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have communal nests, where they share the incubating duties with others. Ostriches, and great spotted kiwis, are the only ratites where the female incubates; they share the duties, with the males incubating at night. Cassowaries and emu are polyandrous, with males incubating eggs and rearing chicks with no obvious contribution from females. Ostriches and rheas are polygynous with each male courting several females. Male rheas are responsible for building nests and incubating while ostrich males incubate only at night. Kiwis stand out as the exception with extended monogamous reproductive strategies where either the male alone or both sexes incubate a single egg. Unlike most birds, male ratites have a
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richness and no mammalian predators, the need for large, powerful flight muscles that make for a quick escape decreases. Moreover, raptor species tend to become generalist predators on islands with low species richness, as opposed to specializing in the predation of birds. An increase in leg size compensates for a reduction in wing length in insular birds that have not lost flight by providing a longer lever to increase force generated during the thrust that initiates takeoff.
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the combination of rapid early radiation of the group and long terminal branches. A morphological analysis that created a basal New
Zealand clade has not been corroborated by molecular studies. A 2008 study of nuclear genes shows ostriches branching first, followed by rheas and tinamous, then kiwi splitting from emus and cassowaries. In more recent studies, moas and tinamous were shown to be
1600:, concentrating on broad-leafed plants. However, they will eat insects if the opportunity arises. Emus have tracts of 7 m (23 ft) length, and have a more omnivorous diet, including insects and other small animals. Cassowaries have next to the shortest tracts at 4 m (13 ft). Finally, kiwi have the shortest tracts and eat earthworms, insects, and other similar creatures.
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require dispersal across oceans by flight, as apparently does the colonization of New
Zealand by the moa and possibly the back-dispersal of tinamous to South America, if the latter occurred. The phylogeny as a whole suggests not only multiple independent origins of flightlessness, but also of gigantism (at least five times).
1302:
Antarctica, (by the same route marsupials are thought to have used to reach
Australia) and then reached New Zealand and Madagascar via "sweepstakes" dispersals (rare low probability dispersal methods, such as long distance rafting) across the oceans. Gigantism would have evolved subsequent to trans-oceanic dispersals.
880:
position and among extant ratites, placed rheas in the second most basal position, with
Australo-Pacific ratites splitting up last; they have also shown that both the latter groups are monophyletic. Early mitochondrial genetic studies that failed to make ostriches basal were apparently compromised by
1656:
Ratites and humans have had a long relationship starting with the use of the egg for water containers, jewelry, or other art medium. Male ostrich feathers were popular for hats during the 18th century, which led to hunting and sharp declines in populations. Ostrich farming grew out of this need, and
1301:
appear to be the most basal members of the clade. The various ratite lineages were probably descended from flying ancestors that independently colonised South
America and Africa from the north, probably initially in South America. From South America they could have traveled overland to Australia via
1377:
While the ratites share a lot of similarities, they also have major differences. Ostriches have only two toes, with one being much larger than the other. Cassowaries have developed long inner toenails, used defensively. Ostriches and rheas have prominent wings; although they do not use them to fly,
897:
among ratites at least three times. More recent evidence suggests this happened at least six times, or once in each major ratite lineage. Re-evolution of flight in the tinamous would be an alternative explanation, but such a development is without precedent in avian history, while loss of flight is
1635:
Ratites are different from the flying birds in that they needed to adapt or evolve certain features to protect their young. First and foremost is the thickness of the shells of their eggs. Their young are hatched more developed than most and they can run or walk soon thereafter. Also, most ratites
1268:
Kiwi and tinamous are the only palaeognath lineages not to evolve gigantism, perhaps because of competitive exclusion by giant ratites already present on New
Zealand and South America when they arrived or arose. The fact that New Zealand has been the only land mass to recently support two major
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split-up of
Gondwana followed by continental drift would predict that the deepest phylogenetic split would be between African and all other ratites, followed by a split between South American and Australo-Pacific ratites, roughly as observed. However, the elephant bird–kiwi relation appears to
1323:
created a window of time with large predators absent that may have allowed the ancestors of extant flightless ratites to evolve flightlessness. They subsequently underwent selection for large size. One hypothesis suggests that as predation pressure decreases on islands with low raptor species
1318:
Research on flightless rails indicates the flightless condition evolved in the absence of predators. This shows flight to be generally necessary for survival and dispersal in birds. In apparent contradiction to this, many landmasses occupied by ratites are also inhabited by predatory mammals.
2423:
Yonezawa, T.; Segawa, T.; Mori, H.; Campos, P. F.; Hongoh, Y.; Endo, H.; Akiyoshi, A.; Kohno, N.; Nishida, S.; Wu, J.; Jin, H.; Adachi, J.; Kishino, H.; Kurokawa, K.; Nogi, Y.; Tanabe, H.; Mukoyama, H.; Yoshida, K.; Rasoamiaramanana, A.; Yamagishi, S.; Hayashi, Y.; Yoshida, A.; Koike, H.;
2737:
Harshman, J.; Braun, E. L.; Braun, M. J.; Huddleston, C. J.; Bowie, R. C. K.; Chojnowski, J. L.; Hackett, S. J.; Han, K.-L.; Kimball, R. T.; Marks, B. D.; Miglia, K. J.; Moore, W. S.; Reddy, S.; Sheldon, F. H.; Steadman, D. W.; Steppan, S. J.; Witt, C. C.; Yuri, T. (September 2008).
