4028:
4700:
4081:: "The discrepancy between the earlier data and that which are presented here begs the question of whether it is due to the way the data were gathered, or whether it is an indication of linguistic change, or both." For practical reasons and coherence, the present sketch focuses on the recent data found in the materials produced by the present language recovery movement.
2262:
Use of one of the subordinator suffixes constitutes the main subordination strategy. Since these suffixes occupy the same place as the tense suffixes, the resulting subordinate clauses are tenseless, in this respect resembling non-finite clauses in
European languages. Nonetheless, Rama verb forms
2122:
This basic structure may be expanded by adding other elements, including aspect markers (which come between the stem and the tense/mood suffix) and preverbs (which precede the subject prefix, if present). More complex meanings can be expressed through the use of serial verb constructions.
914:
In terms of grammatical typology Rama may be considered a fairly "normal" language for the linguistic area within which it is located, despite the lack of close genetic ties with its immediate neighbours. For example, Rama shares some general typological features with
919:, a dominant contact language, displaying many characteristics typical of SOV languages (even though not all sentences are actually verb-final). A single set of prefixes serves to express both pronominal possessors (e.g.
253:
island was only 4 in 1992. There have been several language revitalization efforts. The fieldwork for the first dictionary of Rama was done during this time by Robin
Schneider, a graduate student from the
286:
have been introduced as distinct vowels in some foreign loanwords. Each vowel may be either short or long. Here the vowels are shown in standard Rama orthography (see for example
2735:. Like English phrasal verbs, the meanings and uses of Rama preverb constructions can be quite idiomatic and unpredictable. Preverbs precede the subject prefix if present:
1781:
Postpositional phrases may occur either before or after the verb. Some postpositions have a shorter and a longer form; following the verb the long forms are used, e.g.
1656:) etc. But third person objects are commonly zero-marked, that is, the absence of an overt object of a transitive verb implies an understood "him", "her" or "it", e.g.
2611:
One other means of expressing aspectual (or mood) nuances is provided by the use of a second set of emphatic tense suffixes which replace the simple suffixes, namely
3754:"big"), English, Rama Cay Creole and Spanish. Besides such loans, Rama has a primary lexicon of Chibchan origin, expanded through various word-formation processes.
4825:
4674:
2131:
Most verb forms end in a suffix such as one of the following which either specifies a tense (or a mood) or else signals a subordinate clause:
2380:
means "The tiger ate the man", but the "manner of eating" may be specified further to express completion of the action by adding to the stem
4424:
2837:"Men of Rama Cay go to look for manatee in the lagoon" (island from man manatee they-seek walk lagoon side). The morphological analysis of
4219:
Craig, Colette (1991), "Ways to go in Rama: A case study in polygrammaticalization", in
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs; Heine, Berndt (eds.),
3704:
Subordinate clauses may be formed by means of subordinator suffixes as described above. Reported speech is formed by juxtaposition as in
775:
Such clusters often arise due to a tendency to omit unstressed short vowels. For example, when the third person singular subject prefix
1147:
Inalienable pronominal possession, found with body parts and characteristics, is expressed by prefixes attached to the possessed noun:
1304:
Personal pronouns have free (independent) and bound (prefix) forms as in the following table. The third person singular bound form is
2443:
A range of further aspectual nuances may be conveyed by a variety of periphrastic constructions. Several of these involve the verb
1998:
type that express more specific relationships. These are composed of a noun-like lexical form followed by a postposition, such as
237::280). By 1980, the Rama were noted as having "all but lost their original ethnic language", and had become speakers of a form of
2263:
with subordinators take subject prefixes under the same basic conditions as tensed ones, and in this way resemble finite forms.
4805:
4369:
4268:
4228:
3874:
Certain recurrent endings found in numerous noun stems appear to correspond to vague semantic classes. A notable example is
245::293). In 1992, only approximately 36 fluent speakers could be found among an ethnic population of 649 individuals in 1992 (
4667:
4391:
689:
645:
165:
3844:
Verbs may be derived from other parts of speech by suffixing one of several verbal roots glossed as "do, make", such as
4111:
There may have been variation over time as to which nouns are treated as inalienable. For example, in modern sources
3769:, which often correlate with intransitive and transitive meanings respectively. Evident intransitive derivation with
4417:
809:"he/she/it ate". Sometimes omitting different vowels may lead to alternative results. Adding the past tense suffix
4311:; Pivot, Bénédicte (2013), "The Revitalization of a 'Treasure Language': The Rama Language Project in Nicaragua",
2813:"That's why we have tongs, in order to roast meat with (them)" (therefore tongs we-have, meat for-we-roast-with).
2551:"He/she wants a banana", but with verbal complements means "be going to (do something)" in the simple form, as in
4820:
4815:
4660:
436:
395:
377:
155:
1595:
Subject prefixes are omitted when the subject is represented by an independent pronoun: "I am going" is either
238:
3880:, which occurs as the last component in nouns many of which denote round objects, fruits or body parts. As an
1268:
Nominal possession is expressed by two constructions: possessor + possessed (i.e. simple juxtaposition), e.g.
4362:
Dictionary of the Rama language: Rama, English, Rama-Creole, Spanish, English, Rama (Speaking with the tiger)
896:"stay!". This latter variant is found both word-final and before a suffix beginning with a consonant (e.g.
844:
There are also cases of vowel alternation in morphemes (e.g. the first-person subject prefix may appear as
616:
404:
386:
141:
4800:
4410:
938:
629:
355:
341:
2862:
Noun and adjective predicates are constructed without a copula, in the order
Subject + Predicate, e.g.
1790:"I ran away from my father" (I-ran my father from) but before the verb the short forms are more usual:
677:
545:
538:
470:
426:
419:
4151:
Words possibly borrowed from
Miskito include some that Miskito ultimately borrowed from English, e.g.
3941:
Partial or complete reduplication is seen in the forms of some words, including onomatopoeics such as
2821:
A limited range of serial-type constructions are found. A notable case of this is the use of the verb
1189:
In other cases (including kinship relations), a genitive pronoun (formed from the pronominal prefix +
4810:
1981:
is given as an object marker, most objects (other than personal pronouns) take no postposition, e.g.
4027:
3757:
Many verb stems are made up of extensions from primary roots by the addition of one of the prefixes
3009:
SOV if transitive (assuming that both arguments are present as noun phrases in the utterance), e.g.
4779:
4095:
362:
348:
2311:
In some cases the lack of any suffix signals a lack of marked tense or a habitual sense: compare
587:
580:
554:
4758:
4683:
3932:
New concepts can also be expressed syntactically, e.g. through genitive constructions such as
2898:"My cat is for killing rats". The Subject + Predicate order is inverted in a question such as
2022:"out of the pot" (literally: pot in out-from). Such expressions may also be used adverbially.
1638:
to the pronouns, which adopt the prefix form in the singular but the full form in the plural:
2119:"I am looking for meat to buy" (first person singular subject prefix, purpose subordinator).
651:
495:
488:
4259:
Craig, Colette (2000), "A morphosyntactic typology of classifiers", in Senft, Gunter (ed.),
3799:"roast (tr./intr.)", while other cases of outward resemblance are semantically opaque, e.g.
4238:
Craig, Colette (1992), "Language shift and language death: the case of Rama in
Nicaragua",
4077:. There are some notable differences between the earlier and more recent descriptions; cf.
596:
255:
4506:
3993:
2329:"I live in the town". Imperatives in the second person singular are also suffixless, e.g.
8:
4462:
233:. Their language was described as "dying quickly for lack of use" as early as the 1860s (
230:
187:
4475:
1252:
etc. also function predicatively (as equivalents of
English possessive pronouns), as in
4713:
4433:
4207:
1081:
504:
455:
191:
82:
4512:
4452:
748:"fish"). Variations among speakers witness a tendency to simplify such clusters (e.g.
133:
4728:
4622:
4590:
4365:
4308:
4264:
4224:
4195:
2110:"when they see the tiger" (third person plural subject prefix, "when" subordinator),
475:
1619:, etc. They are also commonly absent in the presence of a full subject noun phrase:
161:
4733:
4705:
4585:
4580:
4546:
4298:
Craig, Colette; Tibbitts, Bonny; Rigby, Nora (1986), "Notes on the Rama language",
4247:
3881:
3311:
Clausal elements (i.e. those containing a verb) usually follow the main verb, e.g.
2637:
Modal notions are expressed by further periphrastic constructions. A verb with the
916:
637:
211:
4540:
3722:"say"). Relative clauses also have no specific subordinator but the clause marker
4763:
4616:
4497:
4487:
4481:
4470:
1995:
465:
87:
74:
960:"(The) lizard walks on (the) ground" (literally: lizard ground on (s)he-walks),
146:
4743:
4643:
4447:
2101:"I will cook some meat" (first person subject prefix, future/irrealis suffix),
881:-type alternation, as seen for example in the final consonant of the same stem
215:
4015:
3467:
Question words may be preceded by another sentence constituent as topic, e.g.
