2226:
the typical Black household had $ 5,677 in wealth, the typical
Hispanic had $ 6,325, and the typical white household had $ 113,149. Furthermore, 35% of African American and 31% of Hispanic households had zero or negative net worth in 2009 compared to 15% of white households. While in 2005 median Asian household wealth was greater than white households at $ 168,103, by 2009 that changed when their net worth fell 54% to $ 78,066, partially due to the arrival of new Asian immigrants since 2004; not including newly arrived immigrants, Asian net wealth only dropped 31%. According to the Federal Reserve Survey of Consumer Finances, of the 14 million Black households, only 5% have more than $ 350,000 in net worth while nearly 30% of white families have more than this amount. Less than 1% of Black families have over a million in net assets. while nearly 10% of white households, totaling over 8 million families have more than 1.3 million in net worth. According to the Federal Reserve of Cleveland the wealth gap between white and Black Americans has remained roughly the same since 1962, when the average white family had seven times the wealth of the average Black family.
2400:($ 5,000 or more) compared to one-third of white Americans. In addition, the 1989 Survey of Consumer Finances (SCF) reported that the mean and median values of those money transfers were significantly higher for white American households: the mean was $ 148,578 households compared to $ 85,598 for African American households and the median was $ 58,839 to $ 42,478. The large differences in wealth in the parent-generations were a dominant factor in prediction the differences between African American and white American prospective inheritances. Avery and Rendall used 1989 SCF data to discover that the mean value in 2002 of white Americans' inheritances was 5.46 times that of African Americans', compared to 3.65 that of current wealth. White Americans received a mean of $ 28,177 that accounted for 20.7% of their mean wealth while African Americans received a mean of $ 5,165 that accounted for 13.9% of their mean current wealth. Non-inherited wealth was more equally distributed than inherited wealth.
2649:
2475:
prefer that clients have at least $ 100,000 in investable assets and more than 50% have a minimum asset requirement of $ 500,000 or above. Because of this, financial planning is possibly beyond the reach of those with low income, which comprises a large portion of
African-Americans and Hispanics. Fear of discrimination is another possible factor. Minorities may be distrustful of banks and lack of trust was commonly reported as why minorities, people with low education, and the poor chose not to have banking accounts. Evidence suggests that women of color are disproportionately likely to plan on using informal borrowing as their sole strategy for coping with an emergency expense, potentially due to lack of access to formal banking services.
2627:, researchers investigated the relationship between Hispanic origin and eviction in Milwaukee. These researchers saw a strong correlation between Hispanic tenants' risk of eviction and neighborhood racial composition. In Milwaukee neighborhoods that were two-thirds white, approximately 80% of landlords were white. In these same neighborhoods, the average eviction rate was 25%, yet the eviction rate for Hispanics was upwards of 35%. The study also found that Hispanic renters were significantly more likely to be evicted by white landlords than non-white landlords. According to Greenberg et al, these findings suggest that discrimination contributes to racial disparities in Milwaukee eviction rates.
2768:
process: the ability to make bail and the ability to access high-quality legal counsel. Due to the fact that both of these important factors cost money, it is unlikely that poor Black
Americans are able to afford them and benefit from them. Sentencing is another crucial part of the process that determines how long individuals will remain incarcerated. Several sociological studies have found that poor offenders receive longer sentences for violent crimes and crimes involving drug use, unemployed offenders are more likely to be incarcerated than their employed counterparts, and then even with similar crimes and criminal records minorities were imprisoned more often than whites.
2733:(compared to 12.6% of the U.S. population that is Black). Additionally, Black males were imprisoned at a rate 6.5 times higher than that of their White male counterparts. According to a 2012 study by the U.S. Census Bureau, "over half the inmates incarcerated in our nation's jails is either Black or Hispanic." According to a report by the National Council of La Raza, research obstacles undermine the census of Latinos in prison, and "Latinos in the criminal justice system are seriously undercounted. The true extent of the overrepresentation of Latinos in the system probably is significantly greater than researchers have been able to document.
2467:
education increases one's chances of having a checking account by 2.8%. This difference in education level may explain the large proportion of "unbanked" Hispanics. The 2002 National
Longitudinal Survey found that while only 3% of white Americans and 4% of African Americans had only an elementary education, close to 20% of Hispanics did and 43% of Hispanics had less than a high school education Ibarra and Rodriguez believe that another factor that influences the Hispanic use of banking accounts is credit. Latinos are also more likely than white Americans or African Americans to have no or a thin credit history: 22% of Latinos have no
2507:
11 per 1,000 births which is higher than the US average of 5.7. There exists gaps in life expectancy between races with Black and Native
Americans having the lowest life expectancies. The gap between Black and white Americans on average is four years; however, there is great variation between states and even on smaller levels. For example in Wisconsin this gap is six years, and in Washington, D.C., this gap is more than ten years. African American women have the highest rate of obesity or being overweight in the US and non-Hispanic Blacks are 1.3 times more likely to be obese than non-Hispanic Whites.
2376:, it exempted agricultural and domestic workers, which disproportionately affected African Americans and Hispanics. Consequently, the savings of retired or disabled African Americans was spent during old age instead of handed down and households had to support poor elderly family members. The Homeowner's Loan Corporation that helped homeowners during the Great Depression gave African American neighborhoods the lowest rating, ensuring that they defaulted at greater rates than White Americans. The
2574:. Housing policy in the United States has influenced housing segregation trends throughout history. Key legislation include the National Housing Act of 1934, the GI Bill, and the Fair Housing Act. Factors such as socioeconomic status, spatial assimilation, and immigration contribute to perpetuating housing segregation. The effects of housing segregation include relocation, unequal living standards, and poverty. However, there have been initiatives to combat housing segregation, such as the
2211:
2818:
mayhem, or torture, as well as less physical means of violence including general harassment, verbal abuse, and intimidation. it has been argued that the origins of racial inequality by way of police brutality in
America date to colonial times when slavery was legal and widespread. Due to fear of slave revolts, White Americans began to organize groups of vigilantes who would use force to keep slaves from rebelling against their owners or escaping.
2931:, the large number of people seeking safety in designated shelters were disproportionately Black. In addition, the mortality rate for Blacks was 1.7 to 4 times higher than that of whites for all people ≥ 18." After Hurricane Katrina, many African Americans felt abandoned by the United States Government. 66% of African Americans "said that 'the government's response to would have been faster if most of the victims had been white.
50:
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holding either a gun or non-threatening objects such as cellphones. The study found that armed Black men were shot more frequently than armed White men and were also shot more quickly. The police would also sometimes mistakenly shoot the unarmed Black targets, while neglecting to shoot the armed White targets. Militarized police units are more often deployed in Black neighborhoods even after adjusting for crime rates.
2404:(meaning two people could gain inheritances to contribute to the household) Keister discovered that large family size has a negative effect on wealth accumulation. These negative effects are worse for the poor and African Americans and Hispanics are more likely to be poor and have large families. More children also decrease the amount of gifts parents can give and the inheritance they leave behind for the children.
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opportunities. On the community level, the disproportionate incarceration of people from poorer communities depletes the economic resources of said community and curates cycles of poverty that becomes increasingly harder to get rid of. These communities also face increased criminal justice involvement in their communities, making criminal justice contact a norm in the lives of an immense number of Black
Americans.
2834:, a 32-year-old Black male who was pulled over for a broken taillight. After being told by officer Yanez, to take out his license and insurance, Castile told the officer he had a firearm and that he was reaching into his pocket to get his wallet. Seconds later he was shot and killed by Yanez, who claimed he believed Castile was pulling his gun out. Yanez was charged with manslaughter and acquitted at trial.
2242:
than there is for white
Americans; correspondingly, African Americans rise to the top quartile from the bottom quartile at half the rate of white Americans. Bowles and Gintis conclude from this information that successful African Americans do not transfer the factors for their success as effectively as white Americans do. Other factors to consider in the recent widening of the minority wealth gap are the
2803:"Racial residential segregation is a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health". Racial segregation can result in decreased opportunities for minority groups in income, education, etc. While there are laws against racial segregation, study conducted by D. R. Williams and C. Collins focuses primarily on the impacts of racial segregation, which leads to differences between races.
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populations in which suburbs consist of majority white populations and inner-cities consist of majority minority populations. According to
Barnhouse-Walters (2001), the concentration of poor minority populations in inner-cities and the concentration of affluent white populations in the suburbs, "is the main mechanism by which racial inequality in educational resources is reproduced."
2619:, Desmond reported that approximately one in five black women will experience eviction, compared to one in fifteen white women. Eviction rates are also linked to the racial concentration of neighborhoods. The RVA Eviction Lab, in Richmond, Virginia, estimates that as the proportion of a neighborhood's black population increases by 10%, eviction rates would increase by 1.2%.
2445:
investment risk at the expense of higher yielding assets. These preferences may be due to low financial literacy leading to a lack of demand for investment services. According to
Lusardi, even though the stock market increased in value in the 1990s, only 6-7% of African Americans and Hispanics held stocks, so they did not benefit as much from the value increase.
2935:" For a disproportionate share of the impoverished in New Orleans, many had, and continue to have, a difficult time preparing for storms. Factors such as, "cultural ignorance, ethnic insensitivity, racial isolation and racial bias in housing, information dissemination, and relief assistance" all greatly contribute to the disparities in disaster preparedness.
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because it can be used as a tool to secure a desired quality of life or class status and enables individuals who possess it to pass their class status to their children. Family inheritance, which is passed down from generation to generation, helps with wealth accumulation. Wealth can also serve as a safety net against fluctuations in income and poverty.
2178:, writes, "Political rights have been circumscribed by race, class and gender since the founding of the United States, when the right to vote was restricted to White men of property. Throughout the history of the United States race has been used by Whites for legitimizing and creating difference and social, economic and political exclusion."
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educational opportunities, unemployment rates, and incarceration rates. Current racial inequalities in the U.S. have their roots in over 300 years of cultural, economic, physical, legal, and political discrimination based on race. Leland T. Saito, Associate Professor of Sociology and American Studies & Ethnicity at the
2365:. This lowered the support African Americans had to open businesses and acquire wealth. In addition, after the bank failed, taking the assets of many African Americans with it, many African Americans did not trust banks. There was also the threat of lynching to any African American who achieved success.
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populations have substantially lower scores than the white American population on average. Racial discrimination also results in impacts on the credit scores and economic security of communities of color—that ultimately, "entrenches and reinforces inequality by dictating a consumer's access to future
2817:
Significant racial discrepancies have been reported in the United States involving police brutality. Police brutality in the United States is defined as "the unwarranted or excessive and often illegal use of force against civilians by U.S. police officers." It can come in the form of murder, assault,
2753:
Those racially disparate employment consequences can arise from other forms of carceral contact, too, and they can have spillover effects on local communities. At the county level, for example, jail rather than prison incarceration has been found to significantly diminish local labor markets in areas
2732:
In 2008, the prison population under federal and state correctional jurisdiction was over 1,610,446 prisoners. Of these prisoners, 20% were Hispanic (compared to 16.3% of the U.S. population that is Hispanic), 34% were White (compared to 63.7% of the U.S. population that is White), and 38% were Black
2614:
Black tenants face significantly higher filing and eviction rates than their white counterparts. Looking at neighborhood racial composition in Milwaukee, sociologist Matthew Desmond found that majority-black neighborhoods had an average annual eviction rate of 7.4%, compared to 1.4% in majority-white
2537:
The U.S. Census Bureau defines chronic poverty as living in poverty for 36 or more consecutive months. From the period between 2004 and 2006 the chronic poverty rate was 1.4% for non-Hispanic whites, 4.5% for Hispanics, and 8.4% for Blacks. Hispanics and Blacks experience much higher rates of chronic
2483:
Though African Americans who attend college get a similar boost in income to white peers, they tend not to have a similar increase in wealth, largely because they spend more money helping poor family members, including older relatives who in white families are instead more likely to help younger kin.
2426:
Krivo and Kaufman found that information supporting the fact that increases in income does not affect wealth as much for minorities as it does for white Americans. For example, a $ 10,000 increase in income for white Americans increases their home equity $ 17,770 while the same increase only increase
2407:
Angel's research into inheritance showed that older Mexican American parents may give less financial assistance to their children than non-Hispanic White Americans because of their relatively high fertility rate so children have to compete for the available money. There are studies that indicate that
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because newly freed African American farmers did not own land or supplies and had to depend on the White Americans who rented the land and supplies out to them. At the same time, southern Blacks were trapped in debt and denied banking services while White citizens were given low-interest loans to set
2713:
It is politically incorrect to assume that racial inequality is caused by differences in skills or preferences. The lack of open discussion leads to ethnic groups being treated equally. This means that diverse groups receive the same offers which have different advantages for different groups, which
2241:
may be related to economic circumstances and poverty because the economic disadvantages of African Americans can be effective in harming efforts to accumulate wealth. However, there is a five times greater chance of downward mobility from the top quartile to the bottom quartile for African Americans
2194:
in the United States. The wealth gap between Caucasian and African-American families studied nearly tripled, from $ 85,000 in 1984 to $ 236,500 in 2009. The study concluded that factors contributing to the inequality included years of home ownership (27%), household income (20%), education (5%), and
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found that for officer-involved shootings there were no racial disparities "in either the raw data or when contextual factors are taken into account". According to data from the Chicago Police Department police used more force against Black people than any other race despite the fact that they were
2695:
This theory argues that the reason minority disadvantage exists is because the majority group is able to benefit from it. For example, in terms of the labor force, each job not taken by a Black person could be job that gets occupied by a white person. This theory is based on the view that the white
2506:
Black Americans face consistently worse health outcomes than white, Asian, and Hispanic Americans. Black women are 2½ times more likely to die of maternal causes than white women and this rate increases to 3 times when compared to Hispanic Americans. The infant mortality rate for Black Americans is
2466:
Lusardi's research revealed that education increases one's chances of having a banking account. A full high school education increases the chance of having a checking account by 15% compared to only an elementary education; having a parent with a high school education rather than only an elementary
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were the main cause of the wealth change from 2005 to 2009. Hispanics were hit the hardest by the housing market meltdown possibly because a disproportionate share of Hispanics live in California, Florida, Nevada, and Arizona, which are among the states with the steepest declines in housing values.
2085:
between Caucasian and African American families substantially increased from $ 85,000 in 1984 to $ 236,500 in 2009. Many causes relate to racial inequality such as: Years of home ownership, household income, unemployment, education, lack of upward mobility, and inheritance. In 1863, two years prior
2741:
The injustices of a criminal justice system disproportionately impact Black people; maintaining these racial disparities has a high cost for individuals, families, and communities. On an individual level, a criminal conviction may equate to loss of access to employment, housing, and public service
2277:
industry maintaining Whiteness to act as a barrier to prevent those of color from equal financial development. This disparity has been debated, but never disputed due to its "very real" implications it has on African Americans. Data has shown that "among racial and ethnic groups, African Americans
2225:
There is a large gap between the wealth of minority households and white households within the United States. The Pew Research Center's analysis of 2009 government data says the median wealth of white households is 20 times that of Black households and 18 times that of Hispanic households. In 2009
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of unarmed Blacks and that even when using crime as a benchmark "there is strong and statistically reliable evidence of anti-Black racial disparities in the killing of unarmed Americans by police". A 2019 study by Cesario et al. published in Social Psychological and Personality Science found that
2821:
During the civil rights era, the existence of the racial disparities surrounding police brutality became more discussed. During peaceful protests for civil rights, some police would use tactics such as police dogs or fire hoses to control the protesters. In 1991, video footage was released of cab
2669:
In 2016, the unemployment rate was 3.8% for Asians, 4.6% for non-Hispanic whites, 6.1% for Hispanics, and 9.0% for Blacks, all over the age of 16. In terms of unemployment, it can be seen that there are two-tiers: relatively low unemployment for Asians and whites, relatively high unemployment for
2656:
In the United States, funding for public education relies greatly on local property taxes. Local property tax revenues may vary between different neighborhoods and school districts. This variance of property tax revenues amongst neighborhoods and school districts leads to inequality in education.
