945:
full cost of connecting to an
Internet exchange point in a different country, frequently the United States. These advocates argue that Internet interconnection should work like international telephone interconnection, with each party paying half of the cost. Those who argue against ICAIS point out that much of the problem would be solved by building local exchange points. A significant amount of the traffic, it is argued, that is brought to the US and exchanged then leaves the US, using US exchange points as switching offices but not terminating in the US. In some worst-case scenarios, traffic from one side of a street is brought all the way to a distant exchange point in a foreign country, exchanged, and then returned to another side of the street. Countries with liberalized telecommunications and open markets, where competition between backbone providers occurs, tend to oppose ICAIS.
699:
routing planes, since the layer-2 connection between two participants could hypothetically fail while their layer-2 connections with the route server remained up, and that they force all participants to treat each other with the same, undifferentiated, routing policy. The primary benefit of multilateral peering is that it minimizes configuration for each peer, while maximizing the efficiency with which new peers can begin contributing routes to the exchange. While optional multilateral peering agreements and route servers are now widely acknowledged to be a good practice, mandatory multilateral peering agreements (MMLPAs) have long been agreed to not be a good practice.
401:
find that public peering exchange points provide an excellent way to meet and interconnect with other networks which may be open to peering with them. Some larger networks utilize public peering as a way to aggregate a large number of "smaller peers", or as a location for conducting low-cost "trial peering" without the expense of provisioning private peering on a temporary basis, while other larger networks are not willing to participate at public exchanges at all.
335:
1093:
from 0.27% in 2011. Typical examples of asymmetric agreements are ones in which one of the parties compensates the other for routes that it would not otherwise receive (sometimes called "paid peering" or "on-net routes"), or in which one party is required to meet terms or requirements imposed by the other ("minimum peering requirements"), often concerning volume of traffic or number or geographic distribution of interconnection locations.
343:
113:, and because it was not neutral, in the sense that it was operated by one of its participants rather than by all of them collectively, and it conducted lobbying activities supported by some of its participants and not by others, it would not today be considered an Internet exchange point. Nonetheless, it was the first thing to bear that name.
736:, with 1,050 peering networks. The United States, with a historically larger focus on private peering and commercial public peering, has much less traffic visible on public peering switch-fabrics compared to other regions that are dominated by non-profit membership exchange points. Collectively, the many exchange points operated by
933:'s advisory committee, the Network Reliability and Interoperability Council recommended that Internet backbones publish their peering policies, something that they had been hesitant to do beforehand. The FCC has also reviewed competition in the backbone market in its Section 706 proceedings which review whether advanced
503:
to have so many customer complaints that they are willing to restore peering. Examples of this include forcing traffic via a path that does not have enough capacity to handle the load, or intentionally blocking alternate routes to or from the other network. Some notable examples of these situations have included:
290:, which means that any Internet user can transparently exchange traffic with any other Internet user. Therefore, a network is connected to the Internet if and only if it buys transit, or peers with every other network which also does not purchase transit (which together constitute a "default free zone" or "DFZ").
449:
relationship, and details concerning how the relationship can be terminated. Detailed contracts of this type are typically used between the largest ISPs, as well as the ones operating in the most heavily regulated economies. As of 2011, such contracts account for less than 0.5% of all peering agreements.
1092:
Of the agreements we analyzed, 1,935,111 (99.98%) had symmetric terms, in which each party gave and received the same conditions as the other. Only 403 (0.02%) had asymmetric terms, in which the parties gave and received conditions with specifically defined differences, and these exceptions were down
707:
The modern
Internet operates with significantly more peering locations than at any time in the past, resulting in improved performance and better routing for the majority of the traffic on the Internet. However, in the interests of reducing costs and improving efficiency, most networks have attempted
502:
In some situations, networks which are being depeered have been known to attempt to fight to keep the peering by intentionally breaking the connectivity between the two networks when the peer is removed, either through a deliberate act or an act of omission. The goal is to force the depeering network
689:
The majority of BGP AS-AS adjacencies are the product of multilateral peering agreements, or MLPAs. In multilateral peering, an unlimited number of parties agree to exchange traffic on common terms, using a single agreement to which they each accede. The multilateral peering is typically technically
431:
Most of the traffic on the
Internet, especially traffic between the largest networks, occurs via private peering. However, because of the resources required to provision each private peer, many networks are unwilling to provide private peering to "small" networks, or to "new" networks which have not
698:
in that they serve routes back out to participants, rather than just listening to inbound routes) to redistribute routes via a BGP hub-and-spoke topology, rather than a partial-mesh topology. The two primary criticisms of multilateral peering are that it breaks the shared fate of the forwarding and
944:
Finally, Internet interconnection has become an issue in the international arena under something known as the
International Charging Arrangements for Internet Services (ICAIS). In the ICAIS debate, countries underserved by Internet backbones have complained that it is unfair that they must pay the
305:
Peering involves two networks coming together to exchange traffic with each other freely, and for mutual benefit. This 'mutual benefit' is most often the motivation behind peering, which is often described solely by "reduced costs for transit services". Other less tangible motivations can include:
1828:
The performance of the
Internet market model contrasts sharply with that of traditional regulated forms of voice traffic exchange. If the price of Internet transit were stated in the form of an equivalent voice minute rate, it would be about USD 0.0000008 per minute—five orders of magnitude lower
400:
Since public peering allows networks interested in peering to interconnect with many other networks through a single port, it is often considered to offer "less capacity" than private peering, but to a larger number of networks. Many smaller networks, or networks which are just beginning to peer,
448:
as required by one or more parties. Such agreements set forth the details of how traffic is to be exchanged, along with a list of expected activities which may be necessary to maintain the peering relationship, a list of activities which may be considered abusive and result in termination of the
212:(1,000 Mbit/s), which quickly became the predominant choice for Internet exchange points due to the reduced cost and increased capacity offered. Today, almost all significant exchange points operate solely over Ethernet, and most of the largest exchange points offer 10, 40, and even
883:. Local-preference is used internally within a network to differentiate classes of networks. For example, a particular network will have a higher preference set on internal and customer advertisements. Settlement free peering is then configured to be preferred over paid IP transit.
