Melanin - Knowledge

85: 1158: 132: 1229:, which is mostly an autosomal recessive disorder. Certain ethnicities have higher incidences of different forms. For example, the most common type, called oculocutaneous albinism type 2 (OCA2), is especially frequent among people of black African descent and white Europeans. People with OCA2 usually have fair skin, but are often not as pale as OCA1. They (OCA2 or OCA1? see comments in History) have pale blonde to golden, strawberry blonde, or even brown hair, and most commonly blue eyes. 98.7–100% of modern Europeans are carriers of the derived allele 859: 73: 464:. This selenium analogue of pheomelanin has been successfully synthesized through chemical and biosynthetic routes using selenocystine as a feedstock. Due to selenium's higher atomic number, the obtained selenomelanin can be expected to provide better protection against ionising radiation as compared to the other known forms of melanin. This protection has been demonstrated with radiation experiments on human cells and bacteria, opening up the possibility of applications in space travel. 485: 1182: 796: 850: 423: 53: 1146: 7105: 1170: 1194: 1341:. Effective in treating white skin, in general, lasers are less successful in removing port-wine stains in people of Asian or African descent. Higher concentrations of melanin in darker-skinned individuals simply diffuse and absorb the laser radiation, inhibiting light absorption by the targeted tissue. In a similar manner, melanin can complicate laser treatment of other dermatological conditions in people with darker skin. 702:, convert resources to melanin to enhance their thermoregulation. As the wood tiger moth has populations over a large range of latitudes, it has been observed that more northern populations showed higher rates of melanization. In both yellow and white male phenotypes of the wood tiger moth, individuals with more melanin had a heightened ability to trap heat but an increased predation rate due to a weaker and less effective 432: 331: 275: 1462:, and possibly others). The first modern humans had darker skin as the indigenous people of Africa today. Following migration and settlement in Asia and Europe, the selective pressure dark UV-radiation protecting skin decreased where radiation from the sun was less intense. This resulted in the current range of human skin color. Of the two common gene variants known to be associated with pale human skin, 550:. Although, in general, human beings possess a similar concentration of melanocytes in their skin, the melanocytes in some individuals and ethnic groups produce variable amounts of melanin. The ratio of eumelanin (74%) and pheomelanin (26%) in the epidermis is constant regardless of the degree of pigmentation. Some humans have very little or no melanin synthesis in their bodies, a condition known as 7117: 347:. Pheomelanin is also present in the skin, and redheads consequently often have a more pinkish hue to their skin as well. Exposure of the skin to ultraviolet light increases pheomelanin content, as it does for eumelanin; but rather than absorbing light, pheomelanin within the hair and skin reflect yellow to red light, which may increase damage from UV radiation exposure. 253:, causing the skin to darken. Eumelanin is an effective absorbent of light; the pigment is able to dissipate over 99.9% of absorbed UV radiation. Because of this property, eumelanin is thought to protect skin cells from UVA and UVB radiation damage, reducing the risk of folate depletion and dermal degradation. Exposure to UV radiation is associated with increased risk of 612:. In invertebrates, a major aspect of the innate immune defense system against invading pathogens involves melanin. Within minutes after infection, the microbe is encapsulated within melanin (melanization), and the generation of free radical byproducts during the formation of this capsule is thought to aid in killing them. Some types of fungi, called 839:. This can be thought of as a single monomer that accounts for the measured elemental composition and some properties of melanin, but is unlikely to be found in nature. Solano claims that this misleading trend stems from a report of an empirical formula in 1948, but provides no other historical detail. 447:

that form a 'corona', that are responsible for the substance's solubility. The peptide chains are linked to the L-DOPA core polymer via peptide bonds. This lead to a proposed biosynthetic process involving the hydroxylation of tyrosinylated peptides formed via proteases during sporogenesis, which are

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As with peoples having migrated northward, those with light skin migrating toward the equator acclimatize to the much stronger solar radiation. Nature selects for less melanin when ultraviolet radiation is weak. Most people's skin darkens when exposed to UV light, giving them more protection when it

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metal ions through its carboxylate and phenolic hydroxyl groups, often much more efficiently than the powerful chelating ligand ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA). Thus, it may serve to sequester potentially toxic metal ions, protecting the rest of the cell. This hypothesis is supported by the fact

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Pheomelanins (or phaeomelanins) impart a range of yellowish to reddish colors. Pheomelanins are particularly concentrated in the lips, nipples, glans of the penis, and vagina. When a small amount of eumelanin in hair (which would otherwise cause blond hair) is mixed with pheomelanin, the result is

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Not all the effects of pigmentation are advantageous. Pigmentation increases the heat load in hot climates, and dark-skinned people absorb 30% more heat from sunlight than do very light-skinned people, although this factor may be offset by more profuse sweating. In cold climates dark skin entails

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reduction or absence of melanin pigment in the skin, hair, and eyes. The estimated frequency of OCA2 among African-Americans is 1 in 10,000, which contrasts with a frequency of 1 in 36,000 in white Americans. In some African nations, the frequency of the disorder is even higher, ranging from 1 in

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strands that form feathers. Pheomelanin synthesis in birds implies the consumption of cysteine, a semi‐essential amino acid that is necessary for the synthesis of the antioxidant glutathione (GSH) but that may be toxic if in excess in the diet. Indeed, many carnivorous birds, which have a high

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Because melanin is an aggregate of smaller component molecules, there are many different types of melanin with different proportions and bonding patterns of these component molecules. Both pheomelanin and eumelanin are found in human skin and hair, but eumelanin is the most abundant melanin in

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In natural conditions, DHI and DHICA often co-polymerize, resulting in a range of eumelanin polymers. These polymers contribute to the variety of melanin components in human skin and hair, ranging from light yellow/red pheomelanin to light brown DHICA-enriched eumelanin and dark brown or black

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synthesis. While no correlation between race and the level of neuromelanin in the substantia nigra has been reported, the significantly lower incidence of Parkinson's in blacks than in whites has "prompt some to suggest that cutaneous melanin might somehow serve to protect the neuromelanin in

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Ocular albinism affects not only eye pigmentation but visual acuity, as well. People with albinism typically test poorly, within the 20/60 to 20/400 range. In addition, two forms of albinism, with approximately 1 in 2,700 most prevalent among people of Puerto Rican origin, are associated with

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Up until the 1960s, melanin was classified into eumelanin and pheomelanin. However in 1955 a melanin associated with nerve cells was discovered, neuromelanin. In 1972 a water-soluble form, pyomelanin was discovered. In 1976, allomelanin, the fifth form of the melanins was found in nature.

322:, it is accompanied by a decrease in DHICA-eumelanin and pheomelanin. A small amount of black eumelanin in the absence of other pigments causes grey hair. A small amount of eumelanin in the absence of other pigments causes blond hair. Eumelanin is present in the skin and hair, etc. 354:

availability, which is transported into the melanosome, reacting with dopaquinone to form cys-dopa. Cys-dopa then undergoes several transformations before forming pheomelanin. In chemical terms, pheomelanins differ from eumelanins in that the oligomer structure incorporates

748: 1426:. Since pigmentation appears to be not entirely advantageous to life in the tropics, other hypotheses about its biological significance have been advanced; for example a secondary phenomenon induced by adaptation to parasites and tropical diseases. 1271:

in North America. The incidence of albinism in Hopi Indians has been estimated as approximately 1 in 200 individuals. Similar patterns of albinism and deafness have been found in other mammals, including dogs and rodents. However, a lack of melanin

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in the brain. Humans have the largest amount of NM, which is present in lesser amounts in other primates, and totally absent in many other species. The biological function remains unknown, although human NM has been shown to efficiently bind

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evolved dark skin color, as an adaptation to a loss of body hair that increased the effects of UV radiation. Before the development of hairlessness, early humans might have had light skin underneath their fur, similar to that found in other

294:(DHICA). DHI-derived eumelanin is dark brown or black and insoluble, and DHICA -derived eumelanin which is lighter and soluble in alkali. Both eumelanins arise from the oxidation of tyrosine in specialized organelles called 317:

V and VI) skin finds that DHI-eumelanin comprises the largest portion, approximately 60–70%, followed by DHICA-eumelanin at 25–35%, and pheomelanin only 2–8%. Notably, while an enrichment of DHI-eumelanin occurs in during

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Alaluf S, Heath A, Carter N, Atkins D, Mahalingam H, Barrett K, et al. (2001). "Variation in Melanin Content and Composition in Type V and VI Photoexposed and Photoprotected Human Skin: The Dominant Role of DHI".

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does not appear to be directly responsible for deafness associated with hypopigmentation, as most individuals lacking the enzymes required to synthesize melanin have normal auditory function. Instead, the absence of

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functioning, there is decreased neuromelanin in the substantia nigra and locus coeruleus as a consequence of specific dropping out of dopaminergic and noradrenergic pigmented neurons. This results in diminished

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Millar SE, Miller MW, Stevens ME, Barsh GS (October 1995). "Expression and transgenic studies of the mouse agouti gene provide insight into the mechanisms by which mammalian coat color patterns are generated".

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In addition to melanin deficiency, the molecular weight of the melanin polymer may be decreased by various factors such as oxidative stress, exposure to light, perturbation in its association with melanosomal

1213:, which are larger, chunky, and refractile, and range in color from green to yellow or red-brown. In heavily pigmented lesions, dense aggregates of melanin can obscure histologic detail. A dilute solution of 426:

SEM micrograph of Aspergillus niger (strain: melanoliber) conodiophore possessing a large number of small conidospores (colorized). These spores release peptidomelanin into the surrounding medium during

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of melanoma cells is crucial to metastasis and growth; non-pigmented tumors were larger than pigmented tumors, and spread far more easily. Pigmented and non-pigmented cells are both present in melanoma

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Greco G, Panzella L, Verotta L, d'Ischia M, Napolitano A (April 2011). "Uncovering the structure of human red hair pheomelanin: benzothiazolylthiazinodihydroisoquinolines as key building blocks".