2528:
The U.S. Census Bureau defines episodic poverty as living in poverty for less than 36 consecutive months. From the period between 2004 and 2006 the episodic poverty rate was 22.6% for non-Hispanic whites, 44.5% for Blacks, and 45.8% for Hispanics. Blacks and Hispanics experience rates of episodic
2474:
Not taking other variables into account, Chong, Phillips, and Phillips survey of zip codes found that minority neighborhoods don't have the same access to financial planning services as white neighborhoods. There is also client segregation by investable assets. More than 80% of financial advisors
2233:
rates. One-fourth of African Americans and Hispanics approach retirement with less than $ 1,000 net worth (without considering pensions and Social Security). Lower financial literacy is correlated with poor savings and adjustment behavior. Education is a strong predictor for wealth. One-fourth of
2926:
When a disaster strikes—be it a hurricane, tornado, or fire—some people are inherently more prepared than others. "While all members of populations are affected by disasters, research findings show that racial and ethnic minorities are less likely to evacuate and more affected by disasters" than
2767:
A potential cause of such disproportionately high incarceration rates for Black Americans is that Black Americans are disproportionately poor. Conviction is a crucial part of the process that leads to either guilt or innocence. There are two important factors that play a role in this part of the
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doubled from 1880 to 1940. Southern urban areas were the most segregated. Segregation was highly correlated with lynchings of African-Americans. Segregation adversely affected both black and white homeownership rates, as well as caused higher crime rates. Areas with housing segregation had worse
2440:
Conley states that differences between African American and white American wealth begin because people with higher asset levels can take advantage of riskier investment instruments with higher rates of returns. Unstable income flows may lead to "cashing in" of assets or accumulation of debt over
2546:
The U.S. Census Bureau defines length of poverty spell as the number of months spent in poverty. The median length of poverty spells was 4 months for non-Hispanic whites, 5.9 months for Blacks, and 6.2 months for Hispanics. The length of time spent in poverty varies by race. Non-Hispanic whites
2403:
Avery and Rendall found that family attributes favored white Americans when it came to factor influencing the amount of inheritances. African Americans were 7.3% less likely to have live parents, 24.5% more likely to have three or more siblings, and 30.6% less likely to be married or cohabiting
2221:
can be defined as "the total value of things families own minus their debts." In contrast, income can be defined as, "earnings from work, interest and dividends, pensions, and transfer payments." Wealth is an important factor in determining the quality of both individual and family life chances
2841:
than White Americans and are more likely to be unarmed during those fatal instances. A study done by Joshua Correll at the University of Chicago shows what is called "The police officers dilemma", by setting up a video game in which police are given scenarios involving both Black and White men
2686:
This theory argues that the effects of racial segregation pushed Blacks and Hispanics into the central city during a time period in which jobs and opportunities moved to the suburbs. This led to geographic separation between minorities and job opportunities which was compounded by struggles to
2660:
Returning to the concept of residential segregation, it is known that affluence and poverty have become both highly segregated and concentrated in relation to race and location. Residential segregation and poverty concentration is most markedly seen in the comparison between urban and suburban
2444:
Chong, Phillips and Phillips state that African Americans, Hispanics, and Asians invest less heavily in stocks than white Americans. Hispanics and in some ways African Americans accumulate wealth slower than white Americans because of preference for near-term saving, favoring liquidity and low
2173:
In social science, racial inequality is typically defined as "imbalances in the distribution of power, economic resources, and opportunities." Racial inequalities have manifested in American society in ways ranging from racial disparities in wealth, poverty rates, bankruptcy, housing patterns,
2704:
This theory argues that the unemployment disparity can be attributed to lower rates of academic success among minority groups (especially Black Americans) leading to a lack of skills necessary for entering the modern work force. The author remains unclear why Black Americans have low academic
2519:
across racial groups. In 2009, the poverty rate across the nation was 9.9%. This data illustrates that Hispanics and Blacks experience disproportionately high percentages of poverty in comparison to non-Hispanics whites and Asians. In discussing poverty, it is important to distinguish between
2392:
Bowman states that "in the United States, the most significant aspect of multigenerational wealth distribution comes in the forms of gifts and inheritances." However, the multigenerational absence of wealth and asset attainment for African Americans makes it almost impossible for them to make
2776:
Racial profiling is defined as "any police-initiated action that relies on the race, ethnicity, or national origin, rather than the behavior of an individual or information that leads the police to a particular individual who has been identified as being, or having been, engaged in criminal
2408:
elderly Hispanic parents of all backgrounds live with their adult children due to poverty and would choose to do otherwise, even if they had the resources to do so. African American and Latino families are less likely to financially aid adult children than non-Hispanic white families.
2749:
are immense. Over 40 percent who are released will return to prison within the next few years. Those with criminal records who do not return to prison face significant struggles to find quality employment and income outcomes compared to those who do not have criminal records.
2781:
is that racial profiling occurs at higher rates for Blacks and Hispanics. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva states that racial profiling can perhaps explain the over representation of Blacks and Hispanics in U.S. prisons. According to Michael L. Birzer, professor of criminal justice at
2891:. Instead, color-blind racism flourishes on the idea that race is no longer an issue in the country and that there are non-racial explanations for the state of inequality. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva writes that there are four frames of color-blind racism that support that view:
2657:
This inequality manifests in the form of available school financial resources which provide educational opportunities, facilities, and programs to students. For every student enrolled, the average nonwhite school district receives $ 2,226 less than a white school district.
2696:
population has the most to gain from the discrimination of minority groups. In areas where there are large minority groups, this view predicts high levels of discrimination to occur for the reason that white populations stand to gain the most in those situations.
2422:
The racial wealth gap is visible in terms of dollar for dollar wage and wealth comparisons. For example, middle-class Blacks earn seventy cents for every dollar earned by similar middle-class whites. Race can be seen as the "strongest predictor" of one's wealth.
3007:
2010 study found that African American in Illinois zip codes had scores of less than 620 at a rate of 54.2%. In zip codes that were majority Latino, 31.4% of individuals had a credit score of less than 620, and only 47.3% had credit scores greater than
2463:. Minorities are more likely than white Americans to not have a banking account. 3.5% of Asians, 3.3% of white Americans, 21.7% of African Americans and 19.3% of Hispanics and 15.6% of remaining racial/ethnic categories do not have banking accounts.
2910:
Minimization of racism attempts to minimize the factor of race as a major influence in affecting the life chances of minorities. It writes off instances and situations that could be perceived as discrimination to be hypersensitivity to the topic of
2902:
Naturalization explains racial inequality as a cause of natural occurrences. It claims that segregation is not the result of racial dynamics. Instead, it is the result of the naturally-occurring phenomena of individuals choosing likeness as their
2854:
after adjusting for crime, there was "no systematic evidence of anti-Black disparities in fatal shootings, fatal shootings of unarmed citizens, or fatal shootings involving misidentification of harmless objects. A study by Harvard economist
2906:
Cultural racism explains racial inequality through culture. Under this frame, racial inequalities are described as the result of stereotypical behavior of minorities. Stereotypical behavior includes qualities such as laziness and teenage
1029:
3024:. FICO has defended the system stating that income, property, education, and employment are not evenly distributed across society and it is irrational to think an objective measure would not exhibit these discrepancies. Tamara Nopper,
6460:
2786:
and director of its School of Community Affairs, "racial minorities, particularly African Americans, have had a long and troubled history of disparate treatment by United States Criminal Justice Authorities." A report by the
2354:
up farms in the Midwest and Western United States. White homesteaders were able to go West and obtain unclaimed land through government grants, while the land grants and rights of African Americans were rarely enforced.
3029:
2886:
The types of practices that take place under color blind racism are "subtle, institutional, and apparently nonracial." Those practices are not racially overt in nature such as racism under slavery, segregation, and
2393:
significant contributions of wealth to the next generation. Data shows that financial inheritances could account for 10 to 20 percent of the difference between African American and White American household wealth.
3011:
2012 study examined the credit scores for about 200,000 consumers finding the median FICO score in majority minority zip codes was in the 34th percentile, while it was in the 52nd percentile for low minority zip
6396:
3656:
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time, even if the time-averaged streams of income and savings are the same. African Americans may be less likely to invest in the stock market because they have a smaller parental head-start and safety net.
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to provide shelter and supplies to freed slaves. It was supported by the Republican Congress over the veto of Andrew Johnson, but was soon de-funded and abandoned by a Democrat-controlled Congress in 1872.
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neighborhoods. In this study, Desmond also emphasizes the dual disadvantage black women face in housing—black women face the highest eviction rates of any demographic group. In an interview with
5579:
Farley, John E. (1987). "Disproportionate Black and Hispanic Unemployment in U.S. Metropolitan Areas: The Roles of Racial Inequality, Segregation and Discrimination in Male Joblessness".
990:
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2006 studied US counties with high Black, Indigenous, and people of color populations determining that those countries had lower average credit scores than predominantly white counties.
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College attendance, analyzed by race and schools' overall admission rates. Shown by comparative areas of upper four pie charts, elite schools make up a small fraction of all enrollment.
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Brent Kabler, Missouri Department of Insurance, Insurance-Based Credit Scores: Impact on Black Indigenous and people of color and Low Income Populations in Missouri (Jan. 2004)
6024:"A Typology of Civilians Shot and Killed by US Police: a Latent Class Analysis of Firearm Legal Intervention Homicide in the 2014–2015 National Violent Death Reporting System"
2597:(and whites are more likely to support those regulations). Strict land use regulations are an important driver of housing segregation along racial lines in the United States.
2396:
Using the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) of 1992 Avery and Rendall estimated that only around one-tenth of African Americans reported receiving inheritances or substantial
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Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Report to the Congress on Credit Scoring and Its Effects on the Availability and Affordability of Credit 80-81 (Aug. 2007)
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2004 study found high Black, Indigenous, and people of color zip codes to have significantly worse scores than non-Black, Indigenous, and people of color zip codes.
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Fothergill, Alice; Maestas, Enrique G. M.; Darlington, JoAnne DeRouen (June 1999). "Race, Ethnicity and Disasters in the United States: A Review of the Literature".
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Fair, Isaac & Co., The Effectiveness of Scoring on Low-toModerate Income and High-Black Indigenous and people of color Area Populations 22, Fig. 9 (Aug. 1997)
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2234:
African Americans and Hispanics that have less than a high school education have no wealth, but even with increased education, large differences in wealth remain.
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helped to foster wealth accumulation for African Americans. However, it failed in 1874, partially because of suspicious high-risk loans to White banks and the
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522:
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Walker, Renee; Keane, Christopher; Burke, Jessica (2010). "Disparities and Access to Healthy Food in the United States: A Review of Food Deserts Literature".
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Barnhouse Walters, Pamela (2001). "Educational Access and the State: Historical Continuities and Discontinuities in Racial Inequality in American Education".
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Sarah Duda & Geoff Smith, Woodstock Institute, Bridging the Gap: Credit Scores and Economic Opportunity in Illinois Communities of Color 8 (Sept. 2010),
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found that African Americans and Hispanics strongly overrepresented in the lowest scoring categories regarding auto insurance company's use of credit scores.
17:
6274:"Racial Disparities in Police Use of Deadly Force Against Unarmed Individuals Persist After Appropriately Benchmarking Shooting Data on Violent Crime Rates"
2322:, a Southern Democrat who also opposed political rights for African Americans and protections against white violence in the South. Slavery continued in the
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From 2005 to 2009 Hispanic homeowners' home equity declined by Half, from $ 99,983 to $ 49,145, with the homeownership rate decreasing by 4% to 47%. A 2015
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2004 research study found fewer than 40% of consumers who lived in high-Black Indigenous and people of color neighborhoods had credit scores of over 701.
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2004 study found the median credit score for whites in 2001 was 738, but the median credit score for African Americans was 676 and for Hispanics was 670.
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738:
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Chong, James; Phillips, Lynn; Phillips, Michael (2011). "The Impact of Neighborhood Ethnic Composition on Availability of Financial Planning Services".
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2899:. This frame is based in liberal ideas such as equal opportunity, individualism, and choice. It uses these ideas as a basis to explain inequality.
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Wertz, Joseph; Azrael, Deborah; Berrigan, John; Barber, Catherine; Nelson, Eliot; Hemenway, David; Salhi, Carmel; Miller, Matthew (1 June 2020).
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Lusardi states that African Americans and Hispanics are more likely to face means-tested programs that discourage asset possession due to higher
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3873:
4151:
Ibarra, Beatriz; Rodriguez, Erik (2006). "Closing The Wealth Gap: Eliminating Structural Barriers To Building Assets in the Latino Community".
3478:
Leland T. Saito (1998). "Race and Politics: Asian Americans, Latinos, and Whites in a Los Angeles Suburb". p. 154. University of Illinois Press
2746:
602:
5464:
3633:
7848:
7687:
4072:
Krivo, Lauren J.; Kaufman, Robert L. (2004). "Housing and Wealth Inequality: Racial-Ethnic Differences in Home Equity in the United States".
7394:
7038:
Robert B. Avery, Paul S. Calem, & Glenn B. Canner, Credit Report Accuracy and Access to Credit, Federal Reserve Bulletin (Summer 2004)
3143:
3016:
The outcomes for Black Americans because of this bias are higher interest rates on home loans and auto loans; longer loan terms; increased
2582:
2123:
1275:
2778:
7838:
7389:
7257:
7101:
Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, Analysis of Differences Between Consumer- and Creditor-Purchased Credit Scores, at 18, Sept. 2012,
3118:
3101:
2643:
2637:
2381:
1245:
831:
347:
2687:
commute to jobs in the suburbs due to lack of means of transportation. This ultimately led to high unemployment rates among minorities.
2607:
7940:
6863:
507:
6606:
2826:
being hit over 50 times by multiple police with their batons. The police were later acquitted for their actions which resulted in the
7864:
7828:
7629:
7619:
7614:
7409:
7311:
5868:
Gross, Samuel R.; Possley, Maurice; Otterbourg, Ken; Stephens, Clara; Weinstock Paredes, Jessica; O'Brien, Barbara (September 2022).
3816:
Burton, Dawn (October 2018). "The US Racial Wealth Gap and the Implications for Financial Inclusion and Wealth Management Policies".
2921:
2570:
or other minority groups equal access to housing through the process of misinformation, denial of realty and financing services, and
3032:
has stated that to solve the true issue of racism is not just to regulate it, as politics focus on, but to eliminate it in favor of
7904:
7773:
7682:
2981:
2004 study found that African American and Hispanic consumers constituted over 60% of the consumers having the worst credit scores.