1059:
Of the total analyzed agreements, 1,347 (0.07%) were formalized in written contracts. This is down from 0.49% in 2011. The remaining 1,934,166 (99.93%) were "handshake" agreements in which the parties agreed to informal or commonly understood terms without creating a written
52:
In 0.02% of cases the word "peering" is used to describe situations where there is some settlement involved. Because these outliers can be viewed as creating ambiguity, the phrase "settlement-free peering" is sometimes used to explicitly denote normal cost-free peering.
419:
is the direct interconnection between only two networks, across a Layer 1 or 2 medium that offers dedicated capacity that is not shared by any other parties. Early in the history of the
Internet, many private peers occurred across "telco" provisioned
874:
routing protocol exists to aid the enforcement and fine-tuning of peering and transit agreements. BGP allows operators to define a policy that determines where traffic is routed. Three things commonly used to determine routing are local-preference,
457:
By definition, peering is the voluntary and free exchange of traffic between two networks, for mutual benefit. If one or both networks believes that there is no longer a mutual benefit, they may decide to cease peering: this is known as
886:
Networks that speak BGP to each other can engage in multi exit discriminator exchange with each other, although most do not. When networks interconnect in several locations, MEDs can be used to reference that network's
915:
network interconnection is regulated. Nevertheless, Internet interconnection has been the subject of several areas of federal policy in the United States. Perhaps the most dramatic example of this is the attempted
928:
blocked the merger specifically because of the impact of the merger on the
Internet backbone market (thereby requiring MCI to divest itself of its successful "internetMCI" business to gain approval). In 2001, the
38:-free, also known as "bill-and-keep" or "sender keeps all", meaning that neither party pays the other in association with the exchange of traffic; instead, each derives and retains revenue from its own customers.
97:, California. Paying CIX members were allowed to attach to the router directly or via leased lines. After some time, the router was also attached to the Pacific Bell SMDS cloud. The router was later moved to the
637:
The "donut peering" model describes the intensive interconnection of small and medium-sized regional networks that make up much of the
Internet. Traffic between these regional networks can be modeled as a
132:
backbone, Internet exchange points were needed to replace its function, and initial governmental funding was used to aid the preexisting MAE and bootstrap three other exchanges, which they dubbed NAPs, or
428:
or carrier neutral colocation facilities, where a direct crossconnect can be provisioned between participants within the same building, usually for a much lower cost than telco circuits.
1715:
903:
or nearest-exit routing, which is typically the normal behavior on the
Internet, is where traffic destined to another network is delivered to the closest interconnection point.
1315:
1766:
1736:
1898:
137:," in accordance with the terminology of the National Information Infrastructure document. All four are now defunct or no longer functioning as Internet exchange points:
381:. At these locations, multiple carriers interconnect with one or more other carriers across a single physical port. Historically, public peering locations were known as
708:
to standardize on relatively few locations within these individual regions where they will be able to quickly and efficiently interconnect with their peering partners.
404:
A few exchange points, particularly in the United States, are operated by commercial carrier-neutral third parties, which are critical for achieving cost-effective
1422:
231:, and today it is considered both economically and technically infeasible to support this level of interconnection among even the largest of networks.
740:
are generally considered to be the largest, though traffic figures are not generally published. Other important but smaller exchange points include
223:, many exchange point and carrier-neutral colocation providers had plans to build as many as 50 locations to promote carrier interconnection in the
1707:
49:(BGP) routing protocol, tacit agreement to norms of conduct and, in some extraordinarily rare cases (0.07%), a formalized contractual document.
