128:
187:(SOFC). PEMFCs operate at a lower temperature, are lighter and more compact, which makes them ideal for applications such as cars. However, some disadvantages are: the ~80 °C operating temperature is too low for cogeneration like in SOFCs, and that the electrolyte for PEMFCs must be water-saturated. However, some fuel-cell cars, including the
457:
206:
The fuel for the PEMFC is hydrogen, and the charge carrier is the hydrogen ion (proton). At the anode, the hydrogen molecule is split into hydrogen ions (protons) and electrons. The hydrogen ions permeate across the electrolyte to the cathode, while the electrons flow through an external circuit and
143:
spaceflight program. A number of technical problems led NASA to forego the use of proton-exchange membrane fuel cells in favor of batteries as a lower capacity but more reliable alternative for Gemini missions 1–4. An improved generation of
General Electric's PEM fuel cell was used in all subsequent
198:
in reformate. These improvements potentially could lead to higher overall system efficiencies. However, these gains have yet to be realized, as the gold-standard perfluorinated sulfonic acid (PFSA) membranes lose function rapidly at 100 °C and above if hydration drops below ~100%, and begin to
276:
As of 2008, the automotive industry as well as personal and public power generation are the largest markets for proton-exchange membrane fuel cells. PEM fuel cells are popular in automotive applications due to their relatively low operating temperature and their ability to start up quickly even in
295:
is a technique by which proton-exchange membranes are used to decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen gas. The proton-exchange membrane allows for the separation of produced hydrogen from oxygen, allowing either product to be exploited as needed. This process has been used variously to generate
843:
Jiangshui Luo; Annemette H. Jensen; Neil R. Brooks; Jeroen
Sniekers; Martin Knipper; David Aili; Qingfeng Li; Bram Vanroy; Michael Wübbenhorst; Feng Yan; Luc Van Meervelt; Zhigang Shao; Jianhua Fang; Zheng-Hong Luo; Dirk E. De Vos; Koen Binnemans; Jan Fransaer (2015).
272:
Early PEM fuel cell applications were focused within the aerospace industry. The then-higher capacity of fuel cells compared to batteries made them ideal as NASA's
Project Gemini began to target longer duration space missions than had previously been attempted.
845:
1216:
268:
The primary application of proton-exchange membranes is in PEM fuel cells. These fuel cells have a wide variety of commercial and military applications including in the aerospace, automotive, and energy industries.
191:, operate without humidifiers, relying on rapid water generation and the high rate of back-diffusion through thin membranes to maintain the hydration of the membrane, as well as the ionomer in the catalyst layers.
207:
produce electric power. Oxygen, usually in the form of air, is supplied to the cathode and combines with the electrons and the hydrogen ions to produce water. The reactions at the electrodes are as follows:
199:
creep in this temperature range, resulting in localized thinning and overall lower system lifetimes. As a result, new anhydrous proton conductors, such as protic organic ionic plastic crystals (POIPCs) and
1186:
914:
194:
High-temperature PEMFCs operate between 100 °C and 200 °C, potentially offering benefits in electrode kinetics and heat management, and better tolerance to fuel impurities, particularly
603:"Barton C. Hacker and James M. Grimwood. On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini. Washington, D. C.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 1977. Pp. xx, 625. $ 19.00"
878:
101:, there are many other structural motifs used to make ionomers for proton-exchange membranes. Many use polyaromatic polymers, while others use partially fluorinated polymers.
1238:
289:
based on the technology. The primary challenge facing automotive PEM technology is the safe and efficient storage of hydrogen, currently an area of high research activity.
119:
PEM fuel cells use a solid polymer membrane (a thin plastic film) which is permeable to protons when it is saturated with water, but it does not conduct electrons.
502:
846:"1,2,4-Triazolium perfluorobutanesulfonate as an archetypal pure protic organic ionic plastic crystal electrolyte for all-solid-state fuel cells"
452:, Townsend, Carl W. & Naselow, Arthur B., "Enhanced membrane-electrode interface", issued 2008-11-30, assigned to
1090:
17:
135:
Early proton-exchange membrane technology was developed in the early 1960s by
Leonard Niedrach and Thomas Grubb, chemists working for the
85:
membranes, where other materials are embedded in a polymer matrix. One of the most common and commercially available PEM materials is the
175:
which allowed only protons to pass through the material, making them a potential replacement for fluorinated ionomers as a PEM material.
