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through public space. However, due to economic needs and shifts in gender relations, some women are compelled to break purdah to gain income. Across countries, women from lower socioeconomic backgrounds tend to observe purdah less because they face greater financial pressures to work and gain income. Studies show that "it is the poorest, most desperate families that, given the opportunity, are more willing to stress purdah norms and take the social risks entailed when women engage in wage or self-employment. For instance, rural women in
Bangladesh have been found to be less concerned with propriety and purdah, and take up work where available, migrating if they need to. They take up work in a variety of sectors from agriculture to manufacturing to the sex trade. However, other studies found that purdah still plays a significant role in women's decisions to participate in the workforce, often prohibiting them from taking opportunities they would otherwise. The degree to which women observe purdah and the pressures they face to conform or to earn income vary with their socioeconomic class.
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and an "eclipse of Muslim woman's identity and individuality". According to scholars such as
Elizabeth White, "purdah is an accommodation to and a means of perpetuating the perceived differences between the sexes: the male being self-reliant and aggressive, the female weak, irresponsible, and in need of protection". Geraldine Books writes "in both cases , women are expected to sacrifice their comfort and freedom to service the requirements of male sexuality: either to repress or to stimulate the male sex urge".
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purdah is positively correlated with the risk of domestic violence. The restriction on women's mobility limits their ability to access health care and family planning services, especially for unmarried girls. In rural
Pakistan, unmarried women and girls had trouble accessing healthcare facilities even in their own villages due to purdah; all types of women had difficulty accessing facilities outside of their villages because they had to be accompanied. Along the same vein, studies of women's
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political office, participate in trade unions, or participate in community level decision-making. Women's limited participation in political decision-making therefore results in policies that do not sufficiently address needs and rights of women in areas such as access to healthcare, education and employment opportunities, property ownership, justice, and others. Gender imbalance in policy-making also reinforces institutionalization of gender disparities.
42:
939:, religious veiling is banned in public schools, universities, and government buildings as a measure to discourage displays of political Islam or fundamentalism. Turkey reversed the long-standing ban in 2013. In western Europe, veiling is seen as symbol of Islamic presence, and movements to ban veils have stirred great controversy. For instance, since 2004 France has banned all overt religious symbols in schools including the Muslim headscarf. In
734:
women wear a two-piece burqa which is usually black in colour but sometimes navy blue or dark red. It consists of a long cloak and a separate headpiece with a drop-down face veil. Some educated urban women no longer wear the burqa. The burqa is also not worn by rural peasant women who work in the fields. In rural areas only elite women wear burqas. Purdah is still common in the rural elite and urban middle class, but not among rural farmers.
852:, is found among some married Hindu women in rural North India. A fold of the sari is drawn over the face when the woman is in the presence of older male in-laws or in a place where there is likelihood of meeting them, e.g. the in-laws' village. It is not worn otherwise, for example, when visiting her mother's home or in a location far from the in-laws' village. Hindu women in other parts of India—south, east, west (below
839:... I should not neglect to mention that in those days – I’m talking about the Forties – it was considered improper even for Hindu ladies of certain classes to be seen in public with their hair and faces uncovered, particularly the married women. They never wore a burqa – that was for Muslims alone. Instead, they used a shawl, a plain white sheet, or the
963:. The ideology is reinforcing traditional culture, traditional women's roles in the domestic sphere, and the need to protect women's honor. The result is policies that reinforce cultural norms that limit female mobility in the public sphere, promotion of gender segregation, and institutionalization of gender disparities.
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practice, many elements of both "Hindu" and "Muslim" purdah are shared by women of both groups in South Asia (Vatuk 1982; Jeffery 1979), and Hindu and Muslim women both adopt similar strategies of self-effacement, like covering the face, keeping silent, and looking down, when in the company of persons to be avoided.