1829:
than typical voice rates. This is a remarkable and under-recognised endorsement of the multi-stakeholder, market driven nature of the
Internet.
661:. Seeking to reduce transit costs, connections between regional networks bypass those "core" networks. Data takes a more direct path, reducing
1542:
1841:
1073:
1040:
1820:
1625:
1510:
1449:
979:
880:
1113:
1913:
1905:
1323:
393:("IXP"). Many of the largest exchange points in the world can have hundreds of participants, and some span multiple buildings and
93:
or ANS' interconnection policy. The CIX infrastructure consisted of a single router, managed by PSI, and was initially located in
1744:
757:
278:
Buy transit service from any other network (which is then responsible for providing interconnection to the rest of the Internet).
1191:
1164:
41:
An agreement by two or more networks to peer is instantiated by a physical interconnection of the networks, an exchange of
1871:
925:
1674:
1593:
1374:
1737:"Internet Exchange Point Policy Documents: Layer 3 participant technical requirements: Mandatory multi-lateral peering"
1538:
440:
Throughout the history of the Internet, there have been a spectrum of kinds of agreements between peers, ranging from
930:
891:
cost. This results in both networks sharing the burden of transporting each other's traffic on their own network (or
1154:
1181:
1011:
466:
A desire that the other network pay settlement, either in exchange for continued peering or for transit services.
167:
1987:
272:
Sell transit service to that network or a chain of resellers ending at that network (making them a 'customer'),
94:
1495:
524:
102:
1594:"Internet Topology and Economics: How Supply and Demand Influence the Changing Shape of the Global Network"
969:
954:
240:
62:
489:
Instability of the peered network, repeated routing leaks, lack of response to network abuse issues, etc.
98:
1564:
1859:
Internet Traffic Exchange and the Development of End to End International Telecommunication Competition
338:
Diagram of the Layer 1 (physical) and Layer 2 (Data Link) topology of an Internet Exchange Point (IXP).
268:
Therefore, in order for a network to reach any specific other network on the Internet, it must either:
194:
1233:
498:
Various external political factors (including personal conflicts between individuals at each network).
313:
Increased capacity for extremely large amounts of traffic (distributing traffic across many networks).
110:
888:
208:
Other prospective exchange point operators moved directly into offering Ethernet technology, such as
424:
circuits between individual carrier-owned facilities. Today, most private interconnections occur at
106:
1884:
876:
674:
492:
The inability or unwillingness of the peered network to provision additional capacity for peering.
34:
for the purpose of exchanging traffic between the "down-stream" users of each network. Peering is
1992:
1481:
386:
294:
46:
1845:
1346:
1266:
1105:
1970:
1842:"Justice Departments Clears WorldCom/MCI Merger after MCI Agrees to Sell its Internet Business"
964:
559:
1797:
1648:
1183:
Internet Computing: Principles of Distributed Systems and Emerging Internet-Based Technologies
1909:
1774:
1740:
1604:
1459:
1080:
1047:
1018:
599:
535:
513:
469:
A belief that the other network is "profiting unduly" from the no-settlement interconnection.
86:
781:
695:
382:
258:
Peering - Two networks exchange traffic between their users freely, and for mutual benefit.
213:
134:
35:
8:
1945:
1515:
893:
441:
354:
Public peering – Interconnection utilizing a multi-party shared switch fabric such as an
20:
275:
Peer with that network or with a network which sells transit service to that network, or
1136:
934:
899:
776:
319:
Improved performance (attempting to bypass potential bottlenecks with a "direct" path).
254:
The interconnection relationships between Autonomous Systems are of exactly two types:
190:
182:
163:
116:
The first exchange point to resemble modern, neutral, Ethernet-based exchanges was the
361:
Private peering – Interconnection utilizing a point-to-point link between two parties.
1965:
1640:
1187:
1160:
959:
565:
445:
425:
394:
146:
1812:
1569:
507:
261:
209:
74:
677:
via multiple connections in many locations around the world, in particular during
1351:
670:
662:
1955:
1626:"Changing Role of Peering & Transit in IP Network Interconnection Economics"
1858:
974:
654:
540:
350:
The physical interconnections used for peering are categorized into two types:
310:
Increased redundancy (by reducing dependence on one or more transit providers).
228:
220:
832:
346:
Diagram of the Layer 3 (network) topology of an Internet Exchange Point (IXP).
297:(IXPs), while private peering can be done with direct links between networks.
239:
The Internet is a collection of separate and distinct networks referred to as
1981:
1681:
1644:
1208:
938:
921:
790:
761:
593:
224:
142:
121:
85:
to exchange traffic without regard for whether the traffic complied with the
1816:
1400:
691:
322:
Improved perception of one's network (being able to claim a "higher tier").
