shahbazi, A. Shapur 11120:Rezakhani, Khodadad 9824:, pp. 129, 132 9286:, pp. 489–499. 8721:, pp. 67, 75; 8535:Norman A. Stillman 8014:, pp. 99–100; 7020:, pp. 188–189. 5763:, pp. 348–366. 5708:Infobase Publishing 5676:Roman–Parthian Wars 5292:Daniel Schlumberger 5186:Buddhist missionary 5044:Macedonian calendar 5036:Babylonian calendar 4901:Society and culture 4450:(also known as the 4334:A Parthian ceramic 4014:Trajan's successor 4010:, Rome, 203 AD 3924:Osroes I of Parthia 3635:Emperor Huan of Han 3487:, with the goddess 3386:legionary standards 3350:legionary standards 3002:defeated at Carrhae 2979:Ptolemy XII Auletes 2856:Antiochus X Eusebes 2789:Roman–Parthian Wars 2686:Apollonius of Tyana 2337: – 171 BC 2319: – 176 BC 2163:until 238 BC. 2088:and one of several 2060: – 211 BC 1926:Roman–Parthian Wars 1894:subordinate clients 1796:Mediterranean Basin 1496:Contemporary period 1400:Early modern period 1302:Jalayirid Sultanate 1172:Khwarazmian dynasty 601:Neo-Assyrian Empire 479:Kura–Araxes culture 397:Baradostian culture 238:• Established 227:Classical antiquity 138:Babylonian religion 22776:Classical Anatolia 22692:33.09361; 44.58083 20897:Persian New Year ( 20302:Main economic laws 19873:Iranian Azerbaijan 19775:Monarchs of Persia 19719:Persianate society 19427:Empire (1789–1925) 19411:Empire (1736–1796) 19403:Empire (1501–1736) 19379:Empire (1370–1507) 19305:Empire (1037–1194) 19270:dynasty (934–1062) 19262:dynasty (931–1090) 19254:dynasty (861–1003) 19123:Empire (312–63 BC) 19024:(c.1595–c.1155 BC) 18836:Mesopotamian myths 17864:Southern Akkadians 17771:Jemdet Nasr period 17644:Sumerian King List 17458:Palaestina Secunda 17335:Palaestina Secunda 17165: 16896:Alexander Jannaeus 16795: 16785:Hellenistic Period 16611: 16379: 16357:Humban-haltash III 16321:Nabu-shuma-ukin II 16269: 16234:Tukulti-Ninurta II 16215:Kingdom of Samaria 16111:Mar-biti-apla-usur 16108:Shirikti-shuqamuna 16078:Neo-Elamite period 16061:Marduk-shapik-zeri 16046:Itti-Marduk-balatu 16027:Tiglath-Pileser II 16024:Ashur-resh-ishi II 15979:Enlil-kudurri-usur 15670:Zababa-shuma-iddin 15655:Kadashman-Harbe II 15640:Kadashman-Enlil II 15585: 15558: 15501: 15330: 15316:Ashur-rim-nisheshu 15313:Ashur-bel-nisheshu 15304:Ashur-nadin-ahhe I 15063:Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 14937: 14591: 13966:Lugal-kinishe-dudu 13347:Old Elamite period 13239:Mesh-ki-ang-gasher 13092:Sekhemib-Perenmaat 13009:Jemdet Nasr period 12953: 11961:Battle of Ecbatana 11868:Seven Great Houses 10417:. pp. 21–99. 10200:2020-11-03 at the 10008:, pp. 132–134 9984:, pp. 134–135 9926:, pp. 111–112 9696:, pp. 80–81; 9692:, pp. 85–86; 9680:, pp. 102–103 9652:, pp. 872–873 9605:, pp. 924–928 9593:, pp. 909–923 9566:, pp. 867–868 9526:, pp. 128–129 9368:, pp. 279–298 9165:, pp. 231–232 9133:, pp. 704–705 9068:, pp. 700–704 9056:, pp. 699–700 9032:, pp. 103–104 9017:, pp. 114–115 9005:, pp. 115–116 8993:, pp. 113–114 8884:, pp. 89–90; 8848:, pp. 541–542 8709:, pp. 118–119 8693:, pp. 118–119 8685:, pp. 75–76; 8526:, pp. 173–174 8494:, pp. 95–96; 8337:, p. 81; and 8317:, pp. 120–124 8301:, p. 137 and 8213:, pp. 88–90; 8082:, pp. 231–232 8070:, pp. 561–562 7934:, pp. 79–81; 7856:, pp. 46–47; 7820:, pp. 543–544 7692:, pp. 68–69; 7640:, pp. 66–67; 7612:, pp. 251–252 7584:, pp. 304–307 7568:, pp. 145–151 7505:, pp. 60–63; 7477:, pp. 58–59; 7417:, pp. 57–58; 7390:, pp. 214–217 7349:, pp. 56–57; 7333:, pp. 78–79; 7305:, pp. 55–56; 7274:, pp. 52–55; 7258:, pp. 52–55; 7250:, pp. 42–43; 7234:, pp. 94–95; 7230:, pp. 52–55; 7179:, pp. 55–56; 7163:, pp. 49–50; 7071:, pp. 45–46; 6965:, pp. 73–78; 6898:, pp. 100–101 6886:, pp. 123–125 6874:, pp. 122–123 6850:, pp. 90–91; 6807:, pp. 91–92; 6779:, pp. 11–12; 6747:, pp. 40–41; 6711:, pp. 38–39; 6667:, pp. 36–37; 6627:, pp. 37–38; 6615:, pp. 145–150 6599:, pp. 36–37; 6595:, pp. 76–77; 6583:, pp. 121–150 6575:, pp. 36–37; 6448:, pp. 86–87; 6444:, pp. 10–11; 6421:, pp. 10–11; 6377:, pp. 29–31; 6158:, pp. 24–27; 6126:, pp. 24–27; 5509: 5407:is exemplified by 5401: 5397:Nisa, Turkmenistan 5340:Greek architecture 5320: 5245: 5233: 5184:in Han China as a 5060: 5046:of the Seleucids. 5008:royal inscriptions 5004:Darius I of Persia 4982:by the playwright 4970: 4940:Hellenistic period 4928: 4649: 4559: 4551:Khūzestān Province 4347: 4340:Khūzestān Province 4328: 4325:Reza Abbasi Museum 4286: 4171:briefly conquering 4012: 3920: 3766: 3758:Masdjid-e Suleiman 3742: 3731:Kingdom of Armenia 3592:military victories 3549:Izates bar Monobaz 3500: 3493:military standards 3397: 3348:received the lost 3267:Iranian Azerbaijan 3248: 3157:invaded the Roman 3136:Second Triumvirate 3122:Battle of Philippi 3102: 3094:Second Triumvirate 3020:marched to Carrhae 3009: 2820: 2807:Khūzestān Province 2705:diplomatic venture 2663:Kingdom of Armenia 2635: 2561: 2534:Battle of Ecbatana 2386:Gates of Alexander 2382: 2301:defeat at Magnesia 2210: 2064: 1882:Kingdom of Armenia 1831:Iranian traditions 1515:Interim Government 1505:Iranian Revolution 1292:Muzaffarid dynasty 996:864 – 14th century 986:791 – 11th century 912:Rashidun Caliphate 734:Kingdom of Armenia 383:Prehistoric period 195:• 208–224 AD 180:• 247–211 BC 22791:Ancient Near East 22666: 22665: 22660: 22659: 22582: 22581: 22547:Polish–Lithuanian 21722:Gurjara-Pratihara 21166: 21165: 21134: 21133: 21130: 21129: 21100: 21099: 21007:Opium consumption 20840: 20839: 20676:Ethnic minorities 20650:Iranian languages 20575: 20574: 20571: 20570: 20188: 20187: 20184: 20183: 20067:Political parties 20005:Children's rights 19990:Foreign relations 19984:2009 presidential 19931: 19930: 19893:Iranian Kurdistan 19812: 19811: 19808: 19807: 19692: 19691: 19664:COVID-19 pandemic 19523:Revolution (1979) 19469: 19468: 19289:Empire (977–1186) 19246:dynasty (864–928) 19238:dynasty (821–873) 19230:dynasty (819–999) 19183: 19182: 19099:(c.323 BC–AD 226) 18900: 18899: 18851:Ziggurat (Temple) 18826:Sumerian religion 18584: 18583: 18531:Middle Babylonian 18473:Kish civilization 18369: 18368: 18193:Lower Mesopotamia 18188:Upper Mesopotamia 18131: 18130: 18126: 18125: 18054:Macedonian Empire 18044:Achaemenid Empire 17917:c. 1200–1150 BCE 17900:c. 1400–1200 BCE 17871:c. 1600–1400 BCE 17851:c. 1800–1600 BCE 17813:c. 2000–1800 BCE 17803:c. 2100–2000 BCE 17791:c. 2200–2100 BCE 17781:c. 2350–2200 BCE 17760:c. 3500–2350 BCE 17694: 17693: 17688: 17687: 17684: 17683: 17671:978-1-62564-606-4 17656:Unger, Merrill F. 17624:978-0-14-193825-7 17594:978-1-60606-649-2 17361:Province of Egypt 17292:Province of Egypt 17072:Province of Egypt 16814:Antigonid dynasty 16614:Achaemenid Empire 16535:Nebuchadnezzar II 16443:Ashur-nadin-shumi 16312:Nabu-shuma-ishkun 16284:Nabu-shuma-ukin I 16099:Kashshu-nadin-ahi 16067:Marduk-ahhe-eriba 16058:Marduk-nadin-ahhe 16000:Asharid-apal-Ekur 15997:Tiglath-Pileser I 15994:Ashur-resh-ishi I 15982:Ninurta-apal-Ekur 15970:Tukulti-Ninurta I 15917:Kingdom of Israel 15885:Osorkon the Elder 15806:Shutrukid dynasty 15691:Igehalkid dynasty 15658:Adad-shuma-iddina 15652:Enlil-nadin-shumi 15619:Kadashman-Enlil I 15613:Kadashman-harbe I 15057:Sukkalmah dynasty 14921:Isin-Larsa period 14743:Shimashki Dynasty 14469:Puzur-Inshushinak 14068:Netjerkare Siptah 13838:Neferirkare Kakai 13383:Egyptian pyramids 12592:Ancient Near East 12557: 12556: 12543: 12535: 12527: 12519: 12511: 12503: 12495: 12487: 12479: 12471: 12463: 12455: 12447: 12439: 12431: 12423: 12415: 12407: 12399: 12391: 12383: 12375: 12367: 12359: 12351: 12343: 12335: 12327: 12319: 12311: 12303: 12295: 12287: 12279: 12271: 12263: 12255: 12247: 12239: 12231: 12223: 12215: 12207: 12199: 12185: 12184:(247 BC – 224 AD) 12130: 12129: 12117:Parthian monarchs 12091:Parthian Dark Age 12017:Battle of Carrhae 11842:Caucasian Albania 11700:978-1-000-35848-3 11640:978-0-19-987575-7 11616:978-2-503-52178-7 11597:978-0-415-24219-6 11578:978-0-521-24327-8 11530:978-0-520-24340-8 11435:978-1-84511-406-0 11416:978-1-900838-03-0 11397:978-0-19-280320-7 11354:978-0-933273-90-0 11327:978-0-85303-981-5 11308:978-0-521-76641-8 11159:978-0-19-536553-5 11051:978-0-07-141279-7 11032:978-1-59333-026-2 11010:978-0-642-27809-8 10885:978-1-887829-18-2 10863:978-0-300-12118-6 10830:978-90-04-09513-7 10811:978-1-55786-860-2 10733:978-0-521-66991-7 10678:978-0-521-24327-8 10637:978-90-04-15605-0 10618:978-1-84511-406-0 10534:978-0-313-32527-4 10513:978-0-415-32089-4 10493:978-0-7456-3371-8 10443:978-1-84511-406-0 10388:. pp. 3–20. 10366:978-0-236-17760-8 10341:978-0-415-72078-6 10314:978-8-881-47453-0 10266:978-2-503-52178-7 9994:Schlumberger 1983 9963:Schlumberger 1983 9940:Schlumberger 1983 9909:Schlumberger 1983 9893:Schlumberger 1983 9881:Schlumberger 1983 9857:Schlumberger 1983 9842:Schlumberger 1983 9810:Schlumberger 1983 9481:Schlumberger 1983 9469:Schlumberger 1983 9467:, p. 21 and 9364:, pp. 7–25; 9243:, p. 78 and 9192:, pp. 99–100 8459:Herodian, IV.15.5 8197:978-1-4723-0963-1 7874:de Crespigny 2007 7838:de Crespigny 2007 6671:, pp. 89, 91 6635:, p. 90 and 6563:, pp. 83–103 6086:"roughly western 5827:978-1-57506-020-0 5806:Chyet, Michael L. 5721:978-0-8160-5767-2 5525:) recited poetic 5485:Parthian language 5471:official language 5128:cult of the ruler 5028:heroic background 4833:Battle of Carrhae 4518:in the Caucasus. 4464:(Book of Han) by 4373:Isidore of Charax 4252:universal history 4123:Battle of Nisibis 4092:Parthicus Maximus 4076:Septimius Severus 3806:Caucasian Albania 3584:Emperor He of Han 3580:Arabian Peninsula 3497:Battle of Carrhae 3442:Anilai and Asinai 3376:on the statue of 3295:Ptolemaic Kingdom 2879:Parthian Dark Age 2713:Emperor Wu of Han 2299:and the Seleucid 2110:Achaemenid Empire 2013:Chinese histories 1983:and even earlier 1968:in the Caucasus. 1902:Battle of Carrhae 1843:Achaemenid Empire 1837:were titled the " 1744:(province) under 1641: 1640: 1533: 1532: 1486: 1485: 1449: 1448: 1390: 1389: 1332:Afrasiyab dynasty 1232:Khorshidi dynasty 1222:Pishkinid dynasty 1112:Ghaznavid dynasty 932:Abbasid Caliphate 922:Umayyad Caliphate 888: 887: 884:550s–11th century 780:Kingdom of Pontus 724:Achaemenid Empire 688:Anshanite Kingdom 649: 648: 552:Oxus Civilization 460: 459: 345: 344: 341: 340: 337: 336: 317: 316: 204: 189: 22808: 22698: 22697: 22695: 22694: 22693: 22688: 22684: 22681: 22680: 22679: 22676: 22463: 22462: 22128:Austro-Hungarian 21828:Chagatai Khanate 21193: 21186: 21179: 21170: 21169: 21156: 21146: 21145: 20997:National symbols 20851: 20850: 20666:Iranian citizens 20603: 20602: 20594: 20593: 20581: 20580: 20563:Research centers 20252:Economic history 20207: 20206: 20194: 20193: 20128:Guardian Council 19950: 19949: 19937: 19936: 19818: 19817: 19795:Electric history 19790:Military history 19704:Ancient Persians 19612: 19611:shootdown (1988) 19594: 19581: 19578:Iranian Embassy 19548: 19537: 19535:Islamic Republic 19524: 19516:1953 coup d'état 19491: 19478: 19477: 19436: 19433:Khanates of the 19428: 19420: 19412: 19404: 19396: 19388: 19380: 19361: 19353: 19345: 19337: 19330: 19322: 19314: 19306: 19298: 19290: 19271: 19263: 19255: 19247: 19239: 19231: 19223: 19215: 19207: 19194: 19193: 19175: 19156: 19148: 19140: 19132: 19124: 19116: 19108: 19100: 19092: 19073: 19065: 19057: 19049: 19041: 19033: 19025: 19017: 19009: 19001: 18993: 18985: 18972: 18971: 18956: 18955: 18943: 18942: 18927: 18920: 18913: 18904: 18903: 18749:Sumerian cuisine 18739:Warfare in Sumer 18734:Economy of Sumer 18387: 18386: 18377: 18261:Fertile Crescent 18245:Sinjar Mountains 18240:Hamrin Mountains 18235:Zagros Mountains 18213:Taurus Mountains 18178: 18177: 18158: 18151: 18144: 18135: 18134: 18104:Byzantine Empire 17979:Middle Babylonia 17945:c. 1150–911 BCE 17738: 17737: 17721: 17714: 17707: 17698: 17697: 17676: 17675: 17652: 17646: 17640: 17629: 17628: 17605: 17599: 17598: 17577:Thomas, Ariane; 17574: 17568: 17567: 17560: 17554: 17553: 17538: 17532: 17529: 17514: 17504: 17454:Palaestina Prima 17400:Byzantine Empire 17331:Palaestina Prima 17318:Byzantine Empire 17297:Syria Palaestina 17262:Palmyrene Empire 17248:Bahram VI Chobin 17111:Syria Palaestina 16899:Salome Alexandra 16882:Kingdom of Judea 16868:Diodotus Tryphon 16723:Cleopatra I Syra 16699:Ptolemy Keraunos 16467:Ashur-uballit II 16464:Sin-shumu-lishir 16458:Ashur-etil-ilani 16413:Sargonid dynasty 16306:Marduk-apla-usur 16287:Nabu-apla-iddina 16281:Shamash-mudammiq 16237:Ashurnasirpal II 16220:Kingdom of Judah 16064:Adad-apla-iddina 16055:Enlil-nadin-apli 16052:Nebuchadnezzar I 15976:Ashur-nirari III 15973:Ashur-nadin-apli 15811:Shutruk-Nakhunte 15696:Untash-Napirisha 15685:Kidinuid dynasty 15283:Shamshi-Adad III 14991:Dynasty of Larsa 14809: 14697: 14692: 14520: 14373:Shar-Kali-Sharri 14307:Neferkare Tereru 14295:Neferkare Khendu 14249: 14244: 14075: 14034:Kiku-siwe-tempti 13921: 13916: 13771: 13700:Kish III dynasty 13670: 13601: 13514: 13509: 13414:(2600–2340 BCE) 13379: 13342: 13337: 13327: 13322: 13266:(2700–2600 BCE) 13123:(2900–2700 BCE) 13117: 13034:(3100–2700 BCE) 13013:(3100–2900 BCE) 12767: 12754: 12742: 12718:(4000–2900 BCE) 12707: 12606: 12605: 12602: 12601: 12584: 12577: 12570: 12561: 12560: 12541: 12533: 12525: 12517: 12509: 12501: 12493: 12485: 12477: 12469: 12461: 12453: 12445: 12437: 12429: 12421: 12413: 12405: 12397: 12389: 12381: 12373: 12365: 12357: 12349: 12341: 12333: 12325: 12317: 12309: 12301: 12293: 12285: 12277: 12269: 12261: 12253: 12245: 12237: 12229: 12221: 12213: 12205: 12197: 12183: 12170: 12163: 12156: 12147: 12146: 12134: 12133: 12054: 12047: 12040: 12033: 12026: 12019: 12012: 12005: 11998: 11991: 11984: 11977: 11963: 11785: 11778: 11771: 11762: 11761: 11728: 11717: 11704: 11671: 11655: 11653: 11652: 11643:. Archived from 11619: 11600: 11581: 11563: 11540:Yarshater, Ehsan 11533: 11518: 11507: 11484:Yarshater, Ehsan 11478: 11455:Yarshater, Ehsan 11448: 11438: 11419: 11400: 11378: 11358: 11341:Yarshater, Ehsan 11330: 11311: 11292: 11278: 11265: 11242:Yarshater, Ehsan 11236: 11229: 11192: 11169:Yarshater, Ehsan 11163: 11141: 11114: 11104: 11094: 11084: 11061:Yarshater, Ehsan 11054: 11035: 11019:Mommsen, Theodor 11013: 10994: 10971:Yarshater, Ehsan 10964: 10928: 10905:Yarshater, Ehsan 10899: 10888: 10866: 10843: 10833: 10814: 10796: 10773:Yarshater, Ehsan 10766: 10743:Yarshater, Ehsan 10736: 10711: 10688:Yarshater, Ehsan 10681: 10662: 10640: 10621: 10603: 10580:Yarshater, Ehsan 10573: 10564: 10538: 10516: 10497: 10476: 10453:Yarshater, Ehsan 10446: 10428: 10405:Yarshater, Ehsan 10399: 10376:Yarshater, Ehsan 10369: 10344: 10326: 10299: 10276:Yarshater, Ehsan 10269: 10241: 10238: 10232: 10229: 10223: 10219: 10213: 10210: 10204: 10190: 10169: 10159: 10153: 10147: 10141: 10135: 10129: 10123: 10117: 10107: 10101: 10091: 10085: 10075: 10069: 10063: 10057: 10051: 10045: 10039: 10033: 10027: 10021: 10020:, pp. 91–92 10015: 10009: 10003: 9997: 9991: 9985: 9979: 9966: 9952: 9943: 9933: 9927: 9921: 9912: 9902: 9896: 9890: 9884: 9878: 9872: 9866: 9860: 9854: 9845: 9831: 9825: 9819: 9813: 9803: 9797: 9791: 9776: 9770: 9757: 9747: 9741: 9735: 9729: 9723: 9717: 9707: 9701: 9687: 9681: 9671: 9665: 9659: 9653: 9647: 9641: 9627: 9621: 9615: 9606: 9600: 9594: 9588: 9582: 9576: 9567: 9561: 9555: 9545: 9539: 9533: 9527: 9517: 9511: 9505: 9496: 9490: 9484: 9478: 9472: 9458: 9452: 9446: 9437: 9431: 9425: 9424:, pp. 14–15 9415: 9409: 9399: 9393: 9387: 9381: 9375: 9369: 9359: 9353: 9347: 9341: 9335: 9326: 9325: 9305: 9299: 9293: 9287: 9281: 9268: 9254: 9248: 9234: 9228: 9218: 9212: 9202: 9193: 9187: 9181: 9175: 9166: 9156: 9150: 9140: 9134: 9128: 9122: 9121: 9119: 9118: 9099: 9093: 9087: 9081: 9075: 9069: 9063: 9057: 9051: 9045: 9039: 9033: 9027: 9018: 9012: 9006: 9000: 8994: 8988: 8982: 8981:, pp. 19–21 8972: 8966: 8960: 8954: 8948: 8942: 8941:, pp. 67–68 8936: 8930: 8924: 8918: 8911: 8905: 8895: 8889: 8879: 8873: 8867: 8861: 8855: 8849: 8843: 8837: 8831: 8825: 8815: 8809: 8803: 8794: 8788: 8782: 8776: 8770: 8764: 8758: 8748: 8742: 8741:, pp. 80–81 8732: 8726: 8716: 8710: 8705:, p. 1263; 8700: 8694: 8689:, p. 1263; 8680: 8674: 8668: 8662: 8656: 8647: 8646:, pp. 79–80 8642:, p. 1262; 8633: 8627: 8621: 