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and use a highly developed sense of smell to find small insects and grubs in the soil. Kiwi are notable for laying eggs that are very large in relation to their body size. A kiwi egg may equal 15 to 20 percent of the body mass of a female kiwi. The smallest species of kiwi is the
671:, cassowary eggs are brought back to villages and the chicks raised for eating as a much-prized delicacy, despite (or perhaps because of) the risk they pose to life and limb. They reach up to 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in) tall and weigh as much as 85 kilograms (187 lb)
1314:
mass, hollow bones and a light build, et cetera. The basal metabolic rate of flighted species is much higher than that of flightless terrestrial birds. But energetic efficiency can only help explain the loss of flight when the benefits of flying are not critical to survival.
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rather than monophyletic, if we exclude the tinamous. Since tinamous are weak fliers, this raises interesting questions about the evolution of flightlessness in this group. The branching of the tinamous within the ratite radiation suggests flightlessness
839:. Cracraft's 1974 biogeographic vicariance hypothesis suggested that ancestral flightless paleognaths, the ancestors of ratites, were present and widespread in Gondwana during the Late Cretaceous. As the supercontinent fragmented due to
860:
Recent analyses of genetic variation between the ratites do not support this simple picture. The ratites may have diverged from one another too recently to share a common
Gondwanan ancestor. Also, the Middle Eocene ratites such as
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Le Duc, D.; Renaud, G.; Krishnan, A.; Almén, M. S.; Huynen, L.; Prohaska, S. J.; Ongyerth, M.; Bitarello, B. D.; Schiöth, H. B.; Hofreiter, M.; Stadler, P. F.; Prüfer, K.; Lambert, D.; Kelso, J.; Schöneberg, T. (23 July 2015).
1276:
Most recently, studies on genetic and morphological divergence and fossil distribution show that paleognaths as a whole probably had an origin in the northern hemisphere. Early
Cenozoic northern hemisphere paleognaths such as
1673:(FSIS) began a voluntary, fee-for-service ratite inspection program in 1995 to help the fledgling industry improve the marketability of the meat. A provision in the FY2001 USDA appropriations act (P.L. 106–387) amended the
576:', a vessel which has no keel — in contradistinction to extant flighted birds with a keel). Without this to anchor their wing muscles, they could not have flown even if they had developed suitable wings. Ratites are a
1588:; similarities in adults end with feeding, as they all vary in diet and length of digestive tract, which is indicative of diet. Ostriches, with the longest tracts at 14 m (46 ft), are primarily
1273:. However, various other landmasses such as South America and Europe have supported multiple lineages of flightless ratites that evolved independently, undermining this competitive exclusion hypothesis.
2135:
Sackton, Timothy B.; Grayson, Phil; Cloutier, Alison; Hu, Zhirui; Liu, Jun S.; Wheeler, Nicole E.; Gardner, Paul P.; Clarke, Julia A.; Baker, Allan J.; Clamp, Michele; Edwards, Scott V. (2019-04-05).
2954:
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Buffetaut, E.; Angst, D. (November 2014). "Stratigraphic distribution of large flightless birds in the
Palaeogene of Europe and its palaeobiological and palaeogeographical implications".
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is next in height, reaching up to 1.9 metres (6 ft 3 in) tall and about 50 kilograms (110 lb). Like the ostrich, it is a fast-running, powerful bird of the open plains and
1352:. Their tail and flight feathers have retrogressed or have become decorative plumes. They have no feather vanes, which means they do not need to oil their feathers, hence they have no
641:
is the largest living ratite. A large member of this species can be nearly 2.8 metres (9 ft 2 in) tall, weigh as much as 156 kilograms (344 lb), and can outrun a horse.
1265:, in which ratites were able to fill vacant herbivorous niches before mammals attained large size. Some authorities, though, have been skeptical of the new findings and conclusions.
3453:
Corfield, J. R.; Wild, J. M.; Hauber, M. E.; Parsons, S.; Kubke, M. F. (2007-11-21). "Evolution of Brain Size in the Palaeognath Lineage, with an Emphasis on New Zealand Ratites".
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branch, followed by rheas, then a clade consisting of moas and tinamous, followed by the final two branches: a clade of emus plus cassowaries and one of elephant birds plus kiwis.
3264:
McNab, B. K.; Ellis, H. I. (November 2006). "Flightless rails endemic to islands have lower energy expenditures and clutch sizes than flighted rails on islands and continents".
885:, and elephant birds were shown to be most closely related to the New Zealand kiwi. Additional support for the latter relationship was obtained from morphological analysis.