1242:, who are of primarily Swiss and German ancestry. People with this IB variant of the disorder commonly have white hair and skin at birth, but rapidly develop normal skin pigmentation in infancy. 3644: 2660: 1542:

are more at risk of sun-related eye problems. Furthermore, the ocular lens yellows with age, providing added protection. However, the lens also becomes more rigid with age, losing most of its

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has an affinity for melanin-containing tissues because of its precursor function in melanin synthesis or its irreversible binding of melanin. This has been suggested to underlie the increased

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Fedorow H, Tribl F, Halliday G, Gerlach M, Riederer P, Double KL (2005). "Neuromelanin in human dopamine neurons: comparison with peripheral melanins and relevance to Parkinson's disease".

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It is now understood that melanins do not have a single structure or stoichiometry. Nonetheless, chemical databases such as PubChem include structural and empirical formulae; typically

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Pheomelanins, unlike euemanins, are rare in lower organisms with claims they are an "evolutionary innovation in the tetrapod lineage" but recent research finds them also in some fish.

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have larger quantities of eumelanin in their skins. This makes their skins brown or black and protects them against high levels of exposure to the sun, which more frequently result in

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Meier-Davis SR, Dines K, Arjmand FM, et al. (December 2012). "Comparison of oral and transdermal administration of rasagiline mesylate on human melanoma tumor growth in vivo".

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tint given to some skin or hair colors. Neuromelanin is found in the brain. Research has been undertaken to investigate its efficacy in treating neurodegenerative disorders such as

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which regulates the distribution of melanin. The mechanisms of the gene have been extensively studied in mice to provide an insight into the diversity of mammalian coat patterns.

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can transform into either 5,6-dihydroxyindole (DHI) or 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid (DHICA). DHI and DHICA are oxidized and then polymerize to form the two eumelanins.

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Higher eumelanin levels also can be a disadvantage, however, beyond a higher disposition toward vitamin D deficiency. Dark skin is a complicating factor in the laser removal of

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Mosse IB, Dubovic BV, Plotnikova SI, Kostrova LN, Molophei V, Subbot ST, et al. (20–25 May 2001). Obelic B, Ranogajev-Komor M, Miljanic S, Krajcar Bronic I (eds.).

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evolved in Africa between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago, and then populated the rest of the world through migration between 80,000 and 50,000 years ago, in some areas

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Melanin is brown, non-refractile, and finely granular with individual granules having a diameter of less than 800 nanometers. This differentiates melanin from common

3455: 3359: 226:. Eumelanin is the most common type. Pheomelanin, which is produced when melanocytes are malfunctioning due to derivation of the gene to its recessive format, is a 3119:

Gunderson AR, Frame AM, Swaddle JP, Forsyth MH (1 September 2008). "Resistance of melanized feathers to bacterial degradation: is it really so black and white?".

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pigments. Feathers that contain melanin are also 39% more resistant to abrasion than those that do not because melanin granules help fill the space between the

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Berth-Jones, J. (2010). "Constitutive pigmentation, human pigmentation and the response to sun exposure". In Burns T, Breathnach S, Cox N, Griffiths C (eds.).

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King G, Yerger VB, Whembolua GL, Bendel RB, Kittles R, Moolchan ET (June 2009). "Link between facultative melanin and tobacco use among African Americans".

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Cable J, Huszar D, Jaenisch R, Steel KP (February 1994). "Effects of mutations at the W locus (c-kit) on inner ear pigmentation and function in the mouse".

5980: 5936: 5451: 257:, a cancer of melanocytes (melanin cells). Studies have shown a lower incidence for skin cancer in individuals with more concentrated melanin, i.e. darker 1263:

observed that "cats which are entirely white and have blue eyes are generally deaf". In humans, hypopigmentation and deafness occur together in the rare

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are one of the few groups in which melanin has not been easily detected, though researchers found data suggesting spiders do in fact produce melanin.

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Lamason RL, Mohideen MA, Mest JR, et al. (December 2005). "SLC24A5, a putative cation exchanger, affects pigmentation in zebrafish and humans".

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Rodríguez-Martínez S, Galván I (2020). "Juvenile pheomelanin-based plumage coloration has evolved more frequently in carnivorous species".

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of fruits such as bananas. Chestnut shell melanin can be used as an antioxidant and coloring agent. Biosynthesis involves the oxidation of

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and the development of melanoma, a potentially deadly form of skin cancer, as well as other health problems related to exposure to strong

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Ito S, Wakamatsu K (December 2011). "Diversity of human hair pigmentation as studied by chemical analysis of eumelanin and pheomelanin".

5975: 5931: 5781: 5446: 3976: 2859: 1447: 4506: 3558:"To quiver or to shiver: increased melanization benefits thermoregulation, but reduces warning signal efficacy in the wood tiger moth" 590:), and biochemical threats (such as host defenses against invading microbes). Therefore, in many pathogenic microbes (for example, in 5077:

Sarangarajan R, Apte SP (2005). "Melanin aggregation and polymerization: possible implications in age-related macular degeneration".

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Slominski A, Tobin DJ, Shibahara S, Wortsman J (October 2004). "Melanin pigmentation in mammalian skin and its hormonal regulation".

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leading to the formation of catechol melanin. Despite this many plants contain compounds which inhibit the production of melanins.

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Sköld HN, Aspengren S, Cheney KL, Wallin M (2016). "Chapter Four - Fish Chromatophores—From Molecular Motors to Animal Behavior".

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as the eumelanins and pheomelanins, but unlike those molecules they have low molecular weight. They occur in some red human hair.

6660: 6640: 6635: 5777: 2723: 1334:, an important monotherapy drug in Parkinson's disease, has melanin binding properties, and melanoma tumor reducing properties. 439:

Peptidomelanin is another water-soluble form of melanin. It was found to be secreted into the surrounding medium by germinating

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Liu Y, Hong L, Kempf VR, Wakamatsu K, Ito S, Simon JD (June 2004). "Ion-exchange and adsorption of Fe(III) by Sepia melanin".

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Recent research suggests that melanin may serve a protective role other than photoprotection. Melanin is able to effectively

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2,000 to 1 in 5,000. Another form of Albinism, the "yellow oculocutaneous albinism", appears to be more prevalent among the

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that the loss of neuromelanin, observed in Parkinson's disease, is accompanied by an increase in iron levels in the brain.

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may lead to formation of pro-oxidant melanin with lower-molecular-weight, implicated in the causation and progression of

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of birds owe their color to melanin and are less readily degraded by bacteria than unpigmented ones or those containing

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are formed where there is a localized concentration of melanin in the skin. They are highly associated with pale skin.

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Melanins have very diverse roles and functions in various organisms. A form of melanin makes up the ink used by many

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Sarangarajan R, Apte SP (2005). "Melanization and phagocytosis: implications for age related macular degeneration".

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Peracha MO, Cosgrove FM, Garcia-Valenzuela E, Eliott D (5 November 2015). Roy H Sr, Talavera F, Rowsey JJ (eds.).

3770:"Melanin-Like Nanomaterials for Advanced Biomedical Applications: A Versatile Platform with Extraordinary Promise" 1233:, a known cause of nonsyndromic oculocutaneous albinism. It is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by a 1046: 6980: 6736: 6249: 5618: 4353: 6443: 6842: 6753: 6572: 6491: 6010: 5491: 5486: 3175: 6942: 6901: 6847: 6438: 6161: 6156: 5873: 5536: 4274:"Microbial Tyrosinases: Promising Enzymes for Pharmaceutical, Food Bioprocessing, and Environmental Industry" 3478: 147: 4816: 4200:"Melanins: Skin Pigments and Much More—Types, Structural Models, Biological Functions, and Formation Routes" 2994:"Ionizing radiation changes the electronic properties of melanin and enhances the growth of melanized fungi" 2290:"Melanins: Skin Pigments and Much More—Types, Structural Models, Biological Functions, and Formation Routes" 6809: 4669: 1322:. In its pro-oxidant state, melanin has been suggested to be involved in the causation and progression of 6896: 6099: 6050: 5517: 1157: 681:

of alternating refractive index. When the scale of this pattern matches the wavelength of visible light,

443:(strain: melanoliber) spores. Peptidomelanin is formed as a copolymer between L-DOPA eumelanin and short 17: 2169: 7095: 6916: 6582: 5805: 5521: 5422: 5417: 2747:"5,6-Dihydroxyindole eumelanin content in human skin with varying degrees of constitutive pigmentation" 1607: 1443: 5121: 4525: 7137: 6758: 6706: 6463: 6458: 6146: 6141: 6094: 6055: 5700: 3612:. IRPA Regional Congress on Radiation Protection in Central Europe: Radiation Protection and Health. 1535: 1487:. Dark-skinned people, who produce more skin-protecting eumelanin, have a greater protection against 1410:

rays. In general, people whose ancestors lived for long periods in the regions of the globe near the

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in the Soviet era, was increasingly supported by government funding in the wake of the discovery of

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such as iron, as well as other potentially toxic molecules. Therefore, it may play crucial roles in

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Mouchet SR, Cortesi F, Bokic B, Lazovic V, Vukusic P, Marshall NJ, et al. (1 November 2023).

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Micrograph of Melanin pigment (light refracting granular material—center of image) in a pigmented

6772: 6665: 6408: 5835: 5810: 5738: 5720: 5501:– this diagram does not include the pathway for β-leucine synthesis via leucine 2,3-aminomutase) 5481: 2922:

Cerenius L, Söderhäll K (April 2004). "The prophenoloxidase-activating system in invertebrates".

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Part of the structural formula of pheomelanin. "(COOH)" can be COOH or H, or (more rarely) other

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Double KL (2006). "Functional effects of neuromelanin and synthetic melanin in model systems".

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Part of the structural formula of eumelanin. "(COOH)" can be COOH or H, or (more rarely) other

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Melanin produced by plants are sometimes referred to as 'catechol melanins' as they can yield

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Mosse IB (2012). "Genetic effects of ionizing radiation – some questions with no answers".

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Kolipakala RS, Basu S, Sarkar S, Biju BM, Salazar D, Reddy L, et al. (7 August 2024).

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Meredith P, Riesz J (2004). "Radiative relaxation quantum yields for synthetic eumelanin".

1873:"Neuromelanin, one of the most overlooked molecules in modern medicine, is not a spectator" 1741: 1643: 1627: 1591: 1323: 871: 543: 6763: 4376: 3088:"Morphological and Optical Modification of Melanosomes in Fish Integuments upon Oxidation" 899: 582:. Melanin also protects against damage from high temperatures, chemical stresses (such as 8: 7147: 6557: 6032: 6028: 5941: 5826: 5456: 5042:

Donatien PD, Orlow SJ (August 1995). "Interaction of melanosomal proteins with melanin".