2723:" etc. The Rama preverbs resemble some of the postpositions in form: they are
4794:
4628:
4600:
4595:
4559:
4553:
4523:
1723:
561:
514:
195:
4251:
2506:"look at"), and in first person plural imperatives (i.e. "let's..."), as in
1994:
In addition to the simple postpositions there are more complex forms of the
4564:
2708:
2092:"With whom did you go?" (second person subject prefix, past tense suffix),
937:"I went"). Noun phrase relations are indicated by postpositions, tense and
709:
306:
301:
4288:
Craig, Colette; Tibbitts, Bonny; Rigby, Nora; Benjamins, Cristina (1992),
4157:"town". There are probably also numerous Miskito calques in Rama, such as
4142:
The table does not aim to be exhaustive but covers the most basic options.
3490:
However, question words generally stand at the beginning of the sentence:
2461:), either of which, following a verb stem, may convey progressive aspect:
1663:
The demonstrative pronouns are the same as the corresponding determiners:
1531:
The prefix forms of the pronouns are used as subject prefixes with verbs:
117:
4652:
3358:
Yes/no questions take the same form as the corresponding statement, e.g.
2913:"stay" is used to express "be (in a place)" and "be (in a state)", as in
2360:
suffix are used in independent clauses: see the section on Aspect below.
323:
313:
55:
2803:
may also be used productively to express an instrumental argument, e.g.
2671:"learn"). Ability may be expressed by the future/irrealis tense form in
1625:"My father is going", but "repetition" of the subject is also possible:
1584:
came to the island" (island in they-came). In the second person plural,
4278:
Craig, Colette; Rigby, Nora; Assadi, Barbara; Tibbitts, Bonnie (1988),
4211:
4020:
482:
335:
328:
318:
203:
4397:
3388:"Can you sew a dress like mine?" Such questions may be answered using
966:"He/she caught (a) fish with (a) hook" (fish hook with (s)he-caught).
874:"stayed", where the short stem vowel copies the vowel of the suffix).
222:). Rama is one of the northernmost languages of the Chibchan family (
4402:
667:
608:
413:
370:
207:
126:
110:
35:
2518:"sleep"). In the latter use the subject prefix may be omitted, e.g.
712:
includes notable consonant clusters at the beginning of words (e.g.
1631:"The lizard (he) walks on the ground" (lizard ground on it-walks).
450:
250:
199:
173:
45:
2683:"Will/can you sew a dress?" Inability is expressed by the negator
2643:
suffix may be used in an independent clause to convey obligation:
2035:
The simplest structure for verb forms consists of these elements:
1726:
perform roughly the same functions as
English prepositions, as in
2943:"There are many houses on Rama Cay" (house many island in stay).
2704:
527:
460:
169:
3959:"rabbit", colour names and other descriptive adjectives such as
3544:"Who speaks our Rama language?" (who our Rama language speaks),
2073:"I live in Bluefields" (no subject prefix and no tense suffix),
3938:"church" (lit. house of prayer), or through verbal paraphrase.
2919:"The school is on the south side" (school south side in stay),
2596:
of the main verb, expresses "be ready to (do something)", e.g.
954:
There are no articles. Nouns are frequently undetermined, e.g.
878:
3535:"Where is his/her father going?" (where his/her father goes),
2937:"I live on Rama Cay" (I island in stay), and "there is" as in
2797:
While many preverb-verb combinations are lexically specified,
1551:"Tomorrow I will cook some meat" (tomorrow meat I-will-cook),
3997:
2563:"walk"), or "get ready to (do something)" in the progressive
2082:"He/She is going" (no subject prefix, present tense suffix),
4342:
Dottings on the
Roadside, in Panama, Nicaragua, and Mosquito
3996:
are actually from a dialect of Rama spoken in the region of
1634:
A pronominal object is expressed by adding the postposition
803:, the verb stem loses its only vowel, resulting in the form
4385:
4287:
4074:
3517:"Where is Nora's house?" (where Nora GENITIVE house stay),
2984:
In sentences with a verb as predicate, the basic order is:
4352:
Rama kuup alkwisbang! â Let's speak Rama â ÂĄHablemos rama!
3893:
Composition is another common way of forming nouns, as in
1473:
is going". They may also be complements of postpositions:
172:
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
4350:
Rigby, Nora; Craig, Colette G.; Tibbitts, Bonny (1989),
4277:
4058:
2428:"see"). Another aspect-marking suffix similarly used is
287:
4090:
The earliest studies of the Rama language, for example
3734:"The meat I bought, I gave it to Nelly" (meat I-bought
2126:
1084:, but those denoting humans can take the plural suffix
4044:) indicates stress; modern standard spelling does not.
3029:
Other sentence elements (in bold here) may be placed:
2398:"The tiger ate the man all up". Further examples with
4332:
Vokabular der Rama-Sprache nebst grammatischem Abriss
3992:
Some recorded words that were claimed to be from the
3811:"speak", or involve more complex relationships, e.g.
1434:
The independent pronouns are often used as subjects:
1274:"my father's name" (my father name), and possessor +
1126:
Attributive adjectives follow the noun they qualify:
210:. Other indigenous languages of this region include
4695:
4053:
Sources for the information in this section include
2979:
2880:"The manatee is a big animal" (manatee animal big),
2016:"inside the hole", or a postpositional phrase, e.g.
2010:"out of". They are placed after a noun phrase, e.g.
4198:(1990), "Review: Dictionary of the Rama Language",
4349:
4334:, MĂŒnchen: Akademische Buchdruckerei von F. Straub
4297:
4240:International Journal of the Sociology of Language
4070:
4066:
3160:at the end of the sentence (i.e. after the verb):
3646:
3487:"And you, where do you live?" (you, where live).
3403:Some question words (sometimes called wh-words):
4792:
3508:"Where does the wari live?" (where wari lives),
3021:"Nora speaks Rama" (Nora Rama language speaks),
2886:"My house is pretty" (my house pretty); so also
2659:is used as a modal auxiliary of volition, as in
2707:which form constructions comparable to English
2485:can also express "be about to (do something)".
1708:"Who speaks Rama?" (who Rama language speaks),
1208:cat / house / name / child / father / sister",
4359:
4300:Wani: Revista Sobre la Costa AtlĂĄntica (CIDCA)
4263:, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press,
3526:"Where is he/she going?" (where he/she goes),
2494:(see also above) may express intention, as in
1201:puus / nguu / aak / tiiskama / taata / tairung
949:
259:
4668:
4418:
4200:International Journal of American Linguistics
3556:Questions words with a non-verbal predicate:
3553:"With whom did you go?" (who with you-went).
1714:"With whom did you go?" (who with you-went).
1561:"With whom did you go?" (who with you-went),
4221:Approaches to grammaticalization (volume II)
4098:; this was later demonstrated to be untrue (
2545:, means "want" with a nominal object, as in
1541:"I gave it to Nelly" (Nelly OBJECT I-gave),
969:Demonstrative determiners precede the noun:
3748:Rama has borrowed words from Miskito (e.g.
262:). It is spoken in Honduras and Nicaragua.
4682:
4675:
4661:
4425:
4411:
4339:
4223:, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins,
4164:
4158:
4152:
4128:
4118:
4112:
3984:
3978:
3972:
3966:
3960:
3954:
3948:
3942:
3933:
3924:
3918:
3912:
3906:
3900:
3894:
3885:
3875:
3866:
3860:
3851:
3845:
3836:
3830:
3824:
3818:
3812:
3806:
3800:
3794:
3788:
3782:
3776:
3770:
3764:
3758:
3749:
3735:
3729:
3723:
3717:
3711:
3705:
3692:
3678:
3664:
3658:
3652:
3638:
3632:
3623:
3617:
3607:
3601:
3595:
3589:
3583:
3566:
3557:
3545:
3536:
3527:
3518:
3509:
3500:
3491:
3478:
3468:
3454:
3442:
3427:
3415:
3395:
3389:
3383:
3377:
3371:
3365:
3359:
3338:
3325:
3312:
3295:
3282:
3269:
3256:
3240:
3227:
3214:
3200:
3187:
3174:
3161:
3144:
3130:
3116:
3102:
3089:
3075:
3062:
3048:
3034:
3016:
3010:
3001:
2995:
2989:
2971:
2965:
2964:"I have two sisters" (I sister two have),
2959:
2953:
2947:
2938:
2932:
2926:
2920:
2914:
2908:
2899:
2893:
2887:
2881:
2875:
2874:"His name is Basilio" (his name Basilio),
2869:
2863:
2844:
2838:
2828:
2822:
2804:
2798:
2789:
2779:
2773:
2763:
2757:
2751:
2745:
2736:
2730:
2724:
2690:
2684:
2678:
2672:
2666:
2660:
2654:
2644:
2638:
2624:
2618:
2612:
2603:
2597:
2591:
2585:
2576:
2570:
2564:
2558:
2552:
2546:
2540:
2534:
2525:
2519:
2513:
2507:
2501:
2495:
2489:
2480:
2474:
2468:
2462:
2456:
2450:
2444:
2435:
2429:
2423:
2417:
2411:
2405:
2399:
2393:
2387:
2381:
2375:
2369:
2348:
2342:
2336:
2330:
2321:
2312:
2303:
2297:
2291:
2285:
2279:
2273:
2267:
2249:
2234:
2216:
2206:
2194:
2184:
2172:
2162:
2111:
2102:
2093:
2083:
2074:
2065:
2017:
2011:
2005:
1999:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1956:
1944:
1932:
1925:
1913:
1901:
1894:
1882:
1870:
1858:
1851:
1839:
1827:
1820:
1791:
1782:
1766:
1753:
1740:
1727:
1709:
1703:
1697:
1691:
1685:
1676:
1670:
1664:
1651:
1645:
1639:
1626:
1620:
1614:
1608:
1602:
1596:
1571:
1562:
1552:
1542:
1532:
1523:
1501:
1488:
1474:
1461:
1448:
1435:
1419:
1402:
1385:
1368:
1351:
1334:
1287:
1281:
1275:
1269:
1253:
1247:
1231:
1218:
1209:
1196:
1190:
1174:
1161:
1148:
1127:
1115:
1106:
1097:
1091:
1085:
1061:
1048:
1035:
1022:
1009:
996:
983:
970:
961:
955:
932:
923:
897:
888:
882:
853:
836:
830:
820:
814:
804:
794:
784:
767:
761:
755:
749:
743:
737:
731:
725:
719:
713:
703:
234:
3871:gives rise to both adjectives and nouns.
