Peatland - Knowledge

634:, from the Malay and Indonesian word for forest, consists of shrubs and tall thin trees and appear in the center of large peatlands. The diversity of woody species, like trees and shrubs, are far greater in tropical peatlands than in peatlands of other types. Peat in the tropics is therefore dominated by woody material from trunks of trees and shrubs and contain little to none of the sphagnum moss that dominates in boreal peatlands. It's only partly decomposed and the surface consists of a thick layer of leaf litter. Forestry in peatlands leads to drainage and rapid carbon losses since it decreases inputs of organic matter and accelerate the decomposition. In contrast to temperate wetlands, tropical peatlands are home to several species of fish. Many new, often endemic, species has been discovered but many of them are considered threatened. 53: 871:

carbon dioxide and methane. By allowing oxygen to enter the peat column within a mire, drainage disrupts the balance between peat accumulation and decomposition, and the subsequent oxidative degradation results in the release of carbon into the atmosphere. As such, drainage of mires for agriculture transforms them from net carbon sinks to net carbon emitters. Although the emission of methane from mires has been observed to decrease following drainage, the total magnitude of emissions from peatland drainage is often greater as rates of peat accumulation are low. Peatland carbon has been described as "irrecoverable" meaning that, if lost due to drainage, it could not be recovered within time scales relevant to climate mitigation.

531: 953: 614:, drainage and burning. Drainage of tropical peatlands alters the hydrology and increases their susceptibility to fire and soil erosion, as a consequence of changes in physical and chemical compositions. The change in soil strongly affects the sensitive vegetation and forest die-off is common. The short-term effect is a decrease in biodiversity but the long-term effect, since these encroachments are hard to reverse, is a loss of habitat. Poor knowledge about peatlands' sensitive hydrology and lack of nutrients often lead to failing plantations, resulting in increasing pressure on remaining peatlands. 887: 65: 522:

table and the increased aeration will subsequently release carbon. Upon extreme drying, the ecosystem can undergo a state shift, turning the mire into a barren land with lower biodiversity and richness. The formation of humic acid occurs during the biogeochemical degradation of vegetation debris, animal residue, and degraded segments. The loads of organic matter in the form of humic acid is a source of precursors of coal. Prematurely exposing the organic matter to the atmosphere promotes the conversion of organics to carbon dioxide to be released in the atmosphere.

643: 350: 164: 736: 4668: 4694: 4657: 333:. Indonesia, particularly on the islands of Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Papua, has one of the largest peatlands in the world, with an area of about 24 million hectares. These peatlands play an important role in global carbon storage and have very high biodiversity. However, peatlands in Indonesia also face major threats from deforestation and forest fires. In the early 21st century, the world's largest tropical mire was found in the Central 801:

short time span as the cooling effects of sequestering carbon are offset by the emission of methane, which is a strong greenhouse gas. However, given the short "lifetime" of methane (12 years), it is often said that methane emissions are unimportant within 300 years compared to carbon sequestration in wetlands. Within that time frame or less, most wetlands become both net carbon and

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of forest cover or for use as pasture or cropland. Agricultural uses for mires include the use of natural vegetation for hay crop or grazing, or the cultivation of crops on a modified surface. In addition, the commercial extraction of peat for energy production is widely practiced in Northern European countries, such as Russia, Sweden, Finland, Ireland and the

220:). Thus, while a bog is always acidic and nutrient-poor, a fen may be slightly acidic, neutral, or alkaline, and either nutrient-poor or nutrient-rich. All mires are initially fens when the peat starts to form, and may turn into bogs once the height of the peat layer reaches above the surrounding land. A 3303:

Goldstein, Allie; Turner, Will R.; Spawn, Seth A.; Anderson-Teixeira, Kristina J.; Cook-Patton, Susan; Fargione, Joseph; Gibbs, Holly K.; Griscom, Bronson; Hewson, Jennifer H.; Howard, Jennifer F.; Ledezma, Juan Carlos; Page, Susan; Koh, Lian Pin; Rockström, Johan; Sanderman, Jonathan; Hole, David G.

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In their natural state, peatlands are resistant to fire. Drainage of peatlands for palm oil plantations creates a dry layer of flammable peat. As peat is carbon dense, fires occurring in compromised peatlands release extreme amounts of both carbon dioxide and toxic smoke into the air. These fires add

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The biotic and abiotic factors controlling Southeast Asian peatlands are interdependent. Its soil, hydrology and morphology are created by the present vegetation through the accumulation of its own organic matter, building a favorable environment for this specific vegetation. This system is therefore

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release even more carbon dioxide. The economic value of a tropical peatland was once derived from raw materials, such as wood, bark, resin, and latex, the extraction of which did not contribute to large carbon emissions. In Southeast Asia, peatlands are drained and cleared for human use for a variety

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as well as in areas of high altitude. Tropical mires largely form where high precipitation is combined with poor conditions for drainage. Tropical mires account for around 11% of peatlands globally (more than half of which can be found in Southeast Asia), and are most commonly found at low altitudes,

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Often, restoration is done by blocking drainage channels in the peatland, and allowing natural vegetation to recover. Rehabilitation projects undertaken in North America and Europe usually focus on the rewetting of peatlands and revegetation of native species. This acts to mitigate carbon release in

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The exchange of carbon between the peatlands and the atmosphere has been of current concern globally in the field of ecology and biogeochemical studies. The drainage of peatlands for agriculture and forestry has resulted in the emission of extensive greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, most notably

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Compared with untilled cropland, wetlands can sequester around two times the carbon. Carbon sequestration can occur in constructed wetlands as well as natural ones. Estimates of greenhouse gas fluxes from wetlands indicate that natural wetlands have lower fluxes, but man-made wetlands have a greater

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stores. Peatlands contain the highest amounts of soil organic carbon of all wetland types. Wetlands can become sources of carbon, rather than sinks, as the decomposition occurring within the ecosystem emits methane. Natural peatlands do not always have a measurable cooling effect on the climate in a

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Peatlands are used by humans in modern times for a range of purposes, the most dominant being agriculture and forestry, which accounts for around a quarter of global peatland area. This involves cutting drainage ditches to lower the water table with the intended purpose of enhancing the productivity

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are able to store very large amounts of water, making them an essential component in the peat environment, contributing to an increased amount of carbon storage due to the resulting anaerobic condition. If the peatland is dried from long-term cultivation and agricultural use, it will lower the water

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The total area of mires has declined globally due to drainage for agriculture, forestry and peat harvesting. For example, more than 50% of the original European mire area which is more than 300,000 km has been lost. Some of the largest losses have been in Russia, Finland, the Netherlands, the United

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can reveal the age of the peat. The dredging and destruction of a peatland will release the carbon dioxide that could reveal irreplaceable information about the past climatic conditions. Many kinds of microorganisms inhabit peatlands, due to the regular supply of water and abundance of peat forming

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above the water table level. Therefore, changes in water table level influence the size of these methane production and consumption zones. Increased soil temperatures also contribute to increased seasonal methane flux. A study in Alaska found that methane may vary by as much as 300% seasonally with

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and from the litter and peat via heterotrophic respiration. In their natural state, mires are a small atmospheric carbon dioxide sink through the photosynthesis of peat vegetation, which outweighs their release of greenhouse gases. On the other hand, most mires are generally net emitters of methane

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provide an environment where organic carbon is stored in living plants, dead plants and peat, as well as converted to carbon dioxide and methane. Three main factors give wetlands the ability to sequester and store carbon: high biological productivity, high water table and low decomposition rates.

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to release into the atmosphere. Due to their naturally high moisture content, pristine mires have a generally low risk of fire ignition. The drying of this waterlogged state means that the carbon-dense vegetation becomes vulnerable to fire. In addition, due to the oxygen deficient nature of the

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Tropical peatlands comprise 0.25% of Earth's terrestrial land surface but store 3% of all soil and forest carbon stocks. The use of this land by humans, including draining and harvesting of tropical peat forests, results in the emission of large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In

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in many low-income countries and has provided economic opportunities for communities. With palm oil as a leading export in countries such as Indonesia and Malaysia, many smallholders have found economic success in palm oil plantations. However, the land selected for plantations are typically

703:. Forest and land was cleared by burning and 4000 km of channels drained the area. Drought and acidification of the lands led to bad harvest and the project was abandoned in 1999. Similar projects in China have led to immense loss of tropical marshes and fens due to rice production. 283:

Peatlands are found around the globe, although are at their greatest extent at high latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere. Peatlands are estimated to cover around 3% of the globe's surface, although estimating the extent of their cover worldwide is difficult due to the varying accuracy and

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carbon sequestration capacity. The carbon sequestration abilities of wetlands can be improved through restoration and protection strategies, but it takes several decades for these restored ecosystems to become comparable in carbon storage to peatlands and other forms of natural wetlands.