2952:
Credit score systems are well known to contain racial bias and have been shown to increase racial disparities as studies show that
2648:
2561:
2135:
429:
317:
4572:
Stearns, Linda Brewster; Logan, John R. (1986). "The Racial Structuring of the Housing Market and Segregation in Suburban Areas".
7823:
7346:
3123:
2303:
2195:
familial financial support and/or inheritance (5%). In an analysis of the American Opportunity Accounts Act, a bill to introduce
2158:
2063:
7067:
scores-impacts-consumers-automobile-insurance-report-congress-federaltrade/p044804facta_report_credit-based_insurance_scores.pdf
5392:
7785:
7677:
7586:
7533:
7460:
7427:
7371:
5422:
3148:
3071:
2586:
health outcomes for both whites and Blacks. Residential segregation accounts for a substantial share of the Black-white gap in
2238:
2082:
2010:
694:
439:
267:
252:
247:
77:
6839:
5274:
3414:
7909:
7649:
7644:
7518:
5822:
5648:
5558:
4668:
3595:
3568:
3325:
3200:
2812:
2287:
2162:
581:
512:
232:
7134:
Donncha Marron (2007), "'Lending by numbers': credit scoring and the constitution of risk within American consumer credit",
7654:
7639:
7538:
7470:
6570:
3529:
3128:
2497:
2493:
2417:
2034:
1051:
322:
136:
7810:
7702:
7523:
7422:
7341:
7316:
7301:
7120:
7089:
6682:
5705:
2723:
1711:
1367:
1280:
1171:
821:
639:
257:
242:
6612:
6325:"A Multi-Level Bayesian Analysis of Racial Bias in Police Shootings at the County-Level in the United States, 2011–2014"
2203:
reported that by 2019 white families had more than seven times the wealth of the average Black family, according to the
7935:
7336:
7280:
7189:
2621:
Hispanic renters also face higher filing and eviction rates than their white counterparts. In a study published in the
2323:
1265:
721:
7102:
5869:
2830:. Allegations of police brutality continue to plague American police. An alleged example of police brutality includes
2190:
Institute on Assets and Social Policy which followed the same sets of families for 25 years found that there are vast
7899:
7894:
7740:
7712:
7624:
7576:
7480:
7455:
7417:
7366:
7361:
6120:"Mapping fatal police violence across U.S. metropolitan areas: Overall rates and racial/ethnic inequities, 2013-2017"
5876:
5292:
4712:
3940:
3744:
2788:
2468:
2267:
2247:
2175:
895:
726:
188:
166:
7064:
6930:
Freddie Mac, Automated Underwriting: Making Mortgage Lending Simpler and Fairer for America's Families (Sept. 1996)
2384:(VA) shut out African Americans by giving loans to suburbs instead of central cities after they were first founded.
2191:
7697:
7609:
7465:
7169:
7077:
7063:
Federal Trade Commission, CreditBased Insurance Scores: Impacts on Consumers of Automobile Insurance 3 (July 2007)
7024:
2086:
to emancipation, Black people owned 0.5 percent of the national wealth, while in 2019 it is just over 1.5 percent.
1664:
1493:
1387:
826:
716:
4271:
3891:
Bowman, Scott W. (2011). "Multigenerational Interactions in Black Middle Class Wealth and Asset Decision Making".
7768:
7727:
7672:
6912:
5909:
3961:
Avery, Robert B.; Rendall, Michael S. (2002). "Lifetime Inheritances of Three Generations of Whites and Blacks".
3799:
3495:
3001:
2896:
2104:
2027:
1240:
733:
477:
272:
5960:
5012:
Logan, Trevon D.; Parman, John M. (1 May 2017). "Segregation and Homeownership in the Early Twentieth Century".
3046:
has also been shown to discriminate along racial lines, disproportionately harming black and Latino populations.
7889:
7790:
7707:
7432:
7381:
7356:
7321:
6641:
4301:
3996:
Keister, Lisa A. (2002). "Race, Family Structure, and Wealth: The Effect of Childhood Family on Adult Assets".
3803:
2377:
2263:
2139:
2119:
332:
5985:
5421:
Teresa, Benjamin F. "The geography of eviction in Richmond: beyond poverty." RVA Eviction Lab. Retrieved from
3315:
487:
7874:
7735:
7566:
7508:
7500:
7490:
7399:
7326:
6983:
3585:
2957:
2501:
1941:
1649:
312:
4529:
King, A. Thomas; Mieszkowski, Peter (1973). "Racial Discrimination, Segregation, and the Price of Housing".
4172:"Informal Borrowers and Financial Exclusion: The Invisible Unbanked at the Intersections of Race and Gender"
2883:
racism. Color-blind racism refers to "contemporary racial inequality as the outcome of nonracial dynamics."
7750:
7745:
7331:
7288:
7161:
7022:. Building Assets, Building Credit: A Symposium on Improving Financial Services in Low-Income Communities.
6504:
5541:
Douglass S. Massey (2004). "The New Geography of Inequality in Urban America". In Henry, C. Michael (ed.).
3091:
2972:
were three times as likely to have FICO scores below 620 as whites and that Hispanics were twice as likely.
2831:
2516:
2291:
2089:
1198:
1146:
67:
7596:
7447:
7014:
6931:
3133:
2294:, depriving them of all property, and in some cases family. In order to prevent rebellion or escape, the
2204:
1852:
1696:
1101:
684:
622:
7039:
3317:
Racism without Racists: Color-blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States
2975:
1997 study found Black, Indigenous, and people of color neighborhood consumers had lower credit scores.
7760:
7664:
7548:
2358:
2115:. African Americans are less likely to receive inheritance and more likely to aid poor family members.
2097:
1961:
706:
367:
82:
6831:
5331:
4789:
Eisenhaur, Elizabeth (10 December 2001). "In Poor Health: Supermarket Redlining and Urban Nutrition".
7581:
7051:
Matt Fellowes, Brookings Inst., Credit Scores, Reports, and Getting Ahead in America 9-10 (May 2006)
6907:
6905:
6854:
6852:
6563:
5191:
5103:
3081:
2274:
1292:
1106:
995:
875:
529:
497:
146:
72:
7191:
Credit Scoring and Insurance: Costing Consumers Billions and Perpetuating the Economic Racial Divide
7127:
5690:
4450:
4246:
4086:
7571:
6600:
5449:
2994:
2783:
2427:
the home equities for Asians by $ 9,500, Hispanics by $ 15,150, and African Americans by $ 15,900.
2315:
2243:
1558:
1446:
1287:
1056:
980:
803:
758:
612:
492:
467:
397:
327:
203:
6914:
Past Imperfect: How Credit Scores and Other Analytics "Bake In" and Perpetuate Past Discrimination
6902:
6849:
6390:
Cesario, Joseph; Taylor, Carley; Burkel, Nicole; Tress, Trevor; Johnson, David J. (17 July 2019).
6080:
2459:
The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation in 2009 found that 7.7% of United States households are
3158:
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1857:
1837:
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33:
6000:
885:
7717:
4208:
4081:
3192:
2880:
2827:
2311:
1956:
1929:
1919:
1377:
1357:
1220:
1091:
975:
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890:
870:
798:
778:
753:
748:
743:
654:
617:
590:
561:
556:
482:
131:
121:
6975:
6215:"Militarization fails to enhance police safety or reduce crime but may harm police reputation"
5669:
5550:
4058:
2875:, that in the since the Civil Rights Era, the United States has now switched to a new form of
7351:
6513:
5677:
4659:
4646:
3874:"The Fight Over Andrew Johnson's Impeachment Was a Fight for the Future of the United States"
3061:
3056:
2146:, with racial inequality between White affluent suburbs and poor minorities in inner-cities.
1924:
1884:
1817:
1706:
1654:
1573:
1322:
1086:
985:
960:
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935:
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865:
813:
773:
679:
649:
539:
141:
6657:"New Data Shows Police Use More Force Against Black Citizens Even Though Whites Resist More"
6499:
5423:
https://evictioninnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Richmond-GeographiesofEviction.pdf
4171:
3696:
6895:
From Inherent Racial Bias to Incorrect Data—The Problems With Current Credit Scoring Models
6635:
6336:
6131:
4396:
3096:
2346:
2334:
2066:. These can also be seen as a result of historic oppression, inequality of inheritance, or
1795:
1307:
1181:
1000:
880:
838:
788:
763:
571:
534:
262:
116:
2678:
Several theories have been offered to explain the large racial gap in unemployment rates:
8:
7692:
7296:
6559:
6495:
6188:
4222:"The U.S. finally has better maternal mortality data. Can it now help save more mothers?"
3697:"Financial Education and the Saving Behavior of African American and Hispanic Households"
3506:
3496:"The Roots of the Widening Racial Wealth Gap: Explaining the Black-White Economic Divide"
3245:
3153:
2575:
2187:
1971:
1832:
1451:
1347:
1327:
1116:
1024:
970:
950:
915:
808:
595:
392:
6340:
6135:
5190:
Andrews, Rodney; Casey, Marcus; Hardy, Bradley L.; Logan, Trevon D. (1 September 2017).
4400:
2547:
experience the shortest length of poverty spells when compared to Blacks and Hispanics.
7556:
7528:
7233:
7208:
7151:
6746:
6721:
6592:
6541:
6477:
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6324:
6249:
6214:
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6056:
6023:
5754:
5592:
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5298:
5167:
5150:
5084:
4849:
4841:
4806:
4771:
4589:
4554:
4546:
4427:
4385:
4361:
4326:
4191:
4107:
4013:
3978:
3908:
3833:
3361:
3185:
2872:
2350:
2256:
1736:
1731:
1721:
1669:
1659:
1634:
1568:
1526:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1332:
607:
7090:
http://www.woodstockinst.org/sites/default/files/attachments/bridgingthegapcreditscore
6951:
5641:
Police Use of Force: Important Issues Facing the Police and the Communities They Serve
4759:
3000:
2007 report found significant racial disparities in 300,000 credit files matched with
7249:
7238:
7209:"Racial residential segregation: a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health"
7155:
6820:
6812:
6751:
6690:
6596:
6584:
6545:
6533:
6525:
6452:
6433:
6415:
6372:
6354:
6305:
6300:
6254:
6236:
6167:
6149:
6100:
6061:
6043:
5854:
5818:
5665:
5644:
5606:
5554:
5543:
5302:
5288:
5255:
5211:
5172:
5131:
5123:
5076:
5068:
5029:
4994:
4953:
4810:
4763:
4708:
4701:
4664:
4558:
4432:
4414:
4366:
4348:
4195:
4099:
4054:
3982:
3936:
3912:
3837:
3740:
3591:
3564:
3321:
3196:
3113:
3021:
2969:
2928:
2792:
2200:
2059:
2055:
2003:
1914:
1842:
1827:
1610:
1553:
1352:
1260:
1151:
1071:
900:
171:
6392:"Officer characteristics and racial disparities in fatal officer-involved shootings"
5758:
5377:
5119:
5088:
4853:
4111:
4017:
3425:
2081:
There are vast differences in wealth across racial groups in the United States. The
7884:
7228:
7220:
7143:
7052:
7010:
6804:
6741:
6733:
6574:
6517:
6444:
6423:
6405:
6362:
6344:
6295:
6285:
6244:
6226:
6157:
6139:
6092:
6051:
6035:
5850:
5781:
5773:
5746:
5664:
SpearIt (2 April 2015). "How Mass Incarceration Underdevelops Latino Communities".
5588:
5365:
5280:
5245:
5203:
5162:
5115:
5060:
5021:
4984:
4943:
4833:
4798:
4775:
4755:
4581:
4538:
4485:
4422:
4404:
4356:
4338:
4183:
4091:
4044:
4033:"The Political Economy of Education, Financial Literacy, and the Racial Wealth Gap"
4005:
3970:
3900:
3825:
3773:
3664:
3634:"Wealth Gaps Rise to Record Highs Between Whites, Blacks, Hispanics: Twenty-to-One"
3353:
3268:
3107:
3017:
2953:
2567:
2373:
2310:
from white owners to the people formerly forced to work it was attempted under the
1966:
1951:
1879:
1800:
1770:
1585:
1421:
1121:
669:
664:
502:
387:
7103:
http://files.consumerfinance.gov/f/201209_Analysis_Differences_Consumer_Credit.pdf
5207:
4899:
Stuck in Place: Urban Neighborhoods and the End of Progress Toward Racial Equality
2795:
were seven times more likely to be falsely convicted compared to White Americans.
2092:, African Americans were treated as property. After the American Civil War, Black
7065:
https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/reports/credit-based-insurance5
6963:
6938:
6868:
6683:"Minneapolis Police Use Force Against Black People at 7 Times the Rate of Whites"
6349:
6144:
6079:
Nix, Justin; Campbell, Bradley A.; Byers, Edward H.; Alpert, Geoffrey P. (2017).
5731:
5636:
5429:
4650:
3930:
3734:
3043:
2571:
2345:
While free African Americans owned around $ 50 million by 1860, farm tenancy and
2338:
2266:
on the long-term consequences of discriminatory lending practices found that the
1981:
1889:
1785:
1726:
1578:
1563:
1543:
1508:
1215:
1126:
1061:
843:
793:
566:
412:
6607:
5356:
Desmond, Matthew (July 2012). "Eviction and the Reproduction of Urban Poverty".
5192:"Location matters: Historical racial segregation and intergenerational mobility"
3458:
Combating Poverty and Inequality: Structural Change, Social Policy, and Politics
7485:
7306:
7078:
http://www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/rptcongress/creditscore/creditscore.pdf
7006:
6397:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6039:
5786:
5384:
4516:
Urban Housing Segregation of Minorities in Western Europe and the United States
4409:
3778:
3761:
3491:
3382:
2319:
2075:
1976:
1934:
1904:
1894:
1812:
1805:
1790:
1780:
1600:
1536:
1478:
1473:
1458:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1111:
1046:
544:
517:
357:
41:
7147:
6976:
Report to the 79th Legislature--Use of Credit Information by Insurers in Texas
6537:
5250:
5233:
4948:
4931:
4802:
4343:
4009:
3904:
3829:
7924:
6816:
6694:
6588:
6529:
6419:
6358:
6309:
6290:
6273:
6240:
6153:
6104:
6047:
5259:
5215:
5176:
5127:
5072:
5033:
4998:
4957:
4418:
4352:
4187:
3266:
3066:
3004:
records with African American scores being half that of white, non-Hispanics.
2888:
2850:
2362:
2096:
became trapped in debt. African Americans were rarely able to homestead. The
2093:
1988:
1595:
1531:
1516:
1372:
1337:
1317:
1188:
1131:
1066:
434:
337:
7224:
6808:
6448:
6410:
6231:
6096:
4837:
3669:
3220:"Why the racial wealth gap persists, more than 150 years after emancipation"
2863:
is Black but they are subjected to nearly 60% of total police use of force.
