883:
commercial nuclear power reactor designs require the entire reactor to shut down, often for weeks, in order to change the fuel elements. They therefore produce plutonium in a mix of isotopes that is not well-suited to weapon construction. Such a reactor could have machinery added that would permit U slugs to be placed near the core and changed frequently, or it could be shut down frequently, so proliferation is a concern; for this reason, the
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is fissioned in the same fuel rods in which it is produced. Fissioning of plutonium-239 provides more than one-third of the total energy produced in a typical commercial nuclear power plant. Reactor fuel would accumulate much more than 0.8% plutonium-239 during its service life if some plutonium-239 were not constantly being "burned off" by fissioning.
1134:. It has been estimated that a pound (454 grams) of plutonium inhaled as plutonium oxide dust could give cancer to two million people. However, ingested plutonium is by far less dangerous as only a tiny fraction is absorbed in gastrointestinal tract; 800 mg would be unlikely to cause a major health risk as far as radiation is concerned. As a
843:" in which a small explosion occurs, destroying the weapon but not causing fission of a significant fraction of the fuel. It is because of this limitation that plutonium-based weapons must be implosion-type, rather than gun-type. Moreover, Pu and Pu cannot be chemically distinguished, so expensive and difficult
1102:
Plutonium-239 present in reactor fuel can absorb neutrons and fission just as uranium-235 can. Since plutonium-239 is constantly being created in the reactor core during operation, the use of plutonium-239 as nuclear fuel in power plants can occur without reprocessing of spent fuel; the plutonium-239
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because they produce more plutonium than they consume fuel; in principle, such reactors make extremely efficient use of natural uranium. In practice, their construction and operation is sufficiently difficult that they are generally only used to produce plutonium. Breeder reactors are generally (but
1094:
In any operating nuclear reactor containing U, some plutonium-239 will accumulate in the nuclear fuel. Unlike reactors used to produce weapons-grade plutonium, commercial nuclear power reactors typically operate at a high burnup that allows a significant amount of plutonium to build up in irradiated
1069:
The "supergrade" fission fuel, which has less radioactivity, is used in the primary stage of US Navy nuclear weapons in place of the conventional plutonium used in the Air Force's versions. "Supergrade" is industry parlance for plutonium alloy bearing an exceptionally high fraction of Pu (>95%),
838:
due to the tendency of Pu to absorb an additional neutron during production. Pu has a high rate of spontaneous fission events (415,000 fission/s-kg), making it an undesirable contaminant. As a result, plutonium containing a significant fraction of Pu is not well-suited to use in nuclear weapons; it
1074:. Such low irradiation times limit the amount of additional neutron capture and therefore buildup of alternate isotope products such as Pu in the rod, and also by consequence is considerably more expensive to produce, needing far more rods irradiated and processed for a given amount of plutonium.
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emitter, and so is responsible for a large fraction of the radiation from stored nuclear weapons. Whether out on patrol or in port, submarine crew members routinely live and work in very close proximity to nuclear weapons stored in torpedo rooms and missile tubes, unlike Air Force missiles where
923:, which cannot be easily burned except in a fast reactor. Also IFR fuel has a high proportion of burnable isotopes, while in CANDU an inert material is needed to dilute the fuel; this means the IFR can burn a higher fraction of its fuel before needing reprocessing. Most plutonium is produced in
1145:
Weapons grade plutonium (with greater than 90% Pu) is used to make nuclear weapons and has many advantages over other fissile material for that purpose. Lower proportions of Pu would make a reliable weapon design difficult or impossible; this is due to the spontaneous fission (and thus neutron
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A nuclear reactor that is used to produce plutonium for weapons therefore generally has a means for exposing U to neutron radiation and for frequently replacing the irradiated U with new U. A reactor running on unenriched or moderately enriched uranium contains a great deal of U. However, most
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would be necessary to separate them. Weapons-grade plutonium is defined as containing no more than 7% Pu; this is achieved by only exposing U to neutron sources for short periods of time to minimize the Pu produced.