8615: 8614:, pp. 75–76 8609: 8603: 8597: 8591: 8585: 8579: 8573: 8567: 8553: 8547: 8533: 8527: 8521: 8515: 8514:, pp. 95–96 8509: 8503: 8485: 8476: 8466: 8460: 8457: 8451: 8445: 8439: 8438:, pp. 94–95 8433: 8422: 8404: 8398: 8397:, pp. 93–94 8388: 8382: 8381:, pp. 93–94 8372: 8366: 8360: 8354: 8353:, pp. 92–93 8348: 8342: 8324: 8318: 8312: 8306: 8292: 8286: 8280: 8274: 8260: 8254: 8253:, pp. 90–91 8244: 8238: 8237:, pp. 90–91 8232: 8226: 8208: 8202: 8201: 8181: 8173: 8167: 8166:, pp. 88–89 8161: 8155: 8154:, pp. 90–91 8145: 8139: 8125: 8119: 8118:, pp. 86–87 8113: 8107: 8101: 8095: 8089: 8083: 8077: 8071: 8061: 8055: 8049: 8043: 8037: 8031: 8025: 8019: 8009: 8003: 8002:, pp. 83–85 7997: 7991: 7990:, pp. 81–85 7985: 7979: 7973: 7967: 7961: 7955: 7954:, pp. 79–81 7945: 7939: 7929: 7923: 7917: 7911: 7910: 7903: 7897: 7883: 7877: 7867: 7861: 7851: 7845: 7827: 7821: 7815: 7806: 7805:, pp. 76–78 7800: 7794: 7793:, pp. 75–76 7788: 7782: 7781:, pp. 73–74 7776: 7770: 7764: 7758: 7751: 7745: 7744:, pp. 72–73 7739: 7733: 7732:, pp. 71–72 7727: 7721: 7715: 7709: 7708:, pp. 69–71 7703: 7697: 7696:, pp. 97–99 7687: 7681: 7667: 7661: 7660:, pp. 96–99 7651: 7645: 7644:, pp. 12–13 7631: 7625: 7624:, pp. 66–67 7619: 7613: 7603: 7597: 7596:, pp. 65–66 7591: 7585: 7575: 7569: 7563: 7557: 7556:, pp. 64–65 7551: 7542: 7536: 7530: 7524: 7518: 7500: 7494: 7493:, pp. 58–59 7488: 7482: 7472: 7466: 7460: 7454: 7436: 7430: 7412: 7403: 7397: 7391: 7385: 7379: 7365: 7354: 7344: 7338: 7328: 7322: 7316: 7310: 7300: 7294: 7288: 7279: 7269: 7263: 7245: 7239: 7238:, pp. 78–79 7225: 7219: 7213: 7204: 7203:, pp. 52–55 7198: 7192: 7191:, pp. 12–13 7174: 7168: 7167:, pp. 42–43 7158: 7152: 7146: 7140: 7130: 7124: 7123:, pp. 42–43 7114: 7108: 7094: 7088: 7087:, pp. 46–47 7082: 7076: 7066: 7060: 7059:, pp. 44–45 7054: 7048: 7047:, pp. 91–92 7042: 7036: 7030: 7021: 7015: 7009: 6995: 6989: 6988:, pp. 77–78 6983: 6974: 6973:, pp. 12–16 6960: 6954: 6948: 6939: 6933: 6927: 6926:, pp. 79–84 6917: 6911: 6905: 6899: 6893: 6887: 6881: 6875: 6865: 6859: 6858:, pp. 77–78 6845: 6839: 6833: 6827: 6821: 6812: 6811:, pp. 40–41 6802: 6796: 6795:, pp. 11–12 6790: 6784: 6770: 6764: 6758: 6752: 6742: 6736: 6735:, pp. 38–39 6730: 6724: 6706: 6700: 6690: 6684: 6678: 6672: 6658: 6652: 6651:, pp. 80–81 6646: 6640: 6639:, pp. 41–42 6622: 6616: 6610: 6604: 6590: 6584: 6570: 6564: 6550: 6544: 6538: 6532: 6526: 6517: 6516:, pp. 38–39 6507: 6501: 6491: 6485: 6479: 6473: 6463: 6457: 6439: 6430: 6416: 6410: 6400: 6394: 6388: 6382: 6372: 6366: 6352: 6343: 6342:, pp. 85–86 6337: 6328: 6322: 6316: 6315:, pp. 98–99 6310: 6304: 6298: 6292: 6286: 6277: 6271: 6262: 6261:, pp. 29–31 6256: 6250: 6244: 6235: 6229: 6223: 6217: 6206: 6200: 6191: 6190:, pp. 28–29 6185: 6179: 6178:, pp. 83–84 6174:, pp. 7–8; 6169: 6163: 6162:, pp. 83–84 6153: 6147: 6137: 6131: 6130:, pp. 83–84 6113: 6107: 6101: 6095: 6084: 6078: 6072: 6066: 6060: 6054: 6049: 6048: 6037: 6036: 6027: 6021: 6020: 5992: 5986: 5985: 5983: 5981: 5949: 5943: 5937: 5931: 5925: 5919: 5881: 5875: 5869: 5863: 5862: 5834:Sasanian Empires 5810:Afsaruddin, Asma 5802: 5796: 5790: 5779: 5773: 5764: 5758: 5749: 5748: 5697: 5671:Romans in Persia 5547:Greek literature 5542:Kayanian dynasty 5495:were also used. 5399:, 2nd century BC 5042:, replacing the 5040:Iranian calendar 4880:Parthian coinage 4837:levied commoners 4788: 4772: 4753: 4706:. The historian 4579:Caucasian Iberia 4557:, 1st century BC 4512:Caucasian Iberia 4385:Diodorus Siculus 4218: 4209: 3974:failed siege of 3861:Fertile Crescent 3673:Gulf of Thailand 3527:and his brother 3329:Battle of Actium 3128:Quintus Labienus 2891: 2888: 2779:Rome and Armenia 2641:, then ruled by 2487:Diodotus Tryphon 2338: 2336: 2333: 2329: 2320: 2318: 2315: 2311: 2303:in 190 BC. 2269: 2267: 2254: 2252: 2230:Third Syrian War 2189: 2187: 2151:, the appointed 2061: 2059: 2056: 2052: 2021:Parthian artwork 1954:Muslim conquests 1890:kings of Armenia 1769: 1768: – 132 1767: 1764: 1760: 1711: 1710: 1707: 1706: 1703: 1700: 1697: 1694: 1691: 1688: 1675: 1674: 1671: 1670: 1667: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1655: 1633: 1626: 1619: 1605: 1604: 1603: 1574:Military history 1564:Economic history 1542:Related articles 1525:Islamic Republic 1501: 1500: 1464: 1463: 1405: 1404: 1362:Kar-Kiya dynasty 1282:Chobanid dynasty 1272:Ilkhanate Empire 1052:Sallarid dynasty 1022:Saffarid dynasty 908: 907: 753: 750: 718:–11th century AD 717: 714: 678:Scythian Kingdom 664: 663: 594: 581: 558: 545: 522: 505: 475: 474: 455: 442: 429: 416: 403: 393: 392: 375: 365: 347: 346: 333: 332: 321: 320: 308: 307: 301: 300: 285: 284: 202: 187: 50: 48: 38: 19: 18: 22816: 22815: 22811: 22810: 22809: 22807: 22806: 22805: 22761:Arsacid dynasty 22711:Parthian Empire 22701: 22700: 22691: 22689: 22685: 22682: 22677: 22674: 22672: 22670: 22669: 22667: 22662: 22661: 22656: 22645:American Empire 22630: 22626:African empires 22578: 22461: 22153:Central African 22099: 21917:Romano-Germanic 21503: 21237:Middle Assyrian 21210: 21202: 21197: 21167: 21162: 21126: 21096: 21075:Rap and hip-hop 21046: 21027:Public holidays 21012:Persian gardens 21001:Imperial Anthem 20992:National Jewels 20947:Iranian studies 20836: 20770: 20722: 20654: 20615:Persian (Farsi) 20588: 20567: 20536: 20498: 20491: 20426:Pharmaceuticals 20371: 20362:Venture capital 20337:Rial (currency) 20322:Nuclear program 20201: 20180: 20147: 20106: 20057:Nuclear program 20022:Judicial system 19944: 19927: 19898:Iranian plateau 19825: 19804: 19688: 19610: 19592: 19579: 19547:History (1979–) 19546: 19538: 19533: 19528: 19522: 19489: 19465: 19434: 19426: 19418: 19410: 19402: 19394: 19386: 19378: 19365: 19359: 19351: 19343: 19335: 19328: 19320: 19312: 19304: 19296: 19288: 19275: 19269: 19261: 19253: 19245: 19237: 19229: 19221: 19213: 19205: 19189: 19179: 19173: 19160: 19154: 19146: 19138: 19130: 19122: 19114: 19106: 19098: 19090: 19077: 19071: 19070:Neo-Babylonian 19063: 19055: 19048:(860 BC–590 BC) 19047: 19039: 19031: 19023: 19016:(c.2300–675 BC) 19015: 19007: 18999: 18991: 18983: 18963: 18950: 18937: 18931: 18901: 18896: 18855: 18809: 18783: 18692:Culture/society 18687: 18580: 18576:Muslim conquest 18546:Fall of Babylon 18477: 18378: 18365: 18249: 18167: 18162: 18132: 18127: 18121:Sassanid Empire 18090:Parthian Empire 18085:Seleucid Empire 18075:Seleucid Empire 17994: 17988: 17965: 17956: 17785:Akkadian Empire 17731: 17725: 17695: 17690: 17689: 17680: 17679: 17672: 17653: 17649: 17641: 17632: 17625: 17606: 17602: 17595: 17575: 17571: 17562: 17561: 17557: 17539: 17535: 17530: 17526: 17463:Byzantine Syria 17449:Byzantine Egypt 17424:Farrukh Hormizd 17384: 17380: 17377:Sasanian Empire 17363: 17359: 17340:Byzantine Syria 17326:Byzantine Egypt 17265: 17157: 17153: 17150:Sasanian Empire 17070: 16975:Mithridates III 16955: 16952:Parthian Empire 16885: 16824:Seleucid Empire 16821: 16811: 16787: 16696:Ptolemy I Soter 16694: 16691:Ptolemaic Egypt 16663: 16657: 16617: 16599: 16595: 16593:Kings of Byblos 16584: 16556: 16530: 16501: 16495: 16469: 16449:Mushezib-Marduk 16419:Tiglath-Pileser 16417: 16408: 16385: 16371: 16355: 16351: 16347: 16343: 16339: 16335: 16334: 16326: 16324:Nabu-mukin-zeri 16318:Nabu-nadin-zeri 16303:Marduk-bel-zeri 16296:Baba-aha-iddina 16273: 16250:Adad-nirari III 16240:Shalmaneser III 16229: 16218: 16217: 16204: 16198: 16197: 16195:Menkheperre Ini 16172: 16165: 16164: 16128: 16114:Nabû-mukin-apli 16091: 16080:(1100–540 BCE) 16073:Nabu-shum-libur 16041: 16018:Ashur-nirari IV 16012:Ashurnasirpal I 16009:Shamshi-Adad IV 15955:Ashur-uballit I 15950: 15932: 15928: 15924: 15920: 15914: 15913: 15909: 15905: 15903:Kings of Byblos 15901: 15871: 15864: 15858: 15857: 15826: 15825: 15809: 15803: 15771: 15758: 15757: 15739:Neferneferuaten 15699: 15698: 15694: 15688: 15682: 15681:(1500–1100 BCE) 15673:Enlil-nadin-ahi 15661:Adad-shuma-usur 15649:Kashtiliashu IV 15637:Kadashman-Turgu 15622:Burnaburiash II 15601:Kashtiliash III 15593: 15570: 15564: 15534: 15533:(1600–1260 BCE) 15532: 15502: 15493: 15487: 15475: 15469: 15465: 15459: 15455: 15449: 15429: 15424:Peshgaldaramesh 15419: 15409: 15399: 15395:Sealand Dynasty 15392: 15389: 15388: 15382: 15381: 15344: 15337: 15335: 15310:Ashur-nirari II 15289:Puzur-Ashur III 15277:Shamshi-Adad II 15248: 15246: 15244:Adaside dynasty 15241: 15240: 15215: 15213: 15211: 15210: 15173: 15171: 15169: 15162: 15153: 15147: 15136: 15132: 15130:Kings of Byblos 15128: 15122: 15111: 15074: 15061: 15060: 15042:Uruk VI dynasty 15040: 14989: 14940:Dynasty of Isin 14930: 14924: 14913: 14909: 14905: 14901: 14897: 14893: 14889: 14885: 14881: 14856: 14850: 14843: 14839: 14838: 14837: 14835: 14831: 14827: 14810: 14804: 14800: 14794: 14791: 14761: 14755: 14737: 14698: 14686: 14677: 14673: 14669: 14665: 14648: 14638: 14624: 14608: 14600: 14596: 14592: 14581: 14574: 14570: 14556: 14552: 14543: 14539: 14538: 14536: 14525: 14521: 14515: 14511: 14502:(2150–2000 BCE) 14483: 14467: 14463: 14459: 14453: 14449: 14445: 14441: 14437: 14433: 14429: 14415: 14411: 14399: 14395: 14371: 14367: 14363: 14359: 14355: 14354: 14352: 14347: 14337: 14292:Djedkare Shemai 14281: 14275: 14269: 14255: 14226: 14222: 14218: 14214: 14201:Sargon of Akkad 14199: 14198: 14195:Akkadian Empire 14187:(2340–2150 BCE) 14185:Akkadian Period 14172: 14168: 14156: 14152: 14131: 14119: 14109: 14105: 14088: 14084: 14070: 14048: 14027: 14025: 14013: 14009: 14005: 13994: 13990: 13986: 13977: 13968: 13954: 13950: 13938: 13934: 13922: 13893: 13890: 13884: 13872: 13863: 13830: 13829: 13813: 13809: 13805: 13801: 13790: 13786: 13782: 13773: 13772: 13766: 13762: 13761: 13749: 13748: 13732: 13729: 13717: 13713: 13702: 13693: 13689: 13685: 13681: 13677: 13673: 13672: 13671: 13665: 13661: 13657: 13656: 13648:(2500-539 BCE) 13636: 13632: 13602: 13596: 13589: 13583: 13565: 13561: 13557: 13545: 13541: 13537: 13525: 13519: 13515: 13501: 13497: 13487: 13484: 13480: 13468: 13464: 13454: 13450: 13448: 13434: 13430: 13426: 13422: 13386: 13380: 13374: 13370: 13369: 13353: 13352: 13351:(2700–1500 BCE) 13350: 13298: 13287: 13250:("conqueror of 13236: 13220: 13213: 13203: 13189: 13170: 13166: 13161: 13152: 13143: 13135: 13132: 13112: 13048: 13047: 13033: 13027: 13021: 13012: 12954: 12940: 12927: 12868: 12799: 12788: 12782: 12768: 12762: 12755: 12749: 12743: 12737: 12736: 12735:(4000–3100 BCE) 12734: 12728: 12702: 12696: 12668: 12649: 12639: 12612: 12610: 12594: 12588: 12558: 12553: 12546: 12267:Mithridates III 12222:(170–165/64 BC) 12186: 12181:Parthian Empire 12174: 12139: 12131: 12126: 12105: 12069: 12050: 12043: 12036: 12029: 12022: 12015: 12008: 12001: 11994: 11987: 11980: 11973: 11959: 11943: 11907: 11856: 11820: 11794: 11792:Parthian Empire 11789: 11741:Parthian Empire 11736: 11731: 11720: 11710:Iranica Antiqua 11707: 11701: 11680: 11678:Further reading 11675: 11650: 11648: 11641: 11625:Daryaee, Touraj 11617: 11598: 11579: 11560: 11531: 11504: 11475: 11436: 11417: 11398: 11355: 11328: 11309: 11262: 11230: 11189: 11160: 11138: 11081: 11052: 11033: 11011: 10991: 10925: 10886: 10864: 10831: 10812: 10793: 10763: 10734: 10708: 10679: 10638: 10619: 10600: 10561: 10543:Canepa, Matthew 10535: 10514: 10494: 10473: 10444: 10425: 10396: 10367: 10342: 10315: 10296: 10267: 10250: 10245: 10244: 10239: 10235: 10230: 10226: 10220: 10216: 10211: 10207: 10202:Wayback Machine 10191: 10172: 10160: 10156: 10148: 10144: 10136: 10132: 10124: 10120: 10108: 10104: 10092: 10088: 10076: 10072: 10064: 10060: 10052: 10048: 10040: 10036: 10028: 10024: 10016: 10012: 10004: 10000: 9992: 9988: 9980: 9969: 9961:, p. 128; 9955:Garthwaite 2005 9953: 9946: 9934: 9930: 9922: 9915: 9903: 9899: 9891: 9887: 9879: 9875: 9867: 9863: 9855: 9848: 9838:Garthwaite 2005 9836:, p. 127; 9832: 9828: 9820: 9816: 9804: 9800: 9792: 9779: 9771: 9760: 9752:, p. 823; 9750:Demiéville 1986 9748: 9744: 9736: 9732: 9724: 9720: 9710:Garthwaite 2005 9708: 9704: 9694:Garthwaite 2005 9688: 9684: 9672: 9668: 9660: 9656: 9648: 9644: 9636:, p. 823; 9630:Garthwaite 2005 9628: 9624: 9616: 9609: 9601: 9597: 9589: 9585: 9577: 9570: 9562: 9558: 9550:, p. 687; 9546: 9542: 9534: 9530: 9520:Garthwaite 2005 9518: 9514: 9506: 9499: 9491: 9487: 9479: 9475: 9461:Garthwaite 2005 9459: 9455: 9447: 9440: 9432: 9428: 9418:Garthwaite 2005 9416: 9412: 9400: 9396: 9388: 9384: 9376: 9372: 9360: 9356: 9348: 9344: 9336: 9329: 9306: 9302: 9294: 9290: 9282: 9271: 9261:Garthwaite 2005 9259:, p. 120; 9255: 9251: 9241:Garthwaite 2005 9235: 9231: 9223:, p. 120; 9219: 9215: 9209:Garthwaite 2005 9207:, p. 120; 9203: 9196: 9188: 9184: 9176: 9169: 9157: 9153: 9145:, p. 704; 9141: 9137: 9129: 9125: 9116: 9114: 9101: 9100: 9096: 9088: 9084: 9076: 9072: 9064: 9060: 9052: 9048: 9040: 9036: 9028: 9021: 9013: 9009: 9001: 8997: 8989: 8985: 8977:, p. 701; 8973: 8969: 8961: 8957: 8949: 8945: 8939:Garthwaite 2005 8937: 8933: 8925: 8921: 8912: 8908: 8896: 8892: 8880: 8876: 8868: 8864: 8856: 8852: 8844: 8840: 8832: 8828: 8816: 8812: 8804: 8797: 8789: 8785: 8777: 8773: 8765: 8761: 8749: 8745: 8735:Garthwaite 2005 8733: 8729: 8719:Garthwaite 2005 8717: 8713: 8701: 8697: 8683:Garthwaite 2005 8681: 8677: 8669: 8665: 8657: 8650: 8636:Garthwaite 2005 8634: 8630: 8622: 8618: 8612:Garthwaite 2005 8610: 8606: 8598: 8594: 8586: 8582: 8574: 8570: 8554: 8550: 8534: 8530: 8522: 8518: 8510: 8506: 8490:, p. 101; 8486: 8479: 8467: 8463: 8458: 8454: 8446: 8442: 8434: 8425: 8409:, p. 100; 8405: 8401: 8389: 8385: 8377:, p. 100; 8373: 8369: 8361: 8357: 8349: 8345: 8335:Garthwaite 2005 8333:, p. 115; 8325: 8321: 8313: 8309: 8293: 8289: 8281: 8277: 8271:Garthwaite 2005 8261: 8257: 8249:, p. 120; 8245: 8241: 8233: 8229: 8215:Garthwaite 2005 8209: 8205: 8198: 8174: 8170: 8162: 8158: 8146: 8142: 8126: 8122: 8114: 8110: 8102: 8098: 8090: 8086: 8078: 8074: 8062: 8058: 8050: 8046: 8038: 8034: 8026: 8022: 8010: 8006: 7998: 7994: 7986: 7982: 7974: 7970: 7962: 7958: 7948:Garthwaite 2005 7946: 7942: 7930: 7926: 7918: 7914: 7905: 7904: 7900: 7884: 7880: 7868: 7864: 7852: 7848: 7828: 7824: 7816: 7809: 7801: 7797: 7789: 7785: 7777: 7773: 7765: 7761: 7752: 7748: 7740: 7736: 7728: 7724: 7716: 7712: 7704: 7700: 7688: 7684: 7678:Garthwaite 2005 7668: 7664: 7652: 7648: 7632: 7628: 7620: 7616: 7606:Garthwaite 2005 7604: 7600: 7592: 7588: 7576: 7572: 7564: 7560: 7552: 7545: 7537: 7533: 7525: 7521: 7507:Garthwaite 2005 7501: 7497: 7489: 7485: 7473: 7469: 7463:Garthwaite 2005 7461: 7457: 7437: 7433: 7413: 7406: 7398: 7394: 7386: 7382: 7374:, p. 244; 7366: 7357: 7345: 7341: 7329: 7325: 7317: 7313: 7301: 7297: 7289: 7282: 7270: 7266: 7252:Garthwaite 2005 7246: 7242: 7236:Garthwaite 2005 7226: 7222: 7214: 7207: 7199: 7195: 7181:Garthwaite 2005 7175: 7171: 7159: 7155: 7147: 7143: 7131: 7127: 7115: 7111: 7095: 7091: 7083: 7079: 7067: 7063: 7055: 7051: 7043: 7039: 7031: 7024: 7016: 7012: 7004:, p. 225; 6996: 6992: 6984: 6977: 6961: 6957: 6949: 6942: 6934: 6930: 6918: 6914: 6906: 6902: 6894: 6890: 6882: 6878: 6868:Garthwaite 2005 6866: 6862: 6856:Garthwaite 2005 6846: 6842: 6834: 6830: 6822: 6815: 6803: 6799: 6791: 6787: 6771: 6767: 6761:Garthwaite 2005 6759: 6755: 6743: 6739: 6731: 6727: 6713:Garthwaite 2005 6707: 6703: 6697:Garthwaite 2005 6691: 6687: 6679: 6675: 6661:Garthwaite 2005 6659: 6655: 6647: 6643: 6629:Garthwaite 2005 6623: 6619: 6611: 6607: 6593:Garthwaite 2005 6591: 6587: 6571: 6567: 6551: 6547: 6539: 6535: 6527: 6520: 6510:Garthwaite 2005 6508: 6504: 6498:Garthwaite 2005 6492: 6488: 6480: 6476: 6466:Garthwaite 2005 6464: 6460: 6454:Garthwaite 2005 6440: 6433: 6427:Garthwaite 2005 6417: 6413: 6401: 6397: 6389: 6385: 6373: 6369: 6353: 6346: 6338: 6331: 6323: 6319: 6311: 6307: 6299: 6295: 6287: 6280: 6272: 6265: 6257: 6253: 6245: 6238: 6232:Garthwaite 2005 6230: 6226: 6218: 6209: 6201: 6194: 6186: 6182: 6170: 6166: 6154: 6150: 6138: 6134: 6114: 6110: 6102: 6098: 6085: 6081: 6073: 6069: 6061: 6057: 6028: 6024: 6009:10.2307/1170959 5993: 5989: 5979: 5977: 5950: 5946: 5938: 5934: 5926: 5922: 5882: 5878: 5870: 5866: 5828: 5820:. p. 284. 