174:
31:
1971:
How the 'Net works: an introduction into Peering and Transit, Ars Technica
1293:
1074:"Survey of Characteristics of Internet Carrier Interconnection Agreements"
1041:"Survey of Characteristics of Internet Carrier Interconnection Agreements"
1012:"Survey of Characteristics of Internet Carrier Interconnection Agreements"
721:
495:
The belief that the peered network is unduly peering with one's customers.
479:
A desire to peer with the upstream transit provider of the peered network.
462:. Some of the reasons why one network may wish to depeer another include:
1378:
823:
818:
666:
588:
405:
795:
181:
As the Internet grew, and traffic levels increased, these NAPs became a
16:
Voluntary interconnection of administratively separate Internet networks
643:
615:
476:, which is related to the fair sharing of cost for the interconnection.
244:
1956:
Example Tier 1 Peering Requirements: AOL Transit Data Network (AS1668)
1798:"Internet Traffic Exchange: Market Developments and Policy Challenges"
1423:"Level 3 and XO Communications Sign Settlement-Free Peering Agreement"
911:
Internet interconnection is not regulated in the same way that public
809:
1565:"Pourquoi ça rame quand je veux regarder une vidéo YouTube avec Free"
1454:
912:
733:
658:
334:
193:
of capacity to each participant. Some of these exchanges upgraded to
152:
846:
1675:"The 'Donut Peering' Model: Optimizing IP Transit for Online Video"
1106:"Internet History :: Era of Disruption & Competition: CIX"
917:
767:
URLs to some public traffic statistics of exchange points include:
355:
227:
alone. Essentially all of these plans were abandoned following the
125:
117:
66:
28:
342:
737:
725:
621:
374:
248:
156:
82:
42:
1966:
Cybertelecom :: Backbones – Federal Internet Law and Policy
1941:
PeeringDB: A free database of peering locations and participants
1601:
lecture at the University of Minnesota Digital Technology Center
851:
804:
753:
741:
729:
639:
553:
518:
129:
90:
78:
1950:
1375:"France Telecom severs all network links to competitor Cogent"
264:– One network pays another network for access to the Internet.
749:
717:
653:, some carriers attempted to form a cartel of self-described
421:
202:
70:
1940:
1511:"Sprint-Cogent Dispute Puts Small Rip in Fabric of Internet"
1496:"The Telia-Cogent Spat Could Ruin the Web For Many – GigaOM"
27:
is a voluntary interconnection of administratively separate
1899:"Toward Efficiencies in Canadian Internet Traffic Exchange"
1767:"Packet Clearing House - Internet Exchange Point Directory"
745:
657:, nominally refusing to peer with any networks outside the
646:" that is poorly interconnected to the networks around it.
325:
Ease of requesting for emergency aid (from friendly peers).
198:
186:
1946:
The peering Playbook (PDF): Strategies of peering networks
1960:
1639:(8–9). Cook Network Consultants. November–December 2002.
1539:"INTERCONNEXION RÉSEAUX : OVH ET SFR CALMENT LE JEU"
1347:"'Peering' Dispute With AOL Slows Cogent Customer Access"
871:
716:
As of 2021, the largest exchange points in the world are
610:
604:
529:
482:
Abuse of the interconnection by the other party, such as
1247:
1134:
837:
329:
1897:
Woodcock, Bill; Edelman, Benjamin (12 September 2012).
1951:
Example Tier 1 Peering Requirements: AT&T (AS7018)
1885:
CAIDA: Internet Measurement: Myths about Internet data
1961:
Example Tier 2 Peering Requirements: Entanet (AS8468)
1234:"DrPeering International - Top 4 Motivations to Peer"
1135:
Ford, Peter; Aiken, B.; Braun, H.W. (February 2004).
1789:
1372:
432:
yet proven that they will provide a mutual benefit.
1072:Woodcock, Bill; Frigino, Marco (21 November 2016).
1039:Woodcock, Bill; Frigino, Marco (21 November 2016).
1796:Woodcock, Bill; Weller, Dennis (29 January 2013).
1401:"Problème de peering entre Free et France Télécom"
243:, each one consisting of a set of globally unique
128:. When the United States government de-funded the
1316:"PSINet-C&W dispute causes Internet blackout"
1979:
1373:Kuri, Jürgen; Smith, Robert W. (21 April 2005).
1009:
1896:
1110:Cybertelecom, Federal Internet Law & Policy
1071:
1038:
1005:
1003:
1001:
999:
997:
995:
101:, or PAIX, which was developed and operated by
1795:
1585:
1065:
1032:
1010:Woodcock, Bill; Adhikari, Vijay (2 May 2011).
316:Increased routing control over one's traffic.