2149:
Criminal records lead to employment and income struggles. Inability to make
7242:
6859:
6824:
6755:
6626:
6456:
6437:
6376:
6258:
6171:
6065:
5234:"The Geography of Inequality: How Land Use Regulation Produces Segregation"
5135:
5080:
4767:
4654:
4436:
4370:
4327:"Contributors to Wisconsin's persistent black-white gap in life expectancy"
4272:"Infant Mortality | Maternal and Infant Health | Reproductive Health | CDC"
4103:
3795:
Impact of the US Housing Crisis on the Racial Wealth Gap Across Generations
2855:
2587:
2210:
2143:
1822:
1701:
1521:
1488:
1468:
1392:
1382:
1362:
1342:
965:
858:
853:
576:
551:
402:
342:
307:
277:
6466:. If this is an intentional citation to a retracted paper, please replace
5774:"The Racialized Consequences of Jail Incarceration on Local Labor Markets"
5284:
5048:
5025:
4095:
4049:
4032:
3736:
Being Black, Living in the Red: Race, Wealth, and Social Policy in America
3269:"Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States:2009"
2859:
less likely to resist arrest than Whites. Around 20% of the population of
7513:
7475:
4585:
3037:
3033:
2860:
2823:
2397:
2307:
2295:
2112:
1716:
1676:
1644:
1503:
1463:
1297:
1210:
1161:
1136:
1036:
711:
424:
407:
362:
282:
5513:
4989:
4972:
4386:"Contributors to the black-white life expectancy gap in Washington D.C."
4247:"Infant Mortality and African Americans – The Office of Minority Health"
7879:
7800:
7795:
6737:
6272:
Ross, Cody T.; Winterhalder, Bruce; McElreath, Richard (18 June 2020).
5276:
Segregation by Design: Local Politics and Inequality in American Cities
4845:
4593:
4550:
3609:
Housing Discrimination and Residential Segregation as Causes of Poverty
3490:
3365:
2196:
2131:
2108:
1998:
1993:
1874:
1869:
1765:
1741:
1590:
1483:
1441:
1397:
1205:
1193:
1166:
1156:
1076:
451:
446:
417:
352:
193:
6932:
http://www.housingfinance.org/uploads/Publicationsmanager/9706_Aut.pdf
5151:"Racial residential segregation and black low birth weight, 1970–2010"
2270:
will likely widen the Black-white wealth gap for the next generation.
2107:
disproportionately affected African Americans. Savings were spent for
7869:
7040:
https://www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/bulletin/2004/summer04_credit.pdf
5450:"Discrimination in Eviction: Empirical Evidence and Legal Challenges"
3138:
3025:
2071:
1899:
1847:
1548:
1141:
227:
6770:"Remembering Katrina: Wide racial divide over government's response"
6500:"An Empirical Analysis of Racial Differences in Police Use of Force"
5841:
Risse, Mathias; Richard Zechauser (April 2004). "Racial Profiling".
3357:
2566:
Housing segregation in the United States is the practice of denying
2471:
in comparison to 4% of white Americans and 3% of African Americans.
6579:
6521:
5750:
5443:
5441:
5439:
5437:
5369:
5351:
5349:
5064:
4824:
Cutler, David; Glaeser, Edward (1997). "Are Ghettos Good or Bad?".
4542:
3974:
2779:
disproportionately high incarceration rates of Blacks and Hispanics
2460:
1864:
1686:
1605:
1250:
1176:
1081:
1041:
382:
377:
372:
297:
292:
237:
6840:"Credit scores in America perpetuate racial injustice. Here's how"
6564:
An Empirical Analysis of Racial Differences in Police Use of Force
3560:
Black Wealth, White Wealth: a New Perspective on Racial Inequality
2964:
Numerous studies have found racial disparities in credit scoring:
7818:
7116:
Credit scores are supposed to be race-neutral. That's impossible.
6722:"Disparity in disaster preparedness between racial/ethnic groups"
5316:
2946:
Criticism of credit scoring systems in the United States § Racism
2529:
poverty that are nearly double the rates of non-Hispanic whites.
2154:
302:
198:
178:
151:
126:
49:
5491:"For Most College Students, Affirmative Action Was Never Enough"
5434:
5346:
4660:
American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass
2387:
6569:(Report). NBER Working Papers (Revised January 2018 ed.).
5049:"Segregation, Racial Structure, and Neighborhood Violent Crime"
5047:
Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D.; Kuhl, Danielle C. (2009).
4451:"Obesity and African Americans – The Office of Minority Health"
3267:
DeNavas-Wait, Carmen; Bernadette D. Proctor; Jessica C. Smith.
2876:
2218:
2214:
Median household income along ethnic lines in the United States
2127:
2067:
1302:
287:
183:
161:
156:
106:
5867:
4384:
Roberts, Max; Reither, Eric N.; Lim, Sojung (27 August 2020).
4325:
Roberts, Max T.; Reither, Eric N.; Lim, Sojung (5 July 2019).
3412:
5448:
Deena, Greenberg; Gershenson, Carl; Desmond, Matthew (2016).
3655:
Aliprantis, Dionissi; Carroll, Daniel R. (28 February 2019).
2594:
1312:
111:
6864:"Credit Scores Could Soon Get Even Creepier and More Biased"
5961:"Philando Castile shooting: Dashcam video shows rapid event"
4630:
Where We Live Now: Immigration and Race in the United States
3632:
Kochhar, Rakesh; Fry, Richard; Taylor, Paul (26 July 2011).
2837:
Black Americans are 2–3 times more likely to be killed in a
6794:
5936:"The Long, Painful History of Police Brutality in the U.S."
5503:
Data as of 2021. Data source: U.S. Department of Education.
5323:
4514:
Huttman, Elizabeth D.; Blauw, Wim; Saltman, Juliet (1991).
3383:"Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey"
2150:
1946:
1775:
7016:
Hitting the Wall: Credit As an Impediment to Homeownership
5149:
Niemesh, Gregory T.; Shester, Katharine L. (1 July 2020).
4703:
Race, ethnicity, and minority housing in the United States
3935:. Baltimore Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
3657:"What Is Behind the Persistence of the Racial Wealth Gap?"
3460:. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development
3377:
3375:
2608:
Eviction in the United States § Black and Hispanic renters
6271:
6081:"A Bird's Eye View of Civilians Killed by Police in 2015"
6021:
5815:
Rethinking the Color Line: Readings in Race and Ethnicity
5637:"Racial Profiling: The Intersection of Race and Policing"
5599:
4971:
Cook, Lisa D.; Logan, Trevon D.; Parman, John M. (2018).
4479:
4477:
4475:
4473:
4471:
3260:
2895:
Abstract liberalism uses ideas associated with political
6389:
6118:
Schwartz, Gabriel L.; Jahn, Jaquelyn L. (24 June 2020).
3739:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
2455:
Criticism of credit scoring systems in the United States
6882:
How Algorithms Can Bring Down Minorities' Credit Scores
3584:
Danzinger, Shelton H. (2001). Robert H. Haveman (ed.).
3556:
3372:
3246:"A Tale of Two Debtors: Bankruptcy Disparities by Race"
2681:
2337:
was created as part of the War Department by President
7279:
7025:
Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University
6601:
6078:
5840:
5447:
5189:
4468:
3590:. New York: Russel Sage Foundation. pp. 359–391.
2754:
with relatively high proportions of Black residents.
2328:
Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
5102:
Logan, Trevon D.; Parman, John M. (1 February 2018).
4871:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 173–187.
4131:
3851:
3552:
3550:
6681:
Oppel, Richard A. Jr.; Gamio, Lazaro (3 June 2020).
4486:"Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: 2004-2006 Poverty"
3413:
Sabol, William J.; Heather C. West; Matthew Cooper.
2736:
6952:
http://market360online.com/sqlimages/1261/36693.pdf
6624:from the original on 31 October 2020; published in
5999:Fagan, Jeffrey; Campbell, Alexis (1 January 2020).
5834:
5489:Arum, Richard; Stevens, Mitchell L. (3 July 2023).
4513:
3871:
3320:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 2–29.
2273:The racial wealth gap essentially is composed of a
7005:
5870:Race and Wrongful Convictions in the United States
5765:
5542:
5540:
4882:Danzinger, Sheldon H.; Haveman, Robert H. (2001).
4700:
4612:Housing Segregation in Suburban America since 1960
3547:
3184:
3030:The Center for Critical Race & Digital Studies
7171:Alternative Data and the Future of Credit Scoring
6613:
5986:"74 Seconds: The trial of officer Jeronimo Yanez"
5704:Bowdler, Janis; Harris, Benjamin (21 July 2022).
5046:
4901:. The University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–23.
4383:
4324:
3654:
3343:
2728:Race in the United States criminal justice system
2593:White communities are more likely to have strict
1910:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
7922:
7167:
7053:https://www.ciaonet.org/attachments/2800/uploads
5482:
4881:
4745:
4688:. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.
3631:
2717:
2590:. Segregation reduced upward economic mobility.
2250:. The Pew Research Center found that plummeting
7206:
6219:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
5643:. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press. pp. 83–84.
5457:Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review
5104:"Segregation and mortality over time and space"
4970:
4912:Tighe, J. Rosie; Mueller, Elizabeth J. (2013).
4528:
4150:
3494:; Tatjana Meschede; Sam Osoro (February 2013).
3309:
3307:
3305:
3303:
3301:
3299:
3297:
3295:
3293:
3207:the hidden cost of being african american isbn.
2624:Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review
2288:1808 abolition of the transatlantic slave trade
1554:Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
7133:
6964:https://insurance.mo.gov/reports/credscore.pdf
5148:
4932:"The National Rise in Residential Segregation"
4641:
4639:
3627:
3625:
3623:
3621:
3619:
3617:
3530:"Can Baby Bonds Shrink the Racial Wealth Gap?"
2538:poverty when compared to non-Hispanic whites.
2290:, Africans would be captured and brought into
2237:Conley believes that the cause of Black-White
2126:shut out African Americans by giving loans to
1030:SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups
7265:
5998:
5703:
5549:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp.
4823:
4663:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993,
3872:Annette Gordon-Reed (January–February 2018).
3557:Oliver, Melvin L.; Thomas M. Shapiro (2006).
3313:
2871:It is hypothesized by some scholars, such as
2388:Inheritance and parental financial assistance
2138:caused unequal living standards and poverty.
2035:
6858:
6278:Social Psychological and Personality Science
6117:
6001:"Race and Reasonableness in Police Killings"
5607:"USA QuickFacts from the U.S. Census Bureau"
4916:. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 289–291.
4911:
4571:
4302:"The Racial Life Expectancy Gap in the U.S."
4071:
3960:
3759:
3424:. U.S. Department of Justice. Archived from
3290:
3144:Reparations for slavery in the United States
2448:
6383:
5581:American Journal of Economics and Sociology
5488:
5101:
5011:
4929:
4636:
4518:. Durham and London: Duke University Press.
3614:
3486:
3484:
3451:"Tackling Ethnic and Regional Inequalities"
3339:
3337:
3119:Racial achievement gap in the United States
3102:Native Americans and reservation inequality
2777:activity." Another potential cause for the
2644:Racial achievement gap in the United States
2638:Educational inequality in the United States
2062:and advantages and disparities that affect
1246:List of people killed for being transgender
7272:
7258:
7187:
6680:
6488:
6480:|...|intentional=yes}}
5272:
5231:
4973:"Racial Segregation and Southern Lynching"
4930:Logan, Trevon D.; Parman, John M. (2017).
4134:Journal of Financial Service Professionals
3690:
3688:
3686:
3684:
3682:
3680:
2699:
2541:
2192:differences in wealth across racial groups
2042:
2028:
7232:
6745:
6578:
6427:
6409:
6366:
6348:
6299:
6289:
6248:
6230:
6161:
6143:
6055:
5817:. Boston: McGraw-Hill. pp. 192–203.
5812:
5808:
5806:
5804:
5785:
5630:
5628:
5574:
5572:
5570:
5536:
5534:
5249:
5166:
4988:
4947:
4788:
4426:
4408:
4360:
4342:
4085:
4048:
3777:
3728:
3726:
3724:
3722:
3720:
3668:
3583:
3187:The Hidden Cost of Being African American
3178:
3176:
3174:
2922:Environmental racism in the United States
2673:
7931:Economic inequality in the United States
5706:"Racial Inequality in the United States"
4127:
4125:
4123:
4121:
4030:
3956:
3954:
3952:
3924:
3922:
3760:Bowles, Samuel; Gintis, Herbert (2002).
3481:
3334:
2747:consequences of having a criminal record
2647:
2562:Housing segregation in the United States
2478:
2278:had the highest poverty rate at 27.4%”.
2209:
318:Social determinants of health in poverty
6552:
6212:
5933:
5910:"Police brutality in the United States"
5663:
5355:
4896:
4627:
3995:
3694:
3677:
3527:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3243:
3182:
3124:Racial segregation in the United States
14:
7923:
7834:Family responsibilities discrimination
6837:
6719:
6715:
6713:
6711:
6654:
5801:
5771:
5634:
5625:
5578:
5567:
5531:
5393:"America's Insidious Eviction Problem"
5227:
5225:
4925:
4923:
4866:
4698:
4683:
4679:
4677:
4623:
4621:
4605:
4603:
4295:
4293:
4144:
3890:
3884:
3815:
3753:
3732:
3717:
3577:
3422:Bureau of Justice Statistics: Bulletin
3171:
3149:Sociology of race and ethnic relations
3072:Gender inequality in the United States
2927:their Caucasian counterparts. "During
2745:After being released from prison, the
2555:
2520:episodic poverty and chronic poverty.
2430:
7253:
6558:
6494:
6183:
6181:
5904:
5902:
5729:
5723:
5390:
4726:
4724:
4118:
4065:
3949:
3928:
3919:
3792:Sarah Burd-Sharps and Rebecca Rasch.
3704:Report for the US Department of Labor
3563:. New York: Routledge. pp. 2–7.
3509:Institute on Assets and Social Policy
3443:
2866:
2849:concluded that there was evidence of
2813:Police brutality in the United States
2798:
2708:
2664:
18:Racial injustice in the United States
6571:National Bureau of Economic Research
6322:
6213:Mummolo, Jonathan (20 August 2018).
5403:from the original on 12 October 2018
5334:from the original on 21 October 2022
5155:Regional Science and Urban Economics
4886:. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
4730:
4647:The Continuing Causes of Segregation
4609:
4483:
4169:
4163:
3401:
3129:Racial wage gap in the United States
3036:that serve the community instead of
2915:
2682:Segregation and job decentralization
2498:Social determinants of mental health
2494:Race and health in the United States
2418:Racial wage gap in the United States
2292:the United States as enslaved people
2181:
1052:Capital punishment for homosexuality
323:Social determinants of mental health
6708:
5222:
4920:
4905:
4890:
4674:
4618:
4600:
4565:
4522:
4299:
4290:
4031:Hamilton, Darrick (February 2017).
3932:Inheritance in Contemporary America
3389:. United States Department of Labor
2806:
2771:
2757:
2724:Race and crime in the United States
2523:
2165:lead to differences between races.
1172:Genital modification and mutilation
24:
7281:Social issues in the United States
6193:American Psychological Association
6178:
5899:
5639:. In Palmiotto, Michael J. (ed.).
5593:10.1111/j.1536-7150.1987.tb01949.x
5545:Race, Poverty, and Domestic Policy
5391:White, Gillian B. (1 April 2016).