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The largest accumulation of mires constitutes around 64% of global peatlands and is found in the temperate, boreal and subarctic zones of the Northern Hemisphere. Mires are usually shallow in polar regions because of the slow rate of accumulation of dead organic matter, and often contain

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For botanists and ecologists, the term peatland is a general term for any terrain dominated by peat to a depth of at least 30 cm (12 in), even if it has been completely drained (i.e., a peatland can be dry). A peatland that is still capable of forming new peat is called a

671:/ha. Burning events in tropical peatlands are becoming more frequent due to large scale drainage and land clearance and in the past 10 years, more than 2 million ha was burnt in Southeast Asia alone. These fires last typically for 1–3 months and release large amounts of CO 2813:

Kirpotin, Sergey N.; Antoshkina, Olga A.; Berezin, Alexandr E.; Elshehawi, Samer; Feurdean, Angelica; Lapshina, Elena D.; Pokrovsky, Oleg S.; Peregon, Anna M.; Semenova, Natalia M.; Tanneberger, Franziska; Volkov, Igor V.; Volkova, Irina I.; Joosten, Hans (2021-11-01).

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Wösten, J. H. M.; Van Den Berg, J.; Van Eijk, P.; Gevers, G. J. M.; Giesen, W. B. J. T.; Hooijer, A.; Idris, Aswandi; Leenman, P. H.; Rais, Dipa Satriadi (March 2006). "Interrelationships between Hydrology and Ecology in Fire Degraded Tropical Peat Swamp Forests".

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Biodiversity and sustainability of tropical peatlands : proceedings of the International Symposium on Biodiversity, Environmental Importance and Sustainability of Tropical Peat and Peatlands, held in Palangka Raya, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, 4-8 September

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in subarctic regions, thus delaying thawing during summer, as well as inducing the formation of permafrost. As the global climate continues to warm, wetlands could become major carbon sources as higher temperatures cause higher carbon dioxide emissions.

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The peatland forests harvested for palm oil production serve as above- and below-ground carbon stores, containing at least 42,069 million metric tonnes (Mt) of soil carbon. Exploitation of this land raises many environmental concerns, namely increased

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in peatlands has increased significantly worldwide particularly in the tropical regions. This can be attributed to a combination of drier weather and changes in land use which involve the drainage of water from the landscape. This resulting loss of

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highlights peatlands as key ecosystems to be conserved and protected. The convention requires governments at all levels to present action plans for the conservation and management of wetland environments. Wetlands are also protected under the 1971

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The global distribution of tropical peatlands is concentrated in Southeast Asia where agricultural use of peatlands has been increased in recent decades. Large areas of tropical peatland have been cleared and drained for the production of food and

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Despite accounting for just 3% of Earth's land surfaces, peatlands are collectively a major carbon store containing between 500 and 700 billion tonnes of carbon. Carbon stored within peatlands equates to over half the amount of carbon found in the

878:. However, continued drainage will result in increased release of carbon, contributing to global warming. As of 2016, it was estimated that drained peatlands account for around 10% of all greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture and forestry. 396:: peat depths of above 10 m have been commonly recorded in temperate regions (many temperate and most boreal mires were removed by ice sheets in the last Ice Age), and above 25 m in tropical regions. When the absolute decay rate of peat in the 2138:

Chemistry, Gierlach-Hladon, T., Karol Marcinkowski Univ. of Medical Sciences, Poznan (Poland). Dept. of Inorganic and Analytical; Environment, Szajdak, L., Polish Academy of Sciences, Poznan (Poland). Inst. for Agricultural and Forest (2010).

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Noon, Monica L.; Goldstein, Allie; Ledezma, Juan Carlos; Roehrdanz, Patrick R.; Cook-Patton, Susan C.; Spawn-Lee, Seth A.; Wright, Timothy Maxwell; Gonzalez-Roglich, Mariano; Hole, David G.; Rockström, Johan; Turner, Will R. (January 2022).

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where precipitation is very high i.e., in maritime climates inland near the coasts of the north-east and south Pacific, and the north-west and north-east Atlantic. In the sub-tropics, mires are rare and restricted to the wettest areas.

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sinks. Hence, peatlands do result in cooling of the Earth's climate over a longer time period as methane is oxidised quickly and removed from the atmosphere whereas atmospheric carbon dioxide is continuously absorbed. Throughout the

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Palm oil plantations have replaced much of the forested peatlands in Southeast Asia. Estimates now state that 12.9 Mha or about 47% of peatlands in Southeast Asia were deforested by 2006. In their natural state, peatlands are

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Members of the Initiative are working together within their respective areas of expertise to improve the conservation, restoration and sustainable management of peatlands. The Initiative is therefore contributing to several

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and have had a net cooling effect, sequestering 5.6 to 38 grams of carbon per square metre per year. On average, it has been estimated that today northern peatlands sequester 20-30 grams of carbon per square meter per year.

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emissions, caused primarily by these fires. With a warming climate these burnings are expected to increase in intensity and number. This is a result of a dry climate together with an extensive rice farming project, called

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position of a peatland is the main control of its carbon release to the atmosphere. When the water table rises after a rainstorm, the peat and its microbes are submerged under water inhibiting access to oxygen, reducing

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methodologies of land surveys from many countries. Mires occur wherever conditions are right for peat accumulation: largely where organic matter is constantly waterlogged. Hence the distribution of mires is dependent on

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Silvius, M., Kaat, A.H., Van de Bund and Hooijer, A. 2006. Peatland degradation fuels climate change. An unrecognised and alarming source of greenhouse gases. Wetlands International, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

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binding per mol of released methane, which is a function that counteracts global warming. Tropical peatlands are suggested to contain about 100 Gt carbon, corresponding to more than 50% of the carbon present as

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vulnerable to changes in hydrology or vegetation cover. These peatlands are mostly located in developing regions with impoverished and rapidly growing populations. These lands have become targets for commercial

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by 30–100 t/ha/year if the water table is lowered by only 1 m. The draining of peatlands is likely the most important and long-lasting threat to peatlands globally, but is especially prevalent in the tropics.

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United Nations Environment Programme. Global Environment Facility. Asia Pacific Network for Global Change Research. Global Environment Centre (Malaysia), publisher. Wetlands International, publisher. (2008).

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Environment, Szajdak, L., Polish Academy of Sciences, Poznan (Poland). Inst. for Agricultural and Forest; Improvement, Szatylowicz, J., Warsaw Univ. of Life Sciences (Poland). Dept. of Environmental (2010).

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emissions are estimated to be 2 Gt per year, equal to 7% of global fossil fuel emissions. These emissions get bigger with drainage and burning of peatlands and a severe fire can release up to 4000 t of

766:. Nakaikemi Wetland in southwest Honshu, Japan is more than 50,000 years old and has a depth of 45 m. The Philippi Peatland in Greece has probably one of the deepest peat layers with a depth of 190m. 1107:

Frolking, Steve; Talbot, Julie; Jones, Miriam C.; Treat, Claire C.; Kauffman, J. Boone; Tuittila, Eeva-Stiina; Roulet, Nigel (December 2011). "Peatlands in the Earth's 21st century climate system".

384:, peat is formed. This occurs due to the anoxic state of water-logged peat, which slows down decomposition. Peat-forming vegetation is typically also recalcitrant (poorly decomposing) due to high 137:) a year. Peat soils store over 600Gt of carbon, more than the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including forests. This substantial carbon storage represents about 30% of the world's 778:, the conservation and restoration of wetlands and peatlands has large economic potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, providing benefits for adaptation, mitigation, and biodiversity. 152:

Peatlands are under threat by commercial peat harvesting, drainage and conversion for agriculture (notably palm oil in the tropics) and fires, which are predicted to become more frequent with

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Mitsch, William J.; Bernal, Blanca; Nahlik, Amanda M.; Mander, Ülo; Zhang, Li; Anderson, Christopher J.; Jørgensen, Sven E.; Brix, Hans (2013-04-01). "Wetlands, carbon, and climate change".

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Turetsky, Merritt R.; Abbott, Benjamin W.; Jones, Miriam C.; Walter Anthony, Katey; Olefeldt, David; Schuur, Edward A. G.; Koven, Charles; McGuire, A. David; Grosse, Guido (2019-04-30).