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Purdah has repeatedly been criticized as oppression of women by limiting female autonomy, freedom of movement, and access to resources such as education, employment, and political participation. Some scholars such as P. Singh and Roy interpret purdah as a form of male domination in the public sphere,
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has influenced
Pakistani women's purdah practice in areas outside of religious significance. One major influence is the desire to be modern and keep up with the latest fashions, or refusal to do so as a source of autonomy and power. Simultaneously, due to modernization in many urban areas, purdah and
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for women, which includes minimizing the movement of women in public spaces and interactions of women with other males. The specific form varies widely based on religion, region, class, and culture. For instance, for some purdah might mean never leaving the home unless accompanied by a male relative,
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Some scholars argue that the purdah was initially designed to protect women from being harassed, but later these practices became a way to justify efforts to subjugate women and limit their mobility and freedom. However, others argue that these practices were always in place as local custom, but were
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Apa’s burqa’ consisted of a skirt and a separate top throw – one that covered her from the head to the thighs. The two pieces allowed for easier movement of both arms and legs. The top had a separate veil hanging over the face, which Apa could throw back in the company of women, e.g. while traveling
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The revival of purdah in modern times is sometimes perceived as a statement for progressive gender relations. Some women wear veils and head coverings as a symbol for protection and freedom of mobility. They perceive purdah as an empowerment tool, to exercise their rights to access public space for
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For the Muslim South Asian diaspora living in secular non-Muslim communities such as
Pakistani-Americans, attitudes about purdah have changed to be less strict. As it pertains to education and economic opportunities, these immigrant families hold less conservative views about purdah after moving to
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purdah, also spelled Pardah, Hindi Parda ("screen," or "veil"), practice that was inaugurated by
Muslims and later adopted by various Hindus, especially in India, and that involves the seclusion of women from public observation by means of concealing clothing (including the veil) and by the use of
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upper classes of northern India. The spread of purdah outside of the Muslim community can be attributed to the tendency of affluent classes to mirror the societal practices of the nobility; poor women did not observe purdah. Lower-class women in small villages often worked in fields, and therefore
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Some scholars argue that purdah was originally designed to protect women from being harassed and seen as sexual objects. In contemporary times, some men and women still interpret the purdah as a way to protect women's safety while moving in public sphere. Observing purdah is also seen as a way to
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By restricting women's mobility, purdah places severe limits on women's ability to participate in gainful employment and to attain economic independence. The ideology of purdah constricts women in the domestic sphere for reproductive role and places men in productive role as breadwinners who move
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By restricting women's mobility, purdah results in the social and physical isolation of women. Lack of a strong social network places women in a position of vulnerability with her husband and her husband's family. Studies have shown that in conservative rural
Bangladeshi communities, adherence to
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of their saris to cover what was not for strangers to see. They too lived in houses that had separate women’s quarters. Their daughters traveled to school daily in a covered wagon that was pushed by two men, just like their Muslim counterparts. (The school was exclusively for girls and had a very
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In the past around the 1970s, upper and middle-class women in towns in
Pakistan would wear burqas over their normal clothes in public. The burqa was the most visible dress in Pakistan. It is typically a tent-like garment worn over the ordinary clothes and is made of white cotton. Many upper-class
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Purdah regulates the interactions of women with certain kinds of men. Typically, Hindu women must avoid specific male affines (in-laws) and Muslim women are restricted from contact with men outside the family, or at least their contact with these men is highly circumscribed (Papanek 1982:3). In
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Social and mobility restrictions under purdah severely limit women's involvement in political decision-making in government institutions and in the judiciary. Lack of mobility and discouragement from participating in political life means women cannot easily exercise their right to vote, run for
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or the ladies' section – and the two carriers would step away behind the curtain wall. Ammi would wrap herself in a white sheet and squat on the flat stool, and a heavy custom-made cover would be thrown over her and the doli. The two bearers would then come back and carry the doli away on their
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in Urdu literally means "curtain". Today, in Hindi it is used for both: in the literal sense for curtain and to refer to a system of seclusion and concealment of the body in the name of "respect" towards (male) elder (fictive and blood-related) family members and is construed as fundamental to
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The rationales of individual women for keeping purdah are complex and can be a combination of motivations, freely chosen or in response to social pressure or coercion: religious, cultural (desire for authentic cultural dress), political (Islamization of the society), economic (status symbol,
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Women have been engaging in efforts to challenge the gender inequality resulting from purdah. For instance, women in
Pakistan have organized trade unions and attempt to exercise their right to vote and influence decision making. However, their opponents accuse these women of falling for the
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In ancient Indian society, "practices that restricted women's social mobility and behavior" existed but the arrival of Islam in India "intensified these Hindu practices, and by the 19th century purdah was the customary practice of high-caste Hindu and elite communities throughout India."
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Practices that restricted women's mobility and behavior existed among religious groups in India since ancient times and intensified with the arrival of Islam. By the 19th century, purdah became customary among Hindu elites. Purdah was not traditionally observed by lower-class women.
641:
In modern times, the practice of veiling and secluding women is still present in mainly
Islamic countries, communities and South Asian countries. However, the practice is not monolithic. Purdah takes on different forms and significance depending on the region, time,
512:, where women are forced to observe complete purdah at all times while in public. Only close male family members and other women are allowed to see them out of purdah. In other societies, purdah is often only practised during certain times of religious significance.
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in the ladies compartment on a train, or hold partly aside to look at things more closely when she went shopping. Apa wore a burqa all her life, except of course when she went to Mecca for Hajj. There she wore the same sheets of ihram that Ammi had to were [
1297:, "to do purdah") usually includes these behavioral components, adhered to with highly varying degrees of strictness: in her marital village she doesn't leave the house, and she veils her face in front of all strangers and certain categories of male kin.
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Physical segregation within buildings is achieved with judicious use of walls, curtains, and screens. A woman's withdrawal into purdah usually restricts her personal, social and economic activities outside her home. The usual purdah garment worn is a
1928:
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or limiting interactions to only other women and male relatives (for some Muslims) or avoiding all males outside of the immediate family (for some Hindus). For Muslims, seclusion begins at puberty while for Hindus, seclusion begins after marriage.
803:
For Ammi, my grandmother, purdah meant almost never venturing out of the house. On the rare occasions when she did, it was always an elaborate ritual. Visiting a family in the neighbourhood – only on the occasion of some tragedy, ... she used a
1908:
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The word ‘Hijab' is relatively new for me. It was not a part of my vocabulary as I was growing up. I learned it much later, when I began to read literary and religious Urdu texts. ... The relevant word that I learned growing up was
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education and economic independence. For instance, in rural Bangladeshi villages, women who wear the burkha were found to have higher social participation and visibility, which overall contributes to an increase in women's status.