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Castelvecchi D (26 May 2007). "Dark Power: Pigment seems to put radiation to good use".

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Melanin is Effective Radioprotector against Chronic Irradiation and Low Radiation Doses

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Neuromelanin (NM) is an insoluble polymer pigment produced in specific populations of

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Harding RM, Healy E, Ray AJ, Ellis NS, Flanagan N, Todd C, et al. (April 2000).

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dopaquinone + cysteine → 2-S-cysteinyldopa → benzothiazine intermediate → pheomelanin

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dopaquinone + cysteine → 5-S-cysteinyldopa → benzothiazine intermediate → pheomelanin

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The first step of the biosynthetic pathway for both eumelanins and pheomelanins is

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Trichochromes (formerly called trichosiderins) are pigments produced from the same

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Cao W, Zhou X, McCallum NC, Hu Z, Ni QZ, Kapoor U, et al. (9 February 2021).

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of about 4.93 kPa, compared to non-pigmented cells, with a value of 0.98 kPa. The

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Sarna M, Krzykawska-Serda M, Jakubowska M, Zadlo A, Urbanska K (26 June 2019).

4089:"Comparison of Antioxidant Activities of Melanin Fractions from Chestnut Shell" 3382: 2899: 2882: 2199:

Thody AJ, Higgins EM, Wakamatsu K, Ito S, Burchill SA, Marks JM (August 1991).

2139: 1753: 1707: 1686: 1611: 1523: 1307: 1298: 1260: 1040: 824: 609: 571: 504: 243: 223: 4639: 4377:"Ocular Manifestations of Albinism: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology" 4155: 4105: 3662: 3639: 2499: 2026: 2024: 2022: 2020: 1358: 310:

DHI-enriched eumelanin. These final polymers differ in solubility and color.

7131: 7001: 6930: 6891: 6486: 6128: 5908: 5556: 5252: 4733: 4057: 4001: 3947: 3875: 3799: 3733: 3725: 3671: 3279: 2770: 2700: 2599: 2574:

Cao W, McCallum NC, Ni QZ, Li W, Boyce H, Mao H, et al. (22 July 2020).

2550: 2542: 2531:"Fungal Peptidomelanin: A Novel Biopolymer for the Chelation of Heavy Metals" 2421: 2349: 2096: 2053: 1889: 1829: 1761: 1696: 1571: 1567: 1451: 1028: 1018: 735:

come from the laboratories and research groups of Irma Mosse. Mosse began in

605: 601: 532: 360: 356: 303: 231: 208: 4974: 4918: 4784: 3416: 2819: 6768: 6692: 6213: 6085: 5913: 5531: 5270: 5200: 5150: 5098: 5028: 4993: 4926: 4883: 4802: 4647: 4604: 4554: 4309: 4258: 4173: 4124: 4009: 3883: 3817: 3791: 3768:

Liu H, Yang Y, Liu Y, Pan J, Wang J, Man F, et al. (7 February 2020).

3751: 3679: 3640:"Melanin pigments of fungi under extreme environmental conditions (Review)" 3591: 3573: 3542: 3234: 3072: 3037: 2943: 2908: 2837: 2788: 2719: 2607: 2507: 2464: 2429: 2396:"Genome sequence and genetic diversity of the common carp, Cyprinus carpio" 2357: 2271: 2200: 2147: 2104: 2061: 2017: 2010: 1953: 1908: 1837: 1820: 1769: 1619: 1603: 1455: 1434: 1395: 1387: 1289: 740: 736: 583: 575: 383: 250: 196: 5063: 4492: 4290: 4216: 4199: 4074: 3424: 3199:"Bird Integumentary Melanins: Biosynthesis, Forms, Function and Evolution" 2394:

Xu P, Zhang X, Wang X, Li J, Liu G, Kuang Y, et al. (November 2014).

2306: 2289: 2224: 7058: 6996: 5893: 5859: 3328: 3215: 2591: 1936: 1811: 1579: 1531: 1484: 1407: 1319: 1278: 1210: 1083: 858: 703: 667: 491:

occurs when melanocytes produce little melanin. This albino girl is from

335: 319: 279: 181: 180:. Melanin pigments are produced in a specialized group of cells known as 161: 3270: 7048: 7019: 6965: 6701: 6520: 6428: 6361: 6300: 6276: 6200: 6176: 5995: 5966: 5815: 5508: 5399: 5363: 3533: 3516: 3171: 3104: 3087: 2762: 2341: 1795: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1459: 1383: 1331: 1234: 1115: 1068: 995: 910: 711: 686: 674: 651: 621: 567: 539: 368: 299: 295: 216: 207:. Eumelanin is produced through a multistage chemical process known as 5090: 4373: 4357: 4193: 4191: 3261: 2802:

Cichorek M, Wachulska M, Stasiewicz A, Tymińska A (20 February 2013).

2263: 422: 6610: 6391: 6204: 6065: 5884: 5880: 5855: 5743: 5729: 5715: 5691: 5314: 5295: 4761:"The genetic structure and history of Africans and African Americans" 4403: 3783: 3617: 1712: 1561: 1554: 1539: 1423: 744: 659:

protein content in their diet, exhibit pheomelanin‐based coloration.

597: 558:

humans, as well as the form most likely to be deficient in albinism.

520: 512: 448:

then incorporated autoxidatively into a growing L-DOPA core polymer.

398: 258: 246:. Allomelanin and pyomelanin are two types of nitrogen free melanin. 212: 153: 35: 5216: 3381:

Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart WM (2000).

3163: 2412: 2395: 1796:"Unraveling the Structure and Function of Melanin through Synthesis" 1586:. Suboptimal conditions for the effective polymerization of melanin 1422:

more heat loss by radiation. Pigmentation also hinders synthesis of

1039:

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their

7104: 6615: 6400: 6309: 6168: 6132: 6119: 5851: 5796: 5672: 5634: 5591: 5560: 4865: 4382: 4188: 3974:

Mosse I (18 January 2022). "Radiobiology in my life – Irma Mosse".

3851: 3147: 2801: 1691: 1648: 1615: 1595: 1415: 1354: 1344: 1327: 1318:

has been proposed to turn the normally anti-oxidant polymer into a

1294: 1250: 1123:

dopaquinone → leucodopachrome → dopachrome → 5,6-dihydroxyindole →

1090: 1075: 820: 804: 795: 692: 457: 351: 344: 227: 219: 177: 165: 77: 31: 4817:"A Single Migration From Africa Populated the World, Studies Find" 1285:

impairment, though the reasons for this are not fully understood.

6960: 6832: 6748: 6688: 6289: 5758: 5653: 5630: 5605: 5596: 5432: 1587: 1547: 1527: 1500: 1488: 1470: 1439: 1411: 1378:

Melanocytes insert granules of melanin into specialized cellular

1282: 1230: 1124: 1008: 931: 655: 647: 461: 444: 431: 169: 3914:

Mosse I, Kilchevsky A, Nikolova N, Zhelev N (14 December 2016).

3300: 2249: 2201:"Pheomelanin as well as eumelanin is present in human epidermis" 1977:"The protective role of melanin against UV damage in human skin" 1578:. It has been proposed that the ability of melanin to act as an 503:. It is also found in hair, the pigmented tissue underlying the 7070: 5922: 5609: 5408: 5375: 4759:

Tishkoff SA, Reed FA, Friedlaender FR, et al. (May 2009).

4456: 4442: 2684:"Biochemical sites of gene action for melanogenesis in mammals" 2125: 1665: 1516: 1079: 719:

against DNA damage from non-UV radiation. Important studies in

666:

pigmentation. The coat pattern of mammals is determined by the

663: 330: 239: 3607: 2077:

Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology

1253:

is well known, though poorly understood. In his 1859 treatise

5786: 4699:. Vol. 3 (8th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 58.9. 4387: 3913: 3380: 3301:

Jimbow K, Quevedo WC J, Fitzpatrick TB, Szabo G (July 1976).

1732:

Casadevall A (2018). "Melanin triggers antifungal defences".

1394:. The melanosomes in each recipient cell accumulate atop the 1239: 1118:→ 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid → quinone → eumelanin 1033:

450 to 550 °C (842 to 1,022 °F; 723 to 823 K)

677:

has been observed to be deposited in layers thus producing a

364: 291: 274: 249:

In the human skin, melanogenesis is initiated by exposure to

52: 3345:

Genetic Analysis: Genes, Genomes, and Networks in Eukaryotes

3118: 2576:"Selenomelanin: An Abiotic Selenium Analogue of Pheomelanin" 1582:

is directly proportional to its degree of polymerization or

1468:

does not appear to have undergone positive selection, while

3387: 2442: 1622:

by the RPE. This phenomenon has been attributed in part to

1464: 1268: 1132: 628: 113: 107: 5119: 4950:"Human skin pigmentation as an adaptation to UV radiation" 3637: 3555: 3085: 3050: 1968: 1725: 849: 88:

Micrograph of the epidermis, with melanin labeled at left.

4625: 1399: 235: 119: 4758: 4470: 3401: 3247: 2657:"New biomaterial could shield against harmful radiation" 2528: 2198: 4582: 3514: 2744: 2030: 1311: 1220: 843:

3,8-Dimethyl-2,7-dihydrobenzodiindole-4,5,9,10-tetrone

596:, a fungus) melanins appear to play important roles in 4523: 4386:. Additional contributions from Kilbourn Gordon, III. 3916:"Some problems and errors in cytogenetic biodosimetry" 2681: 2323: 876:

3,8-Dimethyl-2,7-dihydrobenzodiindole-4,5,9,10-tetrone

837:

3,8-Dimethyl-2,7-dihydrobenzodiindole-4,5,9,10-tetrone

7093: 6271: 5120:

Meyskens FL, Farmer PJ, Anton-Culver H (April 2004).

5006: 4034:

Dadachova E, Casadevall A (2011). Horikoshi K (ed.).

3633: 3631: 830: 122: 116: 5981:

Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex

5937:

Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex

5452:

Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex

4847: 4526:"Redox regulation in human melanocytes and melanoma" 3508: 2992:

Dadachova E, Bryan RA, Huang X, et al. (2007).