3701:"My house is not big, but it is pretty".
3015:"The tiger ate the man" (tiger man ate),
2772:"They brought the wild pig to the town" (
1991:"The tiger ate the man" (tiger man ate).
1487:" (my mother this house in stay I with),
439:transcriptions are shown where helpful):
4340:Pim, Bedford; Seemann, Berthold (1869),
3731:Suulikaas nipaayau kaing Neli aa nitangu
3677:my brother live in this house with me",
3477:"Who took the child?" (child who took),
2931:can also mean "live (in a place)" as in
2043:(already discussed above under Pronouns)
1460:sew a dress?" (you dress sew-IRREALIS),
700:Rama words have non-predictable stress.
4826:South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region
4388:â online dictionary and other resources
4329:
4319:
4124:
4091:
4062:
4041:
3499:"Where do you live?" (where you live),
2806:Nainguku kiskis nsukuaakari, suulikaas
1660:"They cleaned it" (lit. they-cleaned).
166:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
4793:
4432:
4360:Rigby, Nora; Schneider, Robin (1989),
3670:naing tairung ning nguu ki aakar nah u
3612:"That dog is not mine", or by placing
2827:"walk" following another verb, as in:
2653:"All the children must go to school".
2584:Another periphrasis, constructed with
1514:" (tiger they at came-out). Note that
1447:live in Bluefields" (I town in stay),
4656:
4406:
4398:Rama language documentation materials
4258:
4237:
4218:
4194:
4099:
4094:, mistakenly identified it as having
4078:
4054:
3859:A common adjective-forming suffix is
3255:or at the beginning of the sentence:
3006:"My child is sick" (my child is-sick)
2135:Tense/mood and subordinator suffixes
1286:being a genitive postposition), e.g.
246:
242:
223:
219:
3622:"They didn't look for the manatee",
3582:Sentences may be negated by placing
2868:"This is my house" (this my house),
2127:Tense/mood and subordinator suffixes
1483:"My mother lives in this house with
1195:) precedes the possessed noun, e.g.
736:"killed") and word-internally (e.g.
435:The following consonants are found (
270:There are three basic vowel sounds:
2479:can copy the vowel of the suffix).
995:dog". Quantifiers follow the noun:
852:) and lexical stems (thus the stem
13:
4009:
3631:There is a special negative word,
3588:after the verb or predicate, e.g.
3025:"I have one dog" (I dog one have).
2857:
2849:(PREVERB-they-seek walk-PRESENT).
2689:preceding the complete verb, e.g.
2590:following the subordinate form in
2500:"I am going to look at the baby" (
2341:"go", has a suppletive imperative
1217:"your family (lit. your people)",
14:
4837:
4379:
4290:An illustrated dictionary in Rama
4261:Systems of Nominal Classification
3911:"flesh") or the inalienable noun
3637:, to express impossibility, e.g.
3000:"I am crying" (I cry AUXILIARY),
2980:Word order with verbal predicates
2830:Ipang ika kiikna paalpa baanalpi
688:
676:
650:
644:
628:
615:
595:
586:
579:
560:
553:
544:
537:
513:
503:
494:
487:
425:
418:
403:
394:
385:
376:
361:
354:
347:
340:
4698:
4071:Craig, Tibbitts & Rigby 1986
4067:Rigby, Craig & Tibbitts 1989
4026:
3348:when they hear about the manatee
3222:"My father brings the silkgrass
3176:Naing airung ning nguu ki aakar
1717:
1476:Naing airung ning nguu ki aakar
4392:Rama Language Project home page
3865:, while the participial suffix
3643:"I cannot live in Bluefields".
3182:"My mother lives in this house
2852:
2816:
2368:Using the simple past tense of
1684:The interrogative pronouns are
1522:before a vowel, for example in
887:"stay, be", cf. the imperative
877:Consonants display a degree of
858:"stay" may appear in the forms
4282:, Eugene: University of Oregon
4180:Comparative Chibchan Phonology
4172:
4145:
4136:
4105:
4084:
4047:
4034:
3947:"dripping", animal names like
3647:Coordination and subordination
2422:"They saw the whole manatee" (
2410:"He/she shut the door tight" (
2320:"I am ready to go" (now) with
944:
229:The Rama language is severely
16:Chibchan language of Nicaragua
1:
4806:Endangered Chibchan languages
4188:
4069:, and also the Rama texts in
3594:"I do not live on Rama Cay",
3385:Maa kalma apaakut naing isii?
3216:Naing taata ngabang yuisiiku
2976:"The octopus has many arms".
2744:"I ran away from (him/her)" (
1142:
1080:Most nouns do not change for
928:"my eye") and subjects (e.g.
249:). The number of speakers on
3775:is illustrated by the pairs
3680:Nah tausung saiming kuaakar
3405:
3370:"Do you live on Rama Cay?",
3353:
2973:Puupu kwiik ngarak ikuaakari
2970:"That's why we have tongs",
2662:Nah rama kuup larn tang ikri
2455:(which contains the preverb
2133:
1802:
1314:
265:
7:
4117:"your name" is found, with
3710:"They found it, they say" (
3651:Coordinating conjunctions:
3577:
3023:Nah tausung saiming kuaakar
2967:Nainguku kiskis nsukuaakari
2925:"I am fine" (I well stay).
2698:
2632:
2557:"He/she is going to walk" (
2473:"cry"; the second vowel in
2030:
2025:
1299:
950:Elements of the noun phrase
783:are added to the verb stem
10:
4842:
4344:, London: Chapman and Hall
4280:Diccionario Elemental Rama
4123:treated as alienable, but
3743:
3609:Naming tausung naing taama
3597:Maa rama kuup alkwsi taama
3541:nsulaing rama kuup alkwsi?
3235:"when he brings the tongs
2940:Nguu ngarak ipang su aakar
2843:"they go to look for" is:
2778:"come with, i.e. bring").
2692:Nah rama kuup angka alkwsi
1607:, "He is going" is either
909:
779:and the past tense suffix
260:Rigby & Schneider 1989
206:on the Caribbean coast of
4772:
4751:
4722:
4690:
4637:
4609:
4573:
4533:
4496:
4461:
4440:
3983:"calm", and others, e.g.
3600:"You do not speak Rama",
3438:
3411:
2988:SV if intransitive, e.g.
2961:Nah nising puksak kuaakar
2895:Naing puus suuk mlingkama
2449:"stay" or its derivative
2440:) expressing repetition.
2363:
2356:Sometimes forms with the
2227:
2142:
2139:
1955:
1943:
1912:
1881:
1869:
1838:
666:
636:
607:
526:
481:
447:
424:
417:
305:
300:
298:
152:
140:
124:
108:
103:
71:
61:
51:
41:
31:
26:
21:
4780:Nicaraguan Sign Language
4330:Lehmann, Walter (1914),
4320:Lehmann, Walter (1911),
4003:
3793:"break (tr./intr.)" and
3694:Naing nguu taara taama,
3640:Nah angka aakar tawan ki
3591:Nah ipang su aakar taama
3195:"The man kills the wari
3189:Nkiikna ngulkang malngi
2762:is the subject prefix).