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In this respect, it is very interesting to note that the term "purdah," designating the veil worn over a woman's face in certain Islamic societies, is derived from the Hindi and Urdu "parda," meaning "screen," "curtain," or
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in both private and public life. The result is policies that reinforce cultural norms that limit female mobility in the public sphere, promotion of gender segregation, and institutionalization of gender disparities.
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communities. It takes two forms: social partition of the sexes and the requirement that women cover their bodies so as to cover their skin and conceal their form. A woman who practices purdah can be referred to as
1791:
Both rich and poor presented themselves as pious Muslims but took a very limited, selfish interest in the law of God. Most kept their wives in purdah but had little compunction committing adultery with unmarried
826:' by my sisters – that was preferred by the older or more conservatively spirited in the family. I also remember that the older generation's burqas were usually white, while the new burqas were always black.
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protection from the public gaze), psychological (detachment from public sphere to gain respect), fashion and decorative purposes, and "empowerment" (donning veils to move in public spaces controlled by men).
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shoulders. ... When Ammi traveled in my father's car, she covered herself the same way, while the back seat of the car where she sat was made completely invisible by pieces of cloth hung across the windows.
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Proponents of the practice view purdah as a symbol of honor, respect, and dignity. It is seen as a practice that allows women to be judged by their inner beauty rather than physical beauty.
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may vary according to women's life cycle (e.g. young wife, mother, widow) but also due to changing economic, political and religious considerations. There is no uniform prescription of how
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could not afford to abandon their work to be secluded. During the British colonial period in India, purdah observance was widespread and strictly adhered to among the Muslim minority.
2056:
is kept". ... In Eastern UP, families who can afford it have separate women's quarters within the house, which are not accessible to men, at least not to male non-family members.
1058:, India, four young Muslim women were victimized by acid attacks for not veiling themselves in public; similar threats and attacks have occurred in Pakistan and Kashmir.
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America; for the daughters who do choose to wear the veil, they usually do so out of their own volition as a connection to their Islamic roots and culture.
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1109:. It depicts a feminist utopia (called Ladyland) in which women run everything and men are secluded, in a mirror-image of the traditional practice of
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Empires before the advent of Islam. Historians believe purdah was acquired by the Muslims during the expansion of the Arab Empire into modern-day
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with logic such as "an elephant also has a bigger and heavier brain" and “a lion is stronger than a man” and yet neither of them dominates men.
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Nations such as Pakistan have been swinging to more conservative laws and policies that use rhetoric of following Islamic law, sometimes termed
1982:
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Hossain, M. K.; Kabir, M. (September 1, 2001). "Purdah, Mobility and Women's Empowerment and Reproductive Behaviour in Rural Bangladesh".
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577:, many scholars argue that veiling and secluding women pre-dates Islam; these practices were commonly found among various groups in the
1557:(Urdu) Seclusion. "Purdah" literally means curtain or veil. In the Indian context it referred to women kept secluded from public life.
30:
This article is about the practice of female seclusion. For UK restrictions on political activity before an election or a budget, see
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Vyas, Sugandha Rawat, and Pradeep Kumar. "From Sultanate Period Till Date: An Estimate Of Role and Status of Muslim Women in India."
2223:
Hashemi, Syed M.; Schuler, Sidney Ruth; Riley, Ann P. (April 1996). "Rural Credit Programs and Women's Empowerment in Bangladesh".
796:. And I learned the word and its many meanings in the observed practice of the various female members of my middle-class family in
237:
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Feldman, Shelley; McCarthy, Florence (1983). "Purdah and Changing Patterns of Social Control among Rural Women in Bangladesh".
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The literal meaning of "purdah" is, as already noted, "a curtain." In rural Rajasthan for a woman to observe purdah (in Hindi,
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is a demonstration of higher socioeconomic status and prestige because women are not needed for manual labor outside the home.
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in the presence of older male relations on their husbands' side; Muslim women observe purdah through the wearing of a burqa.
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in the 7th century C.E and that Islam merely added religious significance to already existing local practices of the times.
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Jalal, Ayesha (1991). "The Convenience of Subservience: Women in the State of Pakistan". In Kandiyoti, Deniz (ed.).
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Ahmed, Leila. 'Women and the Advent of Islam.' Women Living under Muslim Laws June 1989 – Mar. 1990, 7/8 : 5–15
836:] earlier. Like all women pilgrims then and now, she too exposed her face to everyone’s sight but not her hair.
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shows that women with decreased observance of purdah and increased mobility are more likely to use contraceptives.
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describes the evolution of purdah during the first third of the 20th century among the sharif or genteel people of
69:
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Amin, Sajeda (1997). "The Poverty–Purdah Trap in Rural Bangladesh: Implications for Women's Roles in the Family".
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Attitudes of Migrant Pakistani-muslim Families Towards Purdah and the Education of Women in a Secular Environment
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Khan, Ayesha (November 1999). "Mobility of Women and Access to Health and Family Planning Services in Pakistan".
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face-veiling are seen as unsophisticated and backwards, creating a trend in less strict observance of purdah.
810:. The little stool slung from a pole that two men carried would be brought to our back door – the door to the
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Refractions of Desire, Feminist Perspectives in the Novels of Toni Morrison, Michèle Roberts, and Anita Desai
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Koenig, Michael A.; Ahmed, Saifuddin; Hossain, Mian Bazle; Mozumder, A. B. M. Khorshed Alam (May 1, 2003).