1729:
1264:
1258:
992:
1291:
1618:
1137:"NSF implementation plan for interim NREN"
724:, with 2,289 peering networks; OpenIXP in
300:
282:The Internet is based on the principle of
61:The first Internet exchange point was the
1536:
1398:
1209:"What is peering & why networks peer"
718:Ponto de Troca de Tráfego Metro São Paulo
385:(NAPs). Today they are most often called
1906:Canadian Internet Registration Authority
1890:
1672:
1591:
1206:
669:. This also improves resiliency between
341:
333:
1699:
1537:Guillaume, Nicolas (12 February 2011).
1508:
1482:"CABASE sale aireada del conflicto NAP"
1344:
1179:
1173:
980:North American Network Operators' Group
684:
1980:
1705:
1562:
1447:
1313:
1141:Journal on High Speed Networking, 1993
870:A great deal of the complexity in the
694:or route reflector (which differ from
632:
377:access technology, generally called a
1450:"ISP spat blacks out Net connections"
1399:Le Bouder, Gonéri (11 January 2003).
330:Physical interconnections for peering
1826:from the original on 8 August 2021.
770:
702:
681:between the core transit providers.
435:
234:
189:technology, which provided only 100
1708:"A Deep Dive Into IP Voice Peering"
1509:Ricknäs, Mikael (31 October 2008).
941:in a reasonable and timely manner.
728:, with 1,097 peering networks; and
145:, Virginia, and later relocated to
105:(DEC). Because the CIX operated at
13:
1673:Kirkwood, Grant (September 2009).
1592:Woodcock, Bill (13 January 2003).
1563:Fradin, Andréa (15 January 2013).
1345:Noguchi, Yuki (27 December 2002).
865:
711:
486:or utilizing the peer for transit.
411:
185:. Most of the early NAPs utilized
14:
2004:
1934:
1706:Mohney, Doug (4 September 2009).
1448:Cowley, Stacey (6 October 2005).
1180:Sunyaev, Ali (12 February 2020).
1116:from the original on 12 June 2021
931:Federal Communications Commission
906:
627:
365:
1716:Technology Marketing Corporation
1292:John Curran (30 November 2010).
577:Telecom/Telefónica/Impsat/Prima
173:San Francisco NAP – Operated by
1878:
1864:
1852:
1834:
1759:
1666:
1556:
1530:
1502:
1488:
1474:
1441:
1415:
1392:
1366:
1338:
1307:
1285:
1240:
1156:Information Network Engineering
530:AOL Transit Data Network (ATDN)
205:(622 Mbit/s) of capacity.
1314:Burton, Graeme (7 June 2001).
1226:
1200:
1147:
1128:
1098:
678:
650:
1:
1248:"Internet Exchange Directory"
986:
103:Digital Equipment Corporation
970:Internet traffic engineering
452:
63:Commercial Internet eXchange
7:
1872:"ITU-T Recommendation D.50"
1805:OECD Digital Economy Papers
1274:, Disaster Recovery Journal
1159:. 株式会社 オーム社. 20 July 2015.
948:
197:technology, which provided
177:and located in the Bay Area
162:New York NAP – Operated by
99:Palo Alto Internet Exchange
10:
2009:
937:are being provided to all
924:merger. In this case, the
397:facilities across a city.
293:Public peering is done at
151:Chicago NAP – Operated by
118:Metropolitan Area Ethernet
56:
889:interior gateway protocol
877:multi exit discriminators
549:France Telecom (Wanadoo)
373:is accomplished across a
295:Internet exchange points
247:and a unique global BGP
45:information through the
1817:10.1787/5k918gpt130q-en
1633:Cook Report on Internet
570:Level 3 Communications
301:Motivations for peering
288:end-to-end reachability
47:Border Gateway Protocol
1268:Choosing a Data Center
965:Interconnect agreement
584:Cogent Communications
560:Level 3 Communications
347:
339:
201:(155 Mbit/s) and
141:MAE-East – Located in
1988:Internet architecture
1910:Packet Clearing House
1775:Packet Clearing House
1741:Packet Clearing House
1605:Packet Clearing House
1265:Cosmano, Joe (2009),
1252:Packet Clearing House
1081:Packet Clearing House
1048:Packet Clearing House
1019:Packet Clearing House
926:Department of Justice
616:The French ISP 'Free'
600:Cogent Communications
574:Cogent Communications
546:Cogent Communications
536:Cogent Communications
514:Exodus Communications
383:network access points
345:
337:
135:Network Access Points
87:acceptable use policy
1403:(in French). LinuxFr
1326:on 27 September 2007
1294:"Ratios and Peering"
685:Multilateral peering
525:Cable & Wireless
442:handshake agreements
1687:on 16 November 2009
633:Donut peering model
581:CABASE (Argentina)
21:computer networking
935:telecommunications
690:instantiated in a
391:Internet exchanges
348:
340:
241:autonomous systems
183:network bottleneck
1919:on 25 August 2013
1887:(5 December 2001)
1712:IP Communications