5803: 5799: 5791: 5782: 5774: 5767: 5759: 5752: 5722: 5698: 5694: 5689: 5661:History of Iran 5651:Baghdad Battery 5626:Pahlavi scripts 5617: 5589:Musa of Parthia 5555: 5527:oral literature 5515: 5501: 5463: 5385: 5249:Iranian plateau 5208: 5202: 5190:Buddhist canons 5052: 4955:Parthian script 4908: 4903: 4882: 4876: 4805: 4804: 4803: 4802: 4798: 4797: 4796: 4789: 4781: 4780: 4779:fighting a lion 4773: 4765: 4764: 4754: 4722: 4716: 4633: 4623: 4543:Kamnaskires III 4535: 4529: 4524: 4405:Pliny the Elder 4355:Latin histories 4250:; the earliest 4243: 4242: 4241: 4240: 4221: 4220: 4219: 4211: 4210: 4199: 4144:Sasanian Empire 4064:Avidius Cassius 4044:Marcus Aurelius 3800:kings with the 3719: 3713: 3697:Main articles: 3695: 3677:South China Sea 3627:Marcus Aurelius 3608:Roman merchants 3401:Musa of Parthia 3325:Ptolemaic Egypt 3317: 3311: 3206:Mersin Province 3124:in 42 BC. 2956:Lucius Afranius 2889: 2818: 2791: 2783:Main articles: 2781: 2753:iron from India 2653:under Parthian 2577:Northwest China 2398:Cyrus the Great 2351: 2345: 2334: 2326: 2316: 2308: 2264: 2249: 2204:(blue) and the 2202:Seleucid Empire 2184: 2114:Seleucid Empire 2112:, and then the 2086:Iranian peoples 2070: 2057: 2049: 2034: 2029: 2009:Roman histories 1950:Sasanian Empire 1765: 1757: 1750:Seleucid Empire 1712:), was a major 1685: 1681: 1652: 1648: 1645:Parthian Empire 1637: 1607:Iran portal 1601: 1599: 1598: 1590: 1589: 1588: 1579:Women's history 1543: 1535: 1534: 1498: 1488: 1487: 1461: 1451: 1450: 1402: 1392: 1391: 1242:Qutlugh-Khanids 1192:Atabegs of Yazd 1092:Rawadid dynasty 1062:Ziyarid dynasty 1002:Tahirid dynasty 900: 898:Medieval period 890: 889: 874:6th century–785 860:Sasanian Empire 830:Kings of Persis 800:Parthian Empire 770:Seleucid Empire 751: 715: 661: 659:Imperial period 651: 650: 565:Akkadian Empire 512:Lullubi Kingdom 472: 462: 461: 410:Zarzian culture 385: 363: 356: 330: 325:Sasanian Empire 312:Seleucid Empire 305: 249: 239: 196: 181: 147: 121: 52: 45: 24: 23:Parthian Empire 17: 12: 11: 5: 22814: 22804: 22803: 22798: 22796:Former empires 22793: 22788: 22783: 22778: 22773: 22768: 22763: 22758: 22753: 22748: 22743: 22738: 22733: 22728: 22723: 22718: 22713: 22664: 22663: 22658: 22657: 22655: 22654: 22653: 22652: 22647: 22638: 22636: 22632: 22631: 22629: 22628: 22623: 22618: 22613: 22608: 22603: 22602: 22601: 22590: 22588: 22584: 22583: 22580: 22579: 22577: 22576: 22571: 22566: 22561: 22556: 22555: 22554: 22544: 22539: 22534: 22529: 22524: 22519: 22514: 22509: 22504: 22499: 22498: 22497: 22492: 22482: 22477: 22471: 22469: 22460: 22459: 22458: 22457: 22452: 22447: 22442: 22437: 22427: 22422: 22421: 22420: 22410: 22405: 22404: 22403: 22398: 22393: 22383: 22378: 22377: 22376: 22371: 22361: 22360: 22359: 22354: 22349: 22344: 22339: 22329: 22328: 22327: 22322: 22312: 22307: 22302: 22297: 22296: 22295: 22290: 22285: 22280: 22275: 22265: 22264: 22263: 22258: 22248: 22243: 22242: 22241: 22236: 22226: 22225: 22224: 22219: 22209: 22208: 22207: 22202: 22192: 22187: 22186: 22185: 22180: 22175: 22170: 22165: 22155: 22150: 22149: 22148: 22143: 22135: 22130: 22125: 22120: 22115: 22109: 22107: 22101: 22100: 22098: 22097: 22092: 22087: 22082: 22081: 22080: 22075: 22070: 22065: 22060: 22055: 22050: 22040: 22035: 22034: 22033: 22028: 22023: 22018: 22013: 22008: 21998: 21997: 21996: 21991: 21986: 21981: 21971: 21966: 21961: 21956: 21951: 21946: 21941: 21936: 21931: 21930: 21929: 21924: 21914: 21913: 21912: 21907: 21902: 21897: 21892: 21887: 21874: 21869: 21864: 21859: 21858: 21857: 21852: 21847: 21837: 21836: 21835: 21830: 21825: 21820: 21810: 21805: 21800: 21795: 21790: 21785: 21784: 21783: 21778: 21773: 21768: 21758: 21757: 21756: 21751: 21746: 21741: 21731: 21730: 21729: 21724: 21719: 21709: 21704: 21699: 21694: 21689: 21688: 21687: 21682: 21677: 21667: 21662: 21661: 21660: 21655: 21650: 21645: 21640: 21635: 21625: 21624: 21623: 21618: 21608: 21607: 21606: 21601: 21596: 21591: 21581: 21576: 21575: 21574: 21564: 21563: 21562: 21557: 21549: 21544: 21539: 21534: 21529: 21524: 21519: 21513: 21511: 21509:Post-classical 21505: 21504: 21502: 21501: 21500: 21499: 21489: 21484: 21483: 21482: 21477: 21467: 21466: 21465: 21455: 21454: 21453: 21448: 21443: 21438: 21433: 21428: 21418: 21413: 21408: 21407: 21406: 21401: 21396: 21391: 21381: 21380: 21379: 21374: 21364: 21359: 21358: 21357: 21352: 21347: 21342: 21337: 21327: 21322: 21317: 21316: 21315: 21310: 21308:Middle Kingdom 21305: 21295: 21290: 21289: 21288: 21283: 21278: 21268: 21267: 21266: 21264:Neo-Babylonian 21261: 21256: 21254:Old Babylonian 21246: 21245: 21244: 21239: 21229: 21224: 21218: 21216: 21204: 21203: 21196: 21195: 21188: 21181: 21173: 21164: 21163: 21161: 21160: 21150: 21139: 21136: 21135: 21132: 21131: 21128: 21127: 21125: 21124: 21119: 21114: 21108: 21106: 21102: 21101: 21098: 21097: 21095: 21094: 21087: 21082: 21077: 21072: 21067: 21062: 21056: 21054: 21048: 21047: 21045: 21044: 21034: 21029: 21024: 21019: 21014: 21009: 21004: 20994: 20989: 20984: 20978: 20964: 20959: 20949: 20944: 20939: 20934: 20929: 20919: 20914: 20909: 20904: 20890: 20885: 20880: 20870: 20864: 20854: 20848: 20842: 20841: 20838: 20837: 20835: 20834: 20829: 20824: 20819: 20814: 20808: 20803: 20798: 20789: 20784: 20778: 20776: 20772: 20771: 20769: 20768: 20763: 20753: 20748: 20738: 20732: 20730: 20724: 20723: 20721: 20720: 20719: 20718: 20713: 20708: 20703: 20698: 20693: 20688: 20683: 20673: 20662: 20660: 20656: 20655: 20653: 20652: 20647: 20642: 20637: 20632: 20627: 20622: 20617: 20611: 20609: 20600: 20590: 20589: 20577: 20576: 20573: 20572: 20569: 20568: 20566: 20565: 20560: 20555: 20550: 20544: 20542: 20538: 20537: 20535: 20534: 20529: 20524: 20519: 20514: 20509: 20503: 20501: 20493: 20492: 20490: 20489: 20484: 20478: 20473: 20468: 20459: 20449: 20439: 20434: 20429: 20419: 20414: 20409: 20408: 20407: 20402: 20392: 20381: 20379: 20373: 20372: 20370: 20369: 20359: 20354: 20349: 20344: 20339: 20334: 20329: 20319: 20314: 20309: 20304: 20299: 20294: 20289: 20284: 20279: 20274: 20269: 20264: 20259: 20254: 20249: 20244: 20239: 20234: 20224: 20219: 20213: 20211: 20203: 20202: 20190: 20189: 20186: 20185: 20182: 20181: 20179: 20178: 20176:Supreme Leader 20173: 20168: 20163: 20157: 20155: 20149: 20148: 20146: 20145: 20140: 20138:Local councils 20135: 20130: 20125: 20120: 20114: 20112: 20108: 20107: 20105: 20104: 20099: 20094: 20084: 20079: 20074: 20069: 20064: 20054: 20049: 20044: 20038: 20033: 20024: 20019: 20018: 20017: 20015:Women's rights 20012: 20007: 19997: 19992: 19987: 19977: 19972: 19962: 19956: 19954: 19946: 19945: 19933: 19932: 19929: 19928: 19926: 19925: 19920: 19915: 19910: 19905: 19900: 19895: 19890: 19885: 19880: 19875: 19870: 19869: 19868: 19866:Climate change 19858: 19853: 19852: 19851: 19846: 19836: 19830: 19827: 19826: 19814: 19813: 19810: 19809: 19806: 19805: 19803: 19802: 19797: 19792: 19787: 19782: 19777: 19772: 19767: 19762: 19757: 19752: 19750:Jiroft culture 19747: 19746: 19745: 19738:Iranic peoples 19735: 19734: 19733: 19732: 19731: 19726: 19714:Persianization 19711: 19706: 19700: 19698: 19694: 19693: 19690: 19689: 19687: 19686: 19681: 19676: 19671: 19666: 19661: 19656: 19651: 19650: 19649: 19639: 19634: 19629: 19624: 19619: 19614: 19606: 19601: 19596: 19588: 19583: 19575: 19570: 19565: 19560: 19555: 19550: 19542: 19540: 19530: 19529: 19527: 19526: 19518: 19513: 19508: 19503: 19498: 19493: 19484: 19482: 19475: 19471: 19470: 19467: 19466: 19464: 19463: 19458: 19453: 19448: 19443: 19438: 19430: 19422: 19414: 19406: 19398: 19390: 19382: 19373: 19371: 19367: 19366: 19364: 19363: 19355: 19347: 19339: 19332: 19324: 19321:(1135/36-1225) 19316: 19308: 19300: 19292: 19283: 19281: 19277: 19276: 19274: 19273: 19265: 19257: 19249: 19241: 19233: 19225: 19217: 19209: 19200: 19198: 19191: 19185: 19184: 19181: 19180: 19178: 19177: 19168: 19166: 19162: 19161: 19159: 19158: 19150: 19142: 19134: 19131:(c.295–220 BC) 19126: 19118: 19110: 19102: 19094: 19085: 19083: 19079: 19078: 19076: 19075: 19067: 19059: 19051: 19043: 19035: 19027: 19019: 19011: 19003: 18995: 18990:Proto-Elamite 18987: 18978: 18976: 18969: 18965: 18964: 18952: 18951: 18939: 18938: 18930: 18929: 18922: 18915: 18907: 18898: 18897: 18895: 18894: 18889: 18884: 18879: 18874: 18872:Assyriologists 18869: 18863: 18861: 18857: 18856: 18854: 18853: 18848: 18843: 18838: 18833: 18828: 18823: 18817: 18815: 18811: 18810: 18808: 18807: 18802: 18797: 18791: 18789: 18785: 18784: 18782: 18781: 18779:List of rulers 18776: 18771: 18766: 18761: 18756: 18751: 18746: 18741: 18736: 18731: 18726: 18721: 18716: 18711: 18706: 18701: 18695: 18693: 18689: 18688: 18686: 18685: 18680: 18675: 18670: 18668:Proto-Armenian 18665: 18660: 18655: 18653:Middle Persian 18650: 18645: 18640: 18635: 18630: 18625: 18620: 18615: 18610: 18605: 18600: 18594: 18592: 18586: 18585: 18582: 18581: 18579: 18578: 18573: 18568: 18563: 18558: 18553: 18548: 18543: 18541:Neo-Babylonian 18538: 18533: 18528: 18523: 18521:Old Babylonian 18518: 18513: 18508: 18503: 18498: 18493: 18491:Early Dynastic 18487: 18485: 18479: 18478: 18476: 18475: 18470: 18465: 18460: 18455: 18450: 18441: 18436: 18431: 18426: 18421: 18416: 18411: 18406: 18401: 18395: 18393: 18384: 18380: 18379: 18372: 18370: 18367: 18366: 18364: 18363: 18358: 18353: 18348: 18343: 18338: 18333: 18328: 18323: 18318: 18313: 18308: 18303: 18298: 18293: 18288: 18283: 18278: 18273: 18268: 18263: 18257: 18255: 18251: 18250: 18248: 18247: 18242: 18237: 18232: 18231: 18230: 18225: 18215: 18210: 18205: 18200: 18195: 18190: 18184: 18182: 18175: 18169: 18168: 18161: 18160: 18153: 18146: 18138: 18129: 18128: 18124: 18123: 18118: 18114: 18113: 18097: 18096:63 BCE–224 CE 18093: 18092: 18087: 18082: 18078: 18077: 18072: 18068: 18067: 18059:Ancient Greeks 18051: 18047: 18046: 18041: 18037: 18036: 18024: 18020: 18019: 18017: 18015: 18011: 18010: 18005: 18001: 18000: 17981: 17976: 17969: 17960: 17951: 17946: 17942: 17941: 17934: 17918: 17914: 17913: 17911:Middle Assyria 17908: 17906: 17901: 17897: 17896: 17884: 17872: 17868: 17867: 17857: 17852: 17848: 17847: 17831: 17826: 17814: 17810: 17809: 17804: 17800: 17799: 17792: 17788: 17787: 17782: 17778: 17777: 17764: 17761: 17757: 17756: 17751: 17746: 17741: 17736: 17733: 17732: 17724: 17723: 17716: 17709: 17701: 17692: 17691: 17686: 17685: 17682: 17681: 17678: 17677: 17670: 17647: 17630: 17623: 17600: 17593: 17579:Potts, Timothy 17569: 17555: 17533: 17523: 17522: 17519: 17518: 17508: 17497: 17496: 17489: 17482: 17475: 17471: 17470: 17465: 17460: 17451: 17445: 17444: 17403: 17396: 17392: 17391: 17373: 17352: 17348: 17347: 17342: 17337: 17328: 17322: 17321: 17314: 17310: 17309: 17304: 17299: 17294: 17288: 17287: 17280: 17276: 17275: 17258: 17254: 17253: 17146: 17142: 17141: 17118: 17113: 17108: 17104: 17103: 17098: 17089: 17085: 17084: 17079: 17074: 17062: 17061: 17054: 17053:30 BCE–116 CE 17050: 17049: 16987:Mithridates IV 16969:Mithridates II 16948: 16910: 16905:Aristobulus II 16878: 16874: 16873: 16798:Argead dynasty 16782: 16687:Argead dynasty 16683: 16679: 16678: 16670: 16669: 16649: 16648: 16640:Artaxerxes III 16603: 16601:Kings of Sidon 16590: 16577: 16573: 16572: 16549: 16544:Labashi-Marduk 16523: 16488: 16484: 16483: 16478: 16472: 16471: 16446:Nergal-ushezib 16401: 16382:Black Pharaohs 16364: 16360: 16359: 16327: 16300:Ninurta-apla-X 16261: 16259:Ashur-nirari V 16253:Shalmaneser IV 16243:Shamshi-Adad V 16231:Adad-nirari II 16222: 16212: 16121: 16117: 16116: 16086: 16082: 16081: 16075: 16032: 16015:Shalmaneser II 16003:Ashur-bel-kala 15991:Mutakkil-Nusku 15947:Middle Assyria 15943: 15936: 15911:Kings of Sidon 15894: 15818: 15817:1155–1025 BCE 15814: 15813: 15800:Elamite Empire 15796: 15763: 15762: 15754:Hittite Empire 15750: 15718: 15717: 15702: 15701: 15675: 15664:Meli-Shipak II 15634:Nazi-Maruttash 15598:Burnaburiash I 15577: 15549: 15548:1531–1155 BCE 15545: 15544: 15525: 15480: 15440: 15439: 15386: 15322: 15307:Enlil-Nasir II 15286:Ashur-nirari I 15280:Ishme-Dagan II 15271:Sharma-Adad II 15223:Ashur-apla-idi 15214:1735–1701 BCE) 15193:Ashur-apla-idi 15175:Shamshi-Adad I 15170:1808–1736 BCE) 15155: 15150:Yamhad dynasty 15140: 15138:Kings of Sidon 15117: 15104: 15103:1800–1595 BCE 15100: 15099: 15066: 15065: 15053: 14917: 14907:Puzur-Ashur II 14874: 14817: 14784: 14783: 14778:Mentuhotep III 14747: 14746: 14729: 14724: 14716: 14715:2025-1763 BCE 14712: 14711: 14683:Ur III dynasty 14679: 14660: 14657: 14653: 14652: 14640: 14629:Neferkare VIII 14617: 14613: 14612: 14605: 14604: 14576: 14562: 14560: 14547: 14533:Gutian dynasty 14529: 14505: 14504: 14496: 14491:Nebkaure Khety 14485:Meryibre Khety 14476: 14472: 14471: 14454: 14421: 14419: 14403: 14376: 14375: 14369: 14340: 14330: 14316:Neferkamin Anu 14289:Neferkare Neby 14262: 14258: 14257: 14253:Lugal-ushumgal 14250: 14235: 14231: 14230: 14209: 14190: 14189: 14181: 14179: 14175: 14174: 14160: 14147: 14145: 14141: 14140: 14135: 14126: 14121: 14113: 14100: 14095: 14091: 14090: 14086:Lugalannemundu 14076: 14041: 14037: 14036: 14031: 14017: 14000: 13981: 13972: 13963: 13958: 13942: 13929: 13925: 13924: 13907: 13902: 13898: 13897: 13886: 13877: 13876: 13867: 13858: 13853:Djedkare Isesi 13850:Menkauhor Kaiu 13822: 13818: 13817: 13794: 13777: 13753: 13751:Pabilgagaltuku 13740: 13735: 13721: 13710:Akshak dynasty 13706: 13697: 13649: 13643: 13639: 13638: 13625: 13576: 13572: 13571: 13569: 13550: 13535:Enun-dara-anna 13530: 13529: 13490: 13473: 13458: 13440: 13438: 13416: 13415: 13409: 13362: 13358: 13357: 13343: 13328: 13312: 13311: 13304: 13303: 13292: 13273: 13271: 13268: 13267: 13261: 13257: 13256: 13243: 13242: 13228: 13191: 13184: 13183: 13159:Kullassina-bel 13144: 13136: 13125: 13124: 13118: 13040: 13036: 13035: 13014: 13005: 13000: 12951:Narmer Palette 12933: 12932:3100–2900 BCE 12929: 12928: 12861: 12791: 12790: 12775: 12774:3200–3100 BCE 12771: 12770: 12757: 12725: 12724: 12719: 12713: 12708: 12689: 12688:4000–3200 BCE 12685: 12684: 12679: 12674: 12669: 12663: 12658: 12653: 12643: 12633: 12628: 12623: 12618: 12613: 12600: 12599: 12596: 12595: 12590:Rulers of the 12587: 12586: 12579: 12572: 12564: 12555: 12554: 12551: 12548: 12547: 12545: 12544: 12536: 12528: 12520: 12512: 12504: 12496: 12488: 12483:Parthamaspates 12480: 12472: 12464: 12456: 12448: 12440: 12432: 12424: 12416: 12408: 12400: 12392: 12384: 12376: 12368: 12360: 12352: 12344: 12336: 12328: 12320: 12312: 12304: 12299:Mithridates IV 12296: 12288: 12280: 12272: 12264: 12256: 12251:Mithridates II 12248: 12240: 12232: 12230:(165/4–132 BC) 12224: 12216: 12208: 12200: 12191: 12188: 12187: 12173: 12172: 12165: 12158: 12150: 12144: 12141: 12140: 12128: 12127: 12125: 12124: 12119: 12113: 12111: 12107: 12106: 12104: 12103: 12098: 12093: 12088: 12083: 12077: 12075: 12071: 12070: 12068: 12067: 12062: 12057: 12056: 12055: 12048: 12041: 12034: 12027: 12020: 12013: 12006: 11999: 11992: 11985: 11978: 11966: 11965: 11964: 11951: 11949: 11945: 11944: 11942: 11941: 11936: 11931: 11926: 11921: 11915: 11913: 11909: 11908: 11906: 11905: 11904: 11903: 11898: 11895: 11890: 11885: 11880: 11875: 11864: 11862: 11858: 11857: 11855: 11854: 11849: 11844: 11839: 11834: 11828: 11826: 11822: 11821: 11819: 11818: 11813: 11808: 11802: 11800: 11796: 11795: 11788: 11787: 11780: 11773: 11765: 11759: 11758: 11752: 11735: 11734:External links 11732: 11730: 11729: 11718: 11705: 11699: 11681: 11679: 11676: 11674: 11673: 11656: 11639: 11621: 11615: 11602: 11596: 11583: 11577: 11564: 11558: 11535: 11529: 11508: 11502: 11479: 11473: 11450: 11440: 11434: 11421: 11415: 11402: 11396: 11380: 11370:(3): 239–252, 11359: 11353: 11332: 11326: 11313: 11307: 11294: 11280: 11266: 11260: 11237: 11193: 11187: 11164: 11158: 11143: 11137:978-0199733309 11136: 11116: 11106: 11086: 11079: 11056: 11050: 11037: 11031: 11015: 11009: 10996: 10989: 10966: 10946:10.2307/300283 10929: 10923: 10900: 10889: 10884: 10872:Kennedy, David 10868: 10862: 10845: 10835: 10829: 10816: 10810: 10797: 10791: 10768: 10761: 10738: 10732: 10713: 10706: 10683: 10677: 10664: 10642: 10636: 10623: 10617: 10604: 10598: 10575: 10565: 10560:978-0520379206 10559: 10539: 10533: 10518: 10512: 10499: 10492: 10477: 10471: 10448: 10442: 10429: 10423: 10400: 