2665:"I want to learn Rama" (
2575:"I get ready to drink" (
2395:Kruubu kiikna kwisatkulu
2256:"upon, and then, since"
1800:(my father from I-ran).
278:. In addition to these,
4313:Keeping Languages Alive
4252:10.1515/ijsl.1992.93.11
4165:
4159:
4153:
4129:
4119:
4113:
3985:
3979:
3973:
3967:
3961:
3955:
3949:
3943:
3934:
3925:
3919:
3913:
3907:
3901:
3895:
3890:means "eye" or "seed".
3886:
3876:
3867:
3861:
3852:
3846:
3837:
3831:
3825:
3819:
3813:
3807:
3801:
3795:
3789:
3783:
3777:
3771:
3765:
3759:
3750:
3736:
3730:
3724:
3718:
3712:
3706:
3693:
3684:maa puus puksak kuaakar
3679:
3665:
3659:
3653:
3639:
3633:
3624:
3618:
3608:
3606:"My house is not big",
3602:
3596:
3590:
3584:
3567:
3558:
3546:
3537:
3528:
3519:
3510:
3501:
3492:
3479:
3469:
3455:
3443:
3428:
3416:
3396:
3390:
3384:
3378:
3372:
3366:
3360:
3339:
3333:"I am looking for meat
3326:
3313:
3296:
3283:
3274:yaing tiiskama yuitaaki
3270:
3257:
3241:
3228:
3215:
3201:
3188:
3175:
3162:
3145:
3131:
3117:
3103:
3090:
3084:"There are many houses
3076:
3063:
3049:
3035:
3017:
3011:
3003:Naing tiiskama almlingi
3002:
2996:
2990:
2972:
2966:
2960:
2954:
2948:
2939:
2933:
2927:
2921:
2916:Skuul saud aap su aakar
2915:
2909:
2900:
2894:
2892:"That cat is mine" and
2888:
2882:
2876:
2870:
2864:
2845:
2839:
2829:
2823:
2805:
2799:
2794:"go with, i.e. take").
2790:
2788:"Who took the child?" (
2780:
2774:
2764:
2758:
2752:
2750:"run" with the preverb
2746:
2737:
2731:
2725:
2695:"I cannot speak Rama".
2691:
2685:
2679:
2673:
2667:
2661:
2655:
2645:
2639:
2625:
2619:
2613:
2604:
2598:
2592:
2586:
2577:
2571:
2565:
2559:
2553:
2547:
2541:
2535:
2526:
2520:
2514:
2508:
2502:
2496:
2490:
2481:
2475:
2469:
2463:
2457:
2451:
2445:
2436:
2430:
2424:
2418:
2412:
2406:
2400:
2394:
2388:
2382:
2376:
2370:
2349:
2343:
2337:
2331:
2322:
2313:
2304:
2298:
2292:
2286:
2280:
2274:
2268:
2250:
2235:
2217:
2207:
2195:
2185:
2173:
2163:
2112:
2103:
2094:
2084:
2075:
2066:
2018:
2012:
2006:
2000:
1983:
1977:
1971:
1957:
1945:
1933:
1926:
1914:
1902:
1895:
1883:
1871:
1859:
1852:
1840:
1828:
1821:
1792:
1783:
1767:
1754:
1741:
1728:
1710:
1704:
1698:
1692:
1686:
1677:
1671:
1665:
1652:
1646:
1640:
1627:
1621:
1615:
1609:
1603:
1597:
1572:
1563:
1553:
1543:
1533:
1524:
1510:"The tiger came out at
1502:
1489:
1475:
1462:
1449:
1436:
1420:
1403:
1386:
1369:
1352:
1335:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1270:
1254:
1248:
1232:
1219:
1210:
1197:
1191:
1175:
1162:
1149:
1128:
1116:
1107:
1098:
1092:
1086:
1062:
1049:
1036:
1023:
1010:
997:
984:
971:
962:
956:
933:
924:
898:
889:
883:
854:
837:
831:
821:
815:
805:
795:
785:
768:
762:
756:
750:
744:
738:
732:
726:
720:
714:
704:Phonotactics and sandhi
4821:Mesoamerican languages
4816:Languages of Nicaragua
4684:Languages of Nicaragua
4163:"church", cf. Miskito
4040:Lehmann's vocabulary (
3740:Nelly OBJECT I-gave).
3728:may be employed, e.g.
3628:"I don't want to go".
3616:before the verb, e.g.
3603:Naing nguu taara taama
3574:"How is your family?"
3565:"What is your name?",
3382:"Have you a sister?",
3376:"Do you speak Rama?",
3364:"Is your house big?",
3169:"We are learning Rama
3139:"He caught a big fish
3033:in front of the verb:
2617:emphatic affirmative,
2143:Subordinator suffixes
2056:suffix (or zero) or a
1784:Nangalbiu naing taata
1702:"What is your name?",
1592:suffixed to the verb.
1308:before a consonant or
235:Pim & Seemann 1869
154:This article contains
3514:Nora aing nguu aakar?
3373:Maa rama kuup alkwsi?
3327:Nah suulikaas baalpi
3209:"Can you sew a dress
3163:Nsut rama larn tangi
3018:Nora rama kuup alkwsi
2958:) means "have", e.g.
2572:Nalngu bating baakiri
2524:"Let's speak Rama!" (
2521:Rama kuup alkwisbang!
2497:Tiiskama nitanangbang
2113:Nah suulikaas baalpi
1705:Taa rama kuup alkwsi?
1628:Pkaak tkii su itraali
957:Pkaak tkii su itraali
4723:Indigenous languages
3691:you have two cats",
3444:ngarangki, ngarangsu
3407:Some question words
3277:"She took the child
3248:"when the oil comes
3153:"The tiger came out
3125:"I don't want to go
3057:"The scorpion bites
2904:"What is his name?"
2602:"I am ready to go" (
2569:construction, as in
2374:"eat", the sentence
2140:Tense/mood suffixes
1846:"of, for", genitive
1815:Meaning or function
1681:"This is my house".
1365:he/him, she/her, it
941:by verbal suffixes.
256:University of Berlin
188:indigenous languages
4324:, Berlin: D. Reimer
4322:Zentral-Amerika (I)
3619:Paalpa aa baanalpiu
3408:
3379:Maa nising kuaakar?
3367:Maa ipang su aakar?
3012:Kruubu kiikna kwisu
2883:Naing nguu aakwaala
2419:Paalpa ansungatkulu
2377:Kruubu kiikna kwisu
2231:tenseless/habitual
2136:
1805:
1317:
1249:naing, maing, yaing
519:⟨ngw⟩
444:
295:
4801:Chibchan languages
4434:Chibchan languages
4309:Grinevald, Colette
4178:Adolfo Constenla,
3884:in its own right,
3790:aark : alaark
3532:yaing taata taaki?
3406:
3307:I will cook meat".
3290:"They put the oil
3202:Maa kalma apaakut
3043:"The lizard walks
2994:"The frog jumps",
2934:Nah ipang su aakar
2877:Paalpa suuli taara
2846:ba-an-alpi traal-i
2765:Ngulkang tawan ki
2726:ba-, yu-, ka-, su-
2680:Maa kalma apaakut?
2623:habitual past and
2533:A form related to
2386:the aspect marker
2335:"Come!" One verb,
2296:"for me to come",
2134:
1803:
1316:Personal pronouns
1315:
963:Salpka sauk u ikuu
829:, may give either
566:⟨kw⟩
509:⟨ng⟩
442:
293:
202:and south of lake
4788:
4787:
4691:Official language
4650:
4649:
4644:extinct languages
4371:978-3-496-00459-2
4270:978-0-521-77075-0
4230:978-90-272-2899-4
4075:Craig et al. 1992
4059:Craig et al. 1988
4024:(19th ed., 2016)
3994:CorobicĂ language
3625:Naas aa taak ikar
3571:maing kaulingdut?
3465:
3464:
3361:Maing nguu taara?
3300:suulikaas niaukut
3229:kiskis yuisiikka
3113:on the south side
2889:Naming puus naing
2871:Yaing aak Basilio
2629:emphatic future.
2407:Dor yakaangatkulu
2308:"if I come" etc.
2260:
2259:
1967:
1966:
1951:"in, on, at, to"
1920:"in, on, at, to"
1778:the house", etc.
1622:Naing taata taaki
1544:Tamaik suulikaas
1432:
1431:
1123:"children", etc.
813:to the verb stem
698:
697:
682:⟨y⟩
433:
432:
288:Craig et al. 1988
198:on the island of
180:
179:
162:rendering support
158:phonetic symbols.