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thus accelerating peat decomposition. Levels of methane emissions also vary with the water table position and temperature. A water table near the peat surface gives the opportunity for

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Ng, Peter K. L.; Tay, J. B.; Lim, Kelvin K. P. (1994), "Diversity and conservation of blackwater fishes in Peninsular Malaysia, particularly in the North Selangor peat swamp forest",

1072:), by protecting water-related ecosystems and facilitating improved water quality (SDG 6), and by ensuring conservation of ecosystems and threatened species, protecting life on land ( 934:, risk of fires, and a decrease in biodiversity. Greenhouse gas emissions for palm oil planted on peatlands is estimated to be between the equivalent of 12.4 (best case) to 76.6 t CO 110:

of a mineral soil forests, terrestrialisation of lakes, or primary peat formation on bare soils on previously glaciated areas. A peatland that is actively forming peat is called a

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release via respiration. Carbon dioxide release increases when the water table falls lower, such as during a drought, as this increases the availability of oxygen to the aerobic

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Kingdom, Poland and Belarus. A catalog of the peat research collection at the University of Minnesota Duluth provides references to research on worldwide peat and peatlands.

3781: 686:-event in 1997-1998 more than 24,400 km of peatland was lost to fires in Indonesia alone from which 10,000 km was burnt in Kalimantan and Sumatra. The output of CO 2225: 690:

was estimated to 0.81–2.57 Gt, equal to 13–40% of that year’s global output from fossil fuel burning. Indonesia is now considered the 3rd biggest contributor to global CO

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and temperature, although terrain relief is a major factor as waterlogging occurs more easily on flatter ground and in basins. Peat formation typically initiates as a

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are strictly anaerobic organisms and produce methane from organic matter in anoxic conditions below the water table level, while some of that methane is oxidised by

3094:"Global distribution of soil organic carbon – Part 1: Masses and frequency distributions of SOC stocks for the tropics, permafrost regions, wetlands, and the world" 2193: 99:, peatlands are unusual landforms that derive mostly from biological rather than physical processes, and can take on characteristic shapes and surface patterning. 2402:

Page, Susan; Hoscilo, Agata; Langner, Andreas; Tansey, Kevin; Siegert, Florian; Limin, Suwido; Rieley, Jack (2009), "Tropical peatland fires in Southeast Asia",

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Laurance, William F.; Koh, Lian P.; Butler, Rhett; Sodhi, Navjot S.; Bradshaw, Corey J. A.; Neidel, J. David; Consunji, Hazel; Mateo Vega, Javier (April 2010).

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Hooijer, A., Silvius, M., Wösten, H. and Page, S. 2006. PEAT-CO2, Assessment of CO2 emissions from drained peatlands in SE Asia. Delft Hydraulics report Q3943.

2390:. 22nd Asian Conference on Remote Sensing, 5–9 November 2001, Singapore. Centre for Remote Imaging, Sensing and Processing (CRISP), University of Singapore. 630:. These forests occur on the margin of peatlands with a palm rich flora with trees 70 m tall and 8 m in girth accompanied by ferns and epiphytes. The third, 2391: 978:

vegetation, the peat fires can smolder beneath the surface causing incomplete combustion of the organic matter and resulting in extreme emissions events.

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has increasingly become one of the world's largest crops. In comparison to alternatives, palm oil is considered to be among the most efficient sources of

4498: 2962: 392:, accumulating peat elevates the ground surface above the original topography. Mires can reach considerable heights above the underlying mineral soil or 259:. Like fens, swamps are typically of higher pH level and nutrient availability than bogs. Some bogs and fens can support limited shrub or tree growth on 890:

Palm oil plantation in Kunak, Malaysia. Peatlands in South East Asia are being converted to palm oil plantation, releasing as much as 76.6 tonnes of CO

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Hashim, Zulkifli; Subramaniam, Vijaya; Harun, Mohd Haniff; Kamarudin, Norman (June 2018). "Carbon footprint of oil palm planted on peat in Malaysia".

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Kayranli, Birol; Scholz, Miklas; Mustafa, Atif; Hedmark, Åsa (2010-02-01). "Carbon Storage and Fluxes within Freshwater Wetlands: a Critical Review".

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both in tropical and boreal/temperate peatlands. Fire events are predicted to become more frequent with the warming and drying of the global climate.

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Christanis, Kimon (2016). "The Philippi Peatland (Greece)". In Finlayson, C. Max; Milton, G. Randy; Prentice, R. Crawford; Davidson, Nick C. (eds.).

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and timber for export in primarily developing nations. This releases stored carbon dioxide and preventing the system from sequestering carbon again.

1637: 2279: 2179: 2124: 400:(the lower, water-saturated zone of the peat layer) matches the rate of input of new peat into the catotelm, the mire will stop growing in height. 4441: 874:

When undertaken in such a way that preserves the hydrological state of a mire, the anthropogenic use of mires' resources can avoid significant

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WHITING, GARY J.; CHANTON, JEFFREY P. (November 2001). "Greenhouse carbon balance of wetlands: methane emission versus carbon sequestration".

602:. Small scale encroachment on the other hand, is linked to poverty and is so widespread that it also has negatively impacts these peatlands. 4526: 4451: 1636:

Dargie, Greta C.; Lewis, Simon L.; Lawson, Ian T.; Mitchard, Edward T. A.; Page, Susan E.; Bocko, Yannick E.; Ifo, Suspense A. (2017-01-11).

1050: 189:, while drained and converted peatlands might still have a peat layer but are not considered mires as the formation of new peat has ceased. 91:. Peatlands arise because of incomplete decomposition of organic matter, usually litter from vegetation, due to water-logging and subsequent 3169: 1555: 1449: 938:/ha (worst case). Tropical peatland converted to palm oil plantation can remain a net source of carbon to the atmosphere after 12 years. 789:

and hydrological conditions are necessary to provide an abundant water source for the wetland. Fully water-saturated wetland soils allow

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the short term before the new growth of vegetation provides a new source of organic litter to fuel the peat formation in the long term.

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glaciers, but in contrast tropical peatlands are much older. Total northern peat carbon stocks are estimated to be 1055 Gt of carbon.

3709: 3144: 1994:"Short-term response of methane fluxes and methanogen activity to water table and soil warming manipulations in an Alaskan peatland" 762:

Of all northern circumpolar countries, Russia has the largest area of peatlands and contains the largest peatland in the world, The

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Peatlands are important for studying past climate because they are sensitive to changes in the environment and can reveal levels of

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McCalmont, Jon; Kho, Lip Khoon; Teh, Yit Arn; Lewis, Kennedy; Chocholek, Melanie; Rumpang, Elisa; Hill, Timothy (2 February 2021).

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Records of past human behaviour and environments can be contained within peatlands. These may take the form of human artefacts, or

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zones mires are typically more scattered due to historical drainage and peat extraction, but can cover large areas. One example is

288:, climate, parent material, biota, and time. The type of mire – bog, fen, marsh or swamp – depends also on each of these factors. 216:

is located on a slope, flat, or in a depression and gets most of its water from the surrounding mineral soil or from groundwater (

4546: 4478: 3782:"New UN initiative aims to save lives and cut climate change by protecting peatlands - United Nations Sustainable Development" 114:. All types of mires share the common characteristic of being saturated with water, at least seasonally with actively forming 1394: 945:

Decreased biodiversity due to deforestation and drainage makes these ecosystem more vulnerable and less resilient to change.

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Generally, whenever the inputs of carbon into the soil from dead organic matter exceed the carbon outputs via organic matter

1295: 542:, Scotland. This old bog is no longer forming peat because the vegetation has been changed, and therefore it is not a mire. 1270: 4541: 3273: 2201: 751:

Northern peatlands are associated with boreal and subarctic climates. Northern peatlands were mostly built up during the

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Peatlands have unusual chemistry that influences, among other things, their biota and water outflow. Peat has very high

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is a mire that, due to its raised location relative to the surrounding landscape, obtains all its water solely from

3546:"Short- and long-term carbon emissions from oil palm plantations converted from logged tropical peat swamp forest" 1057:

as the world's largest terrestrial organic carbon stock and to prevent it from being emitted into the atmosphere.

682:-related drought, an increasing problem since 1982 as a result of developing land use and agriculture. During the 4037: 2372: 1073: 1065: 796:

Wetlands make up about 5-8% of Earth's terrestrial land surface but contain about 20-30% of the planet's 2500 Gt

969:. Drainage of peatlands due to climatic factors may also increase the risk of fires, presenting further risk of 3168:

Yu, Zicheng; Beilman, D. W.; Frolking, S.; MacDonald, G. M.; Roulet, N. T.; Camill, P.; Charman, D. J. (2011).

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Turetsky, M. R.; Treat, C. C.; Waldrop, M. P.; Waddington, J. M.; Harden, J. W.; McGuire, A. D. (2008-09-01).

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molecules compared with methane and nitrous oxide, peatlands have had a net cooling effect on the atmosphere.

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ecosystems are at an increased risk to extreme climate conditions and are less likely to recover from fires.

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Hooijer, A.; Page, S.; Canadell, J. G.; Silvius, M.; Kwadijk, J.; Wösten, H.; Jauhiainen, J. (2010-05-12).