2874: 1281:

in the stria vascularis of the inner ear results in

110: 4896: 4850:"Evidence for Variable Selective Pressures at MC1R" 4674:

The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program

4033: 3909: 3907: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3893: 3699: 3697: 3603: 3601: 3556:Hegna RH, Nokelainen O, Hegna JR, Mappes J (2013). 2991: 1870: 1093:by two pathways to benzothiazines and pheomelanins 104: 101: 4375: 3628: 3053:International Review of Cell and Molecular Biology 3044: 1562:Physical properties and technological applications 6717:Inherited patterned lentiginosis in black persons 5589: 4029: 4027: 3763: 3761: 3148:"Melanin and the Abrasion Resistance of Feathers" 2921: 1793: 515:. In the brain, tissues with melanin include the 499:In humans, melanin is the primary determinant of 27:Group of natural pigments found in most organisms 7129: 6926:Eczematid-like purpura of Doucas and Kapetanakis 5290:. Department of Computer Science and Technology. 5186: 5076: 4947: 4524:Meyskens FL, Farmer P, Fruehauf JP (June 2001). 3890: 3694: 3638:Gessler NN, Egorova AS, Belozerskaya TA (2014). 3598: 2985: 1483:is needed. This is the physiological purpose of 1288:In Parkinson's disease, a disorder that affects 1131:Detailed metabolic pathways can be found in the 943: 519:and pigment-bearing neurons within areas of the 338:. The arrows denote where the polymer continues. 282:. The arrow denotes where the polymer continues. 5542:Aminocarboxymuconate-semialdehyde decarboxylase 4954:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4694: 4271: 3079: 2573: 1110:and follow two more pathways to the eumelanins 1023:< −20 °C (−4 °F; 253 K) 898: 4024: 3921:Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment 3758: 3703: 3476: 2745:Del Bino S, Ito S, Sok J, Wakamatsu K (2022). 2324:Kottler VA, Künstner A, Schartl M (May 2015). 1974: 1678:, a syndrome characterised by hypopigmentation 1633: 350:Pheomelanin production is highly dependent on 234:portions that are largely responsible for the 6578:Yemenite deaf-blind hypopigmentation syndrome 6257: 5348: 5212: 5210: 5041: 3969: 3967: 3965: 3835: 3833: 3831: 3829: 3827: 3767: 3515:Hsiung BK, Blackledge TA, Shawkey MD (2015). 2880: 2393: 1921: 807:on alkali fusion. It is commonly seen in the 751:. Her most significant contribution is Mosse 749:Belarusian Institute of Genetics and Cytology 435:The biochemical composition of peptidomelanin 4369: 4367: 3303:"Some aspects of melanin biology: 1950–1975" 3196: 2964: 2688:Annales de Génétique et de Sélection Animale 2319: 2317: 2074: 363:units that are produced, instead of DHI and 6646:Reticular pigmented anomaly of the flexures 5986:3-hydroxy-2-methylbutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase 3470: 3383:"Gene interaction in coat color of mammals" 3203:International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2804:"Skin melanocytes: biology and development" 2654: 298:. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme 6264: 6250: 5976:Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase 5932:Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase 5447:Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase 5355: 5341: 5207: 3977:International Journal of Radiation Biology 3962: 3824: 1789: 1787: 1731: 1566:Evidence exists for a highly cross-linked 1246:mortality beyond melanoma-related deaths. 918: 408: 172:, which among other functions provide the 51: 5957:Methylmalonate semialdehyde dehydrogenase 5260: 5242: 5140: 4983: 4973: 4873: 4792: 4544: 4364: 4299: 4289: 4272:Zaidi KU, Ali AS, Ali SA, Naaz I (2014). 4248: 4215: 4163: 4114: 4104: 3937: 3807: 3741: 3704:Nenoi M, Wang B, Vares G (12 June 2014). 3661: 3622:Croatian Radiation Protection Association 3581: 3532: 3444:. Springer Science & Business Media. 3318: 3269: 3224: 3214: 3103: 3027: 3017: 2898: 2827: 2778: 2709: 2699: 2558: 2485: 2411: 2389: 2387: 2314: 2305: 2000: 1935: 1898: 1888: 1871:Haining RL, Achat-Mendes C (March 2017). 1819: 1204: 727:, 1985. Much of our understanding of the 6922:Doucas and Kapetanakis pigmented purpura 6651:Naegeli–Franceschetti–Jadassohn syndrome 5547:Aminomuconate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase 4137: 3307:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2580:Journal of the American Chemical Society 2205:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 1800:Journal of the American Chemical Society 1638:Heavily pigmented melanoma cells have a 1302:substantia nigra from external toxins." 1058: 799:Chemical structure of indole-5,6-quinone 794: 616:, appear to be able to use melanin as a 483: 430: 421: 329: 273: 83: 71: 6661:X-linked reticulate pigmentary disorder 6641:Reticulate acropigmentation of Kitamura 6636:Pigmentatio reticularis faciei et colli 5778:1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase 5319:Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes 5300:Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes 5296:"Tyrosine metabolism—Reference pathway" 4948:Jablonski NG, Chaplin G (11 May 2010). 3437: 3341: 2808:Advances in Dermatology and Allergology 1915: 1784: 1429: 1365:rates in darker pigmented individuals. 755:, 2000 on mice but also includes Mosse 538:The melanin in the skin is produced by 343:orange hair, which is typically called 187:There are five basic types of melanin: 14: 7130: 7033:Dyschromatosis universalis hereditaria 6838:Familial progressive hyperpigmentation 6038:Betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase 4854:The American Journal of Human Genetics 4722:"Why Humans and Their Fur Parted Ways" 4628:Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 4334:from the original on 25 September 2017 4197: 3843:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 3145: 2384: 2287: 2231:from the original on 25 September 2022 1386:. These are then transferred into the 1225:There are approximately nine types of 1106:Also, dopaquinone can be converted to 685:arises: giving a number of species an 456:It is possible to enrich melanin with 7028:Dyschromatosis symmetrica hereditaria 6863:Transient neonatal pustular melanosis 6245: 5499:Template:Leucine metabolism in humans 5336: 4230: 4086: 3973: 3839: 3645:Applied Biochemistry and Microbiology 3497:from the original on 12 November 2023 2622:from the original on 6 September 2023 2372:from the original on 22 February 2024 2283: 2281: 2180:from the original on 11 February 2020 747:, and as of 2022 continues under the 292:5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid 6853:Photoleukomelanodermatitis of Kobori 6631:Dermatopathia pigmentosa reticularis 5639:Guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase 4719: 4144:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 3480:Natural Photonics and Bioinspiration 3178:from the original on 23 January 2020 2881:Hamilton AJ, Gomez BL (March 2002). 2751:Pigment Cell & Melanoma Research 2738: 2330:Pigment Cell & Melanoma Research 1610:(RPE) also may be implicated in the 1550:crosslinking caused by UV exposure. 1368: 1249:The connection between albinism and 1221:Genetic disorders and disease states 624:and harness this energy for growth. 160: 'black, dark') is a family of 6152:4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase 5749:Formiminotransferase cyclodeaminase 5472:Isovaleryl coenzyme A dehydrogenase 4564:from the original on 30 August 2024 4278:Biochemistry Research International 3517:"Spiders do have melanin after all" 3458:from the original on 30 August 2024 3362:from the original on 30 August 2024 3197:Galván I, Solano F (8 April 2016). 2726:from the original on 30 August 2024 2663:from the original on 30 August 2024 1852:from the original on 30 August 2024 1267:, predominantly observed among the 1136: 934: 57:One possible structure of Eumelanin 24: 6858:Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation 6778:Poikiloderma vasculare atrophicans 5952:3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase 5442:3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase 5168:from the original on 3 August 2020 5056:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1995.tb20794.x 4485:10.1111/j.1600-0749.1994.tb00015.x 4394:from the original on 28 March 2017 2278: 2174:MetaCyc Metabolic Pathway Database 1946:10.1111/j.1751-1097.2004.tb00012.x 1703:Risks and benefits of sun exposure 1474:has undergone positive selection. 831:Interpretation as a single monomer 604:by protecting the microbe against 561: 286:Eumelanin has two forms linked to 25: 7159: 6563:Postinflammatory hypopigmentation 6507:Progressive macular hypomelanosis 5947:3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase 5864:Gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase 5773:Pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase 5280: 4740:from the original on 18 June 2009 4546:10.1034/j.1600-0749.2001.140303.x 2862:from the original on 17 July 2020 2682:Prota, G., Searle, A. G. (1978). 2046:10.1034/j.1600-0749.2001.140505.x 1398:, where they protect the nuclear 698:Some moth species, including the 417: 7115: 7103: 6497:Idiopathic guttate hypomelanosis 5288:"Absorption spectrum of melanin" 5044:European Journal of Biochemistry 5021:10.1111/j.1600-0749.2004.00140.x 3706:"In vivo radioadaptive response" 3441:Biology of the Arthropod Cuticle 3133:10.1111/j.0908-8857.2008.04413.x 2936:10.1111/j.0105-2896.2004.00116.x 2089:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2011.04278.x 1993:10.1111/j.1751-1097.2007.00226.x 1217:is an effective melanin bleach. 