4833:
4811:Language revival
4752:Creole languages
4708:
4706:Nicaragua portal
4703:
4702:
4701:
4677:
4670:
4663:
4654:
4653:
4427:
4420:
4413:
4404:
4403:
4396:ELAR archive of
4374:
4355:
4345:
4335:
4325:
4315:
4303:
4293:
4283:
4273:
4254:
4233:
4214:
4183:
4176:
4170:
4168:
4162:
4156:
4149:
4143:
4140:
4134:
4132:
4122:
4116:
4109:
4103:
4088:
4082:
4051:
4045:
4038:
4032:
4031:
4030:
4013:
3988:
3982:
3976:
3970:
3964:
3958:
3952:
3946:
3937:
3928:
3922:
3917:"eyelash" (from
3916:
3910:
3904:
3898:
3889:
3882:inalienable noun
3879:
3870:
3864:
3855:
3849:
3840:
3834:
3828:
3822:
3816:
3810:
3804:
3798:
3796:auk : alauk
3792:
3786:
3780:
3774:
3768:
3762:
3753:
3739:
3733:
3727:
3721:
3715:
3709:
3700:
3687:"I have one dog
3686:
3672:
3662:
3656:
3642:
3636:
3627:
3621:
3611:
3605:
3599:
3593:
3587:
3573:
3564:
3552:
3543:
3534:
3525:
3516:
3507:
3498:
3486:
3476:
3458:
3446:
3431:
3419:
3409:
3399:
3393:
3387:
3381:
3375:
3369:
3363:
3346:"They are happy
3345:
3332:
3319:
3302:
3292:in the empty pot
3289:
3276:
3263:
3247:
3234:
3221:
3208:
3194:
3181:
3168:
3152:
3138:
3124:
3110:
3096:
3083:
3069:
3056:
3042:
3020:
3014:
3005:
2999:
2997:Nah paun baakiri
2993:
2975:
2969:
2963:
2957:
2951:
2942:
2936:
2930:
2924:
2922:Nah mliika aakar
2918:
2912:
2903:
2897:
2891:
2885:
2879:
2873:
2867:
2848:
2842:
2836:
2826:
2812:
2802:
2793:
2787:
2777:
2771:
2761:
2755:
2749:
2743:
2734:
2728:
2694:
2688:
2682:
2676:
2670:
2664:
2658:
2652:
2646:Tiiskiba umling
2642:
2628:
2622:
2616:
2607:
2601:
2599:Ntaakkama aakari
2595:
2589:
2580:
2574:
2568:
2562:
2556:
2550:
2544:
2538:
2529:
2523:
2517:
2512:"Let's sleep!" (
2511:
2505:
2499:
2493:
2484:
2478:
2472:
2466:
2464:Nah paun baakiri
2460:
2454:
2448:
2439:
2433:
2427:
2421:
2415:
2409:
2403:
2397:
2391:
2385:
2379:
2373:
2352:
2346:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2319:
2307:
2301:
2295:
2289:
2283:
2277:
2271:
2253:
2238:
2220:
2213:future/irrealis
2210:
2198:
2188:
2176:
2166:
2137:
2118:
2109:
2100:
2091:
2081:
2072:
2021:
2015:
2009:
2003:
1990:
1980:
1974:
1960:
1948:
1936:
1929:
1917:
1905:
1898:
1886:
1874:
1862:
1855:
1843:
1831:
1824:
1806:
1799:
1789:
1773:
1760:
1747:
1734:
1713:
1707:
1701:
1695:
1689:
1680:
1674:
1668:
1655:
1649:
1643:
1630:
1624:
1618:
1612:
1606:
1600:
1588:is prefixed and
1579:
1569:
1560:
1550:
1540:
1527:
1509:
1495:
1482:
1468:
1455:
1442:
1423:
1406:
1389:
1372:
1355:
1338:
1318:
1312:before a vowel.
1296:"Nora's house".
1295:
1285:
1279:
1273:
1260:
1251:
1243:Rama language".
1238:
1225:
1216:
1203:
1194:
1181:
1168:
1155:
1134:
1122:
1113:
1104:
1095:
1089:
1068:
1055:
1042:
1029:
1016:
1003:
990:
977:
965:
959:
936:
927:
906:"if there is").
905:
895:
886:
857:
840:
834:
824:
818:
808:
798:
788:
772:"we, us, our").
771:
765:
759:
753:
747:
741:
735:
729:
723:
717:
692:
683:
680:
654:
648:
632:
619:
599:
590:
583:
576:
567:
564:
557:
548:
541:
534:
520:
517:
510:
507:
498:
491:
445:
441:
429:
422:
407:
398:
389:
380:
365:
358:
351:
344:
296:
292:
136:
120:
113:
77:
19:
18:
4841:
4840:
4836:
4835:
4834:
4832:
4831:
4830:
4791:
4790:
4789:
4784:
4768:
4747:
4718:
4704:
4699:
4697:
4686:
4681:
4651:
4646:
4633:
4605:
4569:
4529:
4492:
4457:
4436:
4431:
4382:
4372:
4307:
4271:
4231:
4191:
4186:
4177:
4173:
4160:preya aing nguu
4150:
4146:
4141:
4137:
4110:
4106:
4089:
4085:
4052:
4048:
4039:
4035:
4025:
4014:
4010:
4006:
3935:preya aing nguu
3746:
3707:Anaapiu anaungi
3649:
3580:
3505:ngulkang aakar?
3356:
3342:paalpa analkuka
3340:Mliika anaakar
3279:inside the hole
2982:
2901:Niku yaing aak?
2865:Ning naing nguu
2860:
2858:'Be' and 'have'
2855:
2840:baanalpi traali
2819:
2701:
2635:
2467:"I am crying" (
2366:
2302:"when I come",
2290:"I will come",
2278:"I am coming",
2129:
2033:
2028:
1720:
1699:Niku maing aak?
1678:Ning naing nguu
1570:"he/she went",
1302:
1271:naing taata aak
1145:
952:
947:
912:
706:
681:
574:
565:
532:
518:
508:
268:
192:Chibchan family
160:Without proper
132:
116:
109:
99:
78:
75:Language family
73:
67:740 (2009)
64:
63:Native speakers
17:
12:
11:
5:
4839:
4829:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4786:
4785:
4783:
4782:
4776:
4774:
4773:Sign languages
4770:
4769:
4767:
4766:
4761:
4755:
4753:
4749:
4748:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4724:
4720:
4719:
4717:
4716:
4710:
4709:
4694:
4692:
4688:
4687:
4680:
4679:
4672:
4665:
4657:
4648:
4647:
4638:
4635:
4634:
4632:
4631:
4626:
4619:
4613:
4611:
4607:
4606:
4604:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4577:
4575:
4574:ArwakoâChimila
4571:
4570:
4568:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4550:
4543:
4537:
4535:
4534:KunaâColombian
4531:
4530:
4528:
4527:
4520:
4515:
4510:
4502:
4500:
4494:
4493:
4491:
4490:
4485:
4478:
4473:
4467:
4465:
4459:
4458:
4456:
4455:
4450:
4444:
4442:
4441:WaimĂ (Guaymi)
4438:
4437:
4430:
4429:
4422:
4415:
4407:
4401:
4400:
4394:
4389:
4381:
4380:External links
4378:
4377:
4376:
4370:
4357:
4347:
4337:
4327:
4317:
4305:
4295:
4285:
4275:
4269:
4256:
4235:
4229:
4216:
4206:(2): 293â304,
4196:Craig, Colette
4190:
4187:
4185:
4184:
4171:
4144:
4135:
4104:
4083:
4046:
4033:
4007:
4005:
4002:
3781:"kill" :
3745:
3742:
3648:
3645:
3579:
3576:
3463:
3462:
3459:
3451:
3450:
3447:
3440:
3436:
3435:
3432:
3424:
3423:
3420:
3413:
3355:
3352:
3309:
3308:
3253:
3250:out of the pot
3237:into the house
3224:into the house
3158:
3027:
3026:
3007:
2981:
2978:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2818:
2815:
2700:
2697:
2634:
2631:
2554:Itraat batingi
2548:Sumuu ibatingi
2365:
2362:
2266:Examples with
2258:
2257:
2254:
2247:
2243:
2242:
2239:
2232:
2229:
2225:
2224:
2223:"in order to"
2221:
2214:
2211:
2203:
2202:
2199:
2192:
2189:
2181:
2180:
2179:"in order to"
2177:
2170:
2169:present tense
2167:
2159:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2149:
2145:
2144:
2141:
2128:
2125:
2062:
2061:
2050:
2044:
2041:subject prefix
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
1965:
1964:
1961:
1953:
1952:
1949:
1941:
1940:
1937:
1930:
1922:
1921:
1918:
1910:
1909:
1906:
1899:
1891:
1890:
1887:
1879:
1878:
1875:
1867:
1866:
1863:
1856:
1848:
1847:
1844:
1836:
1835:
1834:object marker
1832:
1825:
1817:
1816:
1813:
1810:
1804:Postpositions
1719:
1716:
1675:"that", as in
1453:kalma apaakut?