5168:10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2020.103542
4875:
4869:Race, Poverty, and Domestic Policy
4860:
4826:The Quarterly Journal of Economics
4817:
4782:
4721:
4692:
4507:
4153:Harvard Journal of Hispanic Policy
2532:
2100:failed, losing many Black assets.
25:
7952:
7941:Social class in the United States
7207:Williams, DR; Collins, C (2001).
7119:, 16 October 2020, archived from
6838:Ludwig, Sarah (13 October 2015),
6323:Ross, Cody T. (5 November 2015).
5958:
5877:National Registry of Exonerations
5739:The American Journal of Sociology
5501:from the original on 3 July 2023.
5470:from the original on 30 June 2024
5238:American Political Science Review
4760:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.04.013
4632:. University of California Press.
4176:Review of Black Political Economy
3893:Journal of Family Economic Issues
2789:National Registry of Exonerations
2737:Consequences of a criminal record
2411:
2318:. This was reversed by President
2304:teaching a slave to read or write
2176:University of Southern California
7844:Institutionalized discrimination
7181:
7168:Tamara K. Nopper (August 2020),
7107:
7095:
7082:
7070:
7057:
7045:
7032:
6999:
6968:
6956:
6944:
6924:
6886:
6875:
6788:
6762:
6674:
6648:
5855:10.1111/j.1088-4963.2004.00009.x
4684:Briggs, Xavier de Souza (2005).
3766:Journal of Economic Perspectives
3528:Szapiro, Aron (6 October 2020).
3278:. U.S. Census Bureau. p. 15
3244:Van Loo, Rory (1 January 2009).
3191:. New York: Oxford UP. pp.
3020:, and an increase in the use of
3018:debt collection default lawsuits
2944:This section is an excerpt from
2938:
2606:This section is an excerpt from
2251:
1665:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
1494:Law for Protection of the Nation
1388:White genocide conspiracy theory
48:
6316:
6265:
6206:
6189:"Policing in black & white"
6111:
6085:Criminology & Public Policy
6072:
6015:
5992:
5978:
5952:
5927:
5890:
5861:
5732:"The Mark of a Criminal Record"
5710:U.S. Department of the Treasury
5697:
5657:
5506:
5415:
5266:
5183:
5142:
5120:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.07.006
5095:
5040:
5005:
4964:
4936:The Journal of Economic History
4739:
4443:
4377:
4318:
4264:
4239:
4214:
4202:
4024:
3989:
3865:
3844:
3809:
3800:Social Science Research Council
3786:
3762:"The Inheritance of Inequality"
3648:
3521:
3472:
3314:Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo (2003).
2515:There are large differences in
1499:MSM blood donation restrictions
1241:LGBT grooming conspiracy theory
7197:, National Consumer Law Center
5813:Gallagher, Charles A. (2009).
3387:Bureau of Labor and Statistics
3237:
3212:
2714:further increases inequality.
2690:
2487:
2435:
2168:
2120:Federal Housing Administration
1512:(as religious or racial quota)
13:
1:
6984:Texas Department of Insurance
5843:Philosophy and Public Affairs
5358:American Journal of Sociology
5208:10.1016/j.econlet.2017.06.018
5108:Social Science & Medicine
5053:American Journal of Sociology
4914:The Affordable Housing Reader
4735:. Ashgate Publishing Company.
4614:. Cambridge University Press.
3963:American Journal of Sociology
3929:Angel, Jacqueline L. (2008).
3164:
2718:Crime rates and incarceration
2502:Social determinants of health
2372:was first created during the
2248:financial crisis of 2007–2008
1942:Second-generation gender bias
1650:Constitutional colorblindness
313:Social determinants of health
6505:Journal of Political Economy
6350:10.1371/journal.pone.0141854
6145:10.1371/journal.pone.0229686
6005:Boston University Law Review
5772:Thomas, Christopher (2022).
5273:Trounstine, Jessica (2018).
5232:Trounstine, Jessica (2020).
4686:The Geography of Opportunity
4531:Journal of Political Economy
3092:Japanese American internment
2762:
2631:
2230:
7:
7438:Water supply and sanitation
6937:September 14, 2016, at the
6655:Arthur, Rob (30 May 2019).
5829:... and the Poor Get Prison
5730:Pager, Devah (March 2003).
5635:Birzer, Michael L. (2016).
4731:Boal, Frederick W. (2000).
4699:Momeni, Jamshid A. (1986).
3695:Lusardi, Annamaria (2005).
3183:Shapiro, Thomas M. (2004).
3134:Racism in the United States
3050:
2600:
2349:replaced slavery after the
2205:Survey of Consumer Finances
1853:Medical model of disability
1697:Hate speech laws by country
10:
7957:
6987:(Report). 30 December 2004
6720:Bethel, Jeffrey W (2013).
6640:: CS1 maint: postscript (
6040:10.1007/s11524-020-00430-0
5787:10.21428/cb6ab371.128a98c0
4493:Household Economic Studies
4410:10.1038/s41598-020-70046-6
3852:"State of Working America"
3779:10.1257/089533002760278686
3276:Current Population Reports
2943:
2919:
2845:A 2020 study by Cody Ross
2810:
2721:
2641:
2635:
2605:
2559:
2550:
2510:
2491:
2452:
2415:
2326:until ratification of the
2281:
2111:instead of handed down as
1962:Social model of disability
368:Discrimination against men
7936:Race in the United States
7857:
7809:
7781:Films about social issues
7759:
7726:
7663:
7595:
7547:
7499:
7446:
7408:
7380:
7287:
7148:10.1080/03085140601089846
6301:21.11116/0000-0006-9525-8
5251:10.1017/S0003055419000844
4949:10.1017/S0022050717000079
4897:Sharkey, Patrick (2013).
4610:Lamb, Charles M. (2005).
4344:10.1186/s12889-019-7145-y
4209:The Wealth Gap In America
4010:10.1525/sop.2004.47.2.161
3998:Sociological Perspectives
3905:10.1007/s10834-010-9204-5
3830:10.1017/S0047279418000065
3503:Research and Policy Brief
3082:Indian Appropriations Act
2449:Use of financial services
2378:Federal Housing Authority
2275:private wealth management
1293:Opposition to immigration
162:Race / Ethnicity
7849:Religious discrimination
7188:Chi Chi Wu (June 2007),
7092:s_sept2010_smithduda.pdf
6291:10.1177/1948550620916071
5014:American Economic Review
4867:Massey, Douglas (2004).
4188:10.1177/0034644620938620
3818:Journal of Social Policy
2995:Federal Trade Commission
2851:bias in police shootings
2784:Wichita State University
2382:Veteran's Administration
2357:After the Civil War the
2316:William Tecumseh Sherman
2314:policy of Union General
2244:subprime mortgage crisis
2142:greatly relies on local
2124:Veteran's Administration
1288:Occupational segregation
1057:Compulsory sterilization
7395:Higher education bubble
6809:10.1111/1467-7717.00111
6449:10.1073/pnas.2014148117
6411:10.1073/pnas.1903856116
6232:10.1073/pnas.1805161115
6097:10.1111/1745-9133.12269
6028:Journal of Urban Health
5914:Encyclopedia Britannica
4838:10.1162/003355397555361
4803:10.1023/A:1015772503007
3733:Conley, Dalton (2010).
3670:10.26509/frbc-ec-201903
3159:The Whiteness of Wealth
3087:Inequality in Hollywood
3077:Immigration Act of 1924
2700:Job skill differentials
2583:residential segregation
2542:Length of poverty spell
2098:Freedman's Savings Bank
1838:Internalized oppression
1692:Fighting Discrimination
1682:Fat acceptance movement
1640:Anti-discrimination law
1266:Native American mascots
7839:Housing discrimination
7645:Racial achievement gap
7390:Educational inequality
5685:Cite journal requires
5514:"EdBuild | 23 Billion"
4977:Social Science History
4628:Iceland, John (2009).
4455:minorityhealth.hhs.gov
4251:minorityhealth.hhs.gov
4170:Long, Melanie (2020).
3346:Sociology of Education
2828:1992 Los Angeles riots
2674:Potential explanations
2670:Hispanics and Blacks.
2653:
2312:forty acres and a mule
2308:Redistribution of land
2298:in some states banned
2215:
2054:In the United States,
1957:Social identity threat
1930:Reverse discrimination
1920:Racial color blindness
1378:Violence against women
1358:Sex-selective abortion
7225:10.1093/phr/116.5.404
6560:Fryer, Roland Gerhard
6514:University of Chicago
6496:Fryer, Roland Gerhard
6472:|...}}
6443:(Retracted, see
5285:10.1017/9781108555722
5026:10.1257/aer.p20171081
4884:Understanding Poverty
4733:Ethnicity and Housing
4211:(KERA Think! Podcast)
4096:10.1353/dem.2004.0023
4050:10.20955/r.2017.59-76
3636:. Pew Research Center
3587:Understanding Poverty
3062:Chinese Exclusion Act
3057:Civil rights movement
3042:A related concept of
2651:
2479:Aid to family members
2213:
2074:, especially against
1925:Religious intolerance
1885:Political correctness
1707:Intersex human rights
1655:Cultural assimilation
1323:Religious persecution
1087:Disability hate crime
854:Jewish / Antisemitism
7829:Caste discrimination
7630:Mass racial violence
7620:Interminority racism
7615:Environmental racism
5934:Nodjimbadem, Katie.
5613:. U.S. Census Bureau
4495:. U.S. Census Bureau
3878:Smithsonian Magazine
3824:(4, 2018): 683–700.
3097:Mexican Repatriation
2595:land use regulations
2398:inter vivo transfers
2262:commissioned by the
1308:Political repression
273:Anti-left handedness
263:Anti-intellectualism
7693:Prison overcrowding
7683:Illegal immigration
7372:Widening income gap
7297:Abusive supervision
7177:, Data For Progress
7136:Economy and Society
6774:Pew Research Center
6404:(32): 15877–15882.
6341:2015PLoSO..1041854R
6136:2020PLoSO..1529686S
4990:10.1017/ssh.2018.21
4707:. Greenwood Press.
4484:Anderson, Robin J.
4401:2020NatSR..1013416R
4300:Carlson, Rosemary.
4278:. 10 September 2020
3661:Economic Commentary
3507:Brandeis University
3415:"Prisoners in 2008"
3224:The Washington Post
3154:Tulsa race massacre
2556:Housing segregation
2431:Financial decisions
2300:education of slaves
2188:Brandeis University
2136:Housing segregation
1833:Historical eugenics
1348:Segregation academy
1328:Religious terrorism
1117:Enemy of the people
1025:Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
513:Jehovah's Witnesses
393:Perpetual foreigner
7824:Age discrimination
7529:Child prostitution
7347:Standard of living
7123:on 18 October 2020
7009:; Calem, Paul S.;
7007:Bostic, Raphael W.
6898:, 26 February 2021
6738:10.4161/dish.27085
6687:The New York Times
5495:The New York Times
5428:2022-10-24 at the
5324:"The Eviction Lab"
5279:. Cambridge Core.
4586:10.1093/sf/65.1.28
4389:Scientific Reports
3034:public-owned banks
2993:2007 study by the
2873:Michelle Alexander
2867:Color-blind racism
2799:Racial segregation
2709:Other explanations
2665:Unemployment rates
2654:
2368:In addition, when
2351:American Civil War
2330:in December 1865.
2257:Measure of America
2216:
2159:Racial segregation
1737:Social integration
1732:Self-determination
1722:Racial integration
1670:Diversity training
1660:Cultural pluralism
1635:Affirmative action
1527:Racial segregation
1437:Crime of apartheid
1333:Religious violence
818:Indigenous people
189:Sexual orientation
7918:
7917:
7786:Freedom of speech
7678:Human trafficking
7610:African Americans
7602:racial inequality
7534:Child trafficking
7461:Domestic violence
7428:Natural disasters
7312:Farmers' suicides
7213:Public Health Rep
7013:(February 2004).
7011:Wachter, Susan M.
6225:(37): 9181–9186.
5896:Williams, Collins
5824:978-0-07-340427-1
5650:978-1-4987-3214-7
5560:978-0-300-12984-7
5196:Economics Letters
4669:978-0-6740-1821-1
4331:BMC Public Health
3597:978-0-674-00876-2
3570:978-0-415-95167-8
3327:978-0-7425-1633-5
3250:Albany Law Review
3202:978-0-19-518138-8
3114:Operation Wetback
3044:insurance scoring
3022:predatory lenders
2970:African-Americans
2968:1996 study found
2929:Hurricane Katrina
2916:Natural disasters
2793:African Americans
2578:housing program.
2335:Freedmen's Bureau
2239:wealth inequality
2182:Racial wealth gap
2060:social inequality
2056:racial inequality
2052:
2051:
1915:Racism by country
1843:Intersectionality
1828:Heteronormativity
1611:Voter suppression
1353:Sexual harassment
1152:Forced conversion
1072:Cultural genocide
717:African Americans
523:post–Cold War era
508:Eastern Orthodoxy
258:Anti-drug addicts
253:Anti-homelessness
172:Scientific racism
16:(Redirected from
7948:
7910:Police brutality
7885:Political apathy
7650:Racial profiling
7635:Native Americans
7274:
7267:
7260:
7251:
7250:
7246:
7236:
7199:
7198:
7196:
7185:
7179:
7178:
7176:
7165:
7159:
7158:
7131:
7125:
7124:
7111:
7105:
7099:
7093:
7086:
7080:
7074:
7068:
7061:
7055:
7049:
7043:
7036:
7030:
7029:
7021:
7003:
6997:
6996:
6994:
6992:
6980:
6972:
6966:
6960:
6954:
6948:
6942:
6928:
6922:
6921:
6919:
6909:
6900:
6899:
6890:
6884:
6879:
6873:
6872:
6862:(13 June 2019),
6856:
6847:
6846:
6835:
6829:
6828:
6792:
6786:
6785:
6783:
6781:
6776:. 27 August 2015
6766:
6760:
6759:
6749:
6717:
6706:
6705:
6703:
6701:
6678:
6672:
6671:
6669:
6667:
6652:
6646:
6645:
6639:
6631:
6623:
6615:
6609:
6603:
6582:
6568:
6556:
6550:
6549:
6492:
6486:
6485:
6483:
6481:
6473:
6462:Retraction Watch
6441:
6431:
6413:
6387:
6381:
6380:
6370:
6352:
6335:(11): e0141854.
6320:
6314:
6313:
6303:
6293:
6269:
6263:
6262:
6252:
6234:
6210:
6204:
6203:
6201:
6199:
6185:
6176:
6175:
6165:
6147:
6115:
6109:
6108:
6076:
6070:
6069:
6059:
6019:
6013:
6012:
5996:
5990:
5989:
5982:
5976:
5975:
5973:
5971:
5956:
5950:
5949:
5947:
5945:
5931:
5925:
5924:
5922:
5920:
5906:
5897:
5894:
5888:
5887:
5885:
5883:
5874:
5865:
5859:
5858:
5838:
5832:
5831:
5810:
5799:
5798:
5796:
5794:
5789:
5778:Race and Justice
5769:
5763:
5762:
5736:
5727:
5721:
5720:
5718:
5716:
5701:
5695:
5694:
5688:
5683:
5681:
5673:
5661:
5655:
5654:
5632:
5623:
5622:
5620:
5618:
5603:
5597:
5596:
5576:
5565:
5564:
5548:
5538:
5529:
5528:
5526:
5524:
5510:
5504:
5502:
5486:
5480:
5479:
5477:
5475:
5469:
5454:
5445:
5432:
5419:
5413:
5412:
5410:
5408:
5388:
5382:
5381:
5353:
5344:
5343:
5341:
5339:
5320:
5314:
5313:
5311:
5309:
5270:
5264:
5263:
5253:
5229:
5220:
5219:
5187:
5181:
5180:
5170:
5146:
5140:
5139:
5099:
5093:
5092:
5059:(6): 1765–1802.