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Singh, Prahlad (2004). "Purdah: the seclusion of body and mind". Abstracts of Sikh Studies, Vol 5, issue 1
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Abdelhadi, Magdi Tunisia attacked over headscarves, BBC News, September 26, 2006. Accessed February 2013.
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Arnett, Susan. King's College History Department, "Purdah." Last modified 2001. Accessed March 18, 2013.
863:, having a "separate women's quarters within the house" is commonplace among families who can afford it.
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where the word purdah is primarily used, the government has no policies either for or against veiling.
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Brooks, Geraldine. Nine Parts of Desire: The Hidden World of Islamic Women. New York: Doubleday, 1995.
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1172:
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Alibhai-Brown, Yasmin. Refusing the Veil: (Provocations). United Kingdom, Biteback Publishing, 2014.
646:, and local culture. It is most commonly associated with some Muslim communities in Afghanistan and
2111:"Women's Status and Domestic Violence in Rural Bangladesh: Individual- and Community-level Effects"
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and places the onus of preventing sexual assault on women rather than the perpetrators themselves.
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Kabeer, N. "Poverty, purdah and women's survival strategies in rural Bangladesh." (1990): 134–148.
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Politics Embedded: Women's Quota and Local Democracy. Negotiating Gender Relations in North India
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Politics Embedded: Women's Quota and Local Democracy. Negotiating Gender Relations in North India
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2616:"স্বপনচারিনী: চিনিতে পারিনি? (Dream-Lady: Can't I Re-Cognize? (Begum Rokeya's Sultana's Dream))"
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Turkey headscarf ruling condemned Al Jazeera English (07 June 2008). Retrieved on February 2013.
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Shaheed, F. (1986). "The Cultural Articulation of Patriarchy: Legal Systems, Islam and Women".
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2664:"Redeeming Indian" Christian" Womanhood?: Missionaries, Dalits, and Agency in Colonial India"
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uphold women's honor and virtuous conduct. However, critics point out that this view engages
822:. Hers was a two piece ‘modern' outfit, as opposed to the one-piece – derisively called ‘the
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Engineer, Asghar Ali. (1980) The Origin and Development of Islam, Orient Longman, Bombay
1660:"Purdah (Islamic Custom) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia." Accessed February 17, 2013.
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begins at puberty, for Hindu women after marriage. The families decide to which extent
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Sometimes reactions to purdah adherence can become violent. For instance, in 2001 in
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such as “Men have bigger brains” and women are "naturally weak" are countered in
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When purdah is institutionalized into laws, it limits opportunity, autonomy, and
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2362:. Brooklin, MA, USA: Facing History and Ourselves Foundation, Inc. p. 101.
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Sita's daughters: Coming out of purdah: The Rajput women of Khalapur revisited
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Embroidering Lives: Women's Work and Skill in the Lucknow Embroidery Industry
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pernicious influence of Westernization and turning their backs on tradition.
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French MPs back headscarf ban BBC News (BBC). Retrieved on 13 February 2009.
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played a significant role in emancipating Bengali Muslim women from purdah.
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Stories of Identity: Religion, Migration, and Belonging in a Changing World
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For both Hindu and Muslim women in the eastern part of the Indian state of
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Listen to the Heron's Words: Reimagining Gender and Kinship in North India
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clans of India and Pakistan as a social practice regardless of religion.
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The veiled women: Shifting gender equations in rural Haryana, 1880–1990
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Papanek, Hanna (1973). "Purdah: Separate Worlds and Symbolic Shelter".
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Hindu ladies covered their head with a kind of veil known as Ghoonghat.
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Asha, S (2008). "Narrative Discourses on Purdah in the Subcontinent".
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before Islam, and the mobility of upper-class women was restricted in
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White saris and sweet mangoes: Aging, gender, and body in North India
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1772:. Leiden, Netherlands: African Studies Centre (ASC). p. 41.
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Boko Haram: Islamism, politics, security and the state in Nigeria
1763:"Boko Haram and its Muslim critics: Observations from Yobe State"
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later adopted by religious rhetoric to control female behavior.
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interpretation is summed up by Raheja and Gold (1994:164) as "
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high-walled enclosures, screens, and curtains within the home.
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areas – Oriental and India Office Collection, British Library.
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714:. 1895, Oriental and India Office Collection, British Library
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Raheja, Gloria Goodwin; Gold, Ann Grodzins (29 April 1994).
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Apa, my mother, belonged to the next generation. She used a
2411:"The Hijabization Process: Some "Mindful" Bodies Uncovered"
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425:, meaning "curtain") is a religious and social practice of
2335:. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. pp. 77–114.
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2560:"The Women's Movement in Bangladesh Throughout the Years"
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2390:(Doctoral thesis). University of Maryland, College Park.
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should or could be observed. Consequently, the extent of
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to conceal the face. The eyes may or may not be exposed.
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1080:"Secluded Women" is criticism of Purdah system by first
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is also used to describe related practices, such as the
2501:"Kashmir women ordered to cover up or risk acid attack"
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http://departments.kings.edu/womens_history/purdah.html
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http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/483829/purdah
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Seclusion of women in some Muslim and Hindu communities
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Bigger Than Life: The Close-Up and Scale in the Cinema
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1989:. Outlook Publishing (India) Pvt. Ltd. Archived from
1700:"Gender and Nexus of Purdah Culture in Public Policy"
1598:"Հայերէն արմատական բառարան, Հրաչեայ Աճառեան - պարտակ"
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654:. Purdah has been more recently adopted in northern
2742:Johnson, Helen. "Purdah" in Eleanor B. Amico, ed.,
2725:(Stosius Incorporated/Advent Books Division, 1990.)