1440:tawan ki aakar
1430:
1429:
1424:
1417:
1413:
1412:
1407:
1400:
1396:
1395:
1390:
1383:
1379:
1378:
1373:
1366:
1362:
1361:
1356:
1349:
1345:
1344:
1339:
1332:
1328:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1301:
1298:
1144:
1141:
951:
948:
946:
943:
911:
908:
705:
702:
696:
695:
693:
686:
684:
674:
672:
670:
664:
663:
661:
659:
657:
655:
642:
640:
634:
633:
626:
624:
622:
620:
613:
611:
605:
604:
602:
600:
593:
591:
584:
577:
571:
570:
568:
558:
551:
549:
542:
535:
530:
524:
523:
521:
511:
501:
499:
492:
485:
479:
478:
473:
468:
463:
458:
453:
448:
431:
430:
423:
416:
410:
409:
400:
391:
382:
373:
367:
366:
359:
352:
345:
338:
332:
331:
326:
321:
316:
310:
309:
304:
299:
267:
264:
239:English creole
194:spoken by the
186:is one of the
178:
177:
164:, you may see
150:
149:
144:
138:
137:
130:
122:
121:
114:
106:
105:
104:Language codes
101:
100:
98:
97:
96:
95:
81:
79:
72:
69:
68:
65:
62:
59:
58:
53:
49:
48:
43:
39:
38:
33:
32:Native to
29:
28:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4838:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4798:
4796:
4781:
4778:
4777:
4775:
4771:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4759:Miskito Coast
4757:
4756:
4754:
4750:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4721:
4715:
4712:
4711:
4707:
4696:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4678:
4673:
4671:
4666:
4664:
4659:
4658:
4655:
4645:
4641:
4636:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4624:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4614:
4612:
4608:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4578:
4576:
4572:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4555:
4551:
4549:
4548:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4538:
4536:
4532:
4526:
4525:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4508:
4504:
4503:
4501:
4499:
4495:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4483:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4468:
4466:
4464:
4460:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4445:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4428:
4423:
4421:
4416:
4414:
4409:
4408:
4405:
4399:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4387:
4384:
4383:
4373:
4367:
4364:, D. Reimer,
4363:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4272:
4266:
4262:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4245:
4241:
4236:
4232:
4226:
4222:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4192:
4181:
4175:
4167:
4161:
4155:
4148:
4139:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4115:
4108:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4087:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4050:
4043:
4037:
4029:
4023:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4008:
4001:
3999:
3995:
3990:
3987:
3981:
3975:
3969:
3968:ngarngaringba
3963:
3957:
3951:
3945:
3939:
3936:
3930:
3927:
3921:
3915:
3909:
3903:
3899:"meat" (from
3897:
3891:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3872:
3869:
3863:
3857:
3854:
3848:
3842:
3839:
3833:
3827:
3823:) "find" and
3821:
3815:
3809:
3803:
3797:
3791:
3785:
3779:
3773:
3767:
3761:
3755:
3752:
3741:
3738:
3732:
3726:
3720:
3714:
3708:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3690:
3685:
3683:
3676:
3671:
3669:
3666:Naing nising
3661:
3655:
3644:
3641:
3635:
3629:
3626:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3604:
3598:
3592:
3586:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3563:
3561:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3542:
3540:
3533:
3531:
3524:
3522:
3515:
3513:
3506:
3504:
3497:
3495:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3475:
3473:
3460:
3457:
3453:
3452:
3448:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3430:
3426:
3425:
3421:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3404:
3401:
3398:
3392:
3386:
3380:
3374:
3368:
3362:
3351:
3349:
3344:
3343:
3336:
3331:
3330:
3323:
3322:to plant corn
3318:
3317:
3306:
3301:
3299:
3293:
3288:
3286:
3280:
3275:
3273:
3272:Ngurii psutki
3267:
3262:
3260:
3254:
3251:
3246:
3245:
3238:
3233:
3232:
3225:
3220:
3219:
3212:
3207:
3205:
3198:
3193:
3192:
3185:
3180:
3179:
3172:
3167:
3166:
3159:
3156:
3155:every morning
3151:
3149:
3142:
3137:
3135:
3132:Salpka taara
3128:
3123:
3121:
3114:
3109:
3107:
3106:yaabra aap su
3100:
3095:
3093:
3087:
3086:on the island
3082:
3080:
3073:
3072:to the island
3068:
3066:
3060:
3059:with its tail
3055:
3053:
3046:
3045:on the ground
3041:
3039:
3032:
3031:
3030:
3024:
3019:
3013:
3008:
3004:
2998:
2992:
2991:Sukmurk tkari
2987:
2986:
2985:
2977:
2974:
2968:
2962:
2956:
2950:
2944:
2941:
2935:
2929:
2923:
2917:
2911:
2905:
2902:
2896:
2890:
2884:
2878:
2872:
2866:
2850:
2847:
2841:
2835:
2833:
2825:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2801:
2795:
2792:
2786:
2784:
2781:Tiiskama taa
2776:
2770:
2768:
2760:
2754:
2748:
2742:
2740:
2733:
2727:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2711:such as "run
2710:
2709:phrasal verbs
2706:
2696:
2693:
2687:
2681:
2675:
2669:
2663:
2657:
2651:
2649:
2641:
2630:
2627:
2621:
2615:
2609:
2606:
2600:
2594:
2588:
2582:
2579:
2573:
2567:
2561:
2555:
2549:
2543:
2537:
2531:
2528:
2522:
2516:
2510:
2504:
2498:
2492:
2486:
2483:
2477:
2471:
2465:
2459:
2453:
2447:
2441:
2438:
2432:
2426:
2420:
2416:"close") and
2414:
2408:
2402:
2396:
2390:
2384:
2378:
2372:
2361:
2359:
2354:
2351:
2345:
2339:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2323:Nah tawan ki
2318:
2317:
2309:
2306:
2300:
2294:
2288:
2282:
2276:
2270:
2264:
2255:
2252:
2248:
2245:
2244:
2240:
2237:
2233:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2219:
2215:
2212:
2209:
2205:
2204:
2200:
2197:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2183:
2182:
2178:
2175:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2153:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2138:
2132:
2124:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2108:
2107:
2099:
2098:
2090:
2088:
2080:
2079:
2071:
2070:
2067:Nah tawan ki
2059:
2058:subordination
2055:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2042:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2023:
2020:
2014:
2013:ngurii psutki
2008:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1979:
1973:
1962:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1947:
1942:
1938:
1935:
1931:
1928:
1924:
1923:
1919:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1904:
1900:
1897:
1893:
1892:
1888:
1885:
1880:
1876:
1873:
1868:
1864:
1861:
1857:
1854:
1850:
1849:
1845:
1842:
1837:
1833:
1830:
1826:
1823:
1819:
1818:
1814:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1788:
1787:
1779:
1777:
1772:
1771:
1764:
1759:
1758:
1752:(the) town",
1751:
1746:
1745:
1739:the ground",
1738:
1733:
1732:
1725:
1724:postpositions
1718:Postpositions
1715:
1712:
1711:Taa u mtaaku?
1706:
1700:
1696:"who", as in
1694:
1688:
1682:
1679:
1673:
1667:
1661:
1659:
1654:
1648:
1642:
1641:naa, maa, yaa
1637:
1632:
1629:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1605:
1599:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1578:
1576:
1568:
1566:
1559:
1557:
1549:
1547:
1539:
1537:
1529:
1526:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1506:
1499:
1494:
1492:
1486:
1481:
1479:
1472:
1467:
1465:
1459:
1454:
1452:
1446:
1441:
1439:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1394:
1391:
1388:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1367:
1364:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1354:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1333:
1330:
1329:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1319:
1313:
1311:
1307:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1284:
1280:+ possessed (
1278:
1272:
1266:
1264:
1261:"That cat is
1259:
1258:
1250:
1244:
1242:
1237:
1235:
1229:
1224:
1222:
1215:
1213:
1207:
1202:
1200:
1193:
1187:
1185:
1180:
1178:
1172:
1167:
1165:
1159:
1154:
1152:
1140:
1138:
1133:
1132:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1112:
1111:
1103:
1102:
1094:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1076:
1072:
1067:
1066:
1060:the people",
1059:
1054:
1053:
1046:
1041:
1040:
1033:
1028:
1027:
1020:
1015:
1014:
1007:
1002:
1001:
994:
989:
987:
981:
976:
974:
967:
964:
958:
942:
940:
939:subordination
935:
931:
926:
922:
918:
907:
904:
902:
894:
893:
885:
880:
875:
873:
871:
865:
863:
856:
851:
847:
842:
839:
833:
828:
823:
819:"kill", i.e.