5044:
5038:
5037:
5009:
5003:
5002:
4992:
4968:
4962:
4961:
4951:
4927:
4918:
4917:
4909:
4903:
4902:
4894:
4888:
4887:
4879:
4873:
4872:
4864:
4858:
4857:
4821:
4815:
4814:
4786:
4780:
4779:
4748:Health and Place
4743:
4737:
4736:
4728:
4719:
4718:
4706:
4696:
4690:
4689:
4681:
4672:
4643:
4634:
4633:
4625:
4616:
4615:
4607:
4598:
4597:
4569:
4563:
4562:
4526:
4520:
4519:
4511:
4505:
4504:
4502:
4500:
4490:
4481:
4466:
4465:
4463:
4461:
4447:
4441:
4440:
4430:
4412:
4381:
4375:
4374:
4364:
4346:
4322:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4311:
4297:
4288:
4287:
4285:
4283:
4268:
4262:
4261:
4259:
4257:
4243:
4237:
4236:
4234:
4232:
4218:
4212:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4167:
4161:
4160:
4148:
4142:
4141:
4129:
4116:
4115:
4089:
4069:
4063:
4062:
4052:
4028:
4022:
4021:
3993:
3987:
3986:
3969:(5): 1300–1346.
3958:
3947:
3946:
3926:
3917:
3916:
3888:
3882:
3881:
3869:
3863:
3862:
3860:
3858:
3848:
3842:
3841:
3813:
3807:
3790:
3784:
3783:
3781:
3757:
3751:
3750:
3730:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3710:
3701:
3692:
3675:
3674:
3672:
3663:(2019–03): 1–6.
3652:
3646:
3645:
3643:
3641:
3629:
3612:
3611:
3606:
3604:
3581:
3575:
3574:
3554:
3545:
3544:
3542:
3540:
3525:
3519:
3518:
3516:
3514:
3500:
3488:
3479:
3476:
3470:
3469:
3467:
3465:
3455:
3447:
3441:
3440:
3438:
3436:
3430:
3419:
3410:
3399:
3398:
3396:
3394:
3379:
3370:
3369:
3341:
3332:
3331:
3311:
3288:
3287:
3285:
3283:
3273:
3264:
3258:
3257:
3241:
3235:
3234:
3232:
3230:
3216:
3210:
3209:
3190:
3180:
3108:The New Jim Crow
2961:opportunities".
2954:African American
2934:
2832:Philando Castile
2807:Police brutality
2772:Racial profiling
2758:Potential causes
2568:African American
2524:Episodic poverty
2374:Great Depression
2268:financial crisis
2163:racial profiling
2140:Public education
2103:Exclusions from
2044:
2037:
2030:
1967:Social privilege
1952:Social exclusion
1880:Police brutality
1801:Multiculturalism
1771:Amatonormativity
1586:Social exclusion
1422:Age of candidacy
1216:Homeless dumping
1122:Ethnic cleansing
52:
29:
28:
21:
7956:
7955:
7951:
7950:
7949:
7947:
7946:
7945:
7921:
7920:
7919:
7914:
7853:
7805:
7755:
7722:
7688:Organized crime
7659:
7655:Racial wage gap
7640:Race and health
7600:
7591:
7572:Menstrual taboo
7543:
7539:Street children
7495:
7471:Family planning
7466:Extended family
7442:
7404:
7376:
7283:
7278:
7203:
7202:
7194:
7186:
7182:
7174:
7166:
7162:
7132:
7128:
7113:
7112:
7108:
7100:
7096:
7087:
7083:
7075:
7071:
7062:
7058:
7050:
7046:
7037:
7033:
7019:
7004:
7000:
6990:
6988:
6978:
6974:
6973:
6969:
6961:
6957:
6949:
6945:
6939:Wayback Machine
6929:
6925:
6917:
6911:
6910:
6903:
6892:
6891:
6887:
6880:
6876:
6857:
6850:
6836:
6832:
6793:
6789:
6779:
6777:
6768:
6767:
6763:
6726:Disaster Health
6718:
6709:
6699:
6697:
6679:
6675:
6665:
6663:
6653:
6649:
6633:
6632:
6621:
6566:
6557:
6553:
6493:
6489:
6475:
6467:
6465:
6442:
6388:
6384:
6321:
6317:
6270:
6266:
6211:
6207:
6197:
6195:
6187:
6186:
6179:
6130:(6): e0229686.
6116:
6112:
6077:
6073:
6020:
6016:
5997:
5993:
5984:
5983:
5979:
5969:
5967:
5957:
5953:
5943:
5941:
5932:
5928:
5918:
5916:
5908:
5907:
5900:
5895:
5891:
5881:
5879:
5872:
5866:
5862:
5839:
5835:
5825:
5811:
5802:
5792:
5790:
5770:
5766:
5734:
5728:
5724:
5714:
5712:
5702:
5698:
5686:
5684:
5675:
5674:
5662:
5658:
5651:
5633:
5626:
5616:
5614:
5605:
5604:
5600:
5577:
5568:
5561:
5539:
5532:
5522:
5520:
5512:
5511:
5507:
5487:
5483:
5473:
5471:
5467:
5452:
5446:
5435:
5430:Wayback Machine
5420:
5416:
5406:
5404:
5389:
5385:
5354:
5347:
5337:
5335:
5322:
5321:
5317:
5307:
5305:
5295:
5271:
5267:
5230:
5223:
5188:
5184:
5147:
5143:
5100:
5096:
5045:
5041:
5010:
5006:
4969:
4965:
4928:
4921:
4910:
4906:
4895:
4891:
4880:
4876:
4865:
4861:
4822:
4818:
4787:
4783:
4744:
4740:
4729:
4722:
4715:
4697:
4693:
4682:
4675:
4651:Massey, Douglas
4644:
4637:
4626:
4619:
4608:
4601:
4570:
4566:
4527:
4523:
4512:
4508:
4498:
4496:
4488:
4482:
4469:
4459:
4457:
4449:
4448:
4444:
4382:
4378:
4323:
4319:
4309:
4307:
4298:
4291:
4281:
4279:
4270:
4269:
4265:
4255:
4253:
4245:
4244:
4240:
4230:
4228:
4220:
4219:
4215:
4207:
4203:
4168:
4164:
4149:
4145:
4130:
4119:
4087:10.1.1.453.8980
4070:
4066:
4029:
4025:
3994:
3990:
3959:
3950:
3943:
3927:
3920:
3889:
3885:
3870:
3866:
3856:
3854:
3850:
3849:
3845:
3814:
3810:
3791:
3787:
3758:
3754:
3747:
3731:
3718:
3708:
3706:
3699:
3693:
3678:
3653:
3649:
3639:
3637:
3630:
3615:
3602:
3600:
3598:
3582:
3578:
3571:
3555:
3548:
3538:
3536:
3534:Morningstar.com
3526:
3522:
3512:
3510:
3498:
3489:
3482:
3477:
3473:
3463:
3461:
3453:
3449:
3448:
3444:
3434:
3432:
3431:on 16 July 2011
3428:
3417:
3411:
3402:
3392:
3390:
3381:
3380:
3373:
3358:10.2307/2673252
3342:
3335:
3328:
3312:
3291:
3281:
3279:
3271:
3265:
3261:
3242:
3238:
3228:
3226:
3218:
3217:
3213:
3203:
3181:
3172:
3167:
3053:
3048:
3047:
3002:Social Security
2949:
2941:
2932:
2924:
2918:
2869:
2839:police shooting
2815:
2809:
2801:
2774:
2765:
2760:
2739:
2730:
2722:Main articles:
2720:
2711:
2702:
2693:
2684:
2676:
2667:
2646:
2640:
2634:
2629:
2628:
2611:
2603:
2572:racial steering
2564:
2558:
2553:
2544:
2535:
2533:Chronic poverty
2526:
2513:
2504:
2492:Main articles:
2490:
2481:
2457:
2451:
2438:
2433:
2420:
2414:
2390:
2370:Social Security
2359:Freedman's Bank
2339:Abraham Lincoln
2284:
2186:A study by the
2184:
2171:
2105:Social Security
2076:minority groups
2064:different races
2048:
2019:
2018:
2017:
2016:
2015:
1890:Polyculturalism
1786:Civil liberties
1758:
1750:
1749:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1727:Reappropriation
1627:
1626:Countermeasures
1619:
1618:
1617:
1616:
1615:
1544:Racial steering
1510:Numerus clausus
1414:
1406:
1405:
1404:
1403:
1402:
1127:Ethnic conflict
1062:Corrective rape
1017:
1009:
1008:
1007:
1006:
1005:
642:
631:
630:
629:
628:
627:
582:minority Muslim
470:
460:
459:
458:
457:
456:
348:HIV/AIDS stigma
220:
212:
211:
210:
209:
208:
157:Mental disorder
99:
91:
90:
89:
88:
87:
60:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7954:
7944:
7943:
7938:
7933:
7916:
7915:
7913:
7912:
7907:
7902:
7897:
7892:
7887:
7882:
7877:
7872:
7867:
7861:
7859:
7855:
7854:
7852:
7851:
7846:
7841:
7836:
7831:
7826:
7821:
7815:
7813:
7811:Discrimination
7807:
7806:
7804:
7803:
7798:
7793:
7788:
7783:
7778:
7777:
7776:
7765:
7763:
7757:
7756:
7754:
7753:
7748:
7743:
7738:
7732:
7730:
7724:
7723:
7721:
7720:
7715:
7710:
7705:
7703:Race and crime
7700:
7695:
7690:
7685:
7680:
7675:
7669:
7667:
7661:
7660:
7658:
7657:
7652:
7647:
7642:
7637:
7632:
7627:
7622:
7617:
7612:
7606:
7604:
7593:
7592:
7590:
7589:
7584:
7579:
7574:
7569:
7564:
7562:Women's health
7559:
7553:
7551:
7545:
7544:
7542:
7541:
7536:
7531:
7526:
7524:Child marriage
7521:
7516:
7511:
7505:
7503:
7497:
7496:
7494:
7493:
7488:
7486:Nuclear family
7483:
7478:
7473:
7468:
7463:
7458:
7452:
7450:
7444:
7443:
7441:
7440:
7435:
7430:
7425:
7423:Climate change
7420:
7414:
7412:
7406:
7405:
7403:
7402:
7397:
7392:
7386:
7384:
7378:
7377:
7375:
7374:
7369:
7364:
7359:
7354:
7352:Street vendors
7349:
7344:
7342:Slum Clearance
7339:
7334:
7329:
7324:
7319:
7314:
7309:
7307:Cost of living
7304:
7302:Communications
7299:
7293:
7291:
7285:
7284:
7277:
7276:
7269:
7262:
7254:
7248:
7247:
7201:
7200:
7180:
7160:
7142:(1): 103–133,
7126:
7106:
7094:
7081:
7069:
7056:
7044:
7031:
6998:
6967:
6955:
6943:
6923:
6901:
6885:
6874:
6848:
6830:
6803:(2): 156–173.
6787:
6761:
6732:(2): 110–116.
6707:
6673:
6661:Slate Magazine
6647:
6580:10.3386/w22399
6551:
6522:10.1086/701423
6487:
6382:
6315:
6284:(3): 323–332.
6264:
6205:
6177:
6110:
6091:(1): 309–340.
6071:
6034:(3): 317–328.
6014:
5991:
5977:
5951:
5926:
5898:
5889:
5860:
5849:(2): 131–170.
5833:
5823:
5800:
5764:
5751:10.1086/374403
5745:(5): 325–363.
5722:
5696:
5687:|journal=
5656:
5649:
5624:
5598:
5587:(2): 129–150.
5566:
5559:
5530:
5505:
5481:
5433:
5414:
5383:
5370:10.1086/666082
5345:
5315:
5293:
5265:
5244:(2): 443–455.
5221:
5182:
5141:
5094:
5065:10.1086/597285
5039:
5020:(5): 410–414.
5004:
4983:(4): 635–675.
4963:
4942:(1): 127–170.
4919:
4904:
4889:
4874:
4859:
4832:(3): 827–872.
4816:
4797:(2): 125–133.
4781:
4754:(5): 876–884.
4738:
4720:
4713:
4691:
4673:
4635:
4617:
4599:
4564:
4543:10.1086/260060
4537:(3): 590–606.
4521:
4506:
4467:
4442:
4376:
4317:
4289:
4263:
4238:
4213:
4201:
4182:(4): 363–403.
4162:
4143:
4117:
4080:(3): 585–605.
4064:
4023:
4004:(2): 161–187.