1192: 1180: 1168: 1156: 1144: 1114:dopaquinone → leucodopachrome → 979: 973: 857: 848: 467: 451: 264: 192: 97: 6981:Titanium metallic discoloration 6737:Partial unilateral lentiginosis 5619:Serine hydroxymethyltransferase 5180: 5113: 5070: 5035: 5000: 4941: 4890: 4841: 4829:from the original on 2 May 2019 4809: 4752: 4713: 4688: 4662: 4619: 4585:Cutaneous and Ocular Toxicology 4576: 4517: 4499: 4464: 4450: 4436: 4410: 4346: 4316: 4265: 4237:Journal of Biological Chemistry 4224: 4138:Kim YJ, Uyama H (15 May 2005). 4131: 4087:Yao ZY, Qi JH (22 April 2016). 4080: 3549: 3521:Journal of Experimental Biology 3431: 3395: 3374: 3335: 3294: 3241: 3190: 3139: 3112: 2958: 2915: 2887:Journal of Medical Microbiology 2844: 2795: 2675: 2648: 2567: 2522: 2479: 2457:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.02.001 2436: 2243: 2192: 1981:Photochemistry and Photobiology 1924:Photochemistry and Photobiology 1043:(at 25 °C , 100 kPa). 377: 6754:Erythema dyschromicum perstans 6033:Homocysteine methyltransferase 6011:Methionine adenosyltransferase 5492:Methylglutaconyl-CoA hydratase 5487:Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase 4697:Rook's Textbook of Dermatology 3483:(1st ed.), Artech House, 3477:Mouchet SR, Deparis O (2021), 2883:"Melanins in fungal pathogens" 2162: 2119: 2068: 1975:Brenner M, Hearing VJ (2008). 1864: 985: 967: 325: 313:Analysis of highly pigmented ( 230:-derivative that contains poly 188: 13: 1: 6943:Hemosiderin hyperpigmentation 6902:Pigmented purpuric dermatosis 6848:Periorbital hyperpigmentation 6344:Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada syndrome 6162:Fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase 6157:Homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase 5874:Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase 5537:3-hydroxyanthranilate oxidase 5477:α-Ketoisocaproate dioxygenase 5142:10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-03-0638 4250:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)35614-X 3994:10.1080/09553002.2022.2026517 3939:10.1080/13102818.2016.1259018 3868:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2012.05.009 2640:: CS1 maint: date and year ( 1719: 1402:from mutations caused by the 1373: 1089:Dopaquinone can combine with 662:Melanin is also important in 620:that enables them to capture 6810:Shiitake mushroom dermatitis 4670:"Human Skin Color Variation" 4597:10.3109/15569527.2012.676119 3984:(3: Women in Radiobiology). 3320:10.1111/1523-1747.ep12512500 3065:10.1016/bs.ircmb.2015.09.005 3019:10.1371/journal.pone.0000457 2979:10.1002/scin.2007.5591712106 2217:10.1111/1523-1747.ep12480680 1877:Neural Regeneration Research 1536:high-frequency visible light 1522:Melanin in the eyes, in the 269: 7: 6897:Iron metallic discoloration 6573:Vagabond's leukomelanoderma 6100:Methylmalonyl CoA epimerase 6051:Cystathionine beta synthase 5518:Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 4960:(Supplement 2): 8962–8968. 3348:. Oxford University Press. 2659:. Northwestern University. 2655:Mark Heiden (8 July 2020). 2252:Journal of Natural Products 1658: 1651:, so that they can both be 1634:Role in melanoma metastasis 1418:in lighter-skinned people. 731:effects of melanin against 10: 7164: 6843:Pallister–Killian syndrome 6492:Albinism–deafness syndrome 6024:regeneration of methionine 6006:generation of homocysteine 5806:Ornithine aminotransferase 5522:Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase 5423:Glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase 5418:Saccharopine dehydrogenase 5244:10.1038/s41598-019-45643-9 2900:10.1099/0022-1317-51-3-189 2140:10.1152/physrev.00044.2003 1754:10.1038/d41586-018-02370-x 1608:retinal pigment epithelium 1540:blue, green, and grey eyes 1477: 1444:Anatomically modern humans 381: 146: 29: 7041: 7018: 6989: 6951: 6884: 6875: 6818: 6792: 6759:Lichen planus pigmentosus 6707:Centrofacial lentiginosis 6679: 6623: 6604: 6595: 6550: 6519: 6474: 6464:Griscelli syndrome type 3 6459:Griscelli syndrome type 2 6439:Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome 6427: 6399: 6384: 6352: 6331: 6308: 6297: 6283: 6199: 6189: 6147:Tyrosine aminotransferase 6142:Phenylalanine hydroxylase 6127: 6117: 6095:Propionyl-CoA carboxylase 6083: 6064: 6056:Cystathionine gamma-lyase 5994: 5965: 5921: 5906: 5844: 5824: 5795: 5757: 5728: 5713: 5701:L-threonine dehydrogenase 5690: 5671: 5652: 5604: 5580: 5555: 5507: 5431: 5407: 5394: 5382: 4720:Wade N (19 August 2003). 4640:10.1016/j.pbb.2009.02.011 4354:"Oculocutaneous Albinism" 4156:10.1007/s00018-005-5054-y 4106:10.3390/molecules21040487 3663:10.1134/s0003683814020094 2852:"oculocutaneous albinism" 2500:10.1007/s00702-006-0450-5 1037: 954: 882: 870: 865: 856: 847: 790: 643:use pheomelanin instead. 542:, which are found in the 479: 390:catecholaminergic neurons 62: 50: 45: 6712:Generalized lentiginosis 6444:Chédiak–Higashi syndrome 6105:Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase 5682:D-cysteine desulfhydrase 5129:Clinical Cancer Research 4328:pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 3726:10.1177/0960327114537537 3121:Journal of Avian Biology 2701:10.1186/1297-9686-10-1-1 2543:10.1021/acsomega.4c03704 1890:10.4103/1673-5374.202928 1256:On the Origin of Species 1211:blood breakdown pigments 527:. It also occurs in the 66:Heterogeneous biopolymer 30:Not to be confused with 6773:Poikiloderma of Civatte 6409:Oculocutaneous albinism 5836:Glutamate dehydrogenase 5811:Ornithine decarboxylase 5739:Histidine ammonia-lyase 5482:Leucine 2,3-aminomutase 4975:10.1073/pnas.0914628107 4919:10.1126/science.1116238 4785:10.1126/science.1172257 4418:"Causes of Variability" 4038:. Tokyo New York City: 3417:10.1242/dev.121.10.3223 2856:Genetics Home Reference 2820:10.5114/pdia.2013.33376 1227:oculocutaneous albinism 815:by the tyrosinase type 723:models include Hopwood 593:Cryptococcus neoformans 580:reactive oxygen species 409:Other forms of melanins 302:. The initial product, 6917:Gougerot–Blum syndrome 6800:Incontinentia pigmenti 6656:Dyskeratosis congenita 6583:Wende–Bauckus syndrome 6502:Phylloid hypomelanosis 6273:Pigmentation disorders 6223:Aspartate transaminase 6046:conversion to cysteine 6016:Adenosylhomocysteinase 5869:Glutathione synthetase 4204:New Journal of Science 4042:. pp. xxix+1247. 4036:Extremophiles handbook 3792:10.1002/advs.201903129 3624:. p. 35 (of 268). 3574:10.1098/rspb.2012.2812 2326:"Pheomelanin in fish?" 2294:New Journal of Science 1574:to matrix scaffolding 1265:Waardenburg's syndrome 1215:potassium permanganate 1205:Microscopic appearance 800: 618:photosynthetic pigment 496: 436: 428: 367:, when the amino acid 345:"red" or "ginger" hair 339: 283: 89: 81: 6339:Alezzandrini syndrome 6318:Quadrichrome vitiligo 6218:Asparagine synthetase 5386:Essential amino acids 5009:Pigment Cell Research 4825:. 22 September 2016. 4533:Pigment Cell Research 4473:Pigment Cell Research 4284:: 1–16 (see Fig. 3). 2924:Immunological Reviews 2128:Physiological Reviews 2034:Pigment Cell Research 1530:, helps protect from 1059:Biosynthetic pathways 798: 683:structural coloration 487: 434: 425: 333: 277: 87: 75: 6936:Angioma serpiginosum 6828:Acanthosis nigricans 6367:Waardenburg syndrome 5889:Glutamine synthetase 5663:Alanine transaminase 4424:on 23 September 2006 4360:on 23 December 2008. 3986:Taylor & Francis 3930:Taylor & Francis 3216:10.3390/ijms17040520 2592:10.1021/jacs.0c05573 1812:10.1021/jacs.0c12322 1699:, melanin production 1628:macular degeneration 1606:melanization in the 1592:macular degeneration 1430:Evolutionary origins 1324:macular degeneration 872:Preferred IUPAC name 507:of the eye, and the 6666:Galli–Galli disease 6558:Nevus depigmentosus 6029:Methionine synthase 5942:Enoyl-CoA hydratase 5827:alpha-ketoglutarate 5744:Urocanate hydratase 5457:Enoyl-CoA hydratase 5235:2019NatSR...9.9280S 5079:Ophthalmic Research 4966:2010PNAS..107.8962J 4911:2005Sci...310.1782L 4777:2009Sci...324.1035T 4507:"Lewy Body Disease" 4291:10.1155/2014/854687 4217:10.1155/2014/498276 3860:2012JEnvR.112...70M 3654:Pleiades Publishing 3438:Neville AC (2012). 3010:2007PLoSO...2..457D 2586:(29): 12802–12810. 2307:10.1155/2014/498276 1746:2018Natur.555..319C 1671:Albinism in biology 1390:cells of the human 1359:nicotine dependence 1003: g·mol 844: 403:Parkinson's disease 288:5,6-dihydroxyindole 6912:Majocchi's disease 6805:Scratch dermatitis 6732:Mucosal lentigines 6532:Vasospastic macule 6449:Griscelli syndrome 6075:Threonine aldolase 5624:Serine dehydratase 5368:Protein metabolism 5223:Scientific Reports 4822:The New York Times 4726:The New York Times 3568:(1755): 20122812. 3534:10.1242/jeb.128801 3342:Meneely P (2014). 3146:Bonser RH (1995). 3105:10.3390/opt4040041 2763:10.1111/pcmr.13062 2342:10.1111/pcmr.12359 1676:Griscelli syndrome 1600:Signaling pathways 1404:ionizing radiation 1047:Infobox references 842: 817:polyphenol oxidase 813:indole-5,6-quinone 809:enzymatic browning 801: 634:Stegastes apicalis 614:radiotrophic fungi 497: 437: 429: 340: 284: 255:malignant melanoma 90: 82: 7091: 7090: 7014: 7013: 7010: 7009: 6971:Arsenic poisoning 6907:Schamberg disease 6871: 6870: 6764:Café au lait spot 6591: 6590: 6515: 6514: 6454:Elejalde syndrome 6380: 6379: 6239: 6238: 6235: 6234: 6231: 6230: 6185: 6184: 6113: 6112: 5902: 5901: 5709: 5708: 5576: 5575: 5467:HMG-CoA reductase 5091:10.1159/000085533 4771:(5930): 1035–44. 4706:978-1-4051-6169-5 4231:Mason HS (1948). 4198:Solano F (2014). 4150:(15): 1707–1723. 4067:978-4-431-53897-4 4049:978-4-431-53898-1 3527:(22): 3632–3635. 3490:978-163-081-797-8 3411:(10): 3223–3232. 3262:10.1111/ibi.12770 2406:(11): 1212–1219. 2288:Solano F (2014). 2264:10.1021/np100740n 2083:(12): 1369–1380. 1740:(7696): 319–320. 