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Fission activity is relatively rare, so even after significant exposure, the Pu is still mixed with a great deal of U (and possibly other isotopes of uranium), oxygen, other components of the original material, and
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Pu has a higher probability for fission than U and a larger number of neutrons produced per fission event, so it has a smaller critical mass. Pure Pu also has a reasonably low rate of neutron emission due to
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leaving a very low amount of Pu, which is a high spontaneous fission isotope (see above). Such plutonium is produced from fuel rods that have been irradiated a very short time as measured in MW-day/ton
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exposures are relatively brief. The need to reduce radiation exposure justifies the additional costs of the premium supergrade alloy used on many naval nuclear weapons. Supergrade plutonium is used in
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to become uranium-235. As an alpha emitter, plutonium-239 is not particularly dangerous as an external radiation source, but if it is ingested or breathed in as dust it is very dangerous and
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Plutonium-239 is more frequently used in nuclear weapons than uranium-235, as it is easier to obtain in a quantity of critical mass. Both plutonium-239 and uranium-235 are obtained from
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that has been removed from the reactor at the end of the fuel assembly's service life (typically several years). Spent nuclear fuel commonly contains about 0.8% plutonium-239.
951:, i.e. increasing the ratio of U to U to weapons grade, is generally a more lengthy and costly process than the production of plutonium-239 from U and subsequent reprocessing.
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350:. A spherical untamped critical mass is about 11 kg (24.2 lbs), 10.2 cm (4") in diameter. Using appropriate triggers, neutron reflectors, implosion geometry and
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by uranium-238 to produce plutonium-239 and other isotopes. Plutonium-239 can also absorb neutrons and fission along with the uranium-235 in a reactor.
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heavy-water moderated, natural-uranium fueled reactor can also be refueled while operating, but it normally consumes most of the Pu it produces
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The nuclear properties of plutonium-239, as well as the ability to produce large amounts of nearly pure Pu more cheaply than highly enriched
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is also used for that purpose. Plutonium-239 is also one of the three main isotopes demonstrated usable as fuel in thermal spectrum
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947:, which primarily consists of uranium-238 but contains traces of other isotopes of uranium such as uranium-235. The process of
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of individual atoms of one of the isotopes of uranium present in the fuel rods. Occasionally, when an atom of U is exposed to
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of an atom of uranium-235 in the reactor of a nuclear power plant produces two to three neutrons, and these neutrons can be
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915:(Integral Fast Reactor) can also be operated in an incineration mode, having some advantages in not accumulating the
800:{\displaystyle {\ce {{}^{238}_{92}U + {}^{1}_{0}n -> {}^{239}_{92}U -> {}^{239}_{93}Np -> {}^{239}_{94}Pu}}}
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A small percentage of plutonium-239 can be deliberately added to fresh nuclear fuel. Such fuel is called
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thus, it is not only inherently less proliferative than most reactors, but can even be operated as an "
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Plutonium is classified according to the percentage of the contaminant plutonium-240 that it contains:
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reactor fuel. Plutonium-239 will be present both in the reactor core during operation and in
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emits neutron radiation, making handling more difficult, and its presence can lead to a "
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In practice, however, reactor-bred plutonium will invariably contain a certain amount of
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inspects licensed reactors often. A few commercial power reactor designs, such as the
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1248:"The Evolution of CANDU Fuel Cycles and their Potential Contribution to World Peace"
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Total heat released in a thermal-spectrum reactor (anti-neutrinos do not contribute)
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uranium-235, led to its use in nuclear weapons and nuclear power plants. The
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Plutonium-240, in addition to being a neutron emitter after fission, is a
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This article is about an isotope of plutonium. For the film also known as
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495: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1361:"Chapter 11, HAZARDS OF HIGH-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE — THE GREAT MYTH"
1222:"Table of Physical and Chemical Constants, Sec 4.7.1: Nuclear Fission"
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504:"plutonium-239" supergrade, rbmk, phwr, ifr, nuclear weapons
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from the rest of the material to yield high-purity Pu metal.
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1425:
NLM Hazardous
Substances Databank – Plutonium, Radioactive
1401:. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press. pp. 324–329.
1175:"Physical, Nuclear, and Chemical Properties of Plutonium"
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Energy released by radiative capture of prompt neutrons
1430:
Table of nuclides with Pu data at Kaye and Laby Online
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Nature's
Building Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the Elements
639:, and the second β decay transforming the Np into Pu:
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Radioactivity, Ionizing
Radiation, and Nuclear Energy
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are somewhat more efficient at plutonium production.
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Of all the common nuclear fuels, Pu has the smallest
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1110:, as it contains a mixture of uranium dioxide (UO
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571:. Pu is normally created in nuclear reactors by
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1179:Institute for Energy and Environmental Research
1138:, plutonium is also chemically toxic. See also
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365:= 83.61 TJ/kg, or about 23 gigawatt hours/kg.