3988:
3975:10.1086/344840
3948:
3941:
3918:
3883:
3864:
3843:
3808:
3785:
3752:
3745:
3716:
3676:
3647:
3613:
3596:
3576:
3569:
3546:
3520:
3492:Thomas Shapiro
3480:
3471:
3442:
3400:
3371:
3333:
3326:
3289:
3259:
3236:
3211:
3201:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3052:
3049:
3014:
3013:
3009:
3005:
2998:
2991:
2988:
2985:
2982:
2979:
2976:
2973:
2950:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2920:Main article:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2868:
2865:
2811:Main article:
2808:
2805:
2800:
2797:
2773:
2770:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2738:
2735:
2719:
2716:
2710:
2707:
2701:
2698:
2692:
2689:
2683:
2680:
2675:
2672:
2666:
2663:
2636:Main article:
2633:
2630:
2612:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2560:Main article:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2543:
2540:
2534:
2531:
2525:
2522:
2512:
2509:
2489:
2486:
2480:
2477:
2450:
2447:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2413:
2412:Income effects
2410:
2389:
2386:
2320:Andrew Johnson
2283:
2280:
2183:
2180:
2170:
2167:
2144:property taxes
2132:central cities
2058:refers to the
2050:
2049:
2047:
2046:
2039:
2032:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2014:
2013:
2008:
2007:
2006:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1985:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1938:
1937:
1935:Reverse racism
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1905:Prisoner abuse
1902:
1897:
1895:Power distance
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1813:Ethnic penalty
1810:
1809:
1808:
1806:Neurodiversity
1803:
1793:
1791:Dehumanization
1788:
1783:
1781:Cisnormativity
1778:
1773:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1760:
1759:
1757:Related topics
1756:
1755:
1752:
1751:
1745:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1673:
1672:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1631:
1630:
1629:
1628:
1625:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1614:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1601:State religion
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1582:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1541:
1540:
1539:
1537:Nuremberg Laws
1534:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1479:Ghetto benches
1476:
1474:Gerrymandering
1471:
1466:
1461:
1459:Gender pay gap
1456:
1455:
1454:
1449:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1416:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1401:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1284:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1236:Lavender scare
1233:
1231:Kill Haole Day
1228:
1226:Indian rolling
1223:
1218:
1213:
1208:
1203:
1202:
1201:
1191:
1186:
1185:
1184:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1112:Eliminationism
1109:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1047:Cancel culture
1044:
1039:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1018:
1016:Manifestations
1015:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1004:
1003:
998:
993:
988:
983:
978:
973:
968:
963:
958:
953:
948:
943:
938:
933:
928:
923:
918:
913:
908:
903:
898:
896:Middle Eastern
893:
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
863:
862:
861:
851:
846:
841:
836:
835:
834:
829:
824:
816:
811:
806:
801:
796:
791:
786:
781:
776:
771:
766:
761:
756:
751:
746:
741:
736:
731:
730:
729:
724:
719:
709:
704:
699:
698:
697:
692:
687:
677:
672:
667:
662:
657:
652:
646:
645:
644:
643:
637:
636:
633:
632:
626:
625:
623:Zoroastrianism
620:
615:
610:
605:
600:
599:
598:
588:
587:
586:
585:
584:
579:
574:
569:
564:
549:
548:
547:
545:Untouchability
542:
532:
527:
526:
525:
520:
515:
510:
505:
495:
490:
485:
480:
474:
473:
472:
471:
466:
465:
462:
461:
455:
454:
449:
444:
443:
442:
437:
432:
422:
421:
420:
415:
405:
400:
395:
390:
385:
380:
375:
370:
365:
360:
358:Leprosy stigma
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
330:
325:
320:
315:
310:
305:
300:
295:
290:
285:
280:
275:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
245:
240:
235:
230:
224:
223:
222:
221:
218:
217:
214:
213:
207:
206:
201:
196:
191:
186:
181:
176:
175:
174:
169:
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
119:
114:
109:
103:
102:
101:
100:
97:
96:
93:
92:
86:
85:
80:
75:
70:
64:
63:
62:
61:
58:
57:
54:
53:
45:
44:
42:Discrimination
38:
37:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7953:
7942:
7939:
7937:
7934:
7932:
7929:
7928:
7926:
7911:
7908:
7906:
7903:
7901:
7898:
7896:
7893:
7891:
7888:
7886:
7883:
7881:
7878:
7876:
7873:
7871:
7868:
7866:
7863:
7862:
7860:
7856:
7850:
7847:
7845:
7842:
7840:
7837:
7835:
7832:
7830:
7827:
7825:
7822:
7820:
7817:
7816:
7814:
7812:
7808:
7802:
7799:
7797:
7794:
7792:
7789:
7787:
7784:
7782:
7779:
7775:
7772:
7771:
7770:
7767:
7766:
7764:
7762:
7758:
7752:
7749:
7747:
7744:
7742:
7739:
7737:
7734:
7733:
7731:
7729:
7725:
7719:
7716:
7714:
7711:
7709:
7706:
7704:
7701:
7699:
7696:
7694:
7691:
7689:
7686:
7684:
7681:
7679:
7676:
7674:
7671:
7670:
7668:
7666:
7662:
7656:
7653:
7651:
7648:
7646:
7643:
7641:
7638:
7636:
7633:
7631:
7628:
7626:
7623:
7621:
7618:
7616:
7613:
7611:
7608:
7607:
7605:
7603:
7598:
7594:
7588:
7585:
7583:
7580:
7578:
7575:
7573:
7570:
7568:
7565:
7563:
7560:
7558:
7555:
7554:
7552:
7550:
7546:
7540:
7537:
7535:
7532:
7530:
7527:
7525:
7522:
7520:
7517:
7515:
7512:
7510:
7507:
7506:
7504:
7502:
7498:
7492:
7489:
7487:
7484:
7482:
7479:
7477:
7474:
7472:
7469:
7467:
7464:
7462:
7459:
7457:
7454:
7453:
7451:
7449:
7445:
7439:
7436:
7434:
7431:
7429:
7426:
7424:
7421:
7419:
7416:
7415:
7413:
7411:
7407:
7401:
7398:
7396:
7393:
7391:
7388:
7387:
7385:
7383:
7379:
7373:
7370:
7368:
7365:
7363:
7360:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7350:
7348:
7345:
7343:
7340:
7338:
7335:
7333:
7330:
7328:
7325:
7323:
7320:
7318:
7315:
7313:
7310:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7300:
7298:
7295:
7294:
7292:
7290:
7286:
7282:
7275:
7270:
7268:
7263:
7261:
7256:
7255:
7252:
7244:
7240:
7235:
7230:
7226:
7222:
7219:(5): 404–16.
7218:
7214:
7210:
7205:
7204:
7193:
7192:
7184:
7173:
7172:
7164:
7157:
7153:
7149:
7145:
7141:
7137:
7130:
7122:
7118:
7117:
7110:
7104:
7098:
7091:
7085:
7079:
7073:
7066:
7060:
7054:
7048:
7041:
7035:
7027:
7026:
7018:
7017:
7012:
7008:
7002:
6986:
6985:
6977:
6971:
6965:
6959:
6953:
6947:
6940:
6936:
6933:
6927:
6916:
6915:
6908:
6906:
6897:
6896:
6889:
6883:
6878:
6871:
6870:
6865:
6861:
6855:
6853:
6845:
6841:
6834:
6826:
6822:
6818:
6814:
6810:
6806:
6802:
6798:
6791:
6775:
6771:
6765:
6757:
6753:
6748:
6743:
6739:
6735:
6731:
6727:
6723:
6716:
6714:
6712:
6696:
6692:
6688:
6684:
6677:
6662:
6658:
6651:
6643:
6637:
6629:
6628:
6620:
6616:
6610:
6604:
6598:
6594:
6590:
6586:
6581:
6576:
6572:
6565:
6562:(July 2016).
6561:
6555:
6547:
6543:
6539:
6535:
6531:
6527:
6523:
6519:
6516:: 1210–1261.
6515:
6511:
6507:
6506:
6501:
6498:(June 2019).
6497:
6491:
6479:
6471:
6464:
6463:
6458:
6454:
6450:
6446:
6439:
6435:
6430:
6425:
6421:
6417:
6412:
6407:
6403:
6399:
6398:
6393:
6386:
6378:
6374:
6369:
6364:
6360:
6356:
6351:
6346:
6342:
6338:
6334:
6330:
6326:
6319:
6311:
6307:
6302:
6297:
6292:
6287:
6283:
6279:
6275:
6268:
6260:
6256:
6251:
6246:
6242:
6238:
6233:
6228:
6224:
6220:
6216:
6209:
6194:
6190:
6184:
6182:
6173:
6169:
6164:
6159:
6155:
6151:
6146:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6129:
6125:
6121:
6114:
6106:
6102:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6082:
6075:
6067:
6063:
6058:
6053:
6049:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6018:
6010:
6006:
6002:
5995:
5987:
5981:
5966:
5962:
5955:
5940:
5937:
5930:
5915:
5911:
5905:
5903:
5893:
5878:
5871:
5864:
5856:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5837:
5830:
5826:
5820:
5816:
5809:
5807:
5805:
5788:
5783:
5779:
5775:
5768:
5760:
5756:
5752:
5748:
5744:
5740:
5733:
5726:
5711:
5707:
5700:
5692:
5679:
5671:
5667:
5660:
5652:
5646:
5642:
5638:
5631:
5629:
5612:
5608:
5602:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5582:
5575:
5573:
5571:
5562:
5556:
5552:
5547:
5546:
5537:
5535:
5519:
5515:
5509:
5500:
5496:
5492:
5485:
5466:
5462:
5458:
5451:
5444:
5442:
5440:
5438:
5431:
5427:
5424:
5418:
5402:
5398:
5394:
5387:
5379:
5375:
5371:
5367:
5364:(1): 88–133.
5363:
5359:
5352:
5350:
5333:
5329:
5325:
5319:
5304:
5300:
5296:
5294:9781108555722
5290:
5286:
5282:
5278:
5277:
5269:
5261:
5257:
5252:
5247:
5243:
5239:
5235:
5228:
5226:
5217:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5197:
5193:
5186:
5178:
5174:
5169:
5164:
5160:
5156:
5152:
5145:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5113:
5109:
5105:
5098:
5090:
5086:
5082:
5078:
5074:
5070:
5066:
5062:
5058:
5054:
5050:
5043:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5008:
5000:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4967:
4959:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4941:
4937:
4933:
4926:
4924:
4915:
4908:
4900:
4893:
4885:
4878:
4870:
4863:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4831:
4827:
4820:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4796:
4792:
4785:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4749:
4742:
4734:
4727:
4725:
4716:
4714:9780313248481
4710:
4705:
4704:
4695:
4687:
4680:
4678:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4661:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4642:
4640:
4631:
4624:
4622:
4613:
4606:
4604:
4595:
4591:
4587:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4574:Social Forces
4568:
4560:
4556:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4536:
4532:
4525:
4517:
4510:
4494:
4487:
4480:
4478:
4476:
4474:
4472:
4456:
4452:
4446:
4438:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4402:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4387:
4380:
4372:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4321:
4306:
4303:
4296:
4294:
4277:
4273:
4267:
4252:
4248:
4242:
4227:
4223:
4217:
4210:
4205:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4166:
4158:
4154:
4147:
4139:
4135:
4128:
4126:
4124:
4122:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4068:
4060:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4027:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3992:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3957:
3955:
3953:
3944:
3942:9780801887635
3938:
3934:
3933:
3925:
3923:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3887:
3879:
3875:
3868:
3853:
3847:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3812:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3796:
3789:
3780:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3756:
3748:
3746:9780520261303
3742:
3738:
3737:
3729:
3727:
3725:
3723:
3721:
3705:
3698:
3691:
3689:
3687:
3685:
3683:
3681:
3671:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3651:
3635:
3628:
3626:
3624:
3622:
3620:
3618:
3610:
3599:
3593:
3589:
3588:
3580:
3572:
3566:
3562:
3561:
3553:
3551:
3535:
3531:
3524:
3508:
3504:
3497:
3493:
3487:
3485:
3475:
3459:
3452:
3446:
3427:
3423:
3416:
3409:
3407:
3405:
3388:
3384:
3378:
3376:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3340:
3338:
3329:
3323:
3319:
3318:
3310:
3308:
3306:
3304:
3302:
3300:
3298:
3296:
3294:
3277:
3270:
3263:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3240:
3225:
3221:
3215:
3208:
3204:
3198:
3194:
3189:
3188:
3179:
3177:
3175:
3170:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3109:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3067:Glass ceiling
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3054:
3045:
3041:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3010:
3006:
3003:
2999:
2996:
2992:
2989:
2986:
2983:
2980:
2977:
2974:
2971:
2967:
2966:
2965:
2962:
2959:
2956:and American
2955:
2947:
2939:Credit scores
2936:
2930:
2923:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2898:
2894:
2893:
2892:
2890:
2889:Jim Crow laws
2884:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2864:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2848:
2843:
2840:
2835:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2819:
2814:
2804:
2796:
2794:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2769:
2755:
2751:
2748:
2743:
2734:
2729:
2725:
2715:
2706:
2697:
2688:
2679:
2671:
2662:
2658:
2650:
2645:
2639:
2626:
2625:
2620:
2618:
2609:
2598:
2596:
2591:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2563:
2548:
2539:
2530:
2521:
2518:
2517:poverty rates
2508:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2485:
2476:
2472:
2470:
2464:
2462:
2456:
2446:
2442:
2428:
2424:
2419:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2399:
2394:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2364:
2363:Panic of 1873
2360:
2355:
2352:
2348:
2347:sharecropping
2343:
2340:
2336:
2331:
2329:
2325:
2324:border states
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2302:, especially
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2279:
2276:
2271:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2258:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2220:
2212:
2208:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2193:
2189:
2179:
2177:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2157:are factors.
2156:
2152:
2147:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2116:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2099:
2095:
2094:sharecroppers
2091:
2090:Under slavery
2087:
2084:
2079:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2045:
2040:
2038:
2033:
2031:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2022:
2012:
2009:
2005:
2002:
2001:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1989:Social stigma
1987:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1969:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1932:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1754:
1753:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1671:
1668:
1667:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1632:
1623:
1622:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1596:State atheism
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1532:Jim Crow laws
1530:
1529:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1517:One-drop rule
1515:
1513:
1511:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1432:Blood quantum
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1419:
1410:
1409:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1373:Victimisation
1371:
1369:
1368:Trans bashing
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1338:Religious war
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1318:Racialization
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1200:
1197:
1196:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1189:Glass ceiling
1187:
1183:
1180:
1179:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1132:Ethnic hatred
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1067:Counter-jihad
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1031:
1028:
1027:
1026:
1023:
1022:
1013:
1012:
1002:
999:
997:
994:
992:
989:
987:
984:
982:
979:
977:
974:
972:
969:
967:
964:
962:
959:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
944:
942:
939:
937:
934:
932:
929:
927:
924:
922:
919:
917:
914:
912:
909:
907:
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
892:
889:
887:
884:
882:
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
860:
857:
856:
855:
852:
850:
847:
845:
842:
840:
837:
833:
832:United States
830:
828:
825:
823:
820:
819:
817:
815:
812:
810:
807:
805:
802:
800:
797:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
728:
725:
723:
720:
718:
715:
714:
713:
710:
708:
705:
703:
700:
696:
695:United States
693:
691:
688:
686:
683:
682:
681:
678:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
647:
641:
635:
634:
624:
621:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
608:Protestantism
606:
604:
601:
597:
594:
593:
592:
589:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
559:
558:
555:
554:
553:
550:
546:
543:
541:
538:
537:
536:
533:
531:
528:
524:
521:
519:
518:LDS or Mormon
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
504:
501:
500:
499:
496:
494:
491:
489:
486:
484:
481:
479:
476:
475:
469:
464:
463:
453:
450:
448:
445:
441:
438:
436:
435:Transmisogyny
433:
431:
428:
427:
426:
423:
419:
416:
414:
411:
410:
409:
406:
404:
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
338:Gerontophobia
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
294:
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
268:Anti-intersex
266:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
251:
249:
246:
244:
243:Anti-albinism
241:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
225:
216:
215:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
187:
185:
182:
180:
177:
173:
170:
168:
165:
164:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
113:
110:
108:
105:
104:
95:
94:
84:
81:
79:
76:
74:
71:
69:
68:Institutional
66:
65:
56:
55:
51:
47:
46:
43:
40:
39:
35:
31:
30:
27:
19:
7900:Human rights
7858:Other issues
7741:Malnutrition
7625:Islamophobia
7601:
7577:Prostitution
7557:Acid attacks
7481:Martial rape
7456:Cohabitation
7418:Conservation
7367:Unemployment
7362:Urbanization
7322:Land reforms
7216:
7212:
7190:
7183:
7170:
7163:
7139:
7135:
7129:
7121:the original
7115:
7109:
7097:
7084:
7072:
7059:
7047:
7034:
7023:
7015:
7001:
6989:. Retrieved
6982:
6970:
6958:
6946:
6926:
6913:
6894:
6888:
6877:
6867:
6860:Rose Eveleth
6844:The Guardian
6843:
6833:
6800:
6796:
6790:
6778:. Retrieved
6773:
6764:
6729:
6725:
6698:. Retrieved
6686:
6676:
6664:. Retrieved
6660:
6650:
6627:J Polit Econ
6625:
6554:
6509:
6503:
6490:
6476:{{
6468:{{
6461:
6459:,
6401:
6395:
6385:
6332:
6328:
6318:
6281:
6277:
6267:
6222:
6218:
6208:
6196:. Retrieved
6192:
6127:
6123:
6113:
6088:
6084:
6074:
6031:
6027:
6017:
6008:
6004:
5994:
5980:
5968:. Retrieved
5964:
5959:Croft, Jay.