1369:Human adaptations 1363:smoking cessation 1187:L-leucodopachrome 1055:Chemical compound 1053: 1052: 783:, 2007 and Mosse 709:Melanin protects 608:responses of its 578:from the sun and 474:metabolic pathway 441:Aspergillus niger 395:transition metals 70: 69: 16:(Redirected from 7155: 7138:Human skin color 7120: 7119: 7118: 7108: 7107: 7099: 6882: 6881: 6722:Ink spot lentigo 6621: 6620: 6602: 6601: 6397: 6396: 6323:Vitiligo ponctué 6306: 6305: 6295: 6294: 6266: 6259: 6252: 6243: 6242: 6197: 6196: 6125: 6124: 5919: 5918: 5726: 5725: 5602: 5601: 5587: 5586: 5405: 5404: 5357: 5350: 5343: 5334: 5333: 5329: 5327: 5325: 5310: 5308: 5306: 5291: 5275: 5274: 5264: 5246: 5214: 5205: 5204: 5189:Molecular Vision 5184: 5178: 5177: 5175: 5173: 5167: 5144: 5126: 5117: 5111: 5110: 5074: 5068: 5067: 5039: 5033: 5032: 5004: 4998: 4997: 4987: 4977: 4945: 4939: 4938: 4905:(5755): 1782–6. 4894: 4888: 4887: 4877: 4860:(4): 1351–1361. 4845: 4839: 4838: 4836: 4834: 4813: 4807: 4806: 4796: 4756: 4750: 4749: 4747: 4745: 4717: 4711: 4710: 4692: 4686: 4685: 4683: 4681: 4666: 4660: 4659: 4623: 4617: 4616: 4580: 4574: 4573: 4571: 4569: 4563: 4548: 4530: 4521: 4515: 4514: 4513:on 21 July 2009. 4509:. Archived from 4503: 4497: 4496: 4468: 4462: 4454: 4448: 4440: 4434: 4433: 4431: 4429: 4420:. Archived from 4414: 4408: 4407: 4401: 4399: 4379: 4371: 4362: 4361: 4356:. Archived from 4350: 4344: 4343: 4341: 4339: 4320: 4314: 4313: 4303: 4293: 4269: 4263: 4262: 4252: 4228: 4222: 4221: 4219: 4210:(498276): 1–28. 4195: 4186: 4185: 4167: 4135: 4129: 4128: 4118: 4108: 4084: 4078: 4061: 4031: 4022: 4021: 3971: 3960: 3959: 3941: 3911: 3888: 3887: 3837: 3822: 3821: 3811: 3775:Advanced Science 3765: 3756: 3755: 3745: 3701: 3692: 3691: 3665: 3635: 3626: 3625: 3605: 3596: 3595: 3585: 3553: 3547: 3546: 3536: 3512: 3506: 3505: 3504: 3502: 3474: 3468: 3467: 3465: 3463: 3435: 3429: 3428: 3399: 3393: 3392: 3378: 3372: 3371: 3369: 3367: 3339: 3333: 3332: 3322: 3298: 3292: 3291: 3273: 3245: 3239: 3238: 3228: 3218: 3194: 3188: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3143: 3137: 3136: 3116: 3110: 3109: 3107: 3083: 3077: 3076: 3048: 3042: 3041: 3031: 3021: 2989: 2983: 2982: 2962: 2956: 2955: 2919: 2913: 2912: 2902: 2878: 2872: 2871: 2869: 2867: 2848: 2842: 2841: 2831: 2799: 2793: 2792: 2782: 2742: 2736: 2735: 2733: 2731: 2713: 2703: 2679: 2673: 2672: 2670: 2668: 2652: 2646: 2645: 2639: 2631: 2629: 2627: 2571: 2565: 2564: 2562: 2526: 2520: 2519: 2483: 2477: 2476: 2440: 2434: 2433: 2415: 2391: 2382: 2381: 2379: 2377: 2321: 2312: 2311: 2309: 2285: 2276: 2275: 2247: 2241: 2240: 2238: 2236: 2196: 2190: 2189: 2187: 2185: 2166: 2160: 2159: 2123: 2117: 2116: 2072: 2066: 2065: 2028: 2015: 2014: 2004: 1972: 1966: 1965: 1939: 1937:cond-mat/0312277 1919: 1913: 1912: 1902: 1892: 1868: 1862: 1861: 1859: 1857: 1823: 1806:(7): 2622–2637. 1791: 1782: 1781: 1729: 1682:Human skin color 1655:and metastatic. 1584:molecular weight 1497:photodegradation 1495:, including the 1339:port-wine stains 1196: 1184: 1172: 1160: 1148: 1013:1.6 to 1.8 g/cm 1002: 987: 981: 975: 969: 962:Chemical formula 947: 936: 922: 902: 861: 852: 845: 841: 588:oxidizing agents 529:zona reticularis 509:stria vascularis 493:Papua New Guinea 401:and the related 315:Fitzpatrick type 157: 150: 138: 137: 136: 135: 128: 125: 124: 121: 118: 115: 112: 109: 106: 103: 55: 43: 42: 21: 7163: 7162: 7158: 7157: 7156: 7154: 7153: 7152: 7128: 7127: 7126: 7116: 7114: 7102: 7094: 7092: 7087: 7037: 7006: 6985: 6953: 6947: 6892:Hemochromatosis 6877: 6867: 6820: 6814: 6788: 6784:Riehl melanosis 6742:PUVA lentigines 6727:Lentigo maligna 6697:Lentigo simplex 6681: 6675: 6671:Revesz syndrome 6614: 6609: 6587: 6568:Pityriasis alba 6546: 6537:Woronoff's ring 6524: 6511: 6470: 6431: 6423: 6414:Ocular albinism 6390: 6376: 6354: 6348: 6327: 6299: 6288: 6279: 6270: 6240: 6227: 6181: 6109: 6079: 6060: 5990: 5961: 5912: 5898: 5840: 5820: 5791: 5768:Proline oxidase 5753: 5721:α-ketoglutarate 5719: 5705: 5686: 5667: 5648: 5644:Creatine kinase 5594: 5572: 5551: 5527:Arylformamidase 5503: 5427: 5390: 5388:are in Capitals 5378: 5374:and catabolism 5361: 5323: 5321: 5315:"Melanogenesis" 5313: 5304: 5302: 5294: 5286: 5283: 5278: 5215: 5208: 5185: 5181: 5171: 5169: 5165: 5124: 5118: 5114: 5075: 5071: 5040: 5036: 5005: 5001: 4946: 4942: 4895: 4891: 4846: 4842: 4832: 4830: 4815: 4814: 4810: 4757: 4753: 4743: 4741: 4718: 4714: 4707: 4693: 4689: 4679: 4677: 4668: 4667: 4663: 4624: 4620: 4581: 4577: 4567: 4565: 4561: 4528: 4522: 4518: 4505: 4504: 4500: 4469: 4465: 4455: 4451: 4441: 4437: 4427: 4425: 4416: 4415: 4411: 4397: 4395: 4372: 4365: 4352: 4351: 4347: 4337: 4335: 4322: 4321: 4317: 4270: 4266: 4229: 4225: 4196: 4189: 4136: 4132: 4085: 4081: 4050: 4032: 4025: 3972: 3963: 3912: 3891: 3838: 3825: 3766: 3759: 3702: 3695: 3636: 3629: 3606: 3599: 3562:Proc. R. Soc. B 3554: 3550: 3513: 3509: 3500: 3498: 3491: 3475: 3471: 3461: 3459: 3452: 3436: 3432: 3400: 3396: 3379: 3375: 3365: 3363: 3356: 3340: 3336: 3299: 3295: 3246: 3242: 3195: 3191: 3181: 3179: 3164:10.2307/1369048 3144: 3140: 3117: 3113: 3084: 3080: 3049: 3045: 2990: 2986: 2963: 2959: 2920: 2916: 2879: 2875: 2865: 2863: 2850: 2849: 2845: 2800: 2796: 2743: 2739: 2729: 2727: 2680: 2676: 2666: 2664: 2653: 2649: 2633: 2632: 2625: 2623: 2572: 2568: 2527: 2523: 2488:J Neural Transm 2484: 2480: 2441: 2437: 2413:10.1038/ng.3098 2400:Nature Genetics 2392: 2385: 2375: 2373: 2322: 2315: 2286: 2279: 2248: 2244: 2234: 2232: 2197: 2193: 2183: 2181: 2168: 2167: 2163: 2134:(4): 1155–228. 2124: 2120: 2073: 2069: 2029: 2018: 1973: 1969: 1920: 1916: 1869: 1865: 1855: 1853: 1821:1854/LU-8699336 1792: 1785: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1717: 1661: 1640:Young's modulus 1636: 1564: 1493:solar radiation 1480: 1432: 1376: 1371: 1308:matrix proteins 1223: 1207: 1200: 1197: 1188: 1185: 1176: 1173: 1164: 1161: 1152: 1149: 1108:leucodopachrome 1061: 1056: 1049: 1044: 1000: 990: 984: 978: 972: 964: 950: 937: 925: 905: 892: 878: 877: 833: 793: 733:gamma radiation 729:radioprotective 700:wood tiger moth 679:Bragg reflector 640:Cyprinus carpio 564: 562:Other organisms 525:locus coeruleus 482: 470: 454: 420: 411: 386: 380: 328: 272: 267: 222:is followed by 131: 130: 100: 96: 58: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7161: 7151: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7125: 7124: 7112: 7089: 7088: 7086: 7085: 7083:Depigmentation 7080: 7079: 7078: 7068: 7067: 7066: 7056: 7054:Skin whitening 7051: 7045: 7043: 7039: 7038: 7036: 7035: 7030: 7024: 7022: 7016: 7015: 7012: 7011: 7008: 7007: 7005: 7004: 6999: 6993: 6991: 6987: 6986: 6984: 6983: 6978: 6976:Lead poisoning 6973: 6968: 6963: 6957: 6955: 6949: 6948: 6946: 6945: 6940: 6939: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6899: 6894: 6888: 6886: 6879: 6873: 6872: 6869: 6868: 6866: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6824: 6822: 6816: 6815: 6813: 6812: 6807: 6802: 6796: 6794: 6790: 6789: 6787: 6786: 6781: 6775: 6766: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6745: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6685: 6683: 6677: 6676: 6674: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6627: 6625: 6618: 6599: 6593: 6592: 6589: 6588: 6586: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6554: 6552: 6548: 6547: 6545: 6544: 6542:Nevus anemicus 6539: 6534: 6528: 6526: 6517: 6516: 6513: 6512: 6510: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6484: 6482:Cross syndrome 6478: 6476: 6472: 6471: 6469: 6468: 6467: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6446: 6441: 6435: 6433: 6425: 6424: 6422: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6405: 6403: 6394: 6382: 6381: 6378: 6377: 6375: 6374: 6372:Tietz syndrome 6369: 6364: 6358: 6356: 6350: 6349: 6347: 6346: 6341: 6335: 6333: 6329: 6328: 6326: 6325: 6320: 6314: 6312: 6303: 6292: 6281: 6280: 6269: 6268: 6261: 6254: 6246: 6237: 6236: 6233: 6232: 6229: 6228: 6226: 6225: 6220: 6210: 6208: 6194: 6187: 6186: 6183: 6182: 6180: 6179: 6165: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6138: 6136: 6122: 6115: 6114: 6111: 6110: 6108: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6091: 6089: 6081: 6080: 6078: 6077: 6071: 6069: 6062: 6061: 6059: 6058: 6053: 6041: 6040: 6035: 6019: 6018: 6013: 6001: 5999: 5992: 5991: 5989: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5972: 5970: 5963: 5962: 5960: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5928: 5926: 5916: 5904: 5903: 5900: 5899: 5897: 5896: 5891: 5877: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5848: 5846: 5842: 5841: 5839: 5838: 5832: 5830: 5822: 5821: 5819: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5802: 5800: 5793: 5792: 5790: 5789: 5784: 5775: 5770: 5764: 5762: 5755: 5754: 5752: 5751: 5746: 5741: 5735: 5733: 5723: 5711: 5710: 5707: 5706: 5704: 5703: 5697: 5695: 5688: 5687: 5685: 5684: 5678: 5676: 5669: 5668: 5666: 5665: 5659: 5657: 5650: 5649: 5647: 5646: 5641: 5627: 5626: 5621: 5615: 5613: 5599: 5584: 5578: 5577: 5574: 5573: 5571: 5570: 5566: 5564: 5553: 5552: 5550: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5514: 5512: 5505: 5504: 5495: 5494: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5438: 5436: 5429: 5428: 5426: 5425: 5420: 5414: 5412: 5402: 5392: 5391: 5383: 5380: 5379: 5360: 5359: 5352: 5345: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5311: 5292: 5282: 5281:External links 5279: 5277: 5276: 5206: 5179: 5112: 5069: 5034: 4999: 4940: 4889: 4866:10.1086/302863 4840: 4808: 4751: 4712: 4705: 4687: 4676:. 20 June 2012 4661: 4618: 4575: 4516: 4498: 4463: 4449: 4435: 4409: 4363: 4345: 4315: 4264: 4223: 4187: 4130: 4079: 4048: 4023: 3961: 3889: 3823: 3757: 3693: 3627: 3597: 3548: 3507: 3489: 3469: 3450: 3430: 3394: 3373: 3354: 3334: 3293: 3256:(1): 238–244. 