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with high water tables making for an inefficient soil. To create viable soil for plantation, the mires in

4724: 4446: 2567:. Strack, Maria., International Peat Society. Jyväskylä, Finland: IPS, International Peat Society. 2008. 1046: 1038: 909:, requiring only 0.26 hectares of land to produce 1 ton of oil. Palm oil has therefore become a popular 530: 4719: 4684: 4531: 2771:

Tarnocai, C.; Stolbovoy, V. (2006-01-01), Martini, I. P.; Martínez Cortizas, A.; Chesworth, W. (eds.),

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Tarnocai, C.; Stolbovoy, V. (2006-01-01), Martini, I. P.; Martínez Cortizas, A.; Chesworth, W. (eds.),

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in the atmosphere. Accumulation rates of carbon during the last millennium were close to 40 g C/m/yr.

2816:"Great Vasyugan Mire: How the world's largest peatland helps addressing the world's largest problems" 622:

Tropical peatland vegetation varies with climate and location. Three different characterizations are

35: 17: 2943: 2773:"Chapter 2 Northern Peatlands: their characteristics, development and sensitivity to climate change" 2676:"Chapter 2 Northern Peatlands: their characteristics, development and sensitivity to climate change" 2610:

Yu, Zicheng; Loisel, Julie; Brosseau, Daniel P.; Beilman, David W.; Hunt, Stephanie J. (July 2010).

2172: 2140: 2117: 2085: 1068:), by avoiding health impacts associated with serious air pollution from burning drained peatlands ( 300:. Very large swathes of Canada, northern Europe and northern Russia are covered by boreal mires. In 4510: 1049:

is an effort made by leading experts and institutions formed in 2016 by 13 founding members at the

931: 875: 747:. 65% of mires in Estonia have been strongly affected or damaged by human activity in recent years. 715: 434: 358: 1922:"Holocene radiative forcing impact of northern peatland carbon accumulation and methane emissions" 4221: 2342:

Ecology and Conservation of Southeast Asian Marine and Freshwater Environments including Wetlands

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although they can also be found in mountainous regions, for example in South America, Africa and

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Mires can be extensive in the tropics, typically underlying tropical rainforest (for example, in

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are characterized by their forest canopy or the presence of other tall and dense vegetation like

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A valley mire creates a level ground surface in otherwise dramatic topography. Upper Bigo Bog,

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Indonesia is one of the countries suffering from peatland fires, especially during years with

654:, releasing the same amount of carbon as 13-40% of the mean annual global carbon emissions of 4201: 3445:"Improving the Performance of the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil for Nature Conservation" 740: 68: 31: 4461: 3657: 3644:

Granath, Gustaf; Moore, Paul A.; Lukenbach, Maxwell C.; Waddington, James M. (2016-06-27).

3557: 3508: 3317: 3228: 3181: 3105: 2729: 2623: 2530: 2066:"Peat formation conditions and peat properties: A study of two ombrotrophic bogs in Latvia" 2005: 1878: 1766: 1652: 1570: 1003: 426: 369:

onto the peat in exchange for H ions. Water passing through peat declines in nutrients and

2957: 2142:

Physico-chemical properties of humic acids isolated from an Eriophorum-Sphagnum raised bog

1362: 1345: 1247: 1230: 8: 4641: 4292: 1755:"Carbon sequestration in peatland: patterns and mechanisms of response to climate change" 1719:"An Author Catalog of the Peat Research Collection at the University of Minnesota Duluth" 84: 3825: 3661: 3619: 3561: 3512: 3321: 3274:"Long-term effect of forest drainage on the peat carbon stores of pine mires in Finland" 3232: 3185: 3109: 2733: 2627: 2534: 2009: 1882: 1841: 1770: 1656: 1574: 706:

Drainage, which also increases the risk of burning, can cause additional emissions of CO

4744: 4505: 4423: 4332: 4206: 4191: 4171: 4072: 4067: 3686: 3645: 3601: 3425: 3375: 3333: 3074: 3031: 2931: 2848: 2753: 2590: 2503: 2459: 2320: 2273: 2160: 2105: 2031: 1902: 1782: 1684: 1594: 1531: 1471: 489: 463: 168: 149:, including minimising flood risk and erosion, purifying water and regulating climate. 3752: 2784: 2687: 2542: 2388:

Fire impacts and carbon release on tropical peatlands in central Kalimantan, Indonesia

442:

sequestration over millennia, and because of the longer atmospheric lifespan of the CO

64: 4739: 4729: 4671: 4581: 4488: 4297: 4239: 4102: 4077: 3847: 3691: 3673: 3605: 3593: 3585: 3526: 3474: 3466: 3461: 3444: 3429: 3417: 3379: 3337: 3254: 3246: 3197: 3123: 3066: 3023: 2917: 2886: 2876: 2853: 2835: 2788: 2757: 2745: 2691: 2641: 2578: 2568: 2546: 2507: 2495: 2463: 2451: 2415: 2353: 2308: 2298: 2261: 2251: 2146: 2091: 2065: 2023: 1941: 1937: 1906: 1894: 1823: 1778: 1688: 1676: 1668: 1586: 1582: 1535: 1475: 1463: 1453: 1417: 1390: 1367: 1252: 1190: 1180: 1124: 1014: 696: 301: 244: 146: 3078: 3035: 2913: 2875:. Jeglum, J. K., Bennett, Keith D. (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2717: 2035: 1786: 1598: 4302: 4216: 4097: 3906: 3710:"The natural world can help save us from climate catastrophe | George Monbiot" 3681: 3665: 3646:"Mitigating wildfire carbon loss in managed northern peatlands through restoration" 3575: 3565: 3516: 3456: 3409: 3365: 3325: 3285: 3236: 3189: 3113: 3058: 3015: 2909: 2843: 2827: 2780: 2737: 2683: 2631: 2538: 2487: 2443: 2407: 2345: 2013: 1972: 1933: 1886: 1813: 1774: 1660: 1578: 1523: 1357: 1242: 1116: 662:

The tropical peatlands in Southeast Asia only cover 0.2% of earths land area but CO

553: 330: 4256: 102:

The formation of peatlands is primarily controlled by climatic conditions such as

4698: 4661: 4536: 4473: 4231: 4226: 4082: 3973: 2349: 858:, releasing water during dry periods to sustain nearby freshwater ecosystems and 518: 256: 228:

or hydrarch (hydroseral) succession, resulting in pond-filling yields underfoot.

57: 2434:"'94 International Conference on Wetland Environment and Peatland Utilization". 2411: 1053:

in Marrakech, Morocco. The mission of the Initiative is to protect and conserve

4611: 4418: 4092: 3370: 3353: 3241: 3216: 2831: 1438: 991: 966: 942:

to greenhouse gas emissions while also causing thousands of deaths every year.

802: 763: 642: 623: 430: 414: 373:. Therefore, mires are typically nutrient-poor and acidic unless the inflow of 157: 153: 130: 107: 46: 3413: 3329: 3062: 3019: 2741: 2718:"Rapid expansion of northern peatlands and doubled estimate of carbon storage" 2491: 1818: 1801: 27:

Wetland terrain without forest cover, dominated by living, peat-forming plants

4708: 4621: 4375: 3946: 3677: 3589: 3530: 3470: 3421: 3250: 3201: 3145:"Peatlands, climate change mitigation and biodiversity conservation | Ramsar" 3127: 3070: 3027: 2890: 2839: 2815: 2749: 2645: 2582: 2550: 2499: 2455: 2265: 2064:

Kuske, E; Silamikele, Inese; Kalnina, Laimdota; Klavins, Maris (2010-01-01).

2027: 1945: 1898: 1827: 1672: 1590: 1467: 1371: 1256: 1194: 1128: 902: 594:

such as palm oil. Large-scale drainage of these plantations often results in

565: 433:, while losses of carbon dioxide occur through living plants via autotrophic 422: 381: 233: 217: 205: 103: 92: 3118: 3093: 2312: 1638:"Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex" 1413:

Our Earth's Changing Land: An Encyclopedia of Land-Use and Land-Cover Change

626:

present in the littoral zones and deltas of salty water, followed inland by

349: 4606: 4392: 4307: 4042: 4032: 3995: 3926: 3901: 3695: 3597: 3521: 3497:"Current and future CO2 emissions from drained peatlands in Southeast Asia" 3496: 3478: 3258: 2857: 2297:. Rieley, Jack, 1941–, Page, Susan, 1957–. Cardigan, UK: Samara Pub. 1997. 1890: 1800:

Leng, Lee Yit; Ahmed, Osumanu Haruna; Jalloh, Mohamadu Boyie (2019-03-01).