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726:In many societies, the seclusion of women to the
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1458:. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 135.
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1950:. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 109.
1910:Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Gujranwala
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2635:"The manless world of Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain"
2044:should be observed. The latitude to negotiate
1768:. In Pérouse de Montclos, Marc-Antoine (ed.).
1519:. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 25.
1007:Globalization and Muslim women returning from
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991:dates back to the 19th century. For instance,
504:Purdah has been rigorously observed under the
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1489:Women In Hindu Social System (1206–1707 A.D.)
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1887:"India – Veiling and the Seclusion of Women"
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573:Although purdah is commonly associated with
2005:
1930:Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Lahore
1881:
1879:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1346:
1344:
1206:Wilkinson-Weber, Clare M. (25 March 1999).
975:Protest against non-representation of women
420:
2218:
2216:
2073:Comparative Studies in Society and History
2066:
2064:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1533:
1302:
1268:
906:
497:observe purdah, with some women wearing a
414:
391:
377:
2694:Dr. Anuj. The Neo Purdah System Culture.
2632:
2126:
2104:
2102:
1734:"Face Veils and the Saudi Arabian Plague"
1693:
1691:
1689:
1568:
1259:
897:
763:in 1940 showing a woman in a body length
737:
625:Muslim rule of northern India during the
2440:
1876:
1754:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1514:
1480:
1404:
1383:
1341:
1061:
970:
884:
866:
750:
687:
40:
2668:Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion
2385:
2213:
2070:
2061:
2011:
1832:
1819:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1595:
1447:
1445:
1377:
1311:
1037:
1024:
915:
462:occurring in the weeks leading up to a
14:
2752:
2723:Indian Women: From Purdah to Modernity
2704:(Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994)
2661:
2465:White, Elizabeth H. (1977). "Purdah".
2312:
2099:
2016:. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 51–52.
1922:
1920:
1902:
1900:
1731:
1725:
1239:
1237:
871:Another important aspect of purdah is
658:, especially in areas affected by the
558:
2467:Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies
2464:
2356:Facing History and Ourselves (2008).
2330:
1943:
1933:. Manager of Publications. p. 9.
1926:
1913:. Manager of Publications. p. 9.
1906:
1697:
1666:
1638:
1486:
1451:
1415:
1350:
746:
2258:
2157:
1625:
1614:
1442:
1386:"Pre-election period of sensitivity"
966:
532:., which itself is derived from the
2626:
2614:D. Bandyopadhyay (15 August 2001).
2577:
1917:
1897:
1351:Doane, Mary Ann (18 October 2021).
1234:
415:
55:) showing the lifting of purdah in
24:
2655:
1797:
460:pre-election period of sensitivity
25:
2771:
2736:
2408:
1020:Controversy around women's agency
848:A different form of veiling, the
662:uprising. It is also observed by
550:(“to cover, wrap; hide, cloth”).
482:, which may or may not include a
2744:Readers Guide to Women's Studies
2711:(Univ of California Press, 2000)
1980:
1761:Harnischfeger, Johannes (2014).
1628:ICFAI Journal of English Studies
1394:Parliament of the United Kingdom
771:The following reminiscence from
620:
493:Married Hindu women in parts of
2718:(Oxford University Press, 1993)
2607:
2552:
2517:
2493:
2458:
2449:
2402:
2315:Muslim Women in Political Power
2306:
2297:
2288:
2279:
2252:
2243:
2178:
2151:
1974:
1954:
1863:
1589:
1562:
1424:. Infobase Publishing. p.
1126:
954:
921:Governmental policies on purdah
892:contraceptive use in Bangladesh
800:, a small town in north India.
633:, and the purdah spread to the
593:communities. For instance, the
2526:Journal of Marriage and Family
1275:University of California Press
13:
1:
2172:10.1016/S0968-8080(99)90005-8
1732:Khazan, Olga (21 June 2013).
1193:
2696:The Neo - Purdah System Cult
2386:Bokhari, Syeda Saba (1996).
2237:10.1016/0305-750X(95)00159-A
1742:. The Atlantic Media Company
1572:A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary
1491:. Inter-India Publications.
1336:maintaining family "honour".
1071:In popular culture and media
755:Picture of a meeting of the
669:
515:
32:Purdah (pre-election period)
7:
2313:Shahab, Rafi Ullah (1993).
2160:Reproductive Health Matters
1136:
1003:Globalization and migration
844:high wall surrounding it.)
721:
629:influenced the practice of
449:
441:
219:Practice and law by country
10:
2776:
2730:Journal of Indian Research
2333:Women, Islam and the State
2317:. Lahore: Maqbool Academy.
2199:10.1177/004908570103100307
2012:Strulik, Stefanie (2014).
1947:Area Handbook for Pakistan
1596:Ačaṙean, Hračʿeay (1979).
1312:Strulik, Stefanie (2014).
924:
879:
856:)—do not veil themselves.
683:
675:Protection and subjugation
562:
553:
543:(pardag), ultimately from
29:
2085:10.1017/S001041750000712X
1807:. Encyclopædia Britannica
1575:. Routledge. p. 65.
1569:Mackenzie, D. N. (1971).