1661:. Rhea feathers are popular for dusters, and eggs and meat are used for chicken and pet feed in South America. Ratite hides are popular for leather products like shoes.
888:
The finding that tinamous nest within this group, originally based on twenty nuclear genes and corroborated by a study using forty novel nuclear loci makes 'ratites'
857:
are known from several million years earlier, and the classification and membership of the Ratitae itself is uncertain. Some of the earliest ratites occur in Europe.
766:. All these species went into decline following the arrival of humans on Madagascar around 2,000 years ago, and were gone by the 17th or 18th century if not earlier.
3035:
Agnolin, F. L. (2016-07-05). "Unexpected diversity of ratites (Aves, Palaeognathae) in the early Cenozoic of South America: palaeobiogeographical implications".
835:, which carried them to their present locations. Supporting this idea, some studies based on morphology, immunology and DNA sequencing reported that ratites are
2402:
843:, they were carried by plate movements to their current positions and evolved into the species present today. The earliest known ratite fossils date to the
2962:
1945:"Moa's Ark or volant ghosts of Gondwana? Insights from nineteen years of ancient DNA research on the extinct moa (Aves: Dinornithiformes) of New Zealand"
461:
2523:
Davies, S.J.J.F. (2003). "Struthioniformes (Tinamous and Ratites)". In Hutchins, Michael; Jackson, Jerome A.; Bock, Walter J.; Olendorf, Donna (eds.).
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The understanding of relationships within the paleognath clade has been in flux. Previously, all the flightless members had been assigned to the order
734:
with a height of 3.7 metres (12 ft 2 in) and weighing about 230 kilograms (510 lb). They became extinct by A.D. 1400 due to hunting by
754:
could weigh over 400 kilograms (880 lb) and stand up to 3 metres (9 ft 10 in) tall. Accompanying it were three other species of
2011:
610:, although the genus is thought to have originated in Africa. However, the ostrich order may have evolved in Eurasia. A recent study posits a
3711:
1348:) are almost absent. They have simplified wing skeletons and musculature. Their legs are stronger and do not have air chambers, except the
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lineages of flightless ratites may reflect the near total absence of native mammals, which allowed kiwi to occupy a mammal-like nocturnal
3706:
1487:
1261:; however, a ten-million-year-long window of opportunity for evolution of avian gigantism on continents may have existed following the
2929:
3496:
Alvarenga, H. M. F. (1983). "Uma ave ratitae do Paleoceno Brasileiro: bacia calcária de Itaboraí, Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil".
2803:
2799:"A new Transantarctic relationship: morphological evidence for a Rheidae–Dromaiidae–Casuariidae clade (Aves, Palaeognathae, Ratitae)"
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humans harvested feathers, hides, eggs, and meat from the ostrich. Emu farming also became popular for similar reasons and for their
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470:
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2199:"Complete mitochondrial DNA genome sequences of extinct birds: ratite phylogenetics and the vicariance biogeography hypothesis"
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suggest palaeognathous affinities of the Geranoididae and other "crane-like" birds from the Eocene of the Northern Hemisphere"
2010:
Mitchell, K. J.; Llamas, B.; Soubrier, J.; Rawlence, N. J.; Worthy, T. H.; Wood, J.; Lee, M. S. Y.; Cooper, A. (23 May 2014).
3559:
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1944:
1874:"Tinamous and moa flock together: mitochondrial genome sequence analysis reveals independent losses of flight among ratites"
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were the largest native herbivores in their faunas, far larger than contemporary herbivorous mammals in the latter's case.
2527:. Vol. 8 Birds I Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins (2 ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. pp. 56–105.
811:, while the other supposes that the lineages evolved mostly independently and thus elevates the families to order rank (
3432:. Vol. 8 Birds I Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins (2 ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. pp. 53–55.
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1670:
588:. This implies that flightlessness is a trait that evolved independently multiple times in different ratite lineages.
1429:
1356:. They have no separation of pterylae (feathered areas) and apteria (non-feathered areas), and finally, they have
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grows to about 1.4 metres (4 ft 7 in) tall and usually weighs 15 to 40 kilograms (33–88 lb).
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Loss of flight allows birds to eliminate the costs of maintaining various flight-enabling adaptations like high
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Ratites in general have many physical characteristics in common, although many are not shared by the family
3721:
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606:, from where the first flightless paleognaths are known. Ostriches were present in Asia as recently as the
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The longstanding story of ratite evolution was that they share a common flightless ancestor that lived in
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2087:"Genomic Support for a Moa-Tinamou Clade and Adaptive Morphological Convergence in Flightless Ratites"
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1396:. Kiwis are exceptions to this trend, and possess proportionally larger brains comparable to those of
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during the breeding season. Emus, cassowaries, and kiwis show some dimorphism, predominantly in size.
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Nilsson, M.A.; Churakov, G.; Sommer, M.; Van Tran, N.; Zemann, A.; Brosius, J.; Schmitz, J. (2010).
2426:"Phylogenomics and Morphology of Extinct Paleognaths Reveal the Origin and Evolution of the Ratites"
3301