915:"Protic ionic liquid and ionic melts prepared from methanesulfonic acid and 1H-1,2,4-triazole as high temperature PEMFC electrolytes"
292:
71:
913:
Jiangshui Luo; Jin Hu; Wolfgang Saak; Rüdiger
Beckhaus; Gunther Wittstock; Ivo F. J. Vankelecom; Carsten Agert; Olaf Conrad (2011).
281:
being the most popular model. PEM fuel cells have seen successful implementation in other forms of heavy machinery as well, with
389:
680:
586:
363:
1233:
723:
Hu, S.; Lozado-Hidalgo, M.; Wang, F.C.; et al. (26 November 2014). "Proton transport through one atom thick crystals".
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below-freezing conditions. As of March 2019 there were 6,558 fuel cell vehicles on the road in the United States, with the
1035:
Li, Mengxiao; Bai, Yunfeng; Zhang, Caizhi; Song, Yuxi; Jiang, Shangfeng; Grouset, Didier; Zhang, Mingjun (23 April 2019).
498:
1306:
1187:"Air Liquide invests in the world's largest membrane-based electrolyzer to develop its carbon-free hydrogen production"
67:
850:
472:
74:: separation of reactants and transport of protons while blocking a direct electronic pathway through the membrane.
886:
308:
PEM electrolyzer plant in Québec. Similar PEM-based devices are available for the industrial production of ozone.
139:. Significant government resources were devoted to the study and development of these membranes for use in NASA's
1449:
1533:
1404:
922:
318:
156:
plastics chemist
Walther Grot. Grot also demonstrated its usefulness as an electrochemical separator membrane.
1214:, "PEM (proton exchange membrane) low-voltage electrolysis ozone generating device", issued 2011-05-16
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670:
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530:"Batteries with Solid Ion-Exchange Membrane Electrolytes: II . Low-Temperature Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cells"
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1091:"Fact of the Month March 2019: There Are More Than 6,500 Fuel Cell Vehicles On the Road in the U.S."
709:
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131:
Leonard
Niedrach (left) and Thomas Grubb (right), inventors of proton-exchange membrane technology.
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153:
152:, which is today the most widely utilized proton-exchange membrane material, was developed by
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1037:"Review on the research of hydrogen storage system fast refueling in fuel cell vehicle"
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573:. Advances in Chemistry. Vol. 47. WASHINGTON, D.C.: AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.
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Carmo, Marcelo; Fritz, David L.; Mergel, Jürgen; Stolten, Detlef (22 April 2013).
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473:"New Proton Exchange Membrane Developed – Nafion promises inexpensive fuel-cells"
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499:"Research Topics for Materials and Processes for PEM Fuel Cells REU for 2008"
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product. While Nafion is an ionomer with a perfluorinated backbone like
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while acting as an electronic insulator and reactant barrier, e.g. to
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879:"Imidazolium methanesulfonate as a high temperature proton conductor"
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hydrogen fuel and oxygen for life-support systems in vessels such as
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PEMFCs have some advantages over other types of fuel cells such as
168:
109:
59:
1239:
EC-supported STREP program on high pressure PEM water electrolysis
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78:
47:
104:
Proton-exchange membranes are primarily characterized by proton
644:"Collecting the History of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells"
149:
98:
94:
90:
62:
gas. This is their essential function when incorporated into a
55:
1246:
203:, are actively studied for the development of suitable PEMs.
304:
submarines. A recent example is the construction of a 20 MW
567:
Young, George J.; Linden, Henry R., eds. (1 January 1969).
401:
391:
Alternative electrochemical systems for ozonation of water
1115:"Material Handling – Fuel Cell Solutions | Ballard Power"
877:
Jiangshui Luo, Olaf Conrad; Ivo F. J. Vankelecom (2013).
260:
The theoretical exothermic potential is +1.23 V overall.