1462:on 8 January 2007
1193:978-3-030-34957-8
1166:978-4-274-99991-8
960:Default-free zone
955:Autonomous system
862:
861:
703:Peering locations
679:business disputes
675:content providers
566:XO Communications
446:written contracts
436:Peering agreement
235:How peering works
147:Ashburn, Virginia
65:(CIX), formed by
2000:
1929:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1918:
1912:. Archived from
1903:
1894:
1888:
1882:
1876:
1875:
1868:
1862:
1856:
1850:
1849:
1844:. Archived from
1838:
1832:
1831:
1825:
1802:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1747:on 9 August 2014
1743:. Archived from
1733:
1727:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1686:
1680:. Archived from
1679:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1653:
1647:. Archived from
1630:
1622:
1616:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1598:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1580:
1578:
1560:
1554:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1506:
1500:
1499:
1492:
1486:
1485:
1478:
1472:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1458:. Archived from
1445:
1439:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1429:. 7 January 2013
1419:
1413:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1396:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1342:
1336:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1322:. Archived from
1311:
1305:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1289:
1283:
1282:
1281:
1279:
1273:
1262:
1256:
1255:
1244:
1238:
1237:
1230:
1224:
1223:
1221:
1219:
1204:
1198:
1197:
1177:
1171:
1170:
1151:
1145:
1144:
1132:
1126:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1102:
1096:
1095:
1089:
1087:
1078:
1069:
1063:
1062:
1056:
1054:
1045:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1016:
1007:
771:
484:pointing default
210:gigabit Ethernet
75:Verizon Business
2008:
2007:
2003:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1998:
1997:
1978:
1977:
1937:
1932:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1901:
1895:
1891:
1883:
1879:
1870:
1869:
1865:
1857:
1853:
1848:on 1 June 2009.
1840:
1839:
1835:
1823:
1800:
1794:
1790:
1780:
1778:
1765:
1764:
1760:
1750:
1748:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1720:
1718:
1704:
1700:
1690:
1688:
1684:
1677:
1671:
1667:
1657:
1655:
1654:on 19 July 2011
1651:
1628:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1609:
1607:
1596:
1590:
1586:
1576:
1574:
1561:
1557:
1547:
1545:
1535:
1531:
1521:
1519:
1507:
1503:
1494:
1493:
1489:
1480:
1479:
1475:
1465:
1463:
1446:
1442:
1432:
1430:
1421:
1420:
1416:
1406:
1404:
1397:
1393:
1383:
1381:
1371:
1367:
1357:
1355:
1352:Washington Post
1343:
1339:
1329:
1327:
1320:Information Age
1312:
1308:
1298:
1296:
1290:
1286:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1263:
1259:
1246:
1245:
1241:
1232:
1231:
1227:
1217:
1215:
1205:
1201:
1194:
1178:
1174:
1167:
1153:
1152:
1148:
1133:
1129:
1119:
1117:
1104:
1103:
1099:
1085:
1083:
1076:
1070:
1066:
1052:
1050:
1043:
1037:
1033:
1023:
1021:
1014:
1008:
993:
989:
951:
909:
868:
866:Peering and BGP
863:
714:
712:Exchange points
705:
696:looking glasses
687:
655:Tier 1 networks
642:, with a core "
635:
630:
455:
438:
417:Private peering
414:
412:Private peering
387:exchange points
368:
332:
303:
237:
166:and located in
155:and located in
59:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2006:
1996:
1995:
1993:Net neutrality
1990:
1974:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1936:
1935:External links
1933:
1931:
1930:
1889:
1877:
1863:
1861:, OECD 3/25/02
1851:
1833:
1788:
1758:
1728:
1698:
1665:
1617:
1584:
1555:
1529:
1501:
1487:
1473:
1440:
1414:
1391:
1365:
1337:
1306:
1284:
1257:
1239:
1225:
1207:nowaybackbot.
1199:
1192:
1172:
1165:
1146:
1127:
1097:
1064:
1031:
990:
988:
985:
984:
983:
977:
975:Net neutrality
972:
967:
962:
957:
950:
947:
908:
907:Law and policy
905:
867:
864:
860:
859:
855:
854:
849:
842:
841:
840:
835:
828:
827:
826:
821:
814:
813:
812:
807:
800:
799:
798:
793:
786:
785:
784:
779:
769:
744:in Amsterdam,
713:
710:
704:
701:
686:
683:
651:detailed above
634:
631:
629:
628:Modern peering
626:
625:
624:
613:
602:
591:
582:
575:
568:
557:
547:
541:France Telecom
538:
527:
516:
500:
499:
496:
493:
490:
487:
480:
477:
474:traffic ratios
470:
467:
454:
451:
437:
434:
426:carrier hotels
413:
410:
408:connectivity.