1680: 831: 655: 611: 599: 557: 473: 425:, and can be damaged by excess nitrogen from agriculture or rainwater. The 413:. Peatlands interact with the atmosphere primarily through the exchange of 321: 229: 209: 163: 142: 1718: 4631: 4626: 4493: 4483: 4382: 4261: 4244: 4131: 4112: 3941: 3931: 3921: 3193: 2636: 2611: 2018: 1993: 1977: 1960: 859: 811: 797: 786: 756: 700: 485: 450: 374: 334: 317: 305: 138: 122: 3807:"Carbon, biodiversity and land-use in the Central Congo Basin Peatlands" 1664: 735: 362: 267:

is a type of wetland within which vegetation is rooted in mineral soil.

4591: 4287: 4271: 4251: 4117: 4107: 4010: 3978: 3961: 3956: 3951: 2447: 1706:. International Mire Conservation Group and International Peat Society. 819: 595: 539: 514: 498: 494: 469: 410: 389: 366: 313: 293: 285: 224:

is a floating (quaking) mire, bog, or any peatland being in a stage of

96: 3985: 3669: 3580: 3570: 3545: 683: 4413: 4387: 4122: 3936: 3911: 3891: 3302: 1754: 1556:"Global and regional importance of the tropical peatland carbon pool" 1554:

PAGE, SUSAN E.; RIELEY, JOHN O.; BANKS, CHRISTOPHER J. (2011-01-04).

1179:. Bennett, Keith D. (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1054: 910: 855: 851: 839: 835: 591: 225: 3289: 1120: 810:(the past 12,000 years), peatlands have been persistent terrestrial 125:

on land. Covering around 3 million km globally, they sequester 0.37

4601: 4596: 4586: 4408: 4360: 4355: 4338: 4196: 4141: 4020: 4015: 1527: 982: 898: 807: 752: 578: 502: 459: 325: 126: 4057: 2812: 1439:"Wetland Restoration: A Survey of Options for Restoring Peatlands" 4636: 4616: 4181: 4146: 3968: 3870: 3214: 987: 974: 923: 906: 843: 781: 744: 607: 481: 418: 393: 260: 80: 2976:

of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Archived from

2658: 2476: 493:

vegetation. These microorganisms include but are not limited to

429:

of carbon dioxide takes place at the surface via the process of

4370: 4161: 4151: 4047: 3824: 3643: 3399: 970: 847: 647: 572:

addition, fires occurring on peatland dried by the draining of

385: 172: 1991: 956:

Satellite image of peat fire in Yekaterinburg, Russia, in 2021

914:

substantial carbon stores that promote biodiverse ecosystems.

793:

conditions to manifest, storing carbon but releasing methane.

714:

Peatlands release the greenhouse gas methane which has strong

699:, started in the 1990s, which converted 1 Mha of peatlands to 610:, paper pulp production and conversion to plantations through 4211: 4166: 4156: 4136: 4087: 4052: 4027: 4000: 3896: 3350: 2087:

Impact of drainage on hydrophobicity of fen peat-moorsh soils

2063: 1296:"Why Saving World's Peatlands Can Help Stabilize the Climate" 297: 248: 240: 232:

types of quagmire may be called quaking bog (quivering bog).

3005: 2716:

Nichols, Jonathan E.; Peteet, Dorothy M. (21 October 2019).

513:

Peat contains a substantial amount of organic matter, where

156:. The destruction of peatlands results in release of stored 4365: 4186: 4062: 3839: 2958: 1022: 547: 535: 115: 88: 3494: 3167: 275: 4005: 3916: 3729:"UNEP supports project to restore peatlands in Indonesia" 2612:"Global peatland dynamics since the Last Glacial Maximum" 2248:

Assessment on peatlands, biodiversity, and climate change

2194:"Carbon sequestration in peat bogs as a source of income" 1842:"Northern Ireland's peatlands face 'toxic' nitrogen risk" 1635: 573: 477:

wetter and warmer soil conditions due to climate change.

337:, covering 145,500 km and storing up to 10 kg of carbon. 197: 193: 160:

into the atmosphere, further exacerbating climate change.

30:"Mire" and "Quagmire" redirect here. For other uses, see 3354:"Mapping the irrecoverable carbon in Earth's ecosystems" 3048: 2401: 1514:

Gorham, Eville (1857). "The Development of Peat Lands".

1106: 1028:

Peat extraction is forbidden in Chile since April 2024.

865: 361:

due to its high organic matter content: cations such as

324:). Tropical peat formation is known to occur in coastal 3306:"Protecting irrecoverable carbon in Earth's ecosystems" 2609: 1808:. Climate change impacts on environmental geosciences. 1802:"Brief review on climate change and tropical peatlands" 1613:"Restoring Indonesian peatlands, protecting our planet" 1387:

Creating and Restoring Wetlands From Theory to Practice

990:

through combustion has led to significant emissions of

488:, metals from the atmosphere, and pollen. For example, 370: 145:. In their natural state, peatlands provide a range of 141:, underscoring their critical importance in the global 3753:"Ley 21660 sobre protección ambiental de las turberas" 3442: 3091: 2082: 1346:"Peatlands and Global Change: Response and Resilience" 1231:"Peatlands and Global Change: Response and Resilience" 4682: 3170:"Peatlands and Their Role in the Global Carbon Cycle" 3092:

Köchy, M.; Hiederer, R.; Freibauer, A. (2015-04-16).

3543: 3217:"Permafrost collapse is accelerating carbon release" 2480:

International Journal of Water Resources Development

2137: 830:

Studies highlight the critical role of peatlands in

403: 279:

PEATMAP showing the global distribution of peatlands

2659:Joosten H.; Tanneberger F.; Moen, A., eds. (2017). 2051:

Przewodnik do oznaczania torfów i osadów jeziornych

1920:Frolking, Steve; Roulet, Nigel T. (25 April 2007). 926:of Indonesia and Malaysia are drained and cleared. 617: 3835:. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 703. 3402:The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 718:. However, subtropical wetlands have shown high CO 2770: 2673: 1025:is supporting peatland restoration in Indonesia. 1010:United Nations Convention of Biological Diversity 4706: 3620:"Climate change threatening buried UK treasures" 2406:, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 263–287, 1064:(SDGs), by keeping carbon stocks in the ground ( 997: 646:Satellite image of burning tropical peat swamp, 1799: 1553: 4442:A Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia 3271: 2663:. Schweizerbart Science Publishers. Stuttgart. 2520: 1919: 1031: 251:are generally not considered to be peatlands. 4527:Bangladesh Haor and Wetland Development Board 4452:Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type 3855: 2870: 2715: 2186: 1701: 637: 377:(bringing in supplementary cations) is high. 3174:Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 2382:Boehm, H.-D. V., Siegert, F., Rieley, J. O. 2278:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1752: 769: 3726: 2972:. Contribution of Working Group III to the 1753:Belyea, Lisa R.; Malmer, Nils (July 2004). 1737: 1450:Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences 1174: 3862: 3848: 2903: 2344:, Springer Netherlands, pp. 203–218, 1350:Annual Review of Environment and Resources 1235:Annual Review of Environment and Resources 438:and nitrous oxide. Due to the continued CO 236:types can be named with the term quagfen. 3685: 3579: 3569: 3520: 3460: 3369: 3240: 3117: 2847: 2779:, vol. 9, Elsevier, pp. 17–51, 2682:, vol. 9, Elsevier, pp. 17–51, 2635: 2178:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2123:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2017: 1976: 1817: 1731: 1361: 1343: 1246: 1229:Page, S.E.; Baird, A.J. (November 2016). 1228: 3745: 2339: 2048: 1742:(1st ed.). Oxford University Press. 951: 885: 734: 650:. In 1997 alone, 73000 ha of swamp 641: 577:of reasons, including the production of 529: 348: 344: 274: 162: 87:from decaying plants, forming layers of 63: 51: 2777:Developments in Earth Surface Processes 2680:Developments in Earth Surface Processes 1871:Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 1416:. Vol. 2. Greenwood. p. 463. 1293: 1170: 1168: 1166: 1164: 1162: 1160: 1158: 881: 598:, flooding, fire, and deterioration of 14: 4707: 4547:Meadowview Biological Research Station 4479:Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands 3786:United Nations Sustainable Development 3272:Minkkinen, Kari; Laine, Jukka (1998). 2908:. Springer Netherlands. pp. 1–6. 2240: 2238: 2236: 2234: 2232: 1513: 1344:Page, S.E.; Baird, A.J. (2016-11-01). 1224: 1156: 1154: 1152: 1150: 1148: 1146: 1144: 1142: 1140: 1138: 965:Some peatlands are being dried out by 270: 3843: 3490: 3488: 3395: 3393: 3391: 3389: 3139: 3137: 3001: 2999: 2997: 2864: 2220: 2218: 1958: 1864: 1862: 1549: 1547: 1545: 1409: 1384: 1363:10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-085520 1289: 1287: 1248:10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-085520 1222: 1220: 1218: 1216: 1214: 1212: 1210: 1208: 1206: 1204: 866:Drainage for agriculture and forestry 730: 584: 1488: 1436: 1318: 1271:"Wetlands Types and Classifications" 1175:Rydin, Håkan; Jeglum, J. K. (2013). 1102: 1100: 1098: 1096: 1094: 1092: 1090: 118:, while having their own ecosystem. 71:, one of the largest fens in Estonia 4542:Irish Peatland Conservation Council 3278:Canadian Journal of Forest Research 2229: 1738:Rydin, Håkan; Jeglum, John (2006). 1135: 981:In recent years, the occurrence of 508: 24: 3485: 3386: 3265: 3134: 3042: 2994: 2215: 1859: 1542: 1284: 1201: 121:Peatlands are the largest natural 25: 4756: 3817: 3727:Environment, U. N. (2020-08-10). 2543:10.1034/j.1600-0889.2001.530501.x 1961:"Carbon storage: When peat dries" 1716: 1087: 404:Carbon storage and methanogenesis 353:The carbon cycle within peatlands 4692: 4667: 4666: 4655: 3761:Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional 3462:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01448.x 1938:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01339.x 1779:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2003.00783.x 1702:Joosten, H.; Clarke, D. (2002). 1583:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02279.x 1037:This section is an excerpt from 842:are unique habitats for diverse 618:Biology and peat characteristics 525: 4038:Flooded grasslands and savannas 3799: 3774: 3720: 3702: 3637: 3612: 3537: 3436: 3344: 3296: 3208: 3161: 3085: 2950: 2914:10.1007/978-94-007-6173-5_147-1 2897: 2806: 2764: 2709: 2667: 2652: 2603: 2557: 2514: 2470: 2427: 2395: 2376: 2365: 2333: 2286: 2131: 2076: 2057: 2042: 1998:Journal of Geophysical Research 1985: 1952: 1913: 1834: 1793: 1746: 1710: 1704:Wise use of mires and peatlands 1695: 1629: 1605: 1516:The Quarterly Review of Biology 1507: 1482: 1430: 2145:. University of Latvia Press. 2090:. University of Latvia Press. 1959:Brown, Alastair (2011-12-20). 1491:"Peatlands and climate change" 1403: 1378: 1337: 1321:"Peatlands and climate change" 1312: 1263: 13: 1: 4562:Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust 4552:Society of Wetland Scientists 2785:10.1016/S0928-2025(06)09002-X 2688:10.1016/S0928-2025(06)09002-X 2661:Mires and Peatlands of Europe 2250:. Global Environment Centre. 1080: 1062:Sustainable Development Goals 998:Management and rehabilitation 243:can also be peatlands (e.g.: 192:There are two types of mire: 4177:Peatland, mire, and quagmire 3869: 2970:Mitigation of Climate Change 2616:Geophysical Research Letters 2565:Peatlands and climate change 2436:Chinese Geographical Science 2350:10.1007/978-94-011-0958-1_20 776:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 7: 4447:National Wetlands Inventory 2412:10.1007/978-3-540-77381-8_9 1385:Craft, Christopher (2022). 1047:Global Peatlands Initiative 1039:Global Peatlands Initiative 1032:Global Peatlands Initiative 538:from derelict blanket bog, 505:species are most abundant. 56:A variety of mire types in 10: 4761: 4532:Delta Waterfowl Foundation 3371:10.1038/s41893-021-00803-6 3242:10.1038/d41586-019-01313-4 2963:"Summary for Policymakers" 2832:10.1007/s13280-021-01520-2 1877:(4): 289–294. 2001-07-01. 1389:(2nd ed.). Elsevier. 1294:STRUZIK, ED (2021-09-16). 1036: 1001: 638:Greenhouse gases and fires 545: 388:and low nutrient content. 40: 29: 4715:Environmental terminology 4650: 4574: 4519: 4469: 4460: 4432: 4401: 4348: 4320: 4280: 3884: 3877: 3414:10.1007/s11367-017-1367-y 3330:10.1038/s41558-020-0738-8 3063:10.1007/s10980-012-9758-8 3020:10.1007/s13157-009-0003-4 2742:10.1038/s41561-019-0454-z 2492:10.1080/07900620500405973 1819:10.1016/j.gsf.2017.12.018 1446:Studia Forestalia Suecica 770:Impacts on global climate 36:Quagmire (disambiguation) 4511:Wetland indicator status 2873:The biology of peatlands 1740:The Biology of Peatlands 1177:The Biology of Peatlands 960: 932:greenhouse gas emissions 876:greenhouse gas emissions 716:global warming potential 464:anaerobic microorganisms 359:cation-exchange capacity 179: 4222:Freshwater swamp forest 3832:Encyclopædia Britannica 3119:10.5194/soil-1-351-2015 2974:Sixth Assessment Report 818:Peatlands insulate the 83:whose soils consist of 4557:Wetlands International 4328:List of wetland plants 3522:10.5194/bg-7-1505-2010 2871:Rydin, Håkan. (2013). 2595:: CS1 maint: others ( 2325:: CS1 maint: others ( 1891:10.1080/02827580120112 1489:IUCN (November 2021). 1410:Geist, Helmut (2006). 1319:IUCN (November 2021). 957: 895: 748: 659: 543: 354: 280: 176: 72: 61: 4202:Salt pannes and pools 3550:Global Change Biology 3358:Nature Sustainability 3310:Nature Climate Change 2442:(1): 95. March 1994. 2404:Tropical Fire Ecology 1965:Nature Climate Change 1926:Global Change Biology 1759:Global Change Biology 1563:Global Change Biology 1109:Environmental Reviews 955: 889: 854:, and act as natural 846:, including specific 755:after the retreat of 741:Lahemaa National Park 738: 697:the Mega Rice Project 645: 533: 352: 345:Biochemical processes 278: 166: 67: 55: 32:Mire (disambiguation) 3449:Conservation Biology 3194:10.1029/2011EO120001 2637:10.1029/2010gl043584 2049:Tobolski, K (2000). 2019:10.1029/2007jg000496 1978:10.1038/nclimate1360 1806:Geoscience Frontiers 1004:Peatland restoration 882:Palm oil plantations 652:was burned in Borneo 4662:Wetlands portal 4293:Constructed wetland 3878:Types and landforms 3662:2016NatSR...628498G 3562:2021GCBio..27.2361M 3513:2010BGeo....7.1505H 3322:2020NatCC..10..287G 3233:2019Natur.569...32T 3186:2011EOSTr..92...97Y 3110:2015SOIL....1..351K 2734:2019NatGe..12..917N 2628:2010GeoRL..3713402Y 2535:2001TellB..53..521W 2010:2008JGRG..113.0A10T 1883:2001SJFR...16..289. 