357:The fission of one atom of Pu generates 207.1
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1291:. World Nuclear Association. Archived from
993:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
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1057:Learn how and when to remove this message
555:Learn how and when to remove this message
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1224:. Kaye & Laby Online. Archived from
927:or plutonium production reactors called
371:radiation source (thermal fission of Pu)
1261:Hala, Jiri; Navratil, James D. (2003).
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895:) and pressurized heavy water reactor (
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1246:Whitlock, Jeremy J. (April 14, 2000).
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991:adding citations to reliable sources
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889:reaktor bolshoy moshchnosti kanalniy
493:adding citations to reliable sources
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435:Total from decaying fission products
1146:production) of the undesirable Pu.
379:Kinetic energy of fission fragments
299:isotope used for the production of
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885:International Atomic Energy Agency
25:
1674:
1418:
1323:"Chapter 13, Plutonium and bombs"
1289:"Information Paper 15: Plutonium"
628:{\displaystyle {\bar {\nu }}_{e}}
387:Kinetic energy of prompt neutrons
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469:
32:The Half Life of Timofey Berezin
480:needs additional citations for
395:Energy carried by prompt γ-rays
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295:. Plutonium-239 is the primary
53:A 99.96% pure ring of plutonium
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1199:FAS Nuclear Weapons Design FAQ
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361:= 3.318 × 10 J, i.e. 19.98 TJ/
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1:
1267:. Brno: Konvoj. p. 102.
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579:, its nucleus will capture a
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1114:) and plutonium dioxide (PuO
79:plutonium-239, 239Pu, Pu-239
7:
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10:
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1435:Half-life of Plutonium-239
1204:December 26, 2008, at the
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919:isotope or the long-lived
403:Total instantaneous energy
269:Complete table of nuclides
29:
1663:Radioactive contamination
1658:Special nuclear materials
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1368:The Nuclear Energy Option
1330:The Nuclear Energy Option
1090:In nuclear power reactors
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427:Energy of delayed γ-rays
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419:Energy of antineutrinos
1108:MOX (mixed oxide) fuel
1006:"supergrade plutonium"
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411:Energy of β− particles
319:. Plutonium-239 has a
42:Plutonium-239, Pu
1653:Isotopes of plutonium
1586:isotopes of plutonium
1393:Emsley, John (2001).
1140:Plutonium#Precautions
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265:Isotopes of plutonium
1462:Plutonium-239 is an
1126:Plutonium-239 emits
987:improve this section
955:Supergrade plutonium
909:actinide incinerator
817:chemically separated
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591:— an emission of an
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27:Isotope of plutonium
1208:, Accessed 2010-9-2
825:spontaneous fission
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1440:2011-08-15 at the
1156:Teller-Ulam design
1097:spent nuclear fuel
845:isotope separation
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430: 5.2
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414: 5.3
398: 7.8
390: 5.9
327:Nuclear properties
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1648:Fissile materials
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1533:of plutonium-239
1379:978-0-306-43567-6
1356:Cohen, Bernard L.
1341:978-0-306-43567-6
1318:Cohen, Bernard L.
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1372:. Plenum Press.
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1334:. Plenum Press.
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826:
820:
818:
814:
792:
789:
773:
770:
756:
752:
746:
743:
727:
724:
710:
706:
700:
697:
681:
678:
666:
662:
659:
642:
641:
640:
638:
637:neptunium-239
620:
610:
598:
597:anti-neutrino
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
573:transmutation
570:
559:
556:
548:
537:
534:
530:
527:
523:
520:
516:
513:
509:
506: –
505:
501:
500:Find sources:
494:
490:
484:
483:
478:This section
476:
472:
467:
466:
453:
450:
449:
445:
442:
441:
437:
434:
433:
429:
426:
425:
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418:
417:
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410:
409:
405:
402:
401:
397:
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389:
386:
385:
381:
378:
377:
373:
370:
369:
366:
364:
360:
355:
353:
349:
348:critical mass
344:
342:
338:
334:
333:weapons-grade
324:
322:
318:
314:
311:, along with
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
277:Plutonium-239
270:
266:
262:
258:
255:
250:
246:
242:
239:
237:
233:
228:
225:
222:
220:
216:
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208:
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185:
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168:
166:
162:
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127:
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120:
116:
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108:
103:
99:
95:
91:
86:
82:
78:
76:
72:
68:
66:
62:
57:
50:
45:
37:
36:Pu-239 (film)
33:
19:
1601:
1547:
1541:
1527:
1523:
1512:
1501:
1491:
1477:
1464:
1455:
1446:
1398:
1388:
1367:
1350:
1329:
1297:. Retrieved
1293:the original
1283:
1263:
1256:
1241:
1230:. Retrieved
1226:the original
1194:
1182:. Retrieved
1178:
1169:
1144:
1132:carcinogenic
1125:
1105:
1101:
1093:
1076:
1068:
1053:
1044:
1034:
1027:
1020:
1013:
1001:
985:Please help
973:
942:
932:not always)
904:
888:
881:
873:
867:
861:
855:
850:
833:
821:
809:
566:
551:
542:
532:
525:
518:
511:
499:
487:Please help
482:verification
479:
446: 11.5
438: 17.6
356:
345:
330:
284:
280:
276:
275:
241:Decay energy
156:239.0521634
152:Isotope mass
130:
119:Nuclide data
106:
89:
31:
1543:uranium-235
1529:Decay chain
1395:"Plutonium"
1184:20 November
1136:heavy metal
1086:warheads.