1515:Sengupta, Jayita (2006).
1416:Walsh, Judith E. (2006).
1173:Sex segregation and Islam
421:
1420:A Brief History of India
1075:
2680:10.2979/fsr.2008.24.2.5
2662:Bauman, Chad M (2008).
2273:10.1111/1467-7660.00041
1944:Nyrop, Richard (1975).
1849:10.1215/07323867-6-1-38
1384:Johnston, Neil (2024).
1249:Encyclopædia Britannica
1090:Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain
907:Political participation
757:All-India Muslim League
2261:Development and Change
1698:Haque, Riffat (2010).
1487:Gupta, Kamala (2003).
1212:. SUNY Press. p.
997:Faizunnesa Choudhurani
976:
898:Economic participation
846:
768:
738:Individual motivations
715:
62:
2128:10.1353/dem.2003.0014
1927:Latif, Abdul (1978).
1907:Latif, Abdul (1977).
1455:Women in Mughal India
1452:Misra, Rekha (1967).
1357:Duke University Press
1062:Purdah as empowerment
974:
885:Psychology and health
867:Conduct and seclusion
789:
754:
691:
429:prevalent among some
51:(1848 lithograph, by
44:
2732:(2014) 2#3 pp: 9–14.
2721:Nanda, Bal Ram, ed.
2595:on 23 September 2015
1293:, "to keep purdah";
1038:Purdah as oppression
1025:Purdah as protection
916:Influences on purdah
644:socioeconomic status
524:is derived from the
2505:www.telegraph.co.uk
1987:Outlook the Website
1836:South Asia Bulletin
1707:South Asian Studies
559:Pre-Islamic origins
545:Proto-Indo-European
536:(pardeh,پرده) from
355:My Stealthy Freedom
273:Taliban Afghanistan
1547:. 15 December 2019
1318:LIT Verlag Münster
977:
769:
747:Examples of purdah
716:
309:Gender segregation
63:
2585:"Sultana's Dream"
2369:978-0-9798440-3-4
2225:World Development
2028:For Muslim women
1983:"The Hijab and I"
1891:countrystudies.us
1779:978-90-5448-135-5
1582:978-1-136-61396-8
1545:Lehigh University
1366:978-1-4780-2178-0
1327:978-3-643-80163-0
1284:978-0-520-08371-4
1188:Women in Pakistan
1105:story written by
989:feminist activism
967:Women's movements
401:
400:
16:(Redirected from
2767:
2714:Minturn, Leigh.
2700:Chowdhry, Prem.
2691:
2650:
2649:
2647:
2645:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2611:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2591:. Archived from
2581:
2575:
2574:
2572:
2571:
2556:
2550:
2549:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2511:
2497:
2491:
2490:
2462:
2456:
2453:
2447:
2444:
2438:
2435:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2421:
2415:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2383:
2374:
2373:
2353:
2347:
2346:
2328:
2319:
2318:
2310:
2304:
2301:
2295:
2292:
2286:
2283:
2277:
2276:
2256:
2250:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2220:
2211:
2210:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2130:
2106:
2097:
2096:
2068:
2059:
2058:
2009:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1978:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1968:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1941:
1935:
1934:
1924:
1915:
1914:
1904:
1895:
1894:
1883:
1874:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1830:
1817:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1801:
1795:
1794:
1788:
1786:
1767:
1758:
1752:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1704:
1695:
1664:
1658:
1645:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1623:
1612:
1611:
1609:
1608:
1593:
1587:
1586:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1554:
1552:
1537:
1531:
1530:
1512:
1506:
1505:
1484:
1478:
1477:
1449:
1440:
1439:
1423:
1413:
1402:
1401:
1396:. Archived from
1381:
1375:
1374:
1348:
1339:
1338:
1309:
1300:
1299:
1266:
1257:
1256:
1241:
1232:
1231:
1203:
1163:Hijab by country
927:Hijab by country
781:United Provinces
702:carriage in the
692:Photograph of a
464:general election
452:
444:
427:gender partition
424:
423:
418:
417:
393:
386:
379:
65:
64:
21:
2775:
2774:
2770:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2765:
2764:
2750:
2749:
2746:(1998) pp 484–5
2739:
2658:
2656:Further reading
2653:
2643:
2641:
2633:Rafia Zakaria.
2631:
2627:
2612:
2608:
2598:
2596:
2583:
2582:
2578:
2569:
2567:
2558:
2557:
2553:
2522:
2518:
2509:
2507:
2499:
2498:
2494:
2479:10.2307/3346105
2463:
2459:
2454:
2450:
2445:
2441:
2436:
2429:
2419:
2417:
2413:
2409:Marco, Oihana.
2407:
2403:
2384:
2377:
2370:
2354:
2350:
2343:
2329:
2322:
2311:
2307:
2302:
2298:
2293:
2289:
2284:
2280:
2257:
2253:
2248:
2244:
2221:
2214:
2183:
2179:
2156:
2152:
2107:
2100:
2069:
2062:
2024:
2010:
2006:
1996:
1994:
1979:
1975:
1966:
1964:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1942:
1938:
1925:
1918:
1905:
1898:
1885:
1884:
1877:
1868:
1864:
1831:
1820:
1810:
1808:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1765:
1759:
1755:
1745:
1743:
1730:
1726:
1702:
1696:
1667:
1659:
1648:
1643:
1639:
1624:
1615:
1606:
1604:
1594:
1590:
1583:
1567:
1563:
1550:
1548:
1539:
1538:
1534:
1527:
1513:
1509:
1499:
1485:
1481:
1466:
1450:
1443:
1436:
1414:
1405:
1382:
1378:
1367:
1349:
1342:
1328:
1310:
1303:
1285:
1277:. p. 168.