817:
812:
807:
802:
797:
792:
789:"eat", thus:
787:
782:
778:
773:
770:
764:
758:
752:
746:
740:
734:
728:
722:
716:
711:
701:
694:
691:
687:
685:
679:
675:
673:
671:
669:
665:
662:
660:
658:
656:
653:
647:
643:
641:
639:
635:
631:
627:
625:
623:
621:
618:
614:
612:
610:
606:
603:
601:
598:
594:
592:
589:
585:
582:
578:
573:
572:
569:
563:
559:
556:
552:
550:
547:
543:
540:
536:
531:
529:
525:
522:
516:
512:
506:
502:
500:
497:
493:
490:
486:
484:
480:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
454:
452:
449:
446:
440:
438:
428:
421:
415:
412:
411:
406:
401:
397:
392:
388:
383:
379:
374:
372:
369:
368:
364:
360:
357:
353:
350:
346:
343:
339:
337:
334:
333:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
311:
308:
303:
297:
291:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
263:
261:
257:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
227:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
184:Rama language
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
157:
151:
148:
145:
143:
139:
135:
131:
129:
128:
123:
119:
115:
112:
107:
102:
94:
91:
90:
89:
86:
85:
84:
80:
76:
70:
66:
60:
57:
54:
50:
47:
44:
40:
37:
34:
30:
25:
20:
4738:
4639:
4621:
4552:
4545:
4522:
4517:
4505:
4480:
4361:
4351:
4341:
4331:
4321:
4312:
4299:
4289:
4279:
4260:
4243:
4239:
4220:
4203:
4199:
4179:
4174:
4147:
4138:
4133:"your name".
4125:Lehmann 1914
4107:
4092:Lehmann 1911
4086:
4063:Lehmann 1914
4049:
4042:Lehmann 1914
4036:
4019:
4011:
3991:
3989:"a little".
3977:"speckled",
3953:"spider" or
3940:
3931:
3892:
3873:
3858:
3847:-king, -ting
3843:
3756:
3747:
3703:
3695:
3688:
3681:
3674:
3667:
3650:
3630:
3613:
3581:
3568:
3559:
3555:
3547:
3538:
3529:
3523:yaing taaki?
3520:
3511:
3502:
3493:
3489:
3481:
3471:
3466:
3402:
3357:
3347:
3341:
3334:
3328:
3321:
3320:"I am going
3316:ai nipiabang
3315:
3310:
3304:
3297:
3291:
3285:Ung ariis ba
3284:
3278:
3271:
3265:
3264:"I was born
3261:nah maktungu
3258:
3249:
3244:ung su karka
3243:
3242:yupsi tabii
3236:
3230:
3223:
3217:
3210:
3203:
3197:with a lance
3196:
3190:
3183:
3177:
3170:
3164:
3154:
3147:
3140:
3133:
3126:
3119:
3112:
3105:
3098:
3091:
3085:
3078:
3077:Nguu ngarak
3071:
3064:
3058:
3051:
3044:
3037:
3028:
3022:
2983:
2945:
2906:
2861:
2853:The sentence
2831:
2820:
2817:Serial verbs
2807:
2796:
2782:
2766:
2738:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2702:
2647:
2636:
2610:
2583:
2532:
2509:Nsukamibang!
2487:
2442:
2367:
2357:
2355:
2324:
2315:
2310:
2265:
2261:
2130:
2121:
2115:ni-paya-kama
2114:
2105:
2096:
2086:
2077:
2068:
2063:
2057:
2053:
2047:
2040:
2039:an optional
2034:
2019:ung su karka
1993:
1985:
1968:
1794:
1793:Naing taata
1785:
1780:
1775:
1769:
1762:
1756:
1749:
1743:
1736:
1730:
1721:
1683:
1662:
1657:
1635:
1633:
1594:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1574:
1564:
1555:
1545:
1535:
1530:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1504:
1497:
1490:
1484:
1477:
1470:
1463:
1457:
1450:
1444:
1437:
1433:
1426:
1409:
1392:
1375:
1358:
1341:
1323:Independent
1309:
1305:
1303:
1290:
1267:
1262:
1256:
1255:Naming puus
1245:
1240:
1233:
1227:
1220:
1211:
1205:
1198:
1188:
1183:
1176:
1170:
1163:
1157:
1150:
1146:
1136:
1130:
1125:
1118:
1109:
1100:
1079:
1074:
1070:
1064:
1057:
1051:
1044:
1038:
1031:
1025:
1018:
1012:
1005:
999:
992:
985:
979:
972:
968:
953:
929:
920:
913:
900:
891:
876:
869:
867:
866:"stays" and
861:
859:
849:
845:
843:
826:
810:
800:
790:
780:
776:
774:
710:phonotactics
707:
699:
434:
283:
279:
275:
271:
269:
228:
183:
181:
153:
125:
92:
4166:prias watla
4096:classifiers
3905:"animal" +
3673:"My sister
3266:on Rama Cay
3148:tamaaski ui
3141:with a hook
3111:"I grew up
3070:"They came
3054:naayarnguli
2488:The suffix
2246:imperative
2201:"when, if"
2191:past tense
1812:Short form
1610:Yaing taaki
1528:"with us".
1518:changes to
1416:they, them
1173:strength",
1050:kaulingdut
945:Noun phrase
443:Consonants
196:Rama people
168:instead of
4795:Categories
4302:(4): 29â32
4189:References
4100:Craig 2000
4079:Craig 1991
4055:Craig 1991
4021:Ethnologue
3986:tiskitiski
3980:kingkingma
3965:"yellow",
3956:tkwustkwus
3950:ngaukngauk
3805:"eat" and
3562:maing aak?
3496:maa aakar?
3329:nipayakama
3314:Nah taaki
3287:upsi ankai
3204:naing isii
2810:nsuaukkama
2719:", "carry
2581:"drink").
2530:"speak").
2314:Ntaakkama
2284:"I came",
2228:no suffix
2106:an-sung-ka
2095:Suulikaas
2054:tense/mood
2004:"inside",
1996:relational
1865:"to, for"
1809:Long form
1399:you (pl.)
1348:you (sg.)
1246:The forms
1214:kaulingdut
1186:fingers".
1143:Possession
1047:morning",
841:"killed".
742:"speaks",
718:"toucan",
668:Semivowels
609:Fricatives
471:Labiovelar
247:Craig 1992
243:Craig 1990
231:endangered
224:Craig 1990
220:Craig 1992
204:Bluefields
4642:indicate
4463:Talamanca
4246:: 11â26,
4114:maing aak
3974:siksiknga
3971:"green",
3962:nuknuknga
3929:"hair").
3896:suulikaas
3569:Niika bii
3530:Ngarangsu
3521:Ngarangsu
3512:Ngarangki
3503:Ngarangki
3494:Ngarangki
3482:ngarangki
3470:Tiiskama
3456:niika bii
3412:Pronouns
3394:"Yes" or
3354:Questions
3211:like mine
3171:with Nora
3127:for water
3122:taak ikar
3050:Tulkumas
2946:The verb
2907:The verb
2834:lakun aik
2741:nangalbiu
2715:", "come
2703:Rama has
2668:larn tang
2392:, giving
2305:nsiikkata
2293:nsiikbang
2097:ni-auk-ut
2052:either a
2046:the verb
1969:Although
1797:nangalbiu
1653:nsut + -a
1598:Nah taaki
1573:Ipang su
1236:rama kuup
1135:"(a/the)
1114:"women",
1037:tamaaski
1034:houses",
533:voiceless
266:Phonology
241:instead (
208:Nicaragua
127:Glottolog
111:ISO 639-3
52:Ethnicity
36:Nicaragua
4764:Rama Cay
4729:Garifuna
4623:Dorasque
4591:Kankuamo
4507:CorobicĂ
4386:Turkulka
3923:"eye" +
3841:"seek".
3784:almaling
3716:"find",
3698:aakwaala
3578:Negation
3474:yutaaku?
3449:"where"
3439:Adverbs
3397:Mahaling
3305:Tomorrow
3259:Ipang su
3079:ipang su
3065:Ipang su
2756:"from":
2705:preverbs
2699:Preverbs
2650:skuul ki
2648:taakkama
2633:Modality
2272:"come":
2157:Meaning
2151:Meaning
2087:m-taak-u
2031:Overview
2026:The verb
1690:"what",
1669:"this",
1658:Anangsku
1534:Neli aa
1507:su tabiu
1336:naas, na
1300:Pronouns
1234:nsulaing
1117:tiiskama
1096:, as in
1063:tausung
998:tausung
982:house",
528:Plosives
456:Alveolar
451:Bilabial
251:Rama Cay
200:Rama Cay
174:Help:IPA
134:rama1270
83:Chibchan
46:Rama Cay
4734:Miskito
4714:Spanish
4640:Italics
4586:Chimila
4581:Arhuaco
4547:Chibcha
4476:Cabécar
4453:NgÀbere
4448:Buglere
4354:, CIDCA
4292:, CIDCA
4212:1265135
3914:-upulis
3820:aa- + p
3787:"die",
3744:Lexicon
3663:"but":
3657:"and",
3550:mtaaku?
3422:"what"
3231:nguu ki
3218:nguu ki
3191:twiis u
3184:with me
3146:Kruubu
3099:with me
3097:"Speak
3094:alkwis!