371:Public peering
367:
366:Public peering
364:
363:
362:
359:
331:
328:
327:
326:
323:
320:
317:
314:
311:
302:
299:
280:
279:
276:
273:
266:
265:
259:
236:
233:
179:
178:
171:
160:
149:
109:, rather than
58:
55:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2005:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1983:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1938:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1900:
1893:
1886:
1881:
1873:
1867:
1860:
1855:
1847:
1843:
1837:
1830:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1799:
1792:
1777:. 28 May 2021
1776:
1772:
1768:
1762:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1732:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1702:
1683:
1676:
1669:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1627:
1621:
1606:
1602:
1595:
1588:
1572:
1571:
1566:
1559:
1544:
1541:(in French).
1540:
1533:
1518:
1517:
1512:
1505:
1497:
1491:
1483:
1477:
1461:
1457:
1456:
1451:
1444:
1428:
1424:
1418:
1402:
1395:
1380:
1376:
1369:
1354:
1353:
1348:
1341:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1310:
1295:
1288:
1270:
1269:
1261:
1253:
1249:
1243:
1235:
1229:
1214:
1210:
1203:
1195:
1189:
1185:
1184:
1176:
1168:
1162:
1158:
1157:
1150:
1142:
1138:
1131:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1101:
1094:
1082:
1075:
1068:
1061:
1049:
1042:
1035:
1020:
1013:
1006:
1004:
1002:
1000:
998:
996:
991:
981:
978:
976:
973:
971:
968:
966:
963:
961:
958:
956:
953:
952:
946:
942:
940:
936:
932:
927:
923:
919:
914:
904:
902:
901:
896:
895:
890:
884:
882:
878:
873:
858:
853:
850:
848:
845:
844:
843:
839:
836:
834:
831:
830:
829:
825:
822:
820:
817:
816:
815:
811:
808:
806:
803:
802:
801:
797:
794:
792:
789:
788:
787:
783:
780:
778:
775:
774:
773:
772:
768:
765:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
709:
700:
697:
693:
682:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
647:
645:
641:
623:
620:
617:
614:
612:
609:
606:
603:
601:
598:
595:
594:Sprint-Nextel
592:
590:
587:
583:
580:
576:
573:
569:
567:
564:
561:
558:
555:
552:
548:
545:
542:
539:
537:
534:
531:
528:
526:
523:
520:
517:
515:
512:
509:
506:
505:
504:
497:
494:
491:
488:
485:
481:
478:
475:
472:Concern over
471:
468:
465:
464:
463:
461:
450:
447:
443:
433:
429:
427:
423:
418:
409:
407:
402:
398:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
379:shared fabric
376:
372:
360:
357:
353:
352:
351:
344:
336:
324:
321:
318:
315:
312:
309:
308:
307:
298:
296:
291:
289:
285:
277:
274:
271:
270:
269:
263:
260:
257:
256:
255:
252:
250:
246:
242:
232:
230:
226:
225:United States
222:
217:
215:
211:
206:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
176:
172:
169:
165:
161:
158:
154:
150:
148:
144:
143:Tysons Corner
140:
139:
138:
136:
131:
127:
123:
122:Tysons Corner
120:, or MAE, in
119:
114:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
89:(AUP) of the
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
54:
50:
48:
44:
39:
37:
33:
30:
26:
22:
1975:
1921:. Retrieved
1914:the original
1892:
1880:
1866:
1854:
1846:the original
1836:
1827:
1808:
1804:
1791:
1779:. Retrieved
1770:
1761:
1749:. Retrieved
1745:the original
1731:
1719:. Retrieved
1711:
1701:
1689:. Retrieved
1682:the original
1668:
1656:. Retrieved
1649:the original
1636:
1632:
1620:
1608:. Retrieved
1600:
1587:
1575:. Retrieved
1568:
1558:
1546:. Retrieved
1532:
1520:. Retrieved
1514:
1504:
1490:
1476:
1466:28 September
1464:. Retrieved
1460:the original
1453:
1443:
1431:. Retrieved
1426:
1417:
1407:28 September
1405:. Retrieved
1394:
1384:28 September
1382:. Retrieved
1379:Heise online
1368:
1358:28 September
1356:. Retrieved
1350:
1340:
1330:28 September
1328:. Retrieved
1324:the original
1319:
1309:
1297:. Retrieved
1287:
1276:, retrieved
1267:
1260:
1251:
1242:
1228:
1216:. Retrieved
1212:
1202:
1186:. Springer.