1267:
1260:
1243:
1242:
1235:
1224:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1139:
1129:
1120:Sultana's Dream
1095:Sultana's Dream
1088:Bengali writer
1086:social reformer
1082:Muslim feminist
1078:
1073:
1064:
1040:
1027:
1022:
1005:
969:
957:
929:
923:
918:
909:
900:
887:
882:
869:
749:
740:
728:domestic sphere
724:
686:
677:
672:
623:
567:
561:
556:
518:
397:
365:World Hijab Day
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2773:
2763:
2762:
2748:
2747:
2738:
2737:Historiography
2735:
2734:
2733:
2726:
2719:
2712:
2705:
2698:
2692:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2651:
2625:
2606:
2589:Feminist Press
2576:
2564:The Daily Star
2551:
2538:10.2307/351808
2532:(4): 949–959.
2516:
2492:
2457:
2448:
2439:
2427:
2401:
2375:
2368:
2348:
2341:
2320:
2305:
2296:
2287:
2278:
2267:(2): 213–233.
2251:
2242:
2231:(4): 635–653.
2212:
2177:
2150:
2121:(2): 269–288.
2098:
2079:(3): 289–325.
2060:
2022:
2004:
1973:
1953:
1936:
1916:
1896:
1875:
1862:
1818:
1796:
1778:
1753:
1724:
1713:(2): 303–310.
1665:
1646:
1637:
1613:
1602:www.nayiri.com
1588:
1581:
1561:
1532:
1525:
1507:
1497:
1479:
1464:
1441:
1434:
1403:
1400:on 2024-06-08.
1376:
1365:
1359:. p. 51.
1340:
1326:
1320:. p. 50.
1301:
1283:
1258:
1251:. 9 May 2008.
1233:
1222:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1191:
1190:
1185:
1183:Women in Islam
1180:
1178:Terem (Russia)
1175:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1138:
1135:
1134:
1133:
1128:
1125:
1113:. Traditional
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1063:
1060:
1039:
1036:
1032:victim-blaming
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1004:
1001:
968:
965:
956:
953:
922:
919:
917:
914:
908:
905:
899:
896:
886:
883:
881:
878:
868:
865:
748:
745:
739:
736:
723:
720:
704:princely state
685:
682:
676:
673:
671:
668:
622:
619:
563:Main article:
560:
557:
555:
552:
538:Middle Persian
517:
514:
495:Northern India
399:
398:
396:
395:
388:
381:
373:
370:
369:
368:
367:
362:
357:
352:
347:
342:
334:
333:
329:
328:
327:
326:
321:
316:
311:
306:
301:
296:
288:
287:
283:
282:
281:
280:
275:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
245:
240:
235:
230:
222:
221:
215:
214:
213:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
142:
137:
132:
127:
122:
117:
112:
107:
102:
94:
93:
87:
86:
74:
73:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2772:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2755:
2745:
2741:
2740:
2731:
2727:
2724:
2720:
2717:
2713:
2710:
2707:Lamb, Sarah.
2706:
2703:
2699:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2660:
2659:
2640:
2636:
2629:
2621:
2617:
2610:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2580:
2565:
2561:
2555:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2520:
2506:
2502:
2496:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2461:
2452:
2443:
2434:
2432:
2412:
2405:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2382:
2380:
2371:
2365:
2361:
2360:
2352:
2344:
2342:0-87722-786-1
2338:
2334:
2327:
2325:
2316:
2309:
2300:
2291:
2282:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2255:
2246:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2219:
2217:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2193:(3): 84–102.
2192:
2188:
2187:Social Change
2181:
2173:
2169:
2166:(14): 39–48.
2165:
2161:
2154:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2105:
2103:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2067:
2065:
2057:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2025:
2023:9783643801630
2019:
2015:
2008:
1993:on 2016-07-01
1992:
1988:
1984:
1977:
1963:
1957:
1949:
1948:
1940:
1932:
1931:
1923:
1921:
1912:
1911:
1903:
1901:
1892:
1888:
1882:
1880:
1872:
1866:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1837:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1806:
1800:
1793:
1781:
1775:
1771:
1764:
1757:
1741:
1740:
1735:
1728:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1701:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1663:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1641:
1633:
1629:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1603:
1599:
1592:
1584:
1578:
1574:
1573:
1565:
1558:
1546:
1542:
1536:
1528:
1526:9788126906291
1522:
1518:
1511:
1504:
1500:
1498:9788121004145
1494:
1490:
1483:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1465:9788121503471
1461:
1457:
1456:
1448:
1446:
1437:
1435:9781438108254
1431:
1427:
1422:
1421:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1390:parliament.uk
1387:
1380:
1373:
1368:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1347:
1345:
1337:
1334:
1329:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1308:
1306:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1286:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1265:
1263:
1255:
1250:
1246:
1240:
1238:
1230:
1225:
1223:9780791440889
1219:
1215:
1211:
1210:
1202:
1198:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1140:
1131:
1130:
1124:
1122:
1121:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1101:
1097:
1096:
1092:(1880–1932).