1771:2004GCBio..10.1043B 1665:10.1038/nature21048 1657:2017Natur.542...86D 1575:2011GCBio..17..798P 1437:Rode, Elve (1999). 764:Great Vasyugan Mire 497:, algae, bacteria, 365:are preferentially 271:Global distribution 4725:Freshwater ecology 4506:Salt marsh die-off 4424:Salt marsh dieback 4333:List of fen plants 4172:Palustrine wetland 4073:Intertidal wetland 4068:Interdunal wetland 3650:Scientific Reports 2448:10.1007/bf02664953 1869:"News and Views". 958: 896: 749: 731:Northern peatlands 660: 624:mangrove woodlands 585:Tropical peatlands 544: 355: 281: 177: 169:Rwenzori Mountains 147:ecosystem services 73: 62: 4720:Fluvial landforms 4680: 4679: 4582:Aquatic ecosystem 4570: 4569: 4489:Ramsar Convention 4316: 4315: 4298:Converted wetland 4240:Peat swamp forest 4103:Inland salt marsh 3670:10.1038/srep28498 3571:10.1111/gcb.15544 3556:(11): 2361–2376. 3051:Landscape Ecology 2826:(11): 2038–2049. 2722:Nature Geoscience 1396:978-0-12-823981-0 1015:Ramsar Convention 992:greenhouse gasses 838:stability. These 834:conservation and 774:According to the 245:peat swamp forest 16:(Redirected from 4752: 4697: 4696: 4695: 4688: 4670: 4669: 4660: 4659: 4658: 4642:Will-o'-the-wisp 4575:Related articles 4467: 4466: 4267:Whitewater river 4217:Coniferous swamp 4098:Freshwater marsh 3991:Clearwater river 3907:Blackwater river 3882: 3881: 3864: 3857: 3850: 3841: 3840: 3836: 3828: 3826:"Quagmire" 3811: 3810: 3803: 3797: 3796: 3794: 3793: 3778: 3772: 3771: 3769: 3768: 3749: 3743: 3742: 3740: 3739: 3724: 3718: 3717: 3716:. April 3, 2019. 3706: 3700: 3699: 3689: 3641: 3635: 3634: 3632: 3631: 3616: 3610: 3609: 3583: 3573: 3541: 3535: 3534: 3524: 3507:(5): 1505–1514. 3492: 3483: 3482: 3464: 3440: 3434: 3433: 3408:(6): 1201–1217. 3397: 3384: 3383: 3373: 3348: 3342: 3341: 3300: 3294: 3293: 3284:(9): 1267–1275. 3269: 3263: 3262: 3244: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3165: 3159: 3158: 3156: 3155: 3141: 3132: 3131: 3121: 3089: 3083: 3082: 3046: 3040: 3039: 3003: 2992: 2991: 2989: 2988: 2982: 2967: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2941: 2937: 2935: 2927: 2906:The Wetland Book 2901: 2895: 2894: 2868: 2862: 2861: 2851: 2810: 2804: 2803: 2802: 2801: 2768: 2762: 2761: 2713: 2707: 2706: 2705: 2704: 2671: 2665: 2664: 2656: 2650: 2649: 2639: 2607: 2601: 2600: 2594: 2586: 2561: 2555: 2554: 2518: 2512: 2511: 2474: 2468: 2467: 2431: 2425: 2424: 2399: 2393: 2380: 2374: 2369: 2363: 2362: 2337: 2331: 2330: 2324: 2316: 2290: 2284: 2283: 2277: 2269: 2242: 2227: 2222: 2213: 2212: 2210: 2209: 2200:. Archived from 2190: 2184: 2183: 2176: 2170: 2166: 2164: 2156: 2135: 2129: 2128: 2121: 2115: 2111: 2109: 2101: 2080: 2074: 2073: 2061: 2055: 2054: 2046: 2040: 2039: 2021: 1989: 1983: 1982: 1980: 1956: 1950: 1949: 1932:(5): 1079–1088. 1917: 1911: 1910: 1866: 1857: 1856: 1854: 1853: 1838: 1832: 1831: 1821: 1797: 1791: 1790: 1765:(7): 1043–1052. 1750: 1744: 1743: 1735: 1729: 1728: 1726: 1725: 1714: 1708: 1707: 1699: 1693: 1692: 1642: 1633: 1627: 1626: 1624: 1623: 1609: 1603: 1602: 1560: 1551: 1540: 1539: 1511: 1505: 1504: 1502: 1501: 1486: 1480: 1479: 1443: 1434: 1428: 1427: 1407: 1401: 1400: 1382: 1376: 1375: 1365: 1341: 1335: 1334: 1332: 1331: 1316: 1310: 1309: 1307: 1306: 1291: 1282: 1281: 1279: 1277: 1267: 1261: 1260: 1250: 1226: 1199: 1198: 1172: 1133: 1132: 1104: 924:tropical regions 856:water reservoirs 554:palaeoecological 509:Humic substances 490:carbon-14 dating 331:Papua New Guinea 158:greenhouse gases 21: 4760: 4759: 4755: 4754: 4753: 4751: 4750: 4749: 4705: 4704: 4703: 4693: 4691: 4683: 4681: 4676: 4656: 4654: 4646: 4566: 4537:Ducks Unlimited 4515: 4474:Clean Water Act 4456: 4434:Classifications 4428: 4397: 4344: 4312: 4276: 4227:Mangrove forest 3873: 3868: 3823: 3820: 3815: 3814: 3805: 3804: 3800: 3791: 3789: 3780: 3779: 3775: 3766: 3764: 3751: 3750: 3746: 3737: 3735: 3725: 3721: 3708: 3707: 3703: 3642: 3638: 3629: 3627: 3618: 3617: 3613: 3542: 3538: 3493: 3486: 3441: 3437: 3398: 3387: 3349: 3345: 3301: 3297: 3290:10.1139/x98-104 3270: 3266: 3227:(7754): 32–34. 3213: 3209: 3166: 3162: 3153: 3151: 3143: 3142: 3135: 3090: 3086: 3047: 3043: 3004: 2995: 2986: 2984: 2980: 2965: 2955: 2951: 2939: 2938: 2929: 2928: 2924: 2902: 2898: 2883: 2869: 2865: 2811: 2807: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2769: 2765: 2728:(11): 917–921. 2714: 2710: 2702: 2700: 2698: 2672: 2668: 2657: 2653: 2608: 2604: 2588: 2587: 2575: 2563: 2562: 2558: 2519: 2515: 2475: 2471: 2433: 2432: 2428: 2422: 2400: 2396: 2381: 2377: 2370: 2366: 2360: 2338: 2334: 2318: 2317: 2305: 2292: 2291: 2287: 2271: 2270: 2258: 2243: 2230: 2223: 2216: 2207: 2205: 2192: 2191: 2187: 2177: 2168: 2167: 2158: 2157: 2153: 2136: 2132: 2122: 2113: 2112: 2103: 2102: 2098: 2081: 2077: 2062: 2058: 2047: 2043: 1990: 1986: 1957: 1953: 1918: 1914: 1868: 1867: 1860: 1851: 1849: 1840: 1839: 1835: 1798: 1794: 1751: 1747: 1736: 1732: 1723: 1721: 1717:Sandy, John H. 1715: 1711: 1700: 1696: 1651:(7639): 86–90. 1640: 1634: 1630: 1621: 1619: 1611: 1610: 1606: 1558: 1552: 1543: 1512: 1508: 1499: 1497: 1487: 1483: 1460: 1441: 1435: 1431: 1424: 1408: 1404: 1397: 1383: 1379: 1342: 1338: 1329: 1327: 1317: 1313: 1304: 1302: 1292: 1285: 1275: 1273: 1269: 1268: 1264: 1227: 1202: 1187: 1173: 1136: 1121:10.1139/a11-014 1115:(NA): 371–396. 1105: 1088: 1083: 1078: 1077: 1042: 1034: 1006: 1000: 963: 937: 893: 884: 868: 772: 733: 726: 721: 709: 693: 689: 674: 670: 665: 640: 620: 587: 550: 528: 519:Humic materials 511: 457: 445: 441: 406: 390:Topographically 347: 273: 182: 136: 58:Carbajal Valley 50: 45:character, see 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4758: 4748: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4717: 4702: 4701: 4678: 4677: 4675: 4674: 4664: 4651: 4648: 4647: 4645: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4612:Drainage basin 4609: 4604: 4599: 4594: 4589: 4584: 4578: 4576: 4572: 4571: 4568: 4567: 4565: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4523: 4521: 4517: 4516: 4514: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4502: 4501: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4470: 4464: 4458: 4457: 4455: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4438: 4436: 4430: 4429: 4427: 4426: 4421: 4419:Paludification 4416: 4411: 4405: 4403: 4399: 4398: 4396: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4379: 4378: 4373: 4371:Sapric or muck 4368: 4358: 4352: 4350: 4349:Soil mechanics 4346: 4345: 4343: 4342: 4335: 4330: 4324: 4322: 4318: 4317: 4314: 4313: 4311: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4284: 4282: 4278: 4277: 4275: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4248: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4229: 4224: 4219: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4128: 4127: 4126: 4125: 4120: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4093:Brackish marsh 4085: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4060: 4055: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4024: 4023: 4018: 4013: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3983: 3982: 3981: 3971: 3966: 3965: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3914: 3909: 3904: 3899: 3894: 3888: 3886: 3879: 3875: 3874: 3867: 3866: 3859: 3852: 3844: 3838: 3837: 3819: 3818:External links 3816: 3813: 3812: 3798: 3773: 3759:(in Spanish). 3744: 3733:UN Environment 3719: 3701: 3636: 3611: 3536: 3501:Biogeosciences 3484: 3455:(2): 377–381. 3435: 3385: 3343: 3316:(4): 287–295. 3304:(April 2020). 3295: 3264: 3207: 3160: 3149:www.ramsar.org 3133: 3104:(1): 351–365. 3084: 3057:(4): 583–597. 3041: 3014:(1): 111–124. 2993: 2949: 2922: 2896: 2882:978-0199602995 2881: 2863: 2805: 2793: 2763: 2708: 2696: 2666: 2651: 2602: 2573: 2556: 2529:(5): 521–528. 2513: 2486:(1): 157–174. 2469: 2426: 2420: 2394: 2375: 2364: 2358: 2332: 2303: 2285: 2256: 2228: 2214: 2185: 2169:|journal= 2151: 2130: 2114:|journal= 2096: 2075: 2070:Mires and Peat 2056: 2041: 2004:(G3): G00A10. 1984: 1951: 1912: 1858: 1833: 1812:(2): 373–380. 1792: 1745: 1730: 1709: 1694: 1628: 1604: 1569:(2): 798–818. 1541: 1528:10.1086/401755 1522:(2): 145–166. 1506: 1481: 1458: 1429: 1422: 1402: 1395: 1377: 1336: 1311: 1283: 1262: 1200: 1186:978-0199602995 1185: 1134: 1085: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1043: 1035: 1033: 1030: 999: 996: 967:climate change 962: 959: 935: 891: 883: 880: 867: 864: 787:meteorological 771: 768: 739:Wooded bog in 732: 729: 724: 719: 707: 691: 687: 672: 668: 663: 639: 636: 619: 616: 586: 583: 534:Extraction of 527: 524: 510: 507: 484:, pollutants, 466:to flourish. 