1182:
1175:
1155:
1149:
1140:
1130:
1118:. Retrieved
1109:
1100:
1091:
1084:. Retrieved
1067:
1058:
1051:. Retrieved
1034:
1022:. Retrieved
943:
918:MCI Worldcom
910:
898:
892:
885:
869:
856:
766:
715:
706:
692:route server
688:
648:
636:
618:
607:
596:
585:
578:
571:
562:
550:
543:
532:
521:
510:
501:
483:
473:
459:
456:
439:
430:
416:
415:
403:
399:
390:
378:
370:
369:
349:
304:
292:
287:
283:
281:
267:
253:
245:IP addresses
238:
229:dot-com bust
221:dot-com boom
218:
207:
180:
170:, New Jersey
115:
60:
51:
40:
24:
18:
1721:4 September
1573:(in French)
1548:12 February
1427:PR Newswire
1218:11 February
1213:peer.org.uk
894:cold potato
879:(MEDs) and
667:packet loss
589:TeliaSonera
406:data center
219:During the
214:100 gigabit
111:OSI layer 2
107:OSI layer 3
95:Santa Clara
1982:Categories
1923:20 October
1577:15 January
1543:ITespresso
1522:31 October
1433:17 January
987:References
900:Hot-potato
838:Mix Milano
644:donut hole
508:BBN Planet
395:colocation
168:Pennsauken
159:, Illinois
36:settlement
1751:4 October
1691:2 October
1645:1071-6327
1455:InfoWorld
1060:document.
939:Americans
913:telephone
734:Frankfurt
722:São Paulo
671:consumers
659:oligopoly
460:depeering
453:Depeering
216:service.
153:Ameritech
1821:Archived
1811:. OECD.
1658:28 April
1610:28 April
1516:PC World
1120:30 March
1114:Archived
949:See also
847:ix.br SP
762:New York
356:Ethernet
251:policy.
126:Virginia
67:Alternet
32:networks
29:Internet
1771:pch.net
1278:21 July
982:(NANOG)
881:AS-Path
738:Equinix
726:Jakarta
663:latency
622:YouTube
375:Layer 2
358:switch.
262:Transit
249:routing
175:PacBell
157:Chicago
83:CERFNET
57:History
43:routing
25:peering
1781:28 May
1643:
1299:9 July
1190:
1163:
1086:28 May
1053:28 May
922:Sprint
857:
833:Netnod
824:TOP-IX
796:MSK-IX
782:DE-CIX
777:AMS-IX
756:, and
754:London
742:AMS-IX
730:DE-CIX
640:toroid
556:(Free)
554:Proxad
519:PSINet
284:global
191:Mbit/s
164:Sprint
130:NSFNET
91:NSFNet
81:, and
1917:(PDF)
1902:(PDF)
1824:(PDF)
1801:(PDF)
1685:(PDF)
1678:(PDF)
1652:(PDF)
1629:(PDF)
1597:(ppt)
1570:Slate
1272:(PDF)
1077:(PDF)
1044:(PDF)
1024:5 May
1015:(PDF)
852:SFMIX
819:LAIIX
810:NYIIX
805:TORIX
758:NYIIX
750:LONAP
720:, in
422:SONET
203:OC-12
73:(now
71:UUNET
1925:2013
1908:and
1783:2021
1753:2013
1723:2009
1693:2009
1660:2011
1641:ISSN
1612:2011
1579:2013
1550:2011
1524:2008
1468:2006
1435:2024
1409:2006
1386:2006
1360:2006
1332:2006
1301:2011
1280:2012
1220:2022
1188:ISBN
1161:ISBN
1122:2022
1088:2021
1055:2021
1026:2011
791:LINX
748:and
746:LINX
673:and
665:and
199:OC-3
187:FDDI
1813:doi
1809:207
897:).
872:BGP
760:in
752:in
732:in
649:As
611:OVH
605:SFR
444:to
389:or
286:or
195:ATM
79:PSI
77:),
19:In
1984::
1904:.
1819:.
1807:.
1803:.
1773:.
1769:.
1739:.
1714:.
1710:.
1637:XI
1635:.
1631:.
1603:.
1599:.
1567:.
1513:.
1452:.
1425:.
1377:.
1349:.
1318:.
1250:.
1211:.
1139:.
1112:.
1108:.
1090:.
1079:.
1057:.
1046:.
1017:.
994:^
764:.
619:vs
608:vs
597:vs
586:vs
579:vs
572:vs
563:vs
551:vs
544:vs
533:vs
522:vs
511:vs
124:,
23:,
1927:.
1874:.
1815::
1785:.
1755:.
1725:.
1695:.
1662:.
1614:.
1581:.
1552:.
1526:.
1498:.
1484:.
1470:.
1437:.
1411:.
1388:.
1362:.
1334:.
1303:.
1254:.
1236:.
1222:.
1196:.
1169:.
1143:.
1124:.
1028:.
920:/
133:"
69:/
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.