1091:
1087:
1083:
1068:
1059:
1057:
1052:
1049:
1044:
1035:
1033:
1017:
1013:
1010:
1000:
998:
994:
990:
986:
981:
973:
964:
962:
952:
950:
946:
942:
938:
935:and formerly
934:
928:
913:
904:
895:
893:
877:
874:
864:
862:
861:Uttar Pradesh
857:
855:
851:
845:
842:
837:
835:
834:
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2638:
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2593:the original
2588:
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2568:. Retrieved
2566:. 2020-04-06
2563:
2554:
2529:
2525:
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2508:. Retrieved
2504:
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1991:the original
1986:
1976:
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1956:
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1840:
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1739:The Atlantic
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1398:the original
1389:
1379:
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1294:
1291:pardā rakhnā
1290:
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1201:
1127:Bibliography
1118:
1110:
1093:
1079:
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955:Islamization
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450:purdahnishan
447:
439:
407:
403:
402:
340:Hijabophobia
318:
268:Saudi Arabia
56:
45:
2674:(2): 5–27.
2416:. Iemed.org
1981:Naim, C.N.
1785:19 February
1746:19 February
1634:(2): 41–51.
1295:pardā karnā
1115:stereotypes
824:shuttlecock
597:existed in
579:Middle East
510:Afghanistan
454:. The term
442:pardanashin
2570:2020-04-06
2510:2023-06-29
2420:16 January
2115:Demography
1997:30 January
1967:2023-06-29
1962:"Pakistan"
1811:30 October
1607:2023-02-08
1392:. London:
1194:References
1098:is a 1905
949:Bangladesh
925:See also:
798:Bara Banki
660:Boko Haram
526:Hindi-Urdu
468:referendum
412:Hindi-Urdu
46:Ladies of
2396:304320668
2207:143232892
2093:144508005
1719:1026-678X
1551:31 August
1009:diasporas
850:ghoonghat
773:C.M. Naim
670:Rationale
611:Byzantine
603:Babylonia
587:Christian
565:Ghoonghat
520:The word
516:Etymology
499:ghoonghat
253:Indonesia
228:Australia
195:Selendang
110:Battoulah
2754:Category
2688:28184461
2392:ProQuest
2145:37683180
2137:12846132
2046:purdah's
1857:12283228
1805:"Rajput"
1541:"Purdah"
1245:"Purdah"
1143:Andaruni
1137:See also
1100:feminist
1056:Srinagar
941:Pakistan
722:Economic
648:Pakistan
631:Hinduism
581:such as
294:Andaruni
286:Concepts
263:Pakistan
160:Kimeshek
155:Kerudung
105:Al-amira
70:a series
68:Part of
2487:3346105
1372:"veil."
1168:Kithaab
1107:Hossain
1103:utopian
933:Tunisia
880:Effects
873:modesty
854:Gujarat
684:Respect
656:Nigeria
607:Persian
554:History
534:Persian
506:Taliban
484:yashmak
304:Fahisha
233:Britain
210:Yashmak
190:Safseri
185:Paranja
170:Kurhars
150:Jilbaab
120:Burkini
115:Boshiya
78:Islamic
2760:Purdah
2686:
2644:1 June
2599:1 June
2546:351808
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2394:
2366:
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2054:purdah
2052:is as
2050:purdah
2042:purdah
2038:purdah
2034:purdah
2030:purdah
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1792:girls.
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1474:473530
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1333:Purdah
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1153:Chador
1111:purdah
1048:agency
985:Bengal
947:, and
937:Turkey
841:palloo
812:zanana
794:purdah
761:Lahore
708:Baroda
699:zenana
694:Rajput
664:Rajput
609:, and
599:Arabia
591:Jewish
589:, and
522:purdah
456:purdah
431:Muslim
410:(from
408:purdah
404:Pardah
360:Wimple
324:Zenana
319:Purdah
278:Turkey
248:France
238:Canada
205:Tudong
200:Shayla
180:Niqaab
175:Mukena
165:Khimar
135:Chador
130:Çarşaf
81:female
58:zenana
48:Caubul
2684:S2CID
2542:JSTOR
2483:JSTOR
2414:(PDF)
2203:S2CID
2141:S2CID
2089:S2CID
1766:(PDF)
1703:(PDF)
1158:Harem
1148:Awrah
1076:Books
945:India
820:burqa
777:Avadh
765:burqa
712:India
635:Hindu
595:burqa
583:Druze
575:Islam
548:*pel-
541:pltk'
530:pardā
528:word
480:burqa
435:Hindu
422:पर्दा
345:Hujum
332:Other
299:Awrah
243:Egypt
145:Hijab
125:Burqa
100:Abaya
91:Types
84:dress
18:Purda
2646:2015
2639:Dawn
2601:2015
2422:2014
2364:ISBN
2337:ISBN
2133:PMID
2018:ISBN
1999:2018
1853:PMID
1813:2014
1787:2015
1774:ISBN
1748:2015
1715:ISSN
1577:ISBN
1553:2022
1521:ISBN
1493:ISBN
1470:OCLC
1460:ISBN
1430:ISBN
1361:ISBN
1322:ISBN
1279:ISBN
1218:ISBN
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995:and
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615:Iraq
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416:پردہ
314:Haya
258:Iran
140:Haik
34:and
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