1138:
425:"Novel inorganic/organic hybrid electrolyte membranes"
167:
published initial results on atom thick monolayers of
144:
Gemini missions, but was abandoned for the subsequent
977:"Status and development of PEM fuel cell technology"
1141:"A comprehensive review on PEM water electrolysis"
528:Grubb, W. T.; Niedrach, L. W. (1 February 1960).
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432:Prepr. Pap.-Am. Chem. Soc., Div. Fuel Chem
27:Ion-exchange membrane specific for protons
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950:"Could This Hydrogen-Powered Drone Work?"
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293:Polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis
1145:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
1041:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
981:International Journal of Energy Research
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14:
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534:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
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1234:Dry solid polymer electrolyte battery
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786:Karnik, Rohit N. (26 November 2014).
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364:Proton exchange membrane electrolysis
72:proton-exchange membrane electrolyser
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24:
1307:Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell
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851:Energy & Environmental Science
672:Fluorinated Ionomers – 2nd Edition
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471:Gabriel Gache (17 December 2007).
148:missions. The fluorinated ionomer
77:PEMs can be made from either pure
68:proton-exchange membrane fuel cell
25:
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423:Zhiwei Yang; et al. (2004).
887:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
1450:Unitized regenerative fuel cell
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1193:. Air Liquide. 25 February 2019
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975:Barbir, F.; Yazici, S. (2008).
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1165:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.01.151
1061:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.02.208
923:Journal of Materials Chemistry
669:Grot, Walther (15 July 2011).
607:The American Historical Review
595:
560:
521:
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319:Alkali anion exchange membrane
13:
1:
1445:Solid oxide electrolyzer cell
375:
1328:Direct borohydride fuel cell
254:O + heat + electrical energy
178:
36:polymer-electrolyte membrane
18:Polymer electrolyte membrane
7:
1415:Membrane electrode assembly
1358:Reformed methanol fuel cell
359:Membrane electrode assembly
334:Dynamic mechanical analysis
311:
64:membrane electrode assembly
10:
1560:
1435:Protonic ceramic fuel cell
1405:Electro-galvanic fuel cell
1297:Molten carbonate fuel cell
788:"Breakthrough for protons"
404:. 20 March 2007. MSC-23045
122:
116:), and thermal stability.
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1425:Photoelectrochemical cell
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1371:
1343:Direct methanol fuel cell
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1302:Phosphoric acid fuel cell
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650:. Smithsonian Institution
1430:Proton-exchange membrane
1338:Direct-ethanol fuel cell
354:Isotope electrochemistry
165:University of Manchester
137:General Electric Company
32:proton-exchange membrane
1420:Membraneless Fuel Cells
1353:Metal hydride fuel cell
1333:Direct carbon fuel cell
349:Gas diffusion electrode
239:Overall cell reaction:
1440:Regenerative fuel cell
1379:Enzymatic biofuel cell
648:americanhistory.si.edu
185:solid oxide fuel cells
132:
44:semipermeable membrane
1534:Hydrogen technologies
1348:Formic acid fuel cell
1312:Solid oxide fuel cell
450:US patent 5266421
339:Electrolysis of water
283:Ballard Power Systems
130:
615:10.1086/ahr/84.2.593
579:10.1021/ba-1965-0047
497:Nakhiah Goulbourne.
400:(Technical report).
201:protic ionic liquids
46:generally made from
1539:Membrane technology
1384:Microbial fuel cell
1157:2013IJHE...38.4901C
1053:2019IJHE...4410677L
1047:(21): 10677–10693.
993:2008IJER...32..369B
930:(28): 10426–10436.
813:10.1038/nature14074
804:2014Natur.516..173K
757:10.1038/nature14015
749:2014Natur.516..227H
509:on 27 February 2009
344:Electroosmotic pump
324:Artificial membrane
1292:Alkaline fuel cell
936:10.1039/C0JM04306K
900:10.1039/C2TA00713D
864:10.1039/C4EE02280G
675:. William Andrew.
223:Cathode reaction:
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81:membranes or from
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1151:(12): 4901–4934.
798:(7530): 173–174.
682:978-1-4377-4457-6
588:978-0-8412-0048-7
570:Fuel Cell Systems
546:10.1149/1.2427622
16:(Redirected from
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609:. April 1979.
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