3067:ansiiku
3040:itraali
3038:tkii su
2955:kwaakar
2949:kuaakar
2791:yu-taak
2775:yu-siik
2769:ansiiku
2677:, e.g.
2608:"go").
2401:-atkul-
2353:"go!".
2299:nsiikka
2287:nsiikut
2154:Suffix
2148:Suffix
2104:kruubu
1984:Kruubu
1963:"with"
1908:"from"
1877:"like"
1410:m- -lut
1382:we, us
1326:Prefix
1230:name",
1228:his/her
1171:his/her
1139:fish".
1129:salpka
1105:"men",
1075:another
1021:cats",
1000:saiming
988:tausung
917:Miskito
910:Grammar
846:n-, ni-
760:"man",
751:nkiikna
730:"man",
727:nkiikna
724:"hot",
715:psaarik
638:Liquids
476:Glottal
461:Palatal
294:Vowels
226::293).
212:Miskito
190:of the
170:Unicode
4617:BorƩca
4513:Maléku
4488:Teribe
4482:Huetar
4471:Bribri
4368:
4267:
4227:
4210:
4182:(1981)
3944:tahtah
3838:al + p
3817:(i.e.
3808:alkwis
3778:maling
3484:aakar?
3461:"how"
3434:"who"
3400:"No".
3335:to buy
3298:Tamaik
3165:Nora u
3134:sauk u
3120:sii ba
3108:aapunu
3052:ituk u
3036:Pkaak
2832:traali
2785:taaku?
2747:ngalbi
2626:-uting
2566:baakar
2542:bating
2527:alkwis
2503:tanang
2482:Baakar
2452:baakar
2437:-itkr-
2431:-atkar
2413:akaang
2389:-atkul
2364:Aspect
2316:aakari
2281:nsiiku
2275:nsiiki
2085:Taa u
2078:taak-i
2076:Yaing
2060:marker
2001:psutki
1986:kiikna
1939:"for"
1889:"for"
1742:tawan
1672:naming
1616:Itaaki
1604:Ntaaki
1558:taaku?
1554:Taa u
1525:nsul u
1503:Walsa
1496:"from
1471:He/She
1376:i-, y-
1331:I, me
1160:eye",
1099:kiikna
1082:number
1077:dog".
1052:umling
1026:ngarak
1013:puksak
1008:dog",
986:naming
879:sandhi
838:malngu
832:mlingu
822:maling
816:maling
757:kiikna
745:salpka
739:alkwsi
733:mlingu
575:voiced
483:Nasals
42:Region
4610:Other
4498:Votic
4208:JSTOR
4154:tawan
4102::60).
4004:Notes
3998:Upala
3902:suuli
3853:-uung
3826:baalp
3751:taara
3737:kaing
3725:kaing
3696:barka
3660:barka
3634:angka
3585:taama
3548:Taa u
3480:Maa,
3178:nah u
3150:tabii
3118:Naas
3092:Nah u
3081:aakar
2928:Aakar
2910:aakar
2824:traal
2686:angka
2640:-kama
2620:-uing
2614:-aing
2593:-kama
2587:aakar
2578:alngu
2560:traat
2491:-bang
2476:aakar
2446:aakar
2404:are:
2358:-bang
2350:bang!
2344:mang!
2332:Siik!
2325:aakar
2241:"if"
2236:-kata
2218:-kama
2174:-bang
2069:aakar
2064:e.g.
2007:karka
1988:kwisu
1903:(i)ka
1768:nguu
1765:me",
1729:tkii
1722:Rama
1650:(for
1647:nsula
1577:siiku
1567:taaku
1548:aukut
1538:tangu
1466:taaki
1464:Yaing
1456:"Can
1370:yaing
1289:Nora
1257:naing
1221:yaing
1212:maing
1199:naing
1192:-aing
1179:suluk
1131:taara
1108:kumaa
1073:dog,
1071:other
1069:"the
1065:saina
1045:every
1024:nguu
1011:puus
934:taaku
884:aakar
855:aakar
806:ikwsu
708:Rama
466:Velar
371:(Mid)
324:Front
314:Front
302:Short
88:Votic
4744:Sumo
4739:Rama
4629:Pech
4601:Wiwa
4596:Kogi
4560:Kuna
4554:Duit
4541:BarĂ
4524:Voto
4518:Rama
4366:ISBN
4265:ISBN
4225:ISBN
4130:maak
4127:has
4073:and
4065:and
4016:Rama
3926:ulis
3908:kaas
3868:-ima
3850:and
3802:kwis
3763:and
3719:aung
3713:aapi
3560:Niku
3417:niku
3213:?",
3136:ikuu
3104:Nah
3101:!",
2952:(or
2759:-na-
2732:yaa-
2729:and
2717:over
2713:away
2656:Ikar
2605:taak
2536:bang
2515:kami
2470:paun
2425:sung
2383:kwis
2371:kwis
2338:taak
2269:siik
2048:stem
1927:king
1896:kang
1884:kama
1872:isii
1853:bang
1841:aing
1786:kang
1770:aing
1763:with
1755:nah
1687:niku
1666:ning
1644:but
1590:-lut
1582:They
1512:them
1505:anut
1493:kang
1421:anut
1404:mlut
1393:nsu-
1387:nsut
1293:nguu
1291:aing
1283:aing
1277:aing
1263:mine
1166:ausa
1093:-lut
1087:-dut
1032:many
993:that
980:this
975:nguu
973:ning
899:aaki
890:aaki
868:aaik
796:kwis
786:kwis
763:nsu-
721:tkua
336:High
329:Back
319:Back
307:Long
282:and
274:and
272:a, i
216:Sumu
214:and
182:The
147:Rama
93:Rama
56:Rama
27:Rama
22:Rama
4565:Uwa
4248:doi
4120:aak
4018:at
3920:-up
3887:-up
3877:-up
3862:-ba
3832:ba-
3814:aap
3772:al-
3766:aa-
3760:al-
3689:and
3675:and
3539:Taa
3472:taa
3429:taa
3391:Aha
3350:".
3337:",
3324:",
3294:",
3281:",
3268:",
3239:",
3226:",
3199:",
3186:",
3173:",
3143:",
3129:",
3115:",
3088:",
3074:",
3061:",
3047:",
2800:yu-
2753:ka-
2674:-ut
2458:ba-
2347:or
2251:-su
2208:-ut
2196:-ka
1975:or
1972:aak
1822:aak
1693:taa
1613:or
1601:or
1520:-ul
1516:-ut
1500:",
1498:you
1491:maa
1478:nah
1458:you
1451:Maa
1438:Nah
1427:an-
1353:maa
1265:".
1241:our
1223:aak
1184:our
1177:nsu
1137:big
1119:lut
1110:lut
1101:dut
1090:or
1058:all
1019:two
1006:one
903:-ka
872:r-u
864:r-i
860:aak
850:na-
848:or
835:or
769:su-
766:or
754:or
437:IPA
414:Low
290:):
156:IPA
142:ELP
118:rma
4797::
4244:93
4242:,
4204:56
4202:,
4061:,
4057:,
4000:.
3856:.
3835:+
3682:an
3668:an
3654:an
3614:aa
3252:".
3157:".
2808:yu
2783:yu
2767:yu
2739:Ka
2721:on
2539:,
2186:-u
2164:-i
1978:aa
1946:su
1934:ki
1915:ki
1860:ba
1829:aa
1795:ka
1776:of
1750:in
1744:ki
1737:on
1731:su
1636:aa
1586:m-
1575:an
1546:ni
1536:ni
1485:me
1359:m-
1342:n-
1310:y-
1306:i-
1206:my
1158:my
1153:up
1039:ui
930:n-
925:up
921:n-
827:-u
825:+
811:-u
801:-u
799:+
793:+
791:i-
781:-u
777:i-
649:,
562:kÊ·
515:ĆÊ·
427:aË
408:)
405:oË
399:)
396:eË
390:)
381:)
363:uË
356:iË
4676:e
4669:t
4662:v
4426:e
4419:t
4412:v
4375:.
4356:.
4346:.
4336:.
4326:.
4316:.
4304:.
4294:.
4284:.
4274:.
4255:.
4250::
4234:.
4215:.
4169:.
3829:(
3303:"
3206:?
2434:(
2089:?
1958:u
1774:"
1761:"
1757:u
1748:"
1735:"
1580:"
1565:I
1556:m
1480:u
1469:"
1445:I
1443:"
1239:"
1226:"
1204:"
1182:"
1169:"
1164:y
1156:"
1151:n
1056:"
1043:"
1030:"
1017:"
1004:"
991:"
978:"
901:t
892:t
870:u
862:i
690:w
678:j
652:r
646:l
630:h
617:s
597:g
588:d
581:b
555:k
546:t
539:p
505:Ć
496:n
489:m
420:a
402:(
393:(
387:o
384:(
378:e
375:(
349:u
342:i
284:o
280:e
276:u
258:(
218:(
176:.
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