10394: 10371: 10365: 10346: 10340: 10327: 10313: 10300: 10294: 10271: 10265: 10251: 10249: 10246: 10243: 10242: 10233: 10224: 10214: 10205: 10170: 10154: 10142: 10140:, p. 1151 10130: 10118: 10102: 10086: 10070: 10058: 10046: 10034: 10022: 10010: 9998: 9996:, p. 1049 9986: 9967: 9965:, p. 1049 9957:, p. 84; 9944: 9928: 9913: 9907:, p. 18; 9897: 9895:, p. 1053 9885: 9873: 9861: 9859:, p. 1051 9846: 9840:, p. 84; 9826: 9814: 9798: 9777: 9758: 9742: 9730: 9718: 9712:, p. 67; 9702: 9682: 9676:, p. 45; 9674:Katouzian 2009 9666: 9654: 9642: 9622: 9607: 9595: 9583: 9579:Katouzian 2009 9568: 9556: 9540: 9528: 9522:, p. 85; 9512: 9497: 9485: 9483:, p. 1030 9473: 9471:, p. 1030 9453: 9438: 9426: 9420:, p. 85; 9410: 9406:Katouzian 2009 9394: 9382: 9370: 9354: 9342: 9327: 9300: 9288: 9269: 9263:, p. 78; 9249: 9229: 9213: 9194: 9182: 9167: 9151: 9135: 9123: 9094: 9082: 9070: 9058: 9046: 9034: 9019: 9007: 8995: 8983: 8967: 8955: 8953:, p. 1263 8951:Widengren 1983 8943: 8931: 8919: 8906: 8890: 8874: 8862: 8850: 8838: 8826: 8820:, p. 80; 8810: 8806:Widengren 1983 8795: 8791:Widengren 1983 8783: 8781:, p. 1264 8779:Widengren 1983 8771: 8767:Widengren 1983 8759: 8743: 8737:, p. 75; 8727: 8711: 8703:Widengren 1983 8695: 8687:Widengren 1983 8675: 8673:, p. 1265 8671:Widengren 1983 8663: 8661:, p. 1262 8659:Widengren 1983 8648: 8640:Widengren 1983 8638:, p. 67; 8628: 8616: 8604: 8602:, p. 1261 8600:Widengren 1983 8592: 8588:Yarshater 1983 8580: 8576:Widengren 1983 8568: 8548: 8528: 8516: 8504: 8500:Katouzian 2009 8477: 8473:Katouzian 2009 8461: 8452: 8440: 8423: 8419:Katouzian 2009 8417:, p. 94; 8413:, p. 13; 8399: 8393:, p. 13; 8383: 8367: 8355: 8343: 8331:Lightfoot 1990 8319: 8315:Lightfoot 1990 8307: 8287: 8275: 8269:, p. 13; 8265:, p. 91; 8255: 8247:Lightfoot 1990 8239: 8227: 8223:Katouzian 2009 8219:Lightfoot 1990 8217:, p. 81; 8203: 8196: 8168: 8156: 8148:Lightfoot 1990 8140: 8136:Lightfoot 1990 8134:, p. 13; 8130:, p. 88; 8120: 8108: 8096: 8084: 8072: 8056: 8044: 8032: 8020: 8004: 7992: 7980: 7968: 7956: 7950:, p. 82; 7940: 7924: 7912: 7898: 7892:, p. 38; 7888:, p. 29; 7878: 7862: 7846: 7822: 7807: 7795: 7783: 7771: 7759: 7746: 7734: 7722: 7710: 7698: 7682: 7672:, p. 68; 7662: 7656:, p. 67; 7646: 7626: 7614: 7610:Strugnell 2006 7598: 7586: 7582:Bringmann 2007 7570: 7558: 7543: 7531: 7519: 7509:, p. 80; 7495: 7483: 7467: 7455: 7451:Strugnell 2006 7445:, p. 96; 7441:, p. 58; 7431: 7425:, p. 96; 7419:Strugnell 2006 7404: 7392: 7380: 7372:Strugnell 2006 7370:, p. 57; 7355: 7351:Strugnell 2006 7339: 7323: 7311: 7295: 7280: 7264: 7254:, p. 79; 7248:Katouzian 2009 7240: 7220: 7205: 7193: 7169: 7165:Katouzian 2009 7153: 7141: 7125: 7121:Katouzian 2009 7109: 7099:, p. 47; 7089: 7077: 7061: 7049: 7037: 7022: 7010: 7006:Rezakhani 2013 7000:, p. 62; 6990: 6975: 6969:, p. 91; 6955: 6940: 6928: 6912: 6900: 6888: 6876: 6870:, p. 78; 6860: 6840: 6828: 6813: 6797: 6785: 6775:, p. 40; 6765: 6753: 6749:Katouzian 2009 6737: 6725: 6721:Katouzian 2009 6719:, p. 11; 6715:, p. 77; 6701: 6695:, p. 38; 6685: 6673: 6663:, p. 76; 6653: 6641: 6637:Katouzian 2009 6617: 6605: 6585: 6579:, p. 11; 6565: 6559:, p. 35; 6555:, p. 89; 6545: 6533: 6518: 6512:, p. 77; 6502: 6496:, p. 73; 6486: 6474: 6468:, p. 76; 6458: 6452:, p. 34; 6431: 6425:, p. 33; 6411: 6405:, p. 33; 6395: 6383: 6367: 6361:, p. 86; 6357:, p. 29; 6344: 6329: 6327:, p. 179. 6317: 6305: 6293: 6278: 6263: 6251: 6236: 6224: 6220:Katouzian 2009 6207: 6192: 6180: 6164: 6148: 6142:, p. 24; 6132: 6118:, p. 41; 6116:Katouzian 2009 6108: 6096: 6092:Bickerman 1983 6079: 6067: 6065:, p. 424. 6055: 6022: 5987: 5944: 5932: 5920: 5876: 5864: 5846:Middle Persian 5826: 5797: 5780: 5765: 5750: 5720: 5691: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5684: 5683: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5653: 5648: 5643: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5616: 5613: 5554: 5551: 5513:Parthian music 5500: 5497: 5489:Middle Persian 5462: 5459: 5384: 5381: 5312:Book of Esther 5253:Achaemenid art 5216:barrel vaulted 5201: 5198: 5135:Zoroastrianism 5051: 5048: 5000:Mount Behistun 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4875: 4872: 4821:composite bows 4800: 4799: 4790: 4783: 4782: 4774: 4767: 4766: 4755: 4748: 4747: 4746: 4745: 4744: 4715: 4712: 4704:House of Karen 4700:House of Suren 4622: 4619: 4531:Main article: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4520: 4238:British Museum 4223: 4222: 4213: 4212: 4204: 4203: 4202: 4201: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4191:Arab conquests 4068:deadly disease 4024:Roman-Parthian 3993:Roman province 3948:Lusius Quietus 3910:, most likely 3893:grand strategy 3694: 3691: 3651:Antoninus Pius 3310: 3307: 3259:Theodosiopolis 3252:invade Parthia 3098:Marcus Lepidus 3063:composite bows 2975:Aulus Gabinius 2797: 2780: 2777: 2767:, speaking an 2703:Following the 2647:Charax Spasinu 2601:Mithridates II 2549:Mithridates II 2514:Cleopatra Thea 2502:to Demetrius. 2390:Apamea Ragiana 2347:Main article: 2344: 2341: 2297:Roman Republic 2206:Roman Republic 2145:A. D. H. Bivar 2122:Middle Persian 2033: 2030: 2028: 2025: 1886:Roman Republic 1835:Arsacid rulers 1732:the region of 1724:, who led the 1678:Arsacid Empire 1639: 1638: 1636: 1635: 1628: 1621: 1613: 1610: 1609: 1592: 1591: 1587: 1586: 1581: 1576: 1571: 1566: 1561: 1559:Heads of state 1556: 1551: 1545: 1544: 1541: 1540: 1537: 1536: 1531: 1530: 1527: 1521: 1520: 1517: 1511: 1510: 1507: 1499: 1494: 1493: 1490: 1489: 1484: 1483: 1480: 1474: 1473: 1470: 1462: 1457: 1456: 1453: 1452: 1447: 1446: 1443: 1437: 1436: 1433: 1427: 1426: 1423: 1415: 1414: 1411: 1403: 1398: 1397: 1394: 1393: 1388: 1387: 1384: 1378: 1377: 1374: 1368: 1367: 1364: 1358: 1357: 1354: 1352:Timurid Empire 1348: 1347: 1344: 1338: 1337: 1334: 1328: 1327: 1324: 1318: 1317: 1314: 1308: 1307: 1304: 1298: 1297: 1294: 1288: 1287: 1284: 1278: 1277: 1274: 1268: 1267: 1264: 1258: 1257: 1254: 1248: 1247: 1244: 1238: 1237: 1234: 1228: 1227: 1224: 1218: 1217: 1214: 1208: 1207: 1204: 1198: 1197: 1194: 1188: 1187: 1184: 1178: 1177: 1174: 1168: 1167: 1164: 1158: 1157: 1154: 1148: 1147: 1144: 1142:Nasrid dynasty 1138: 1137: 1134: 1128: 1127: 1124: 1118: 1117: 1114: 1108: 1107: 1104: 1098: 1097: 1094: 1088: 1087: 1084: 1078: 1077: 1074: 1068: 1067: 1064: 1058: 1057: 1054: 1048: 1047: 1044: 1038: 1037: 1036:pre-879 – 1215 1034: 1032:Ghurid dynasty 1028: 1027: 1024: 1018: 1017: 1014: 1012:Samanid Empire 1008: 1007: 1004: 998: 997: 994: 992:Alid dynasties 988: 987: 984: 978: 977: 974: 968: 967: 964: 958: 957: 954: 948: 947: 944: 938: 937: 934: 928: 927: 924: 918: 917: 914: 901: 896: 895: 892: 891: 886: 885: 882: 876: 875: 872: 866: 865: 862: 856: 855: 852: 846: 845: 842: 836: 835: 832: 826: 825: 822: 816: 815: 812: 806: 805: 802: 796: 795: 792: 786: 785: 782: 776: 775: 772: 766: 765: 762: 756: 755: 746: 740: 739: 736: 730: 729: 726: 720: 719: 710: 704: 703: 700: 694: 693: 690: 684: 683: 680: 674: 673: 670: 662: 657: 656: 653: 652: 647: 646: 643: 637: 636: 633: 627: 626: 623: 617: 616: 613: 607: 606: 603: 597: 596: 590: 588:Avestan period 584: 583: 577: 571: 570: 567: 561: 560: 554: 548: 547: 541: 535: 534: 531: 525: 524: 518: 508: 507: 501: 499:Jiroft culture 495: 494: 491: 485: 484: 481: 473: 470:Ancient period 468: 467: 464: 463: 458: 457: 456:5th millennium 451: 445: 444: 443:6th millennium 438: 432: 431: 425: 419: 418: 412: 406: 405: 399: 386: 381: 380: 377: 376: 368: 367: 358: 357: 350: 343: 342: 339: 338: 335: 334: 327: 318: 315: 314: 309: 297: 296: 291: 281: 280: 275: 271: 270: 267: 263: 262: 258: 257: 254: 253: 250: 247: 244: 243: 240: 237: 234: 233: 230: 229: 224: 223:Historical era 220: 219: 214: 210: 209: 206: 205: 197: 194: 191: 190: 182: 179: 176: 175: 172: 171: 168: 162: 161: 153: 149: 148: 146: 145: 140: 135: 133:Zoroastrianism 129: 127: 123: 122: 120: 119: 107: 101: 94: 92: 88: 87: 58: 54: 53: 42:Mithridates II 39: 31: 30: 26: 25: 22: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 22813: 22802: 22799: 22797: 22794: 22792: 22789: 22787: 22784: 22782: 22779: 22777: 22774: 22772: 22769: 22767: 22764: 22762: 22759: 22757: 22754: 22752: 22749: 22747: 22744: 22742: 22739: 22737: 22734: 22732: 22729: 22727: 22724: 22722: 22719: 22717: 22714: 22712: 22709: 22708: 22706: 22699: 22696: 22651: 22650:Soviet empire 22648: 22646: 22643: 22642: 22640: 22639: 22637: 22635:Miscellaneous 22633: 22627: 22624: 22622: 22619: 22617: 22614: 22612: 22609: 22607: 22604: 22600: 22597: 22596: 22595: 22592: 22591: 22589: 22585: 22575: 22572: 22570: 22567: 22565: 22562: 22560: 22557: 22553: 22550: 22549: 22548: 22545: 22543: 22540: 22538: 22535: 22533: 22530: 22528: 22525: 22523: 22520: 22518: 22515: 22513: 22510: 22508: 22505: 22503: 22500: 22496: 22493: 22491: 22488: 22487: 22486: 22483: 22481: 22478: 22476: 22473: 22472: 22470: 22468: 22464: 22456: 22453: 22451: 22448: 22446: 22443: 22441: 22438: 22436: 22433: 22432: 22431: 22428: 22426: 22423: 22419: 22416: 22415: 22414: 22411: 22409: 22406: 22402: 22399: 22397: 22394: 22392: 22389: 22388: 22387: 22384: 22382: 22379: 22375: 22372: 22370: 22367: 22366: 22365: 22362: 22358: 22355: 22353: 22350: 22348: 22345: 22343: 22340: 22338: 22335: 22334: 22333: 22330: 22326: 22323: 22321: 22318: 22317: 22316: 22313: 22311: 22308: 22306: 22303: 22301: 22298: 22294: 22291: 22289: 22286: 22284: 22281: 22279: 22276: 22274: 22271: 22270: 22269: 22266: 22262: 22259: 22257: 22254: 22253: 22252: 22249: 22247: 22244: 22240: 22237: 22235: 22234:German Empire 22232: 22231: 22230: 22227: 22223: 22220: 22218: 22215: 22214: 22213: 22210: 22206: 22203: 22201: 22198: 22197: 22196: 22193: 22191: 22188: 22184: 22181: 22179: 22176: 22174: 22171: 22169: 22166: 22164: 22161: 22160: 22159: 22156: 22154: 22151: 22147: 22144: 22142: 22139: 22138: 22136: 22134: 22131: 22129: 22126: 22124: 22121: 22119: 22116: 22114: 22111: 22110: 22108: 22106: 22102: 22096: 22093: 22091: 22088: 22086: 22083: 22079: 22076: 22074: 22071: 22069: 22066: 22064: 22061: 22059: 22056: 22054: 22051: 22049: 22046: 22045: 22044: 22041: 22039: 22036: 22032: 22029: 22027: 22024: 22022: 22019: 22017: 22014: 22012: 22009: 22007: 22004: 22003: 22002: 21999: 21995: 21992: 21990: 21987: 21985: 21982: 21980: 21977: 21976: 21975: 21974:Turco-Persian 21972: 21970: 21967: 21965: 21962: 21960: 21957: 21955: 21952: 21950: 21947: 21945: 21942: 21940: 21937: 21935: 21932: 21928: 21925: 21923: 21920: 21919: 21918: 21915: 21911: 21908: 21906: 21903: 21901: 21898: 21896: 21893: 21891: 21888: 21886: 21883: 21882: 21881: 21878: 21875: 21873: 21870: 21868: 21865: 21863: 21860: 21856: 21853: 21851: 21848: 21846: 21843: 21842: 21841: 21838: 21834: 21831: 21829: 21826: 21824: 21821: 21819: 21816: 21815: 21814: 21811: 21809: 21806: 21804: 21801: 21799: 21796: 21794: 21791: 21789: 21786: 21782: 21779: 21777: 21774: 21772: 21769: 21767: 21764: 21763: 21762: 21759: 21755: 21752: 21750: 21747: 21745: 21742: 21740: 21737: 21736: 21735: 21732: 21728: 21725: 21723: 21720: 21718: 21715: 21714: 21713: 21710: 21708: 21705: 21703: 21700: 21698: 21695: 21693: 21690: 21686: 21683: 21681: 21678: 21676: 21673: 21672: 21671: 21668: 21666: 21663: 21659: 21656: 21654: 21651: 21649: 21646: 21644: 21641: 21639: 21636: 21634: 21631: 21630: 21629: 21626: 21622: 21619: 21617: 21614: 21613: 21612: 21609: 21605: 21602: 21600: 21597: 21595: 21592: 21590: 21587: 21586: 21585: 21582: 21580: 21577: 21573: 21570: 21569: 21568: 21565: 21561: 21558: 21556: 21553: 21552: 21550: 21548: 21545: 21543: 21540: 21538: 21535: 21533: 21530: 21528: 21525: 21523: 21520: 21518: 21515: 21514: 21512: 21510: 21506: 21498: 21495: 21494: 21493: 21490: 21488: 21485: 21481: 21478: 21476: 21473: 21472: 21471: 21468: 21464: 21461: 21460: 21459: 21456: 21452: 21449: 21447: 21444: 21442: 21439: 21437: 21434: 21432: 21429: 21427: 21424: 21423: 21422: 21419: 21417: 21414: 21412: 21409: 21405: 21402: 21400: 21397: 21395: 21392: 21390: 21387: 21386: 21385: 21382: 21378: 21375: 21373: 21370: 21369: 21368: 21365: 21363: 21360: 21356: 21353: 21351: 21348: 21346: 21343: 21341: 21338: 21336: 21333: 21332: 21331: 21328: 21326: 21323: 21321: 21318: 21314: 21311: 21309: 21306: 21304: 21301: 21300: 21299: 21296: 21294: 21291: 21287: 21284: 21282: 21279: 21277: 21274: 21273: 21272: 21269: 21265: 21262: 21260: 21257: 21255: 21252: 21251: 21250: 21247: 21243: 21240: 21238: 21235: 21234: 21233: 21230: 21228: 21225: 21223: 21220: 21219: 21217: 21214: 21209: 21205: 21201: 21194: 21189: 21187: 21182: 21180: 21175: 21174: 21171: 21159: 21155: 21151: 21149: 21141: 21140: 21137: 21123: 21120: 21118: 21115: 21113: 21110: 21109: 21107: 21103: 21093: 21092: 21088: 21086: 21083: 21081: 21078: 21076: 21073: 21071: 21068: 21066: 21063: 21061: 21058: 21057: 21055: 21053: 21049: 21042: 21038: 21035: 21033: 21030: 21028: 21025: 21023: 21020: 21018: 21015: 21013: 21010: 21008: 21005: 21002: 20998: 20995: 20993: 20990: 20988: 20985: 20982: 20979: 20976: 20972: 20971:news agencies 20968: 20965: 20963: 20960: 20957: 20953: 20950: 20948: 20945: 20943: 20940: 20938: 20935: 20933: 20930: 20927: 20923: 20920: 20918: 20915: 20913: 20910: 20908: 20905: 20902: 20900: 20894: 20891: 20889: 20886: 20884: 20881: 20878: 20874: 20871: 20868: 20865: 20863: 20859: 20856: 20855: 20852: 20849: 20847: 20843: 20833: 20830: 20828: 20825: 20823: 20820: 20818: 20815: 20812: 20809: 20807: 20804: 20802: 20799: 20797: 20793: 20790: 20788: 20785: 20783: 20780: 20779: 20777: 20773: 20767: 20764: 20761: 20757: 20754: 20752: 20749: 20746: 20742: 20739: 20737: 20734: 20733: 20731: 20729: 20725: 20717: 20714: 20712: 20709: 20707: 20704: 20702: 20699: 20697: 20694: 20692: 20689: 20687: 20684: 20682: 20679: 20678: 20677: 20674: 20671: 20667: 20664: 20663: 20661: 20657: 20651: 20648: 20646: 20643: 20641: 20638: 20636: 20633: 20631: 20628: 20626: 20623: 20621: 20618: 20616: 20613: 20612: 20610: 20608: 20604: 20601: 20599: 20595: 20591: 20587: 20582: 20578: 20564: 20561: 20559: 20556: 20554: 20551: 20549: 20546: 20545: 20543: 20539: 20533: 20530: 20528: 20525: 20523: 20520: 20518: 20515: 20513: 20510: 20508: 20505: 20504: 20502: 20500: 20494: 20488: 20485: 20482: 20479: 20477: 20474: 20472: 20469: 20467: 20463: 20460: 20457: 20453: 20450: 20447: 20443: 20440: 20438: 20435: 20433: 20430: 20427: 20423: 20420: 20418: 20415: 20413: 20410: 20406: 20403: 20401: 20398: 20397: 20396: 20393: 20390: 20386: 20383: 20382: 20380: 20378: 20374: 20367: 20363: 20360: 20358: 20355: 20353: 20350: 20348: 20345: 20343: 20340: 20338: 20335: 20333: 20332:Privatization 20330: 20327: 20323: 20320: 20318: 20315: 20313: 20310: 20308: 20305: 20303: 20300: 20298: 20295: 20293: 20290: 20288: 20285: 20283: 20280: 20278: 20275: 20273: 20270: 20268: 20265: 20263: 20260: 20258: 20255: 20253: 20250: 20248: 20245: 20243: 20240: 20238: 20235: 20232: 20228: 20225: 20223: 20220: 20218: 20215: 20214: 20212: 20208: 20204: 20200: 20195: 20191: 20177: 20174: 20172: 20169: 20167: 20164: 20162: 20159: 20158: 20156: 20154: 20150: 20144: 20141: 20139: 20136: 20134: 20131: 20129: 20126: 20124: 20121: 20119: 20116: 20115: 20113: 20109: 20103: 20100: 20098: 20095: 20092: 20088: 20085: 20083: 20080: 20078: 20075: 20073: 20070: 20068: 20065: 20062: 20058: 20055: 20053: 20050: 20048: 20045: 20042: 20039: 20037: 20034: 20032: 20028: 20025: 20023: 20020: 20016: 20013: 20011: 20008: 20006: 20003: 20002: 20001: 19998: 19996: 19993: 19991: 19988: 19985: 19981: 19978: 19976: 19973: 19970: 19966: 19963: 19961: 19958: 19957: 19955: 19951: 19947: 19943: 19938: 19934: 19924: 19921: 19919: 19916: 19914: 19911: 19909: 19906: 19904: 19901: 19899: 19896: 19894: 19891: 19889: 19886: 19884: 19881: 19879: 19876: 19874: 19871: 19867: 19864: 19863: 19862: 19859: 19857: 19854: 19850: 19847: 19845: 19842: 19841: 19840: 19837: 19835: 19832: 19831: 19828: 19824: 19819: 19815: 19801: 19800:Years in Iran 19798: 19796: 19793: 19791: 19788: 19786: 19783: 19781: 19778: 19776: 19773: 19771: 19768: 19766: 19763: 19761: 19758: 19756: 19753: 19751: 19748: 19744: 19741: 19740: 19739: 19736: 19730: 19727: 19725: 19724:Turco-Persian 