878:18% or more
569:uranium-238
317:uranium-233
313:uranium-235
305:uranium-235
303:, although
254:Alpha decay
230:Decay modes
145: years
1637:Categories
1493:curium-243
1232:2009-02-01
1162:References
1017:newspapers
868:Fuel grade
856:Supergrade
515:newspapers
461:Production
337:fissioning
236:Decay mode
1643:Actinides
1475:Heavier:
1470:plutonium
1453:Lighter:
1047:July 2024
974:does not
921:actinides
774:−
771:β
728:−
725:β
686:⟶
614:¯
611:ν
545:July 2024
321:half-life
293:plutonium
126:Half-life
1438:Archived
1358:(1990).
1320:(1990).
1202:Archived
1150:See also
936:, since
905:in situ;
831:begins.
753:→
707:→
593:electron
589:β decays
341:absorbed
287:) is an
102:Neutrons
1466:isotope
1299:15 July
1122:Hazards
1031:scholar
995:removed
980:sources
595:and an
581:neutron
529:scholar
352:tampers
297:fissile
289:isotope
209: (
200: (
191: (
174:⁄
85:Protons
59:General
1537:Decays
1405:
1376:
1338:
1271:
1072:burnup
1033:
1026:
1019:
1012:
1004:
841:fizzle
760:
714:
531:
524:
517:
510:
502:
454:211.5
406:189.5
382:175.8
285:Pu-239
211:β
193:α
65:Symbol
34:, see
18:Pu-239
1584:Main
1079:gamma
1038:JSTOR
1024:books
901:CANDU
870:7–18%
757:2.356
536:JSTOR
522:books
259:5.156
75:Names
1539:to:
1489:of:
1403:ISBN
1374:ISBN
1336:ISBN
1301:2020
1269:ISBN
1186:2015
1010:news
978:any
976:cite
897:PHWR
893:RBMK
864:3–7%
858:2–3%
711:23.5
508:news
315:and
165:Spin
1546:(α)
1468:of
1084:W80
989:by
913:IFR
793:239
747:239
718:min
701:239
663:238
491:by
363:mol
359:MeV
291:of
283:or
245:MeV
143:110
134:1/2
113:145
1639::
1622:Pu
1617:Pu
1612:Pu
1607:Pu
1602:Pu
1597:Pu
1509:EC
1397:.
1364:.
1326:.
1309:^
1213:^
1177:.
1142:.
836:Pu
790:94
784:Pu
744:93
738:Np
698:92
660:92
281:Pu
207:Np
202:EC
198:Am
189:Cm
158:Da
141:24
96:94
69:Pu
1577:e
1570:t
1563:v
1522:)
1520:β
1518:(
1511:)
1507:(
1500:)
1498:α
1496:(
1411:.
1382:.
1344:.
1303:.
1277:.
1250:.
1235:.
1188:.
1116:2
1112:2
1060:)
1054:(
1049:)
1045:(
1035:·
1028:·
1021:·
1014:·
997:.
983:.
891:(
764:d
692:U
682:1
679:0
673:n
667:+
654:U
621:e
599:(
585:U
558:)
552:(
547:)
543:(
533:·
526:·
519:·
512:·
485:.
279:(
247:)
243:(
224:U
213:)
204:)
195:)
176:2
172:1
169:+
136:)
131:t
129:(
109:)
107:N
105:(
92:)
90:Z
88:(
38:.
20:)
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