3240: 3189: 3158:(2): 590–591. 3138: 3127:(5): 539–545. 3111: 3098:(4): 563–562. 3078: 3043: 2984: 2957: 2914: 2873: 2843: 2794: 2757:(6): 622–626. 2737: 2674: 2647: 2566: 2521: 2494:(6): 751–756. 2478: 2451:(2): 109–124. 2445:Prog Neurobiol 2435: 2383: 2336:(3): 355–356. 2313: 2277: 2242: 2211:(2): 340–344. 2191: 2161: 2118: 2067: 2040:(5): 337–347. 2016: 1967: 1914: 1883:(3): 372–375. 1863: 1783: 1723: 1721: 1718: 1716: 1715: 1710: 1708:Skin whitening 1705: 1700: 1694: 1689: 1687:Melanin theory 1684: 1679: 1673: 1668: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1653:drug-resistant 1635: 1632: 1618:outer segment 1612:downregulation 1576:melanoproteins 1563: 1560: 1538:; people with 1479: 1476: 1431: 1428: 1375: 1372: 1370: 1367: 1316:ocular melanin 1299:norepinephrine 1261:Charles Darwin 1222: 1219: 1206: 1203: 1202: 1201: 1198: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1167: 1165: 1162: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1143: 1137:External links 1135:database (see 1129: 1128: 1120: 1119: 1104: 1103: 1099: 1098: 1087: 1086: 1060: 1057: 1054: 1051: 1050: 1045: 1041:standard state 1038: 1035: 1034: 1031: 1025: 1024: 1021: 1015: 1014: 1011: 1005: 1004: 998: 992: 991: 988: 982: 976: 970: 965: 960: 957: 956: 952: 951: 949: 948: 940: 938: 930: 927: 926: 924: 923: 915: 913: 907: 906: 904: 903: 895: 893: 888: 885: 884: 880: 879: 875: 874: 868: 867: 863: 862: 854: 853: 832: 829: 825:catecholamines 792: 789: 779:, 2006, Mosse 775:, 2002, Mosse 771:, 2001, Mosse 767:, 1998, Mosse 763:, 1997, Mosse 759:, 1994, Mosse 572:cephalopod ink 563: 560: 523:, such as the 481: 478: 469: 466: 453: 450: 419: 418:Peptidomelanin 416: 410: 407: 382:Main article: 379: 376: 327: 324: 271: 268: 266: 263: 224:polymerization 68: 67: 64: 60: 59: 56: 48: 47: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7160: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7135: 7133: 7123: 7113: 7111: 7106: 7101: 7100: 7097: 7084: 7081: 7077: 7074: 7073: 7072: 7069: 7065: 7062: 7061: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7046: 7044: 7040: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7025: 7023: 7021: 7017: 7003: 7002:Tar melanosis 7000: 6998: 6995: 6994: 6992: 6988: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6958: 6956: 6950: 6944: 6941: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6931:Lichen aureus 6929: 6927: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6904: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6889: 6887: 6883: 6880: 6874: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6825: 6823: 6817: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6797: 6795: 6791: 6785: 6782: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6746: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6694: 6690: 6687: 6686: 6684: 6682:circumscribed 6678: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6628: 6626: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6594: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6555: 6553: 6549: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6529: 6527: 6525:hypomelanosis 6522: 6518: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6487:ABCD syndrome 6485: 6483: 6480: 6479: 6477: 6473: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6451: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6436: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6406: 6404: 6402: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6388: 6383: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6359: 6357: 6351: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6336: 6334: 6330: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6315: 6313: 6311: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6286: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6267: 6262: 6260: 6255: 6253: 6248: 6247: 6244: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6215: 6212: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6188: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6167: 6166: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6130: 6129:PHENYLALANINE 6126: 6123: 6121: 6116: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6082: 6076: 6073: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6063: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6043: 6042: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6021: 6020: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6003: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5993: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5964: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5910: 5909:propionyl-CoA 5905: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5879: 5878: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5850: 5849: 5847: 5843: 5837: 5834: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5823: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5794: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5756: 5750: 5747: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5702: 5699: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5689: 5683: 5680: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5670: 5664: 5661: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5651: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5629: 5628: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5579: 5568: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5558: 5557:PHENYLALANINE 5554: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5519: 5516: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5500: 5493: 5490: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5462:HMG-CoA lyase 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5430: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5387: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5358: 5353: 5351: 5346: 5344: 5339: 5338: 5335: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5284: 5272: 5268: 5263: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5245: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5213: 5211: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5183: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5143: 5138: 5135:(8): 2581–3. 5134: 5130: 5123: 5116: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5085:(3): 136–41. 5084: 5080: 5073: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5050:(1): 159–64. 5049: 5045: 5038: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5003: 4995: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4944: 4936: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4893: 4885: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4844: 4828: 4824: 4823: 4818: 4812: 4804: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4755: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4716: 4708: 4702: 4698: 4691: 4675: 4671: 4665: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4634:(4): 589–96. 4633: 4629: 4622: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4579: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4539:(3): 148–54. 4538: 4534: 4527: 4520: 4512: 4508: 4502: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4467: 4461: 4458: 4453: 4447: 4444: 4439: 4423: 4419: 4413: 4405: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4384: 4378: 4370: 4368: 4359: 4355: 4349: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4319: 4311: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4268: 4260: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4227: 4218: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4194: 4192: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4134: 4126: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4083: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4030: 4028: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3978: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3922: 3917: 3910: 3908: 3906: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3894: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3844: 3836: 3834: 3832: 3830: 3828: 3819: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3776: 3771: 3764: 3762: 3753: 3749: 3744: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3700: 3698: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3646: 3641: 3634: 3632: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3604: 3602: 3593: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3552: 3544: 3540: 3535: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3511: 3496: 3492: 3486: 3482: 3481: 3473: 3457: 3453: 3451:9783642809101 3447: 3443: 3442: 3434: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3398: 3390: 3389: 3384: 3377: 3361: 3357: 3355:9780199681266 3351: 3347: 3346: 3338: 3330: 3326: 3321: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3297: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3272: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3244: 3236: 3232: 3227: 3222: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3193: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3142: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3115: 3106: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3082: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3047: 3039: 3035: 3030: 3025: 3020: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2988: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2961: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2918: 2910: 2906: 2901: 2896: 2893:(3): 189–91. 