19722: 19721: 19720: 19717: 19716: 19715: 19712: 19710: 19707: 19705: 19702: 19701: 19699: 19695: 19685: 19682: 19680: 19677: 19675: 19672: 19670: 19667: 19665: 19662: 19660: 19657: 19655: 19652: 19648: 19645: 19644: 19643: 19640: 19638: 19635: 19633: 19630: 19628: 19625: 19623: 19620: 19618: 19615: 19613: 19607: 19605: 19602: 19600: 19597: 19595: 19593:War (1980–88) 19589: 19587: 19584: 19582: 19576: 19574: 19571: 19569: 19566: 19564: 19561: 19559: 19556: 19554: 19551: 19549: 19544: 19543: 19541: 19536: 19531: 19525: 19519: 19517: 19514: 19512: 19509: 19507: 19504: 19502: 19499: 19497: 19494: 19492: 19486: 19485: 19483: 19479: 19476: 19472: 19462: 19459: 19457: 19454: 19452: 19449: 19447: 19444: 19442: 19439: 19437: 19431: 19429: 19423: 19421: 19415: 19413: 19407: 19405: 19399: 19397: 19391: 19389: 19385:Qara Qoyunlu 19383: 19381: 19375: 19374: 19372: 19368: 19362: 19356: 19354: 19348: 19346: 19340: 19338: 19333: 19331: 19325: 19323: 19317: 19315: 19309: 19307: 19301: 19299: 19293: 19291: 19285: 19284: 19282: 19278: 19272: 19266: 19264: 19258: 19256: 19250: 19248: 19242: 19240: 19234: 19232: 19226: 19224: 19218: 19216: 19210: 19208: 19202: 19201: 19199: 19195: 19192: 19186: 19176: 19170: 19169: 19167: 19163: 19157: 19151: 19149: 19143: 19141: 19135: 19133: 19127: 19125: 19119: 19117: 19111: 19109: 19103: 19101: 19095: 19093: 19087: 19086: 19084: 19082:550 BC–AD 224 19080: 19074: 19068: 19066: 19060: 19058: 19052: 19050: 19044: 19042: 19038:Neo-Assyrian 19036: 19034: 19028: 19026: 19020: 19018: 19012: 19010: 19004: 19002: 18996: 18994: 18988: 18986: 18980: 18979: 18977: 18973: 18970: 18966: 18962: 18957: 18953: 18949: 18944: 18940: 18935: 18928: 18923: 18921: 18916: 18914: 18909: 18908: 18905: 18893: 18890: 18888: 18885: 18883: 18880: 18878: 18875: 18873: 18870: 18868: 18865: 18864: 18862: 18858: 18852: 18849: 18847: 18844: 18842: 18839: 18837: 18834: 18832: 18829: 18827: 18824: 18822: 18819: 18818: 18816: 18812: 18806: 18803: 18801: 18798: 18796: 18793: 18792: 18790: 18786: 18780: 18777: 18775: 18772: 18770: 18767: 18765: 18762: 18760: 18757: 18755: 18752: 18750: 18747: 18745: 18742: 18740: 18737: 18735: 18732: 18730: 18727: 18725: 18722: 18720: 18717: 18715: 18712: 18710: 18707: 18705: 18702: 18700: 18697: 18696: 18694: 18690: 18684: 18681: 18679: 18676: 18674: 18671: 18669: 18666: 18664: 18661: 18659: 18656: 18654: 18651: 18649: 18646: 18644: 18641: 18639: 18636: 18634: 18631: 18629: 18626: 18624: 18621: 18619: 18616: 18614: 18611: 18609: 18606: 18604: 18601: 18599: 18596: 18595: 18593: 18591: 18587: 18577: 18574: 18572: 18569: 18567: 18564: 18562: 18559: 18557: 18554: 18552: 18549: 18547: 18544: 18542: 18539: 18537: 18534: 18532: 18529: 18527: 18524: 18522: 18519: 18517: 18514: 18512: 18509: 18507: 18504: 18502: 18499: 18497: 18494: 18492: 18489: 18488: 18486: 18484: 18480: 18474: 18471: 18469: 18466: 18464: 18461: 18459: 18456: 18454: 18451: 18449: 18445: 18442: 18440: 18437: 18435: 18432: 18430: 18427: 18425: 18422: 18420: 18417: 18415: 18412: 18410: 18407: 18405: 18402: 18400: 18397: 18396: 18394: 18392: 18388: 18385: 18381: 18376: 18362: 18359: 18357: 18354: 18352: 18349: 18347: 18344: 18342: 18339: 18337: 18334: 18332: 18329: 18327: 18324: 18322: 18319: 18317: 18314: 18312: 18309: 18307: 18304: 18302: 18299: 18297: 18294: 18292: 18289: 18287: 18284: 18282: 18279: 18277: 18274: 18272: 18269: 18267: 18264: 18262: 18259: 18258: 18256: 18252: 18246: 18243: 18241: 18238: 18236: 18233: 18229: 18226: 18224: 18221: 18220: 18219: 18216: 18214: 18211: 18209: 18208:Syrian Desert 18206: 18204: 18201: 18199: 18196: 18194: 18191: 18189: 18186: 18185: 18183: 18179: 18176: 18174: 18170: 18166: 18159: 18154: 18152: 18147: 18145: 18140: 18139: 18136: 18122: 18115: 18111: 18110: 18105: 18101: 18094: 18091: 18086: 18079: 18076: 18069: 18065: 18064: 18060: 18055: 18049: 18048: 18045: 18039: 18038: 18034: 18033: 18028: 18022: 18021: 18013: 18012: 18009: 18003: 18002: 17999: 17998: 17993: 17992: 17987: 17986: 17980: 17975: 17974: 17968: 17964: 17959: 17955: 17950: 17944: 17943: 17940: 17939: 17935: 17932: 17930: 17924: 17923: 17916: 17915: 17912: 17907: 17905: 17899: 17898: 17894: 17893: 17888: 17882: 17881: 17876: 17870: 17869: 17865: 17861: 17856: 17850: 17849: 17846: 17844: 17839: 17835: 17830: 17825: 17823: 17818: 17812: 17811: 17808: 17802: 17801: 17798: 17797: 17790: 17789: 17786: 17780: 17779: 17776: 17772: 17768: 17759: 17758: 17755: 17750: 17745: 17740: 17739: 17734: 17730: 17722: 17717: 17715: 17710: 17708: 17703: 17702: 17699: 17673: 17667: 17663: 17662: 17657: 17651: 17645: 17639: 17637: 17635: 17626: 17620: 17616: 17615: 17610: 17609:Roux, Georges 17604: 17596: 17590: 17586: 17585: 17580: 17573: 17565: 17559: 17551: 17547: 17543: 17537: 17528: 17524: 17520: 17517: 17513: 17507: 17503: 17498: 17495: 17494: 17488: 17487: 17481: 17480: 17473: 17472: 17469: 17464: 17459: 17455: 17450: 17446: 17443: 17440: 17437: 17436:Yazdegerd III 17434: 17431: 17428: 17425: 17422: 17419: 17416: 17413: 17410: 17407: 17402: 17401: 17393: 17390: 17387: 17383: 17379: 17378: 17372: 17369: 17368:Sahralanyozan 17366: 17362: 17357: 17350: 17349: 17346: 17341: 17336: 17332: 17327: 17323: 17320: 17319: 17311: 17308: 17303: 17298: 17293: 17289: 17286: 17285: 17277: 17274: 17271: 17268: 17264: 17263: 17256: 17255: 17252: 17249: 17246: 17243: 17240: 17237: 17234: 17231: 17228: 17225: 17222: 17219: 17216: 17213: 17210: 17207: 17204: 17201: 17198: 17195: 17192: 17189: 17186: 17183: 17180: 17177: 17174: 17171: 17168: 17161: 17156: 17152: 17151: 17144: 17143: 17140: 17137: 17134: 17131: 17128: 17125: 17124:Mithridates V 17122: 17121:Sinatruces II 17117: 17112: 17106: 17105: 17102: 17097: 17093: 17086: 17083: 17078: 17073: 17068: 17063: 17060: 17059: 17051: 17048: 17045: 17044:Artabanus III 17042: 17039: 17036: 17033: 17030: 17027: 17024: 17021: 17018: 17015: 17014:Tiridates III 17012: 17009: 17006: 17003: 17000: 16997: 16994: 16991: 16988: 16985: 16982: 16979: 16976: 16973: 16970: 16967: 16964: 16961: 16958: 16957:Mithridates I 16954: 16953: 16947: 16944: 16941: 16938: 16935: 16932: 16929: 16926: 16923: 16920: 16917: 16914: 16909: 16906: 16903: 16900: 16897: 16894: 16893:Aristobulus I 16891: 16890:John Hyrcanus 16888: 16884: 16883: 16876: 16875: 16872: 16869: 16866: 16863: 16860: 16859:Alexander III 16857: 16854: 16851: 16848: 16845: 16844:Antiochus III 16842: 16839: 16836: 16833: 16830: 16826: 16825: 16820: 16816: 16815: 16810: 16807: 16804: 16803:Alexander III 16800: 16799: 16791: 16786: 16781: 16778: 16775: 16772: 16769: 16766: 16763: 16760: 16757: 16754: 16751: 16748: 16745: 16742: 16739: 16738:Cleopatra III 16736: 16733: 16730: 16727: 16724: 16721: 16718: 16715: 16712: 16709: 16706: 16703: 16700: 16697: 16693: 16692: 16688: 16681: 16680: 16677: 16676: 16671: 16668: 16667: 16662: 16661: 16656: 16655: 16650: 16647: 16644: 16643:Artaxerxes IV 16641: 16638: 16637:Artaxerxes II 16635: 16632: 16629: 16626: 16623: 16620: 16616: 16615: 16608: 16602: 16598: 16597:Kings of Tyre 16594: 16588: 16583: 16582: 16574: 16571: 16568: 16565: 16562: 16559: 16555: 16554: 16553:Median Empire 16548: 16545: 16542: 16539: 16536: 16533: 16529: 16528: 16522: 16519: 16516: 16513: 16510: 16507: 16504: 16500: 16499: 16494: 16493: 16486: 16485: 16482: 16477: 16473: 16470: 16468: 16465: 16462: 16461:Sinsharishkun 16459: 16456: 16453: 16450: 16447: 16444: 16441: 16438: 16435: 16432: 16429: 16426: 16423: 16420: 16416: 16414: 16407: 16406: 16400: 16397: 16394: 16391: 16388: 16383: 16375: 16370: 16369: 16361: 16358: 16354: 16350: 16346: 16342: 16338: 16333: 16332: 16325: 16322: 16319: 16316: 16313: 16310: 16307: 16304: 16301: 16298:(five kings) 16297: 16294: 16291: 16288: 16285: 16282: 16279: 16276: 16272: 16266: 16260: 16257: 16256:Ashur-Dan III 16254: 16251: 16247: 16244: 16241: 16238: 16235: 16232: 16228: 16227: 16221: 16216: 16211: 16210: 16207: 16203: 16202: 16196: 16193: 16190: 16187: 16184: 16181: 16178: 16175: 16171: 16170: 16163: 16160: 16159: 16155: 16152: 16149: 16146: 16143: 16140: 16137: 16134: 16131: 16127: 16126: 16119: 16118: 16115: 16112: 16109: 16106: 16103: 16100: 16097: 16096:Ea-mukin-zeri 16094: 16093:Simbar-shipak 16090: 16085:1025–934 BCE 16084: 16083: 16079: 16074: 16071: 16068: 16065: 16062: 16059: 16056: 16053: 16050: 16047: 16044: 16040: 16038: 16031: 16028: 16025: 16022: 16021:Ashur-rabi II 16019: 16016: 16013: 16010: 16007: 16006:Eriba-Adad II 16004: 16001: 15998: 15995: 15992: 15989: 15986: 15983: 15980: 15977: 15974: 15971: 15968: 15967:Shalmaneser I 15965: 15964:Adad-nirari I 15962: 15959: 15956: 15953: 15949: 15948: 15942: 15941: 15935: 15931: 15927: 15923: 15919: 15918: 15912: 15908: 15907:Kings of Tyre 15904: 15900: 15899: 15893: 15892: 15889: 15886: 15883: 15880: 15877: 15874: 15870: 15869: 15863: 15862: 15856: 15853: 15850: 15847: 15846:Ramesses VIII 15844: 15841: 15838: 15835: 15832: 15829: 15824: 15823: 15816: 15815: 15812: 15808: 15807: 15802: 15801: 15795: 15792: 15789: 15786: 15783: 15780: 15777: 15774: 15770: 15769: 15764: 15761: 15756: 15755: 15749: 15746: 15743: 15740: 15737: 15736: 15732: 15729: 15728:Amenhotep III 15726: 15723: 15719: 15716: 15713: 15710: 15707: 15703: 15700: 15697: 15693: 15692: 15687: 15686: 15679: 15674: 15671: 15668: 15665: 15662: 15659: 15656: 15653: 15650: 15647: 15644: 15641: 15638: 15635: 15632: 15629: 15626: 15623: 15620: 15617: 15614: 15611: 15608: 15605: 15602: 15599: 15596: 15592: 15590: 15582: 15576: 15573: 15569: 15568: 15563: 15562: 15554: 15546: 15543: 15540: 15537: 15531: 15530: 15524: 15521: 15518: 15515: 15512: 15511: 15507: 15506: 15497: 15491: 15486: 15485: 15479: 15478: 15474: 15473: 15468: 15464: 15463: 15458: 15454: 15453: 15448: 15447: 15441: 15438: 15435: 15434:Melamkurkurra 15432: 15428: 15427:Ayadaragalama 15425: 15422: 15418: 15415: 15412: 15408: 15405: 15404:Itti-ili-nibi 15402: 15398: 15396: 15385: 15380: 15377: 15374: 15371: 15368: 15365: 15362: 15359: 15356: 15353: 15350: 15347: 15343: 15341: 15334: 15327: 15321: 15320: 15317: 15314: 15311: 15308: 15305: 15302: 15299: 15298:Ashur-shaduni 15296: 15293: 15292:Enlil-nasir I 15290: 15287: 15284: 15281: 15278: 15275: 15272: 15269: 15266: 15263: 15260: 15257: 15256:Sharma-Adad I 15254: 15251: 15247:1700–722 BCE) 15245: 15239: 15236: 15233: 15230: 15227: 15224: 15221: 15218: 15209: 15206: 15203: 15200: 15197: 15194: 15191: 15188: 15185: 15182: 15179: 15178:Ishme-Dagan I 15176: 15167: 15161: 15160: 15151: 15146: 15145: 15139: 15135: 15134:Kings of Tyre 15131: 15126: 15121: 15116: 15115: 15110: 15109: 15101: 15098: 15095: 15092: 15091:Amenemhat III 15089: 15086: 15083: 15080: 15077: 15073: 15072: 15067: 15064: 15059: 15058: 15051: 15047: 15043: 15039: 15035: 15032: 15029: 15026: 15023: 15020: 15017: 15014: 15011: 15008: 15005: 15002: 14999: 14996: 14992: 14988: 14985: 14982: 14979: 14976: 14973: 14970: 14967: 14964: 14961: 14958: 14955: 14952: 14949: 14946: 14942: 14941: 14934: 14928: 14923: 14922: 14916: 14912: 14908: 14904: 14900: 14896: 14892: 14888: 14884: 14883:Puzur-Ashur I 14880: 14879: 14872: 14868: 14865: 14862: 14859: 14854: 14849: 14848: 14842: 14834: 14830: 14825: 14822: 14816: 14813: 14808: 14803: 14798: 14793: 14790: 14789:Third Eblaite 14785: 14782: 14781:Mentuhotep IV 14779: 14776: 14775:Mentuhotep II 14773: 14770: 14767: 14764: 14760: 14759: 14754: 14753: 14748: 14744: 14740: 14736: 14734: 14728: 14723: 14721: 14713: 14710: 14707: 14704: 14701: 14696: 14691: 14685: 14684: 14676: 14672: 14668: 14664: 14655: 14654: 14651: 14647: 14645: 14639: 14636: 14633: 14632:Wahkare Khety 14630: 14627: 14623: 14622: 14615: 14614: 14611: 14606: 14603: 14599: 14595: 14588: 14584: 14580: 14573: 14569: 14567: 14559: 14555: 14551: 14546: 14542: 14535: 14534: 14528: 14524: 14519: 14514: 14510: 14506: 14503: 14501: 14500:Ur III period 14495: 14492: 14489: 14488:Neferkare VII 14486: 14482: 14481: 14473: 14470: 14466: 14462: 14458: 14452: 14448: 14444: 14440: 14436: 14435:Ur-Ningirsu I 14432: 14428: 14426: 14418: 14414: 14410: 14408: 14402: 14398: 14393: 14389: 14385: 14381: 14377: 14374: 14366: 14362: 14358: 14351: 14346: 14345: 14339: 14336: 14329: 14326: 14323: 14320: 14317: 14314: 14311: 14308: 14305: 14302: 14299: 14296: 14293: 14290: 14287: 14284: 14280: 14279: 14274: 14273: 14268: 14267: 14259: 14254: 14248: 14243: 14239: 14233: 14232: 14229: 14225: 14221: 14217: 14213: 14208: 14205: 14202: 14197: 14196: 14191: 14188: 14186: 14180: 14176: 14171: 14167: 14165: 14159: 14155: 14151: 14148: 14146: 14143: 14142: 14139: 14134: 14130: 14125: 14118: 14112: 14108: 14104: 14099: 14093: 14092: 14087: 14083: 14081: 14074: 14069: 14066: 14063: 14060: 14057: 14054: 14051: 14047: 14046: 14039: 14038: 14035: 14032: 14030: 14024: 14022: 14018: 14016: 14012: 14008: 14004: 14001: 13998: 13993: 13989: 13985: 13982: 13980: 13976: 13973: 13971: 13970:Lugal-kisalsi 13967: 13964: 13962: 13959: 13957: 13953: 13949: 13947: 13943: 13941: 13937: 13933: 13930: 13927: 13926: 13920: 13915: 13911: 13906: 13903: 13900: 13899: 13896: 13892: 13882: 13879: 13878: 13875: 13871: 13866: 13862: 13857: 13854: 13851: 13848: 13845: 13842: 13839: 13836: 13833: 13828: 13827: 13819: 13816: 13812: 13808: 13804: 13800: 13799: 13793: 13789: 13785: 13781: 13776: 13770: 13765: 13760: 13758: 13752: 13747: 13745: 13739: 13734: 13728: 13726: 13720: 13716: 13712: 13711: 13705: 13701: 13696: 13692: 13688: 13684: 13680: 13676: 13669: 13664: 13660: 13655: 13654: 13647: 13641: 13640: 13635: 13631: 13630: 13624: 13623: 13619: 13616: 13613: 13612: 13608: 13605: 13600: 13595: 13592: 13588: 13587: 13582: 13581: 13574: 13573: 13568: 13564: 13560: 13556: 13555: 13549: 13548: 13544: 13540: 13536: 13531: 13528: 13523: 13518: 13513: 13508: 13504: 13500: 13496: 13495: 13489: 13483: 13479: 13478: 13472: 13471: 13467: 13463: 13457: 13453: 13447: 13445: 13437: 13433: 13429: 13425: 13421: 13417: 13413: 13408: 13405: 13404: 13400: 13397: 13396: 13392: 13389: 13384: 13378: 13373: 13368: 13367: 13359: 13356: 13349: 13348: 13341: 13336: 13332: 13326: 13321: 13317: 13313: 13309: 13305: 13302: 13301: 13297: 13291: 13290: 13286: 13282: 13278: 13269: 13265: 13258: 13255: 13253: 13249: 13244: 13241: 13240: 13235: 13233: 13227: 13226: 13223: 13219: 13216: 13212: 13209: 13206: 13202: 13199: 13196: 13190: 13185: 13182: 13181: 13177: 13173: 13169: 13164: 13163:Nangishlishma 13160: 13156: 13151: 13149: 13142: 13141: 13134: 13131: 13130:First Eblaite 13126: 13122: 13116: 13111: 13108: 13107: 13103: 13102: 13098: 13097: 13093: 13090: 13089:Seth-Peribsen 13087: 13086: 13082: 13081: 13077: 13076: 13072: 13071: 13067: 13066: 13062: 13061: 13057: 13054: 13051: 13050:Hotepsekhemwy 13046: 13045: 13037: 13031: 13026: 13025: 13020: 13019: 13018:Proto-Elamite 13011: 13010: 13004: 12999: 12998: 12994: 12993: 12989: 12986: 12983: 12980: 12976: 12973: 12970: 12967: 12963: 12960: 12957: 12949: 12945: 12944: 12939: 12938: 12930: 12926: 12925: 12921: 12920:Double Falcon 12918: 12917: 12913: 12912: 12908: 12907: 12903: 12902: 12898: 12897: 12893: 12892: 12888: 12887: 12883: 12882: 12878: 12877: 12873: 12872: 12867: 12866: 12860: 12856: 12853: 12852: 12848: 12845: 12842: 12841: 12837: 12836: 12832: 12831: 12827: 12826: 12822: 12821: 12817: 12814: 12813: 12809: 12808: 12804: 12803: 12798: 12797: 12792: 12786: 12781: 12780: 12772: 12766: 12761: 12753: 12747: 12741: 12733: 12732: 12726: 12723: 12717: 12712: 12706: 12701: 12700: 12695: 12694: 12686: 12683: 12680: 12678: 12675: 12673: 12670: 12667: 12664: 12662: 12659: 12657: 12654: 12652: 12647: 12644: 12642: 12637: 12634: 12632: 12629: 12627: 12624: 12622: 12619: 12617: 12608: 12607: 12604: 12603: 12597: 12593: 12585: 12580: 12578: 12573: 12571: 12566: 12565: 12562: 12549: 12540: 12537: 12532: 12529: 12524: 12521: 12516: 12513: 12508: 12505: 12500: 12499:Mithridates V 12497: 12492: 12491:Sinatruces II 12489: 12484: 12481: 12476: 12475:Vologases III 12473: 12468: 12465: 12460: 12459:Artabanus III 12457: 12452: 12449: 12444: 12441: 12436: 12433: 12428: 12425: 12420: 12417: 12412: 12409: 12404: 12401: 12396: 12393: 12390:(36–38/41 AD) 12388: 12385: 