5954:
5942:. Retrieved
5938:
5929:
5917:. Retrieved
5913:
5892:
5880:. Retrieved
5863:
5846:
5842:
5836:
5828:
5814:
5791:. Retrieved
5777:
5767:
5742:
5738:
5725:
5713:. Retrieved
5709:
5699:
5678:cite journal
5659:
5640:
5615:. Retrieved
5610:
5601:
5584:
5580:
5544:
5521:. Retrieved
5517:
5508:
5494:
5484:
5472:. Retrieved
5460:
5456:
5417:
5405:. Retrieved
5397:The Atlantic
5396:
5386:
5361:
5357:
5336:. Retrieved
5328:Eviction Lab
5327:
5318:
5306:. Retrieved
5275:
5268:
5241:
5237:
5199:
5195:
5185:
5158:
5154:
5144:
5111:
5107:
5097:
5056:
5052:
5042:
5017:
5013:
5007:
4980:
4976:
4966:
4939:
4935:
4913:
4907:
4898:
4892:
4883:
4877:
4868:
4862:
4829:
4825:
4819:
4794:
4790:
4784:
4751:
4747:
4741:
4732:
4702:
4694:
4685:
4658:
4655:Nancy Denton
4629:
4611:
4580:(1): 28–42.
4577:
4573:
4567:
4534:
4530:
4524:
4515:
4509:
4497:. Retrieved
4492:
4458:. Retrieved
4454:
4445:
4395:(1): 13416.
4392:
4388:
4379:
4334:
4330:
4320:
4308:. Retrieved
4304:
4280:. Retrieved
4275:
4266:
4254:. Retrieved
4250:
4241:
4229:. Retrieved
4225:
4216:
4204:
4179:
4175:
4165:
4156:
4152:
4146:
4137:
4133:
4077:
4073:
4067:
4043:(1): 59–76.
4040:
4036:
4026:
4001:
3997:
3991:
3966:
3962:
3931:
3899:(1): 15–26.
3896:
3892:
3886:
3877:
3867:
3855:. Retrieved
3846:
3821:
3817:
3811:
3793:
3788:
3769:
3765:
3755:
3735:
3707:. Retrieved
3703:
3660:
3650:
3638:. Retrieved
3608:
3601:. Retrieved
3586:
3579:
3559:
3537:. Retrieved
3533:
3523:
3511:. Retrieved
3502:
3474:
3462:. Retrieved
3457:
3445:
3433:. Retrieved
3426:the original
3421:
3391:. Retrieved
3386:
3349:
3345:
3316:
3280:. Retrieved
3275:
3262:
3253:
3249:
3239:
3227:. Retrieved
3223:
3214:
3206:
3186:
3106:
3038:shareholders
3015:
2963:
2951:
2925:
2885:
2870:
2856:Roland Fryer
2846:
2844:
2836:
2820:
2816:
2802:
2775:
2766:
2752:
2744:
2740:
2731:
2712:
2703:
2694:
2685:
2677:
2668:
2659:
2655:
2622:
2617:The Atlantic
2616:
2613:
2592:
2588:birth weight
2580:
2565:
2545:
2536:
2527:
2514:
2505:
2482:
2473:
2469:credit score
2465:
2458:
2443:
2439:
2425:
2421:
2406:
2402:
2395:
2391:
2367:
2356:
2344:
2332:
2285:
2272:
2252:house values
2236:
2228:
2224:
2217:
2185:
2172:
2153:and quality
2148:
2117:
2102:
2088:
2080:
2053:
1823:Gender-blind
1702:Human rights
1522:Racial quota
1509:
1489:Jewish quota
1469:Gerontocracy
1464:Gender roles
1442:Disabilities
1427:Blood purity
1393:Wife selling
1383:White flight
1363:Slut-shaming
1343:Scapegoating
1261:Murder music
916:Palestinians
859:Anti-Zionism
727:South Africa
712:Black people
690:South Africa
498:Christianity
488:Baháʼí Faith
403:Sectarianism
343:Heterosexism
308:Ephebiphobia
278:Anti-Masonry
137:Hair texture
26:
7905:Prohibition
7713:Vigilantism
7698:Prison rape
7519:Child labor
7514:Child abuse
7476:Infertility
7410:Environment
7337:Remittances
6636:cite report
5939:Smithsonian
5617:4 September
5611:2010 Census
5518:edbuild.org
5463:: 115–158.
4305:The Balance
4276:www.cdc.gov
4140:(6): 71–83.
3772:(3): 3–30.
3026:sociologist
2903:preference.
2881:color-blind
2861:Minneapolis
2824:Rodney King
2791:found that
2691:White gains
2488:Health care
2436:Investments
2296:slave codes
2286:Before the
2201:Morningstar
2169:Definitions
2130:instead of
2113:inheritance
1717:Nonviolence
1712:LGBT rights
1677:Empowerment
1645:Anti-racism
1559:Segregation
1504:No kid zone
1298:Persecution
1211:Hate speech
1162:Gay bashing
1137:Ethnic joke
1092:Dog whistle
1037:Blood libel
707:Azerbaijani
603:Neopaganism
596:Persecution
557:Persecution
540:Persecution
503:Catholicism
483:Exclusivism
425:Transphobia
408:Supremacism
363:Lesbophobia
283:Aporophobia
248:Anti-autism
83:Taste-based
78:Statistical
7925:Categories
7880:Plutocracy
7801:Truthiness
7796:Post-truth
7769:Censorship
7718:Cybercrime
7673:Corruption
6991:29 January
6920:, May 2016
6630:June 2019.
6538:8118094562
5875:(Report).
5338:21 October
5161:: 103542.
4791:GeoJournal
4499:25 October
4337:(1): 891.
4074:Demography
3603:11 October
3464:18 October
3435:18 October
3282:18 October
3165:References
2907:pregnancy.
2897:liberalism
2642:See also:
2453:See also:
2416:See also:
2380:(FHA) and
2197:Baby Bonds
2109:retirement
2083:wealth gap
1999:Stereotype
1994:Speciesism
1875:Oppression
1870:Oikophobia
1766:Allophilia
1742:Toleration
1591:Sodomy law
1484:Internment
1398:Witch-hunt
1276:Blackhawks
1206:Hate group
1194:Hate crime
1167:Gendercide
1157:Freak show
1147:Excellence
1107:Employment
1077:Defamation
996:Vietnamese
991:Venezuelan
876:Lithuanian
530:Falun Gong
452:Xenophobia
447:Vegaphobia
430:Non-binary
388:Pedophobia
353:Homophobia
167:Skin color
127:Disability
98:Attributes
73:Structural
7890:Sexuality
7870:Extremism
7791:Fake news
7708:Terrorism
7433:Pollution
7382:Education
7357:Transport
7156:154718544
6817:0361-3666
6797:Disasters
6700:6 January
6695:0362-4331
6666:6 January
6597:158634577
6589:956328193
6546:158634577
6530:0022-3808
6478:retracted
6470:retracted
6420:0027-8424
6359:1932-6203
6310:1948-5506
6241:0027-8424
6154:1932-6203
6105:1745-9133
6048:1468-2869
5523:6 January
5303:158682691
5260:0003-0554
5216:0165-1765
5202:: 67–72.
5177:0166-0462
5128:0277-9536
5114:: 77–86.
5073:0002-9602
5034:0002-8282
4999:0145-5532
4958:0022-0507
4811:151164815
4559:154671929
4460:6 January
4419:2045-2322
4353:1471-2458
4310:6 January
4282:6 January
4256:6 January
4231:6 January
4196:225552367
4082:CiteSeerX
3983:143703880
3913:153405668
3838:148962929
3352:: 35–49.
3139:Redlining
2879:known as
2705:success.
2632:Education
2576:Section 8
2072:prejudice
1972:Christian
1900:Prejudice
1848:Masculism
1796:Diversity
1574:religious
1549:Redlining
1142:Ethnocide
1102:Education
981:Ukrainian
911:Pakistani
901:Mongolian
822:Australia
804:Hungarian
759:Colombian
739:Bulgarian
613:Rastafari
562:Ahmadiyya
468:Religious
440:Trans men
398:Pregnancy
333:Gayphobia
328:Fatphobia
233:Acephobia
228:Arophobia
204:Viewpoint
7875:Gambling
7865:Colorism
7774:Internet
7736:HIV/AIDS
7567:Feminism
7509:Abortion
7501:Children
7491:Polygamy
7400:Literacy
7327:Pensions
7243:12042604
6935:Archived
6825:10379098
6756:28228993
6619:Archived
6457:32651282
6438:31332014
6377:26540108
6329:PLOS ONE
6259:30126997
6198:22 April
6172:32579553
6124:PLOS ONE
6066:32212060
5970:16 April
5944:16 April
5919:12 April
5882:29 March
5780:: 1–23.
5759:11568703
5715:10 April
5499:Archived
5474:30 March
5465:Archived
5426:Archived
5407:16 April
5401:Archived
5378:44826562
5332:Archived
5136:28734598
5089:18170457
5081:19852253
4854:28330583
4768:20462784
4437:32855432
4371:31277617
4226:NBC News
4159:: 25–38.
4112:20464127
4104:15461016
4018:11945433
3802:and the
3709:26 March
3640:15 April
3539:4 August
3513:16 March
3051:See also
2601:Eviction
2461:unbanked
2011:The talk
1947:Snobbery
1865:Net bias
1687:Feminism
1606:Ugly law
1447:Catholic
1413:Policies
1256:Mortgage
1251:Lynching
1182:examples
1177:Genocide
1097:Economic
1082:Democide
1042:Bullying
946:Scottish
941:Romanian
906:Nigerian
849:Japanese
784:Georgian
769:Filipino
702:Assyrian
675:Armenian
665:American
660:Albanian
640:national
618:Yazidism
535:Hinduism
493:Buddhism
383:Nepotism
378:Misogyny
373:Misandry
298:Clannism
293:Biphobia
238:Adultism
147:Language
34:a series
32:Part of
7819:Ableism
7751:Suicide
7746:Obesity
7332:Poverty
7289:Economy
7234:1497358
6747:5314923
6429:6689929
6368:4634878
6337:Bibcode
6250:6140536
6163:7313728
6132:Bibcode
6057:7305287
5670:2589112
5308:13 June
4846:2951257
4776:4637240
4594:2578934
4551:1831027
4428:7453009
4397:Bibcode
4362:6612087
4059:2918735
3806:. 2015.
3366:2673252
2822:driver
2763:Poverty
2581:Racial
2551:Housing
2511:Poverty
2282:History
2231:poverty
2155:counsel
2128:suburbs
1818:Figleaf
1221:Housing
976:Turkish
921:Pashtun
891:Mexican
871:Kurdish
844:Italian
794:Haitian
779:Finnish
754:Chinese
749:Chechen
744:Catalan
734:Bengali
655:African
638:Ethnic/
591:Judaism
577:Sunnism
567:Shi'ism
478:Atheism
303:Elitism
194:Species
132:Genetic
122:Dialect
7728:Health
7597:Racism
7587:Sexism
7448:Family
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3229:27 May
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2958:Latino
2877:racism
2847:et al.
2500:, and
2219:Wealth
2068:racism
2004:threat
1858:autism
1579:sexual
1569:racial
1452:Jewish
1303:Pogrom
1281:Chiefs
1271:Braves
986:Uyghur
961:Somali
956:Slavic
936:Romani
931:Quebec
926:Polish
866:Korean
827:Canada
814:Indian
799:Hazara
774:Fulani
685:France
650:Afghan
572:Sufism
288:Audism
219:Social
142:Height
7895:LGBTQ
7761:Media
7665:Crime
7549:Women
7317:Labor
7195:(PDF)
7175:(PDF)
7152:S2CID
7020:(PDF)
6979:(PDF)
6918:(PDF)
6622:(PDF)
6593:S2CID
6567:(PDF)
6542:S2CID
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6474:with
5873:(PDF)
5755:S2CID
5735:(PDF)
5468:(PDF)
5453:(PDF)
5374:S2CID
5299:S2CID
5085:S2CID
4850:S2CID
4842:JSTOR
4807:S2CID
4772:S2CID
4590:JSTOR
4555:S2CID
4547:JSTOR
4489:(PDF)
4192:S2CID
4108:S2CID
4014:S2CID
3979:S2CID
3909:S2CID
3857:8 May
3834:S2CID
3700:(PDF)
3499:(PDF)
3454:(PDF)
3429:(PDF)
3418:(PDF)
3393:5 May
3362:JSTOR
3272:(PDF)
2911:race.
2260:study
1982:white
1313:Purge
1001:Welsh
966:Tatar
886:Māori
881:Malay
839:Irish
789:Greek
764:Croat
722:China
680:Asian
552:Islam
413:White
152:Looks
117:Class
112:Caste
59:Forms
7599:and
7582:Rape
7239:PMID
6993:2022
6869:Vice
6821:PMID
6813:ISSN
6782:2018
6752:PMID
6702:2021
6691:ISSN
6668:2021
6642:link
6585:OCLC
6534:OCLC
6526:ISSN
6453:PMID
6434:PMID
6416:ISSN
6373:PMID
6355:ISSN
6306:ISSN
6255:PMID
6237:ISSN
6200:2018
6168:PMID
6150:ISSN
6101:ISSN
6062:PMID
6044:ISSN
5972:2018
5946:2018
5921:2018
5884:2023
5819:ISBN
5795:2022
5717:2023
5691:help
5666:SSRN
5645:ISBN
5619:2012
5555:ISBN
5525:2021
5476:2021
5409:2018
5340:2022
5310:2020
5289:ISBN
5256:ISSN
5212:ISSN
5173:ISSN
5132:PMID
5124:ISSN
5077:PMID
5069:ISSN
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4995:ISSN
4954:ISSN
4764:PMID
4709:ISBN
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4501:2011
4462:2021
4433:PMID
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4367:PMID
4349:ISSN
4312:2021
4284:2021
4258:2021
4233:2021
4100:PMID
4055:SSRN
3937:ISBN
3859:2020
3804:ACLU
3741:ISBN
3711:2012
3642:2012
3605:2013
3592:ISBN
3565:ISBN
3541:2021
3515:2013
3466:2011
3437:2011
3395:2017
3322:ISBN
3284:2011
3231:2024
3197:ISBN
3008:700.
2726:and
2333:The
2264:ACLU
2246:and
2161:and
2151:bail
2122:and
2118:The
2070:and
1977:male
1776:Bias
1199:LGBT
971:Thai
951:Serb
809:Igbo
670:Arab
418:Male
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179:Rank
7229:PMC
7221:doi
7217:116
7144:doi
6805:doi
6742:PMC
6734:doi
6608:J01
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6575:doi
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6424:PMC
6406:doi
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6363:PMC
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6296:hdl
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