2892: 2888: 2884: 2877: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2847: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2798: 2790: 2786: 2781: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2741: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2712: 2707: 2702: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2678: 2662: 2658: 2651: 2643: 2637: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2570: 2561: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2525: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2482: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2439: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2414: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2390: 2388: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2320: 2318: 2308: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2284: 2282: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2258:(4): 675–82. 2257: 2253: 2246: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2195: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2170:"pheomelanin" 2165: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2122: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2071: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2027: 2025: 2023: 2021: 2012: 2008: 2003: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1987:(3): 539–49. 1986: 1982: 1978: 1971: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1938: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1918: 1910: 1906: 1901: 1896: 1891: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1867: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1822: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1790: 1788: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1728: 1724: 1714: 1711: 1709: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1698: 1697:Melanogenesis 1695: 1693: 1690: 1688: 1685: 1683: 1680: 1677: 1674: 1672: 1669: 1667: 1664: 1663: 1656: 1654: 1650: 1645: 1641: 1631: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1568:heteropolymer 1559: 1556: 1551: 1549: 1545: 1544:accommodation 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1520: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1475: 1473: 1472: 1467: 1466: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1452:archaic human 1450:with certain 1449: 1448:interbreeding 1445: 1441: 1436: 1427: 1425: 1419: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1406:of the sun's 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1366: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1340: 1335: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1310:, changes in 1309: 1303: 1300: 1296: 1291: 1286: 1284: 1280: 1275: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1257: 1252: 1247: 1243: 1241: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1218: 1216: 1212: 1195: 1190: 1183: 1178: 1175:L-dopaquinone 1171: 1166: 1159: 1154: 1147: 1142: 1141: 1140: 1138: 1134: 1126: 1122: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1112: 1111: 1109: 1101: 1100: 1096: 1095: 1094: 1092: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1074: 1073: 1072: 1070: 1066: 1048: 1042: 1036: 1032: 1030: 1029:Boiling point 1027: 1026: 1022: 1020: 1019:Melting point 1017: 1016: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1006: 999: 997: 994: 993: 966: 963: 959: 958: 953: 946: 942: 941: 939: 933: 929: 928: 921: 917: 916: 914: 912: 909: 908: 901: 897: 896: 894: 891: 887: 886: 881: 873: 869: 864: 860: 855: 851: 846: 840: 838: 828: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 797: 788: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 713: 707: 705: 701: 696: 694: 690: 688: 684: 680: 676: 671: 669: 665: 660: 657: 653: 649: 644: 642: 641: 636: 635: 630: 625: 623: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 602:pathogenicity 599: 595: 594: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 559: 555: 553: 549: 545: 541: 536: 534: 533:adrenal gland 530: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 494: 490: 486: 477: 475: 468:Trichochromes 465: 463: 459: 452:Selenomelanin 449: 446: 442: 433: 424: 415: 406: 404: 400: 396: 391: 385: 375: 372: 370: 366: 362: 361:benzothiazole 358: 357:benzothiazine 353: 348: 346: 337: 332: 323: 321: 316: 311: 307: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 281: 276: 265:Melanin types 262: 260: 256: 252: 247: 245: 241: 237: 233: 232:benzothiazine 229: 225: 221: 218: 214: 210: 209:melanogenesis 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 185: 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 164:organized as 163: 159: 156: 149: 145: 142: 141:Ancient Greek 134: 127: 94: 86: 79: 74: 65: 63:Material type 61: 54: 49: 44: 41: 37: 33: 19: 7143:Skin anatomy 6769:Poikiloderma 6693:Lentiginosis 6605: 6386: 6214:Asparaginase 6192:oxaloacetate 6172: 6086:succinyl-CoA 6044: 6022: 6004: 5914:succinyl-CoA 5532:Kynureninase 5496: 5384: 5322:. Retrieved 5318: 5303:. Retrieved 5299: 5226: 5222: 5192: 5188: 5182: 5170:. Retrieved 5132: 5128: 5115: 5082: 5078: 5072: 5047: 5043: 5037: 5015:(3): 262–9. 5012: 5008: 5002: 4957: 4953: 4943: 4902: 4898: 4892: 4857: 4853: 4843: 4831:. Retrieved 4820: 4811: 4768: 4764: 4754: 4742:. Retrieved 4725: 4715: 4696: 4690: 4678:. Retrieved 4673: 4664: 4631: 4627: 4621: 4591:(4): 312–7. 4588: 4584: 4578: 4566:. Retrieved 4536: 4532: 4519: 4511:the original 4501: 4479:(1): 17–32. 4476: 4472: 4466: 4452: 4438: 4428:18 September 4426:. Retrieved 4422:the original 4412: 4402:– via 4396:. Retrieved 4381: 4358:the original 4348: 4338:25 September 4336:. Retrieved 4327: 4318: 4281: 4277: 4267: 4243:(1): 83–99. 4240: 4236: 4226: 4207: 4203: 4147: 4143: 4133: 4096: 4092: 4082: 4035: 3981: 3975: 3925: 3919: 3847: 3841: 3779: 3773: 3713: 3709: 3649: 3643: 3613: 3609: 3565: 3561: 3551: 3524: 3520: 3510: 3499:, retrieved 3479: 3472: 3460:. Retrieved 3440: 3433: 3408: 3404: 3397: 3386: 3376: 3364:. Retrieved 3344: 3337: 3313:(1): 72–89. 3310: 3306: 3296: 3271:10261/207451 3253: 3249: 3243: 3206: 3202: 3192: 3182:25 September 3180:. Retrieved 3155: 3151: 3141: 3124: 3120: 3114: 3095: 3091: 3081: 3056: 3052: 3046: 3001: 2997: 2987: 2970: 2967:Science News 2966: 2960: 2927: 2923: 2917: 2890: 2886: 2876: 2866:25 September 2864:. Retrieved 2855: 2846: 2814:(1): 30–41. 2811: 2807: 2797: 2754: 2750: 2740: 2728:. Retrieved 2691: 2687: 2677: 2665:. Retrieved 2650: 2636:cite journal 2624:. Retrieved 2583: 2579: 2569: 2534: 2524: 2491: 2487: 2481: 2448: 2444: 2438: 2403: 2399: 2374:. Retrieved 2333: 2329: 2297: 2293: 2255: 2251: 2245: 2235:25 September 2233:. Retrieved 2208: 2204: 2194: 2182:. Retrieved 2173: 2164: 2131: 2127: 2121: 2080: 2076: 2070: 2037: 2033: 1984: 1980: 1970: 1930:(2): 211–6. 1927: 1923: 1917: 1880: 1876: 1866: 1854:. Retrieved 1803: 1799: 1737: 1733: 1727: 1637: 1620:phagocytosis 1565: 1552: 1521: 1481: 1469: 1463: 1456:Neanderthals 1435:Early humans 1433: 1420: 1396:cell nucleus 1388:keratinocyte 1377: 1353: 1343: 1336: 1315: 1304: 1287: 1273: 1254: 1248: 1244: 1224: 1208: 1199:L-dopachrome 1130: 1105: 1088: 1062: 883:Identifiers 836: 834: 802: 784: 780: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 743:microbes in 741:radiotrophic 737:radiobiology 724: 720: 710: 708: 697: 691: 672: 661: 645: 638: 632: 626: 591: 584:heavy metals 576:UV radiation 565: 556: 537: 498: 471: 455: 438: 427:germination. 412: 387: 384:Neuromelanin 378:Neuromelanin 373: 371:is present. 349: 341: 336:substituents 312: 308: 285: 280:substituents 251:UV radiation 248: 211:, where the 197:neuromelanin 186: 162:biomolecules 154: 151: 144: 92: 91: 40: 6997:Carotenosis 6624:Reticulated 6355:development 6301:melanocytes 5894:Glutaminase 5860:glutathione 5569:(see below) 5229:(1): 9280. 4398:8 September 3988:: 474–478. 3932:: 460–468. 3786:: 1903129. 3720:: 272–283. 3656:: 105–113. 3620:(Croatia): 3405:Development 3059:: 171–219. 3004:(5): e457. 2973:(21): 325. 2376:22 February 1856:13 February 1626:sparing in 1580:antioxidant 1532:ultraviolet 1509:carotenoids 1505:riboflavins 1499:of certain 1485:sun tanning 1408:ultraviolet 1384:melanosomes 1320:pro-oxidant 1279:melanocytes 1127:→ eumelanin 1084:dopaquinone 955:Properties 673:Melanin in 668:agouti gene 646:The darker 568:cephalopods 544:basal layer 540:melanocytes 460:instead of 326:Pheomelanin 320:sun tanning 304:dopaquinone 296:melanosomes 244:Parkinson's 201:allomelanin 193:pheomelanin 182:melanocytes 139:; from 18:Pheomelanin 7148:Hair color 7132:Categories 7049:Skin color 7020:Dyschromia 6966:Chrysiasis 6702:Liver spot 6521:Leukoderma 6429:Melanosome 6362:Piebaldism 6353:Melanocyte 6277:Dyschromia 6201:asparagine 6177:Tyrosinase 5996:METHIONINE 5967:ISOLEUCINE 5816:Agmatinase 5509:TRYPTOPHAN 5400:acetyl-CoA 5364:Metabolism 5195:: 482–90. 4457:EntrezGene 4443:EntrezGene 4099:(4): 487. 3710:Toxicology 3501:7 November 3209:(4): 520. 2930:: 116–26. 2694:(1): 1–8. 2667:29 January 1720:References 1644:elasticity 1604:upregulate 1572:covalently 1513:tocopherol 1460:Denisovans 1374:Physiology 1361:and lower 1332:Rasagiline 1290:neuromotor 1235:congenital 1151:L-tyrosine 1116:dopachrome 1069:tyrosinase 996:Molar mass 911:ChemSpider 890:CAS Number 721:Drosophila 715:flies and 712:Drosophila 704:aposematic 687:iridescent 675:arthropods 652:carotenoid 622:gamma rays 501:skin color 369:L-cysteine 300:tyrosinase 290:(DHI) and 217:amino acid 205:pyomelanin 6821:ungrouped 6611:Melanosis 6551:Ungrouped 6419:in humans 6392:amelanism 6332:Syndromic 6205:aspartate 6066:THREONINE 5885:glutamine 5881:glutamate 5856:glutamate 5730:HISTIDINE 5716:glutamate 5692:threonine 5372:synthesis 5253:2045-2322 5172:24 August 4744:24 August 4734:0362-4331 4680:24 August 4568:24 August 4404:eMedicine 4324:"Melanin" 4093:Molecules 4075:711778164 4058:700199222 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