12380: 12379:Tiridates III 12377: 12372: 12369: 12364: 12361: 12356: 12353: 12348: 12345: 12340: 12337: 12332: 12329: 12324: 12321: 12316: 12313: 12308: 12305: 12300: 12297: 12292: 12289: 12284: 12281: 12276: 12273: 12268: 12265: 12262:(91–87/80 BC) 12260: 12257: 12252: 12249: 12244: 12241: 12236: 12233: 12228: 12227:Mithridates I 12225: 12220: 12217: 12212: 12209: 12204: 12201: 12196: 12193: 12192: 12189: 12182: 12178: 12171: 12166: 12164: 12159: 12157: 12152: 12151: 12148: 12142: 12135: 12123: 12120: 12118: 12115: 12114: 12112: 12108: 12102: 12099: 12097: 12096:Parthian shot 12094: 12092: 12089: 12087: 12086:Parthian army 12084: 12082: 12079: 12078: 12076: 12072: 12066: 12063: 12061: 12058: 12053: 12049: 12046: 12042: 12039: 12035: 12032: 12028: 12025: 12021: 12018: 12014: 12011: 12007: 12004: 12000: 11997: 11993: 11990: 11986: 11983: 11979: 11976: 11972: 11971: 11970: 11967: 11962: 11958: 11957: 11956: 11953: 11952: 11950: 11946: 11940: 11937: 11935: 11932: 11930: 11927: 11925: 11922: 11920: 11917: 11916: 11914: 11910: 11902: 11899: 11896: 11894: 11891: 11889: 11886: 11884: 11881: 11879: 11876: 11874: 11871: 11870: 11869: 11866: 11865: 11863: 11859: 11853: 11850: 11848: 11845: 11843: 11840: 11838: 11835: 11833: 11830: 11829: 11827: 11823: 11817: 11814: 11812: 11809: 11807: 11804: 11803: 11801: 11797: 11793: 11786: 11781: 11779: 11774: 11772: 11767: 11766: 11763: 11756: 11753: 11750: 11749:Parthian Army 11746: 11742: 11738: 11737: 11726: 11725: 11719: 11715: 11711: 11706: 11702: 11696: 11692: 11688: 11683: 11682: 11669: 11665: 11661: 11657: 11647:on 2019-01-01 11646: 11642: 11636: 11632: 11631: 11626: 11622: 11618: 11612: 11608: 11603: 11599: 11593: 11589: 11584: 11580: 11574: 11570: 11565: 11561: 11559:0-521-20092-X 11555: 11551: 11548:. Cambridge: 11547: 11546: 11541: 11536: 11532: 11526: 11522: 11517: 11516: 11509: 11505: 11503:0-521-24693-8 11499: 11495: 11492:. Cambridge: 11491: 11490: 11485: 11480: 11476: 11474:0-521-20092-X 11470: 11466: 11463:. Cambridge: 11462: 11461: 11456: 11451: 11446: 11441: 11437: 11431: 11427: 11422: 11418: 11412: 11408: 11403: 11399: 11393: 11389: 11385: 11381: 11377: 11373: 11369: 11365: 11360: 11356: 11350: 11346: 11342: 11338: 11333: 11329: 11323: 11319: 11314: 11310: 11304: 11300: 11295: 11290: 11286: 11281: 11276: 11272: 11267: 11263: 11261:0-521-20092-X 11257: 11253: 11250:. Cambridge: 11249: 11248: 11243: 11238: 11234: 11227: 11223: 11219: 11215: 11211: 11207: 11203: 11199: 11194: 11190: 11188:0-521-24693-8 11184: 11180: 11177:. Cambridge: 11176: 11175: 11170: 11165: 11161: 11155: 11151: 11150: 11144: 11139: 11133: 11129: 11125: 11121: 11117: 11112: 11107: 11102: 11098: 11093: 11087: 11082: 11080:0-521-24693-8 11076: 11072: 11069:. Cambridge: 11068: 11067: 11062: 11057: 11053: 11047: 11043: 11038: 11034: 11028: 11024: 11020: 11016: 11012: 11006: 11002: 10997: 10992: 10990:0-521-24693-8 10986: 10982: 10979:. Cambridge: 10978: 10977: 10972: 10967: 10963: 10959: 10955: 10951: 10947: 10943: 10939: 10935: 10930: 10926: 10924:0-521-20092-X 10920: 10916: 10913:. Cambridge: 10912: 10911: 10906: 10901: 10897: 10896: 10890: 10887: 10881: 10877: 10873: 10869: 10865: 10859: 10855: 10851: 10846: 10841: 10836: 10832: 10826: 10822: 10817: 10813: 10807: 10803: 10798: 10794: 10792:0-521-20092-X 10788: 10784: 10781:. Cambridge: 10780: 10779: 10774: 10769: 10764: 10762:0-521-24693-8 10758: 10754: 10751:. Cambridge: 10750: 10749: 10744: 10739: 10735: 10729: 10725: 10722:, Cambridge: 10721: 10720: 10714: 10709: 10707:0-521-24693-8 10703: 10699: 10696:. Cambridge: 10695: 10694: 10689: 10684: 10680: 10674: 10670: 10665: 10660: 10656: 10652: 10648: 10643: 10639: 10633: 10629: 10624: 10620: 10614: 10610: 10605: 10601: 10599:0-521-24693-8 10595: 10591: 10588:. Cambridge: 10587: 10586: 10581: 10576: 10571: 10566: 10562: 10556: 10552: 10548: 10544: 10540: 10536: 10530: 10526: 10525: 10519: 10515: 10509: 10505: 10500: 10495: 10489: 10485: 10484: 10478: 10474: 10472:0-521-24693-8 10468: 10464: 10461:. Cambridge: 10460: 10459: 10454: 10449: 10445: 10439: 10435: 10430: 10426: 10424:0-521-20092-X 10420: 10416: 10413:. Cambridge: 10412: 10411: 10406: 10401: 10397: 10395:0-521-20092-X 10391: 10387: 10384:. Cambridge: 10383: 10382: 10377: 10372: 10368: 10362: 10358: 10354: 10353: 10347: 10343: 10337: 10333: 10328: 10324: 10320: 10316: 10310: 10306: 10301: 10297: 10295:0-521-24693-8 10291: 10287: 10284:. Cambridge: 10283: 10282: 10277: 10272: 10268: 10262: 10258: 10253: 10252: 10237: 10228: 10218: 10209: 10203: 10199: 10196: 10189: 10187: 10185: 10183: 10181: 10179: 10177: 10175: 10167: 10163: 10158: 10151: 10146: 10139: 10134: 10128:, p. 106 10127: 10122: 10115: 10111: 10106: 10099: 10095: 10090: 10083: 10082:Sellwood 1983 10079: 10074: 10068:, p. 101 10067: 10062: 10055: 10050: 10043: 10038: 10031: 10026: 10019: 10014: 10007: 10002: 9995: 9990: 9983: 9978: 9976: 9974: 9972: 9964: 9960: 9956: 9951: 9949: 9941: 9937: 9932: 9925: 9920: 9918: 9910: 9906: 9901: 9894: 9889: 9882: 9877: 9870: 9865: 9858: 9853: 9851: 9843: 9839: 9835: 9830: 9823: 9818: 9811: 9807: 9802: 9796:, p. 128 9795: 9790: 9788: 9786: 9784: 9782: 9775:, p. 127 9774: 9769: 9767: 9765: 9763: 9755: 9751: 9746: 9740:, p. 957 9739: 9738:Emmerick 1983 9734: 9727: 9722: 9715: 9714:Asmussen 1983 9711: 9706: 9700:, p. 867 9699: 9695: 9691: 9686: 9679: 9675: 9670: 9664:, p. 844 9663: 9658: 9651: 9646: 9640:, p. 125 9639: 9635: 9631: 9626: 9620:, p. 125 9619: 9614: 9612: 9604: 9603:Asmussen 1983 9599: 9592: 9587: 9580: 9575: 9573: 9565: 9560: 9554:, p. 525 9553: 9552:Shahbazi 1987 9549: 9544: 9538:, p. 697 9537: 9532: 9525: 9521: 9516: 9510:, p. 525 9509: 9508:Shahbazi 1987 9504: 9502: 9494: 9489: 9482: 9477: 9470: 9466: 9462: 9457: 9450: 9445: 9443: 9435: 9430: 9423: 9419: 9414: 9407: 9403: 9398: 9392:, p. 282 9391: 9390:Sellwood 1983 9386: 9380:, p. 280 9379: 9378:Sellwood 1983 9374: 9367: 9366:Sellwood 1983 9363: 9358: 9351: 9346: 9339: 9334: 9332: 9323: 9319: 9315: 9311: 9304: 9298:, p. 122 9297: 9292: 9285: 9284:Shahbazi 1986 9280: 9278: 9276: 9274: 9267:, p. 561 9266: 9262: 9258: 9253: 9246: 9242: 9238: 9233: 9226: 9222: 9217: 9210: 9206: 9201: 9199: 9191: 9186: 9179: 9174: 9172: 9164: 9160: 9155: 9149:, p. 104 9148: 9144: 9139: 9132: 9127: 9112: 9108: 9104: 9098: 9091: 9086: 9079: 9074: 9067: 9062: 9055: 9050: 9044:, p. 119 9043: 9038: 9031: 9026: 9024: 9016: 9011: 9004: 8999: 8992: 8987: 8980: 8976: 8971: 8965:, p. 701 8964: 8959: 8952: 8947: 8940: 8935: 8928: 8923: 8916: 8910: 8903: 8899: 8894: 8887: 8883: 8878: 8871: 8866: 8859: 8854: 8847: 8842: 8836:, p. 358 8835: 8830: 8824:, p. 363 8823: 8819: 8814: 8807: 8802: 8800: 8792: 8787: 8780: 8775: 8768: 8763: 8756: 8752: 8747: 8740: 8736: 8731: 8724: 8720: 8715: 8708: 8704: 8699: 8692: 8688: 8684: 8679: 8672: 8667: 8660: 8655: 8653: 8645: 8641: 8637: 8632: 8625: 8620: 8613: 8608: 8601: 8596: 8590:, p. 359 8589: 8584: 8577: 8572: 8566: 8565:0-7546-5740-X 8562: 8558: 8552: 8546: 8545:0-8276-1155-2 8542: 8538: 8532: 8525: 8520: 8513: 8508: 8501: 8497: 8493: 8489: 8484: 8482: 8474: 8470: 8465: 8456: 8450:, p. 35. 8449: 8444: 8437: 8432: 8430: 8428: 8420: 8416: 8412: 8408: 8403: 8396: 8392: 8387: 8380: 8376: 8371: 8364: 8359: 8352: 8347: 8340: 8336: 8332: 8328: 8323: 8316: 8311: 8304: 8300: 8296: 8291: 8284: 8279: 8272: 8268: 8264: 8259: 8252: 8248: 8243: 8236: 8231: 8224: 8220: 8216: 8212: 8207: 8199: 8193: 8189: 8185: 8180: 8172: 8165: 8160: 8153: 8149: 8144: 8138:, p. 117 8137: 8133: 8129: 8124: 8117: 8112: 8106:, p. 96. 8105: 8104:Olbrycht 2016 8100: 8093: 8088: 8081: 8076: 8069: 8065: 8060: 8053: 8048: 8041: 8036: 8029: 8024: 8017: 8013: 8008: 8001: 7996: 7989: 7984: 7977: 7972: 7965: 7960: 7953: 7949: 7944: 7937: 7933: 7928: 7921: 7916: 7908: 7902: 7896:, p. 153 7895: 7891: 7887: 7882: 7876:, p. 600 7875: 7871: 7866: 7859: 7855: 7850: 7844:, p. 101 7843: 7839: 7835: 7831: 7826: 7819: 7814: 7812: 7804: 7799: 7792: 7787: 7780: 7775: 7768: 7763: 7756: 7750: 7743: 7738: 7731: 7726: 7719: 7714: 7707: 7702: 7695: 7691: 7686: 7679: 7675: 7671: 7666: 7659: 7655: 7650: 7643: 7639: 7635: 7630: 7623: 7618: 7611: 7607: 7602: 7595: 7590: 7583: 7579: 7574: 7567: 7562: 7555: 7550: 7548: 7540: 7539:Burstein 2004 7535: 7528: 7523: 7516: 7512: 7508: 7504: 7499: 7492: 7487: 7480: 7476: 7471: 7464: 7459: 7452: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7435: 7428: 7424: 7420: 7416: 7411: 7409: 7401: 7396: 7389: 7384: 7377: 7373: 7369: 7364: 7362: 7360: 7353:, p. 243 7352: 7348: 7343: 7336: 7332: 7327: 7320: 7315: 7308: 7304: 7299: 7292: 7287: 7285: 7277: 7273: 7268: 7261: 7257: 7253: 7249: 7244: 7237: 7233: 7229: 7224: 7217: 7212: 7210: 7202: 7197: 7190: 7186: 7182: 7178: 7173: 7166: 7162: 7157: 7150: 7145: 7138: 7134: 7129: 7122: 7118: 7113: 7106: 7102: 7098: 7093: 7086: 7081: 7074: 7070: 7065: 7058: 7053: 7046: 7041: 7034: 7033:Sellwood 1976 7029: 7027: 7019: 7018:Shayegan 2011 7014: 7008:, p. 770 7007: 7003: 7002:Shayegan 2011 6999: 6994: 6987: 6982: 6980: 6972: 6968: 6964: 6959: 6952: 6947: 6945: 6938:, p. 133 6937: 6932: 6925: 6921: 6916: 6910:, p. 560 6909: 6904: 6897: 6892: 6885: 6880: 6873: 6869: 6864: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6844: 6837: 6832: 6825: 6820: 6818: 6810: 6806: 6801: 6794: 6789: 6782: 6778: 6774: 6769: 6762: 6757: 6750: 6746: 6741: 6734: 6729: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6705: 6698: 6694: 6689: 6682: 6677: 6670: 6666: 6662: 6657: 6650: 6645: 6638: 6634: 6630: 6626: 6621: 6614: 6613:Shayegan 2011 6609: 6602: 6598: 6594: 6589: 6582: 6581:Shayegan 2011 6578: 6574: 6569: 6562: 6561:Shayegan 2007 6558: 6554: 6549: 6542: 6537: 6531:, p. 103 6530: 6525: 6523: 6515: 6511: 6506: 6499: 6495: 6490: 6483: 6478: 6471: 6467: 6462: 6456:, p. 76; 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6438: 6436: 6428: 6424: 6420: 6415: 6408: 6404: 6399: 6392: 6387: 6380: 6376: 6371: 6364: 6360: 6356: 6351: 6349: 6341: 6336: 6334: 6326: 6321: 6314: 6309: 6302: 6297: 6290: 6285: 6283: 6275: 6270: 6268: 6260: 6255: 6248: 6243: 6241: 6233: 6228: 6221: 6216: 6214: 6212: 6204: 6199: 6197: 6189: 6184: 6177: 6173: 6168: 6161: 6157: 6152: 6145: 6141: 6136: 6129: 6125: 6122:, p. 7; 6121: 6117: 6112: 6106:, p. 155 6105: 6100: 6093: 6089: 6083: 6076: 6071: 6064: 6059: 6052: 6044: 6040: 6032: 6026: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5998: 5991: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5948: 5942:, p. 231 5941: 5936: 5929: 5924: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5901: 5898:the city-god 5897: 5893: 5889: 5885: 5880: 5873: 5868: 5861: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5829: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5801: 5794: 5789: 5787: 5785: 5777: 5772: 5770: 5762: 5757: 5755: 5747: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5723: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5704: 5696: 5692: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5618: 5612: 5610: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5597:queen regnant 5594: 5590: 5584: 5580: 5577: 5573: 5567: 5565: 5561: 5550: 5548: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5534: 5533:Vis and Rāmin 5528: 5524: 5520: 5514: 5505: 5496: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5481: 5480:lingua franca 5477:remained the 5476: 5472: 5468: 5458: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5435: 5433: 5428: 5426: 5422: 5417: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5398: 5394: 5389: 5380: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5361:barrel vaults 5358: 5357: 5351: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5332: 5330: 5326: 5317: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5301: 5295: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5256: 5254: 5250: 5242: 5237: 5230: 5227:, modern-day 5226: 5222: 5221: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5197: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5174:Kushan Empire 5171: 5166: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5150: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5131: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5056: 5047: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4995: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4980: 4975: 4974:Greek theatre 4966: 4962: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4951: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4932:Greek culture 4925: 4921: 4917: 4912: 4898: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4886:Greek drachma 4881: 4871: 4867: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4848:war elephants 4845: 4840: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4825:Parthian shot 4822: 4818: 4817:horse archers 4814: 4810: 4794: 4793:Zahhak Castle 4787: 4778: 4771: 4763: 4759: 4752: 4743: 4741: 4740: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4726:standing army 4721: 4720:Parthian army 4711: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4688: 4683: 4677: 4673: 4671: 4667: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4646: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4628: 4618: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4563:decentralized 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4519: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4503: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4480: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4462: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4448: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4428: 4424: 4423: 4417: 4412: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4361: 4356: 4352: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4332: 4326: 4321: 4317: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4294:Geo Widengren 4291: 4282: 4278: 4276: 4272: 4267: 4263: 4262:Yazdegerd III 4259: 4258: 4257:Khwaday-Namag 4254:of Iran, the 4253: 4249: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4228:(near modern 4227: 4217: 4208: 4194: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4167: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4154:, Iran) from 4153: 4152:Fars Province 4149: 4145: 4140: 4138: 4137: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4095: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4009: 4005: 4000: 3996: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3968: 3963: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3917: 3913: 3912:Vologases III 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3885: 3880: 3879: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3857: 3852: 3851:on his head. 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3813: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3746: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3717:Roman Armenia 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3690: 3688: 3687: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3669: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3645:Roman golden 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3604:Roman embassy 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3556: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3498: 3495:taken at the 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3477: 3473: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3448:(near modern 3447: 3443: 3438: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3407: 3402: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3370: 3366: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3351: 3346: 3342: 3341:Roman emperor 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3316: 3306: 3304: 3298: 3296: 3292: 3291:Cleopatra VII 3288: 3284: 3283:Roman triumph 3278: 3276: 3275:battering ram 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3255: 3253: 3245: 3244:King of Kings 3241: 3237: 3232: 3228: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3213: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3194: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3147: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3100:in 43 BC 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3078: 3074: 3072: 3066: 3064: 3060: 3059:Parthian shot 3056: 3052: 3051:Roman legions 3048: 3047:horse archers 3044: 3039: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3014:, one of the 3013: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2994: 2990: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2959: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2936: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2901: 2899: 2895: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2871: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2848: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2825: 2824:Kushan Empire 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2795: 2790: 2786: 2776: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2701: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2678: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2584: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2558: 2557:King of Kings 2554: 2550: 2545: 2541: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2501: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2456: 2454: 2450: 2447:and occupied 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2401: 2399: 2395: 2394:Mithridates I 2391: 2388:and occupied 2387: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2362:Mithridates I 2359: 2355: 2350: 2340: 2324: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2293: 2288: 2284: 2279: 2277: 2273: 2262: 2258: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2182: 2178: 2173: 2169: 2164: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2141: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2082:Central Asian 2080:, an ancient 2079: 2075: 2069: 2047: 2043: 2038: 2024: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1969: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1922:counterattack 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1870: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1839:King of Kings 1836: 1832: 1828: 1827:Greek culture 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1807: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1755: 1754:Mithridates I 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1709: 1679: 1673: 1646: 1634: 1629: 1627: 1622: 1620: 1615: 1614: 1612: 1611: 1608: 1597: 1594: 1593: 1585: 1582: 1580: 1577: 1575: 1572: 1570: 1567: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1555: 1552: 1550: 1547: 1546: 1539: 1538: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1522: 1518: 1516: 1513: 1512: 1508: 1506: 1503: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1491: 1481: 1479: 1476: 1475: 1471: 1469: 1466: 1465: 1460: 1459:Modern period 1455: 1454: 1444: 1442: 1439: 1438: 1434: 1432: 1431:Afsharid Iran 1429: 1428: 1424: 1421: 1420:Hotak dynasty 1417: 1416: 1412: 1410: 1407: 1406: 1401: 1396: 1395: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1379: 1375: 1373: 1370: 1369: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1359: 1355: 1353: 1350: 1349: 1345: 1343: 1340: 1339: 1335: 1333: 1330: 1329: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1319: 1315: 1313: 1310: 1309: 1305: 1303: 1300: 1299: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1289: 1285: 1283: 1280: 1279: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1269: 1265: 1263: 1260: 1259: 1255: 1253: 1250: 1249: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1239: 1235: 1233: 1230: 1229: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1219: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1209: 1205: 1203: 1200: 1199: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1189: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1179: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1169: 1165: 1163: 1162:Seljuk Empire 1160: 1159: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1149: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1139: 1135: 1133: 1130: 1129: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1119: 1115: 1113: 1110: 1109: 1105: 1103: 1100: 1099: 1095: 1093: 1090: 1089: 1085: 1083: 1082:Buyid dynasty 1080: 1079: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1069: 1065: 1063: 1060: 1059: 1055: 1053: 1050: 1049: 1045: 1043: 1042:Sajid dynasty 1040: 1039: 1035: 1033: 1030: 1029: 1025: 1023: 1020: 1019: 1015: 1013: 1010: 1009: 1005: 1003: 1000: 999: 995: 993: 990: 989: 985: 983: 980: 979: 975: 973: 970: 969: 965: 963: 960: 959: 955: 953: 950: 949: 945: 943: 940: 939: 935: 933: 930: 929: 925: 923: 920: 919: 915: 913: 910: 909: 906: 905: 899: 894: 893: 883: 881: 878: 877: 873: 871: 868: 867: 863: 861: 858: 857: 853: 851: 848: 847: 843: 841: 838: 837: 834:132 BC–224 AD 833: 831: 828: 827: 824:141 BC–222 AD 823: 821: 818: 817: 814:147 BC–224 AD 813: 811: 808: 807: 804:247 BC–224 AD 803: 801: 798: 797: 793: 791: 788: 787: 783: 781: 778: 777: 773: 771: 768: 767: 764:320s BC–17 AD 763: 761: 758: 757: 752: 323 BC 747: 745: 742: 741: 738:331 BC–428 AD 737: 735: 732: 731: 728:550 BC–330 BC 727: 725: 722: 721: 711: 709: 706: 705: 702:626 BC–539 BC 701: 699: 696: 695: 692:635 BC–550 BC 691: 689: 686: 685: 681: 679: 676: 675: 671: 669: 668:Median Empire 666: 665: 660: 655: 654: 644: 642: 639: 638: 634: 632: 629: 628: 624: 622: 619: 618: 614: 612: 609: 608: 604: 602: 599: 598: 591: 589: 586: 585: 578: 576: 573: 572: 568: 566: 563: 562: 555: 553: 550: 549: 542: 540: 537: 536: 532: 530: 527: 526: 519: 517: 513: 510: 509: 502: 500: 497: 496: 492: 490: 489:Proto-Elamite 487: 486: 482: 480: 477: 476: 471: 466: 465: 452: 450: 449:Dalma culture 447: 446: 439: 437: 434: 433: 426: 424: 421: 420: 417:20,000–10,000 413: 411: 408: 407: 404:36,000–18,000 400: 398: 395: 394: 391: 390: 384: 379: 378: 374: 370: 369: 366: 360: 359: 354: 349: 348: 328: 326: 323: 322: 319: 313: 310: 303: 302: 299: 298: 295: 292: 290: 287: 286: 282: 279: 276: 272: 268: 264: 259: 255: 251: 245: 241: 235: 231: 228: 225: 221: 218: 215: 211: 207: 201: 198: 192: 186: 183: 177: 173: 169: 167: 163: 160: 157: 154: 150: 144: 141: 139: 136: 134: 131: 130: 128: 124: 117: 116: 115:lingua franca 111: 108: 105: 102: 99: 96: 95: 93: 89: 86: 82: 78: 77:Mithradatkirt 74: 70: 66: 62: 59: 55: 43: 37: 32: 29:247 BC–224 AD 27: 20: 22668: 22401:Contemporary 22251:Indo-Persian 22239:Nazi Germany 22183:Contemporary 22085:Vijayanagara 21984:Great Seljuk 21895:Thessalonica 21823:Golden Horde 21463:Carthaginian 21398: 21242:Neo-Assyrian 21227:Neo-Sumerian 21105:Other topics 21089: 21017:Persian name 20956:Islamization 20898: 20858:Architecture 20811:universities 20756:Zoroastrians 20751:Christianity 20741:Baháʼí Faith 20691:Azerbaijanis 20598:Demographics 20412:Construction 20400:Central Bank 20342:Space Agency 20237:Child labour 20072:Principlists 20052:Cyberwarfare 20000:Human rights 19965:Constitution 19760:Azerbaijanis 19729:Indo-Persian 19709:Greater Iran 19580:siege (1980) 19539:1979–present 19190:early modern 19188:Medieval and 19144: 18982:Kura-Araxes 18774:Royal titles 18699:Architecture 18560: 18536:Neo-Assyrian 18383:(Pre)history 18203:Persian Gulf 18107: 18100:Ancient Rome 18089: 18071:311–129 BCE 18057: 18050:336–301 BCE 18040:539–331 BCE 18030: 18023:626–539 BCE 18014:729–609 BCE 18004:911–729 BCE 17995: 17989: 17983: 17971: 17936: 17926: 17920: 17890: 17878: 17863: 17840: 17819: 17794: 17753: 17748: 17743: 17727:Timeline of 17660: 17650: 17614:Ancient Iraq 17613: 17603: 17583: 17572: 17558: 17549: 17536: 17527: 17491: 17484: 17477: 17406:Ardashir III 17398: 17375: 17316: 17284:Roman Empire 17282: 17260: 17218:Yazdegerd II 17148: 17139:Artabanus IV 17136:Vologases VI 17127:Vologases IV 17058:Roman Empire 17056: 17041:Vologases II 17017:Artabanus II 17011:Artabanus II 16996:Tiridates II 16984:Phraates III 16951: 16950: 16887:Simon Thassi 16880: 16862:Demetrius II 16850:Antiochus IV 16841:Seleucus III 16835:Antiochus II 16822: 16812: 16809:Alexander IV 16796: 16784: 16768:Ptolemy XIII 16750:Berenice III 16744:Cleopatra IV 16685: 16682:331–141 BCE 16673: 16664: 16658: 16652: 16631:Artaxerxes I 16612: 16579: 16576:539–331 BCE 16551: 16532:Nabopolassar 16525: 16496: 16490: 16487:626–539 BCE 16455:Ashurbanipal 16410: 16409: 16403: 16366: 16363:745–609 BCE 16329: 16309:Eriba-Marduk 16270: 16224: 16199: 16167: 16166: 16156: 16145:Shoshenq III 16123: 16120:911–745 BCE 16088: 16070:Marduk-zer-X 16034: 16030:Ashur-dan II 15961:Arik-den-ili 15958:Enlil-nirari 15952:Eriba-Adad I 15945: 15938: 15915: 15896: 15891:Psusennes II 15866: 15865: 15859: 15843:Ramesses VII 15831:Ramesses III 15820: 15804: 15798: 15766: 15752: 15733: 15722:Amenhotep II 15715:Thutmose III 15689: 15683: 15680: 15631:Kurigalzu II 15625:Kara-hardash 15595:Agum-Kakrime 15586: 15565: 15559: 15527: 15510:'Aper-'Anati 15508: 15503: 15482: 15476: 15470: 15466: 15460: 15456: 15450: 15444: 15443: 15407:Damqi-ilishu 15390: 15379:Samsu-Ditana 15361:Sin-muballit 15352:Sin-muballit 15331: 15301:Ashur-rabi I 15166:Shamshi-Adad 15163: 15157: 15142: 15112: 15106: 15094:Amenemhat IV 15088:Senusret III 15082:Amenemhat II 15069: 15055: 15041: 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history 1529:1979–present 1478:Pahlavi Iran 1441:Zand dynasty 1409:Safavid Iran 1372:Qara Qoyunlu 1262:Kurt dynasty 1102:Hasanwayhids 902: 880:Qarinvandids 799: 784:281 BC–62 BC 774:312 BC–63 BC 387: 294:Succeeded by 293: 288: 200:Artabanus IV 113: 69:Hecatompylos 22690: / 21989:Khwarezmian 21922:Carolingian 21727:Rashtrakuta 21431:Shaishunaga 21330:Hellenistic 21313:New Kingdom 21303:Old Kingdom 21122:Tehrangeles 21085:Traditional 20822:Nationality 20760:persecution 20745:persecution 20696:Circassians 20645:Neo-Aramaic 20625:Azerbaijani 20497:State-owned 20422:Health care 20385:Agriculture 20222:Brain drain 20161:Ambassadors 19856:Earthquakes 19393:Aq Qoyunlu 19342:Muzaffarid 19319:Eldiguzids 19311:Anushtegin 19137:Kingdom of 19113:Kingdom of 19105:Kingdom of 19097:Atropatene 19089:Achaemenid 19030:Kingdom of 18975:3400–539 BC 18877:Hittitology 18867:Assyriology 18788:Archaeology 18658:Old Persian 18468:Jemdet Nasr 18117:224–mid 7C 18081:129–63 BCE 18063:Macedonians 17958:city-states 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15855:Ramesses XI 15849:Ramesses IX 15840:Ramesses VI 15834:Ramesses IV 15779:Ramesses II 15742:Tutankhamun 15725:Thutmose IV 15709:Thutmose II 15643:Kudur-Enlil 15628:Nazi-Bugash 15616:Kurigalzu I 15604:Ulamburiash 15575:Amenhotep I 15556:Tutankhamun 15542:Parshatatar 15539:Shuttarna I 15472:Seventeenth 15401:Ilum-ma-ili 15376:Ammi-saduqa 15373:Ammi-ditana 15367:Samsu-iluna 15274:Erishum III 15235:Adad-salulu 15232:Ipqi-Ishtar 15220:Ashur-dugul 15205:Adad-salulu 15202:Ipqi-Ishtar 15190:Ashur-dugul 15159:Old Assyria 15154:(Amorites) 15097:Sobekneferu 15085:Senusret II 15076:Amenemhat I 15048:Sîn-iribam 15025:Sin-Iqisham 15019:Sin-Iddinam 14969:Erra-imitti 14966:Lipit-Enlil 14954:Ishme-Dagan 14951:Iddin-Dagan 14887:Shalim-ahum 14878:Old Assyria 14864:Yasmah-Adad 14841:Lim Dynasty 14833:Hanun-Dagan 14829:Hitial-Erra 14594:Ur-Ningirsu 14550:Kuda (Uruk) 14523:Ishgum-Addu 14513:Ishtup-Ilum 14365:Ishma-Dagan 14350:Shakkanakku 14328:Neferirkare 14325:Neferkauhor 14228:Ili-ishmani 14207:Manishtushu 14170:Lugalzagesi 14166:III dynasty 14150:Puzur-Nirah 13865:Ishar-Malik 13844:Shepseskare 13634:Mesannepada 13559:Nin-kisalsi 13547:Lugal-kitun 13517:Meskalamdug 13503:Ur-Pabilsag 13316:Aga of Kish 13225:Barsal-nuna 13110:Khasekhemwy 13096:Neferkara I 13075:Weneg-Nebty 13053:Nebra/Raneb 12865:Lower Egypt 12851:Scorpion II 12796:Upper Egypt 12748:, 4000 BCE) 12731:Uruk period 12523:Vologases V 12446:(78–110 AD) 12435:Vardanes II 12427:Vologases I 12403:Gotarzes II 12350:(2 BC–4 AD) 12342:(2 BC–4 AD) 12323:Phraates IV 12254:(124–91 BC) 12243:Artabanus I 12235:Phraates II 11873:Ispahbudhan 11861:Noble clans 11755:Parthia.com 10940:: 115–126, 10549:. 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Mazda 4979:The Bacchae 4938:during the 4924:philhellene 4894:royal mints 4890:tetradrachm 4862:during the 4860:Vologases I 4856:Cassius Dio 4809:cataphracts 4734:mercenaries 4692:Poseidonius 4687:Geographica 4659:is said by 4479:Hou Han shu 4393:Cassius Dio 3904:Rock relief 3889:cataphracts 3774:Rhadamistus 3754:Verethragna 3529:Gotarzes II 3512:Mithridates 3374:breastplate 3359:breastplate 3303:Artaxias II 3236:Phraates IV 3234:Drachma of 3221:Phraates IV 3204:(in modern 3175:Hyrcanus II 3140:Mark Antony 3088:(left) and 3086:Mark Antony 3043:cataphracts 2971:Roman Syria 2948:client king 2822:The Yuezhi 2643:Hyspaosines 2615:Han dynasty 2593:Artabanus I 2547:Drachma of 2518:Phraates II 2453:Indus River 2437:investiture 2429:Mesopotamia 2378:Philhellene 2374:Verethragna 2242:Diodotus II 2040:The silver 2011:, but also 1936:, ruler of 1918:Mark Antony 1823:Hellenistic 1800:Han dynasty 1784:Afghanistan 1776:Mesopotamia 1252:Mihrabanids 1212:Hazaraspids 972:Baduspanids 850:Paratarajas 844:19 AD–224/5 362:History of 289:Preceded by 217:Megisthanes 213:Legislature 22705:Categories 22678:44°34′51″E 22675:33°05′37″N 22559:Portuguese 22440:Revival Le 22430:Vietnamese 22073:Later Tran 22043:Vietnamese 21939:Singhasari 21927:Holy Roman 21551:Bulgarian 21487:Satavahana 21458:Phoenician 21394:Achaemenid 21355:Indo-Greek 21335:Macedonian 21249:Babylonian 21022:Philosophy 20981:newspapers 20962:Literature 20867:architects 20862:Achaemenid 20782:Corruption 20242:Corruption 20082:Reformists 20077:Propaganda 19975:Corruption 19960:Censorship 19903:Lake Urmia 19591:Iran–Iraq 19287:Ghaznavid 19165:AD 224–651 19129:Frataraka 18961:Prehistory 18841:Divination 18551:Achaemenid 18516:Isin-Larsa 18409:Trialetian 18404:Mousterian 18391:Prehistory 17841:and other 17820:and other 17430:Khosrow IV 17427:Hormizd VI 17409:Shahrbaraz 17386:Khosrow II 17371:Shahrbaraz 17365:Shahrbaraz 17245:Khosrow II 17242:Hormizd IV 17200:Shapur III 17188:Hormizd II 17182:Bahram III 17167:Ardashir I 17038:Pacorus II 17029:Vonones II 17026:Meherdates 17020:Vardanes I 17005:Orodes III 17002:Phraates V 16981:Sinatruces 16829:Seleucus I 16806:Philip III 16780:Arsinoe IV 16705:Arsinoe II 16646:Darius III 16512:Psamtik II 16452:Esarhaddon 16345:Ummanigash 16315:Nabonassar 16209:Bakenranef 16180:Pedubast I 16177:Takelot II 16174:Harsiese A 16162:Osorkon IV 16154:Shoshenq V 16142:Osorkon II 16130:Shoshenq I 15876:Amenemnisu 15852:Ramesses X 15837:Ramesses V 15785:Amenmesses 15773:Ramesses I 15735:Smenkhkare 15712:Hatshepsut 15706:Thutmose I 15610:Karaindash 15349:Sumu-la-El 15181:Mut-Ashkur 15172:(Amorites) 15079:Senusret I 15038:Rim-Sin II 15028:Silli-Adad 15022:Sin-Eribam 14984:Suen-magir 14981:Ur-du-kuga 14978:Iter-pisha 14972:Enlil-bani 14960:Ur-Ninurta 14948:Shu-Ilishu 14945:Ishbi-Erra 14915:Erishum II 14861:Yahdun-Lim 14858:Yaggid-Lim 14671:Tura-Dagan 14650:Utu-hengal 14626:Meryhathor 14602:Nam-mahani 14568:II dynasty 14537:(21 kings) 14431:Puzer-Mama 14427:II dynasty 14409:IV dynasty 14322:Neferkaure 14319:Qakare Ibi 14310:Neferkahor 14301:Neferkamin 14220:Ilshu-rabi 14111:Ishqi-Mari 14107:Ikun-Ishar 14103:Enna-Dagan 14023:II dynasty 13997:Bara-irnun 13952:Puzur-Suen 13948:IV dynasty 13940:Irkab-Damu 13885:(3 kings) 13811:Ukkutahesh 13784:Meskiagnun 13780:A'annepada 13727:II dynasty 13622:Thamphthis 13618:Shepseskaf 13567:Lugal-dalu 13466:Udulkalama 13446:II dynasty 13388:Sekhemkhet 13296:Lugalbanda 13222:Melem-Kish 13218:En-me-nuna 13003:Canaanites 12997:Horus Bird 12962:Neithhotep 12835:Scorpion I 12785:Naqada III 12462:(79–81 AD) 12454:(78–80 AD) 12443:Pacorus II 12438:(55–58 AD) 12430:(51–78 AD) 12419:Vonones II 12414:(49–51 AD) 12411:Meherdates 12406:(40–51 AD) 12398:(40–46 AD) 12395:Vardanes I 12382:(35–36 AD) 12374:(12–35 AD) 12355:Orodes III 12347:Phraates V 12310:(57–38 BC) 12302:(57–54 BC) 12294:(69–57 BC) 12286:(75–69 BC) 12283:Sinatruces 12278:(80–75 BC) 12270:(87–80 BC) 12259:Gotarzes I 12219:Phraates I 12211:Priapatius 12203:Arsaces II 11888:Spandiyadh 11651:2019-02-10 10162:Boyce 1983 10150:Boyce 1983 10138:Boyce 1983 10018:Bivar 1983 9754:Zhang 2002 9726:Bivar 1983 9690:Bivar 1983 9662:Colpe 1983 9634:Colpe 1983 9493:Bivar 1983 9117:2017-09-11 8834:Posch 1998 8822:Posch 1998 8739:Bivar 1983 8723:Bivar 1983 8624:Boyce 1983 8512:Bivar 1983 8492:Bivar 1983 8436:Bivar 1983 8415:Bivar 1983 8395:Bivar 1983 8379:Bivar 1983 8363:Bivar 1983 8351:Bivar 1983 8339:Bivar 1983 8295:Bivar 1983 8263:Bivar 1983 8251:Bivar 1983 8235:Bivar 1983 8211:Bivar 1983 8164:Bivar 1983 8152:Bivar 1983 8128:Bivar 1983 8116:Bivar 1983 8028:Bivar 1983 8016:Bivar 1983 8000:Bivar 1983 7988:Bivar 1983 7976:Bivar 1983 7952:Bivar 1983 7932:Bivar 1983 7920:Bivar 1983 7890:Mawer 2013 7886:Young 2001 7803:Bivar 1983 7791:Bivar 1983 7779:Bivar 1983 7767:Bivar 1983 7742:Bivar 1983 7730:Bivar 1983 7718:Bivar 1983 7706:Bivar 1983 7690:Bivar 1983 7670:Bivar 1983 7654:Bivar 1983 7638:Bivar 1983 7622:Bivar 1983 7594:Bivar 1983 7554:Bivar 1983 7503:Bivar 1983 7491:Bivar 1983 7475:Bivar 1983 7439:Bivar 1983 7415:Bivar 1983 7400:Bivar 1983 7368:Bivar 1983 7347:Bivar 1983 7335:Bivar 1983 7303:Bivar 1983 7272:Bivar 1983 7256:Bivar 1983 7228:Bivar 1983 7216:Bivar 1983 7201:Bivar 1983 7177:Bivar 1983 7161:Bivar 1983 7149:Bivar 1983 7133:Bivar 1983 7117:Bivar 1983 7097:Bivar 1983 7085:Bivar 1983 7069:Bivar 1983 7057:Bivar 1983 6998:Assar 2006 6920:Ebrey 1999 6836:Bivar 1983 6824:Bivar 2007 6809:Bivar 1983 6773:Bivar 1983 6745:Bivar 1983 6733:Bivar 1983 6709:Bivar 1983 6693:Bivar 1983 6665:Bivar 1983 6625:Bivar 1983 6597:Bivar 1983 6573:Bivar 1983 6557:Bivar 1983 6541:Bivar 1983 6514:Bivar 1983 6470:Bivar 1983 6450:Bivar 1983 6423:Bivar 1983 6403:Bivar 1983 6391:Bivar 1983 6375:Bivar 1983 6355:Bivar 1983 6313:Bivar 1983 6301:Bivar 1983 6259:Bivar 1983 6188:Bivar 1983 6156:Bivar 1983 6140:Bivar 1983 6124:Bivar 1983 5964:(2): 223. 5886:, p. 5793:Green 1992 5710:. p. 5591:and queen 5562:and their 5538:epic cycle 5451:Persepolis 5336:Achaemenid 5076:Christians 5074:and early 4988:stage-prop 4777:cataphract 4657:Queen Musa 4653:polygamous 4587:Atropatene 4545:, king of 4476:, and the 4425:(Chinese: 4179:Khosrau II 4148:Ardashir I 4070:(possibly 3952:Meharaspes 3884:sagittarii 3873:Nabataeans 3768:After the 3647:medallions 3621:(northern 3617:by way of 3572:Pacorus II 3541:Meherdates 3525:Vardanes I 3411:Phraates V 3327:after the 3315:Pax Romana 3287:Alexandria 3263:Atropatene 3000:, who was 2894:Sinatruces 2875:Gotarzes I 2721:Han Empire 2709:Zhang Qian 2690:Vardanes I 2655:suzerainty 2480:coronation 2472:Gotarzes I 2335: 176 2323:Phraates I 2317: 191 2305:Priapatius 2234:Diodotus I 2149:Andragoras 2134:Babylonian 2058: 247 1985:Achaemenid 1934:Ardashir I 1914:the Romans 1865:(south of 1861:along the 1766: 171 1746:Andragoras 1730:conquering 1468:Qajar Iran 1382:Aq Qoyunlu 1366:1370s–1592 1202:Salghurids 1182:Eldiguzids 1152:Shabankara 1126:990/1–1117 870:Zarmihrids 790:Fratarakas 744:Atropatene 682:652–625 BC 672:678–550 BC 152:Government 106:(official) 22552:Couronian 22190:Ethiopian 22178:Manchukuo 22133:Brazilian 21979:Ghaznavid 21949:Srivijaya 21900:Trebizond 21885:Byzantine 21867:North Sea 21862:Norwegian 21850:Almoravid 21833:Ilkhanate 21803:Majapahit 21776:Muromachi 21685:Solomonic 21670:Ethiopian 21584:Caliphate 21517:Aragonese 21345:Ptolemaic 20987:Mythology 20893:Calendars 20883:Astronomy 20792:Education 20701:Georgians 20686:Assyrians 20681:Armenians 20607:Languages 20499:companies 20462:Transport 20442:Petroleum 20227:Companies 20166:President 20153:Officials 20087:Terrorism 20036:Air Force 19980:Elections 19918:Provinces 19913:Mountains 19823:Geography 19743:languages 19481:1925–1979 19409:Afsharid 19370:1370–1925 19358:Chobanid 19252:Saffarid 19204:Rashidun 19172:Sasanian 19153:Kings of 19145:Parthian 19121:Seleucid 19062:Scythian 19022:Kassites 19006:Akkadian 18714:Cuneiform 18590:Languages 18399:Acheulean 18286:Babylonia 18223:Euphrates 18173:Geography 18032:Chaldeans 17949:Phoenicia 17887:Karduniaš 17542:Hallo, W. 17439:Peroz III 17273:Antiochus 17239:Khosrow I 17209:Shapur IV 17203:Bahram IV 17194:Shapur II 17179:Bahram II 17173:Hormizd I 17130:Osroes II 17008:Vonones I 16990:Orodes II 16966:Artabanus 16634:Darius II 16561:Phraortes 16547:Nabonidus 16518:Ahmose II 16506:Psamtik I 16399:Tanutamun 16248:(regent) 16139:Takelot I 16133:Osorkon I 15898:Phoenicia 15882:Amenemope 15828:Setnakhte 15782:Merneptah 15731:Akhenaten 15514:Sakir-Har 15452:Sixteenth 15431:Akurduana 15417:Gulkishar 15414:Shushushi 15370:Abi-eshuh 15364:Hammurabi 15346:Sumu-abum 15268:Shu-Ninua 15259:Iptar-Sin 15229:Sin-namir 15226:Nasir-Sin 15217:Puzur-Sin 15199:Sin-namir 15196:Nasir-Sin 15050:Sîn-gāmil 15046:Sîn-kāšid 15034:Rim-Sin I 15031:Warad-Sin 14911:Naram-Sin 14895:Erishum I 14891:Ilu-shuma 14867:Zimri-Lim 14815:Indilimma 14802:Ibbit-Lim 14772:Intef III 14735:invasions 14722:invasions 14667:Ili-Ishar 14663:Iddi-ilum 14656:2100 BCE 14646:V dynasty 14616:2125 BCE 14554:Puzur-ili 14541:La-erabum 14475:2150 BCE 14401:Shu-turul 14394:(3 years) 14361:Shu-Dagan 14261:2200 BCE 14238:Naram-Sin 14234:2250 BCE 14178:2340 BCE 14144:2350 BCE 14138:Luh-ishan 14133:Urukagina 14129:Lugalanda 14098:Isar-Damu 14094:2370 BCE 14040:2380 BCE 14015:Enentarzi 14003:Enannatum 13992:Gishakidu 13956:Ur-Zababa 13932:Adub-Damu 13928:2400 BCE 13901:2425 BCE 13895:Napilhush 13883:invasions 13861:Enar-Damu 13841:Neferefre 13821:2450 BCE 13764:Ur-Nanshe 13759:I dynasty 13746:I dynasty 13687:Ikun-Mari 13646:Phoenicia 13642:2500 BCE 13575:2575 BCE 13543:Melamanna 13527:Akalamdug 13499:A-Imdugud 13462:Ur-Nungal 13449:(5 kings) 13436:Baba-Damu 13432:Ibbi-Damu 13361:2600 BCE 13331:Gilgamesh 13289:Iltasadum 13260:2700 BCE 13234:I dynasty 13187:2800 BCE 13150:I dynasty 13106:Hudjefa I 13039:2900 BCE 12985:Semerkhet 12977:(regent) 12964:(regent) 12871:Hedju Hor 12699:Naqada II 12515:Osroes II 12366:(6–12 AD) 12363:Vonones I 12326:(37–2 BC) 12315:Pacorus I 12307:Orodes II 12195:Arsaces I 11386:(2002) , 11226:161619682 11103:: 91–106. 11021:(2004) , 10962:162863957 10823:, Brill, 10653:: 17–27. 10323:1128-6342 9265:Kurz 1983 9190:Wang 2007 8902:Wang 2007 8882:Wang 2007 8870:Wang 2007 8858:Wang 2007 8751:Kurz 1983 8524:Frye 1983 8068:Kurz 1983 7894:Ball 2016 7854:Wood 2002 7842:Wang 2007 7388:Syme 2002 6908:Kurz 1983 6896:Wang 2007 6104:Ball 2016 5970:1076-156X 5736:Ctesiphon 5728:Parthians 5469:as their 5329:Mithraeum 5178:An Shigao 5172:from the 5152:Although 5139:Zoroaster 5100:Aphrodite 5030:" of the 4984:Euripides 4936:Near East 4930:Although 4775:Parthian 4756:Parthian 4684:, in his 4496:Han court 4456:Sima Qian 4306:parchment 4298:cuneiform 4236:) in the 4187:Heraclius 4111:Caracalla 3985:Eutropius 3981:Parthicus 3869:Euphrates 3686:Geography 3663:Cattigara 3466:Aramaeans 3427:Vonones I 3321:Cleopatra 3016:triumvirs 2883:Orodes II 2845:Euphrates 2833:proconsul 2729:Silk Road 2639:Characene 2631:Silk Road 2623:Mawangdui 2526:Great Zab 2464:Ctesiphon 2445:Characene 2425:Babylonia 2421:Timarchus 2405:eparchies 2283:victories 2257:Apasiacae 2084:tribe of 2074:Arsaces I 2046:Arsaces I 2001:parchment 1989:cuneiform 1892:as their 1878:Scythians 1874:Seleucids 1859:Ctesiphon 1788:Silk Road 1780:Euphrates 1728:tribe in 1722:Arsaces I 1482:1925–1979 1472:1789–1925 1445:1751–1794 1435:1736–1796 1425:1722–1729 1413:1501–1736 1386:1468–1508 1376:1406–1468 1356:1370–1507 1346:1359–1596 1342:Mar'ashis 1336:1349–1504 1326:1335–1357 1316:1337–1376 1312:Sarbadars 1306:1337–1376 1296:1335–1393 1286:1335–1357 1276:1256–1335 1266:1244–1396 1256:1236–1537 1246:1223-1306 1236:1184-1597 1226:1155–1231 1216:1155–1424 1206:1148–1282 1196:1141–1319 1186:1135–1225 1176:1077–1231 1166:1037–1194 1156:1030–1355 1146:1029–1236 1136:1008–1141 982:Justanids 952:Bavandids 820:Characene 582:1500–1155 569:2400–2150 559:2400–1700 546:2550-2020 506:3100–2200 493:3200–2700 483:3400–2000 430:6000–5000 185:Arsaces I 126:Religion 61:Ctesiphon 22532:Japanese 22495:Scottish 22475:American 22467:Colonial 22396:Imperial 22364:Moroccan 22300:Japanese 22278:Afsharid 22137:Burmese 22123:Austrian 22078:Later Le 22053:Early Le 22038:Venetian 21964:Tiwanaku 21877:Hellenic 21840:Moroccan 21771:Kamakura 21761:Japanese 21744:Saffarid 21697:Georgian 21611:Chalukya 21589:Rashidun 21579:Calakmul 21547:Bruneian 21426:Haryanka 21404:Sasanian 21399:Parthian 21350:Bactrian 21340:Seleucid 21320:Goguryeo 21298:Egyptian 21232:Assyrian 21222:Akkadian 21213:Colonies 21148:Category 21041:football 21032:Scouting 20942:Iranians 20932:Folklore 20728:Religion 20640:Georgian 20620:Armenian 20481:shipping 20476:railways 20466:airlines 20432:Industry 20297:Taxation 20111:Councils 20027:Military 19942:Politics 19923:Wildlife 19888:Caucasus 19770:Persians 19697:See also 19521:Iranian 19488:Pahlavi 19401:Safavid 19377:Timurid 19280:977–1432 19260:Ziyarid 19236:Tahirid 19228:Samanid 19220:Abbasid 19212:Umayyad 19197:632–1090 19014:Lullubi 18998:Elamite 18860:Academia 18814:Religion 18683:Urartian 18678:Sumerian 18663:Parthian 18598:Akkadian 18571:Sasanian 18561:Parthian 18556:Seleucid 18506:Simurrum 18496:Akkadian 18429:Khiamian 18419:Natufian 18331:Simurrum 18316:Kassites 18311:Hittites 18266:Adiabene 17973:Arameans 17967:Damascus 17938:Arameans 17892:Kassites 17880:Hurrians 17658:(2014). 17611:(1992). 17581:(2020). 17548:(1971). 17389:Kavad II 17215:Bahram V 17176:Bahram I 17170:Shapur I 17047:Osroes I 16978:Orodes I 16972:Gotarzes 16960:Phraates 16625:Darius I 16622:Cambyses 16570:Astyages 16567:Cyaxares 16509:Necho II 16440:Bel-ibni 16390:Shebitku 16353:Indabibi 16206:Tefnakht 15748:Horemheb 15607:Agum III 15589:Kassites 15572:Ahmose I 15437:Ea-gamil 15421:DIŠ+U-EN 15411:Ishkibal 15358:Apil-Sin 15340:Amorites 15250:Bel-bani 15125:Biblical 15016:Nur-Adad 15007:Gungunum 14995:Naplanum 14963:Bur-Suen 14927:Amorites 14903:Sargon I 14853:Amorites 14797:Amorites 14769:Intef II 14739:Kindattu 14727:Ibbi-Sin 14706:Amar-Sin 14700:Ur-Nammu 14635:Merykare 14527:Apil-kin 14439:Pirig-me 14417:Ur-gigir 14413:Ur-nigin 14353:dynasty) 14298:Merenhor 14224:Epirmupi 14053:Userkare 14007:Entemena 13984:Ur-Lumma 13979:Meskigal 13910:Eannatum 13905:Kun-Damu 13889:Shushun- 13874:Enakalle 13733:kushanna 13719:Undalulu 13691:Iblul-Il 13615:Menkaure 13611:Bikheris 13604:Djedefre 13563:Me-durba 13488:shaengur 13482:En-hegal 13470:Labashum 13428:Agur-lim 13424:Abur-lim 13403:Qahedjet 13248:Enmerkar 13080:Wadjenes 13070:Horus Sa 13065:Nubnefer 13056:Nynetjer 13030:Susa III 12992:Sneferka 12975:Merneith 12693:Naqada I 12518:(191 AD) 12494:(116 AD) 12467:Osroes I 12358:(4–6 AD) 12275:Orodes I 11934:Language 11847:Chosroid 11662:(1986). 11627:(2012). 11291:: 83–103 11218:25203669 11097:Anabasis 10659:24049232 10545:(2018). 10198:Archived 9111:Archived 7105:Plutarch 6088:Khurasan 6047:𐭀𐭓𐭔𐭊 6043:Parthian 5974:Archived 5910:, while 5850:Parthian 5808:(1997). 5615:See also 5576:hetairas 5519:minstrel 5493:Akkadian 5473:, while 5461:Language 5443:kyrbasia 5441:(Greek: 5300:de facto 5272:graffiti 5170:Buddhism 5162:Mandaean 5050:Religion 5002:, where 4992:Pentheus 4990:head of 4959:language 4920:omphalos 4914:Coin of 4874:Currency 4714:Military 4708:Plutarch 4702:and the 4661:Josephus 4621:Nobility 4595:Adiabene 4591:Gordyene 4549:(modern 4541:Coin of 4516:Aghbania 4474:Ban Zhao 4466:Ban Biao 4409:Herodian 4401:Josephus 4389:Plutarch 4342:, Iran, 4336:oil lamp 4127:Macrinus 4072:smallpox 3936:Axidares 3932:Sanatruk 3908:Behistun 3798:Georgian 3750:Herakles 3643:Antonine 3568:Gan Ying 3560:Ban Chao 3553:Adiabene 3533:Claudius 3504:Tiberius 3485:Augustus 3481:denarius 3450:Fallujah 3446:Nehardea 3419:Josephus 3388:lost by 3382:Augustus 3333:Augustus 3265:(modern 3151:Anatolia 3144:Octavian 3090:Octavian 3022:(modern 2952:Corduene 2940:Artaxata 2917:Lucullus 2841:Orobazus 2617:Chinese 2605:Sakastan 2458:Whereas 2433:Seleucia 2417:Ecbatana 2370:Heracles 2292:basileus 2214:Hyrcania 2118:Parthian 1981:Sasanian 1973:Parthian 1930:Seleucia 1798:and the 1596:Timeline 1554:Monarchs 1132:Kakuyids 1122:Annazids 1116:977–1186 1106:959–1095 1096:955–1070 1086:934–1062 1072:Ilyasids 1066:930–1090 1056:919–1062 1026:861–1003 976:665–1598 956:651–1349 942:Dabuyids 936:750–1258 595:1500–500 575:Kassites 533:2700–539 523:3100-675 389:BCE / BC 353:a series 351:Part of 274:Currency 159:monarchy 143:Buddhism 98:Parthian 65:Ecbatana 22599:largest 22594:Empires 22574:Swedish 22569:Spanish 22564:Russian 22527:Italian 22502:Chinese 22490:English 22485:British 22480:Belgian 22455:Vietnam 22445:Tay son 22391:Tsarist 22386:Russian 22381:Ottoman 22347:Dzungar 22342:Khoshut 22315:Mexican 22310:Maratha 22293:Pahlavi 22273:Safavid 22268:Iranian 22195:Haitian 22158:Chinese 22118:Ashanti 22090:Wagadou 22016:Eastern 22011:Western 21994:Timurid 21954:Tibetan 21944:Songhai 21934:Serbian 21855:Almohad 21845:Idrisid 21749:Samanid 21739:Tahirid 21734:Iranian 21712:Kannauj 21692:Genoese 21628:Chinese 21621:Eastern 21616:Western 21604:Fatimid 21599:Abbasid 21594:Umayyad 21567:Burmese 21527:Ayyubid 21522:Angevin 21492:Xianbei 21480:Eastern 21475:Western 21421:Magadha 21384:Iranian 21377:Xiongnu 21362:Hittite 21271:Chinese 21259:Kassite 21208:Ancient 21200:Empires 21091:Ey Iran 21039: ( 20999: ( 20975:student 20973: ( 20969: ( 20954: ( 20922:Cuisine 20907:Fashion 20895: ( 20875: ( 20860: ( 20846:Culture 20794: ( 20758: ( 20743: ( 20716:Turkmen 20668: ( 20659:Peoples 20630:Kurdish 20586:Society 20487:Tourism 20464: ( 20454: ( 20444: ( 20424: ( 20417:Defense 20387: ( 20377:Sectors 20364: ( 20324: ( 20229: ( 20210:General 20199:Economy 20089: ( 20059: ( 20029: ( 19982: ( 19967: ( 19953:General 19908:Islands 19844:largest 19834:Borders 19303:Seljuk 19295:Ghurid 19244:Alavid 19054:Median 19046:Urartu 18968:Ancient 18948:History 18846:Prayers 18831:Deities 18795:Looting 18638:Kassite 18633:Hurrian 18628:Hittite 18618:Elamite 18613:Eblaite 18608:Aramaic 18603:Amorite 18526:Kassite 18501:Gutians 18483:History 18448:Samarra 18444:Hassuna 18414:Zarzian 18336:Subartu 18326:Mitanni 18291:Chaldea 18281:Assyria 18254:Ancient 17875:Mitanni 17843:Amorite 17822:Amorite 17796:Gutians 17442:Narsieh 17270:Zenobia 17251:Vistahm 17236:Kavad I 17230:Kavad I 17224:Peroz I 17212:Khosrow 16558:Deioces 16515:Wahibre 16503:Necho I 16396:Taharqa 16393:Shabaka 16377:Taharqa 16341:Teumman 16192:Rudamun 15934:Solomon 15873:Smendes 15794:Twosret 15788:Seti II 15529:Mitanni 15523:Khamudi 15477:Dynasty 15467:Dynasty 15457:Dynasty 15295:Nur-ili 15265:Lullaya 15168:dynasty 15120:Abraham 15010:Abisare 14975:Zambiya 14869:(Queen 14821:Amorite 14792:Kingdom 14766:Intef I 14733:Elamite 14720:Amorite 14709:Shu-Sin 14610:Tirigan 14579:Ur-Baba 14509:Nûr-Mêr 14447:Lu-gula 14443:Lu-Baba 14357:Ididish 14338:Kingdom 14335:Eblaite 14333:Second 14283:Menkare 14158:Shu-Sin 14154:Ishu-Il 14082:dynasty 14062:Pepi II 13995:(Queen 13881:Elamite 13832:Userkaf 13775:Akurgal 13704:Ku-Baba 13520:(Queen 13456:Mesilim 13391:Sanakht 13381:(First 13198:Zuqaqip 13195:Kalumum 13180:Kalibum 13176:Puannum 13133:Kingdom 12982:Anedjib 12966:Hor-Aha 12911:Nat-Hor 12844:Iry-Hor 12840:Shendjw 12812:Pen-Abu 12760:Susa II 12422:(51 AD) 12334:(32 BC) 12318:(39 BC) 12179:of the 12081:Parthia 12074:Related 11924:Coinage 11912:Culture 11832:Armenia 11825:Dynasty 11799:Origins 11716:: 40–59 11542:(ed.). 11486:(ed.). 11457:(ed.). 11343:(ed.). 11244:(ed.). 11171:(ed.). 11063:(ed.). 10973:(ed.). 10907:(ed.). 10775:(ed.). 10745:(ed.). 10690:(ed.). 10582:(ed.). 10455:(ed.). 10407:(ed.). 10378:(ed.). 10278:(ed.). 7870:Yü 1986 7834:Yü 1986 6924:An 2002 6041:, from 6039:Arsakēs 6035:Ἀρσάκης 6017:1170959 5916:Shamash 5896:Babylon 5854:Sogdian 5842:scripts 5838:Aramaic 5738:on the 5732:nomadic 5636:Parthia 5540:of the 5475:Aramaic 5439:bashlyk 5425:Palmyra 5314:at the 5280:plaster 5268:frescos 5258:Common 5194:Chinese 5182:Luoyang 5124:Shamash 5108:Anahita 5068:Iranian 4852:Tacitus 4645:Palmyra 4611:Elymais 4583:Armenia 4575:eparchy 4571:satrapy 4567:marzbān 4547:Elymais 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