455: 443: 439: 431:photosynthesis 415:carbon dioxide 405: 402: 346: 343: 272: 269: 181: 178: 154:climate change 134: 131:carbon dioxide 108:paludification 85:organic matter 47:Glenn Quagmire 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4757: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4735:Types of soil 4733: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4723: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4712: 4710: 4700: 4690: 4689: 4686: 4673: 4665: 4663: 4653: 4652: 4649: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4622:Riparian zone 4620: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4593: 4590: 4588: 4585: 4583: 4580: 4579: 4577: 4573: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4524: 4522: 4520:Organizations 4518: 4512: 4509: 4507: 4504: 4500: 4497: 4496: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4471: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4459: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4431: 4425: 4422: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4412: 4410: 4407: 4406: 4404: 4400: 4394: 4391: 4389: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4377: 4376:Tropical peat 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4363: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4353: 4351: 4347: 4341: 4340: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4325: 4323: 4319: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4301: 4299: 4296: 4294: 4291: 4289: 4286: 4285: 4283: 4279: 4273: 4270: 4268: 4265: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4257:Várzea forest 4255: 4253: 4250: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4230: 4228: 4225: 4223: 4220: 4218: 4215: 4214: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4124: 4121: 4119: 4116: 4115: 4114: 4111: 4109: 4106: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4090: 4089: 4086: 4084: 4081: 4079: 4076: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4066: 4064: 4061: 4059: 4056: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4008: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3980: 3977: 3976: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3947:Polygonal bog 3945: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3935: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3919: 3918: 3915: 3913: 3910: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3889: 3887: 3883: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3865: 3860: 3858: 3853: 3851: 3846: 3845: 3842: 3834: 3833: 3827: 3822: 3821: 3808: 3802: 3787: 3783: 3777: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3748: 3734: 3730: 3723: 3715: 3711: 3705: 3697: 3693: 3688: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3640: 3625: 3621: 3615: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3540: 3532: 3528: 3523: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3491: 3489: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3463: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3439: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3396: 3394: 3392: 3390: 3381: 3377: 3372: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3347: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3299: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3268: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3243: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3211: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3180:(12): 97–98. 3179: 3175: 3171: 3164: 3150: 3146: 3140: 3138: 3129: 3125: 3120: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3088: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3045: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3002: 3000: 2998: 2983:on 2022-08-07 2979: 2975: 2971: 2964: 2960: 2953: 2945: 2933: 2925: 2923:9789400761735 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2900: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2878: 2874: 2867: 2859: 2855: 2850: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2809: 2796: 2794:9780444528834 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2767: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2712: 2699: 2697:9780444528834 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2670: 2662: 2655: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2606: 2598: 2592: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2574:9789529940110 2570: 2566: 2560: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2517: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2473: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2430: 2423: 2421:9783540773801 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2398: 2392: 2389: 2385: 2379: 2373: 2368: 2361: 2359:9789401044141 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2336: 2328: 2322: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2300: 2296: 2289: 2281: 2275: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2257:9789834375102 2253: 2249: 2241: 2239: 2237: 2235: 2233: 2226: 2221: 2219: 2204:on 2018-04-09 2203: 2199: 2195: 2189: 2181: 2174: 2162: 2154: 2152:9789984451633 2148: 2144: 2143: 2134: 2126: 2119: 2107: 2099: 2097:9789984451633 2093: 2089: 2088: 2079: 2071: 2067: 2060: 2052: 2045: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2020: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1988: 1979: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1955: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1916: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1865: 1863: 1847: 1843: 1837: 1829: 1825: 1820: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1796: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1749: 1741: 1734: 1720: 1713: 1705: 1698: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1639: 1632: 1618: 1614: 1608: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1557: 1550: 1548: 1546: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1510: 1496: 1492: 1485: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1459:91-576-5557-X 1455: 1451: 1447: 1440: 1433: 1425: 1423:9780313327841 1419: 1415: 1414: 1406: 1398: 1392: 1388: 1381: 1373: 1369: 1364: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1340: 1326: 1322: 1315: 1301: 1297: 1290: 1288: 1272: 1266: 1258: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1225: 1223: 1221: 1219: 1217: 1215: 1213: 1211: 1209: 1207: 1205: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1182: 1178: 1171: 1169: 1167: 1165: 1163: 1161: 1159: 1157: 1155: 1153: 1151: 1149: 1147: 1145: 1143: 1141: 1139: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1103: 1101: 1099: 1097: 1095: 1093: 1091: 1086: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1058: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1040: 1029: 1026: 1024: 1018: 1016: 1011: 1005: 995: 993: 989: 984: 979: 976: 972: 968: 954: 950: 948: 943: 939: 933: 927: 925: 921: 915: 912: 908: 904: 903:vegetable oil 900: 888: 879: 877: 872: 863: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 828: 824: 821: 816: 813: 809: 804: 799: 794: 792: 788: 783: 779: 777: 767: 765: 760: 758: 754: 746: 742: 737: 728: 717: 712: 704: 702: 698: 685: 681: 676: 657: 653: 649: 644: 635: 633: 629: 628:swamp forests 625: 615: 613: 612:clear-cutting 609: 603: 601: 597: 593: 582: 580: 575: 569: 567: 566:Baltic states 561: 559: 555: 549: 541: 537: 532: 526:Use by humans 523: 520: 516: 506: 504: 500: 496: 491: 487: 483: 478: 475: 474:methanotrophs 471: 467: 465: 461: 452: 447: 436: 432: 428: 427:sequestration 424: 423:nitrous oxide 420: 416: 412: 401: 399: 395: 391: 387: 383: 382:decomposition 378: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 351: 342: 338: 336: 332: 327: 323: 319: 315: 310: 307: 303: 299: 295: 289: 287: 277: 268: 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 237: 235: 234:Minerotrophic 231: 227: 223: 219: 218:minerotrophic 215: 211: 207: 206:precipitation 203: 199: 195: 190: 188: 174: 170: 165: 161: 159: 155: 150: 148: 144: 140: 132: 128: 124: 119: 117: 113: 109: 105: 104:precipitation 100: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 79:is a type of 78: 70: 66: 59: 54: 48: 44: 37: 33: 19: 4607:List of bogs 4462:Conservation 4393:Ombrotrophic 4337: 4308:Water-meadow 4232: 4176: 4043:Grass valley 4033:Flood-meadow 3996:Cypress dome 3927:Cataract bog 3902:Beach meadow 3830: 3801: 3790:. Retrieved 3788:. 2016-11-17 3785: 3776: 3765:. Retrieved 3763:. 2024-04-10 3756: 3747: 3736:. Retrieved 3732: 3722: 3714:The Guardian 3713: 3704: 3656:(1): 28498. 3653: 3649: 3639: 3628:. Retrieved 3626:. 2022-01-25 3623: 3614: 3553: 3549: 3539: 3504: 3500: 3452: 3448: 3438: 3405: 3401: 3364:(1): 37–46. 3361: 3357: 3346: 3313: 3309: 3298: 3281: 3277: 3267: 3224: 3220: 3210: 3177: 3173: 3163: 3152:. Retrieved 3148: 3101: 3097: 3087: 3054: 3050: 3044: 3011: 3007: 2985:. Retrieved 2978:the original 2969: 2952: 2905: 2899: 2872: 2866: 2823: 2819: 2808: 2798:, retrieved 2776: 2766: 2725: 2721: 2711: 2701:, retrieved 2679: 2669: 2660: 2654: 2619: 2615: 2605: 2564: 2559: 2526: 2522: 2516: 2483: 2479: 2472: 2439: 2435: 2429: 2403: 2397: 2387: 2383: 2378: 2367: 2341: 2335: 2293: 2288: 2247: 2206:. Retrieved 2202:the original 2197: 2188: 2141: 2133: 2086: 2078: 2069: 2059: 2050: 2044: 2001: 1997: 1987: 1968: 1964: 1954: 1929: 1925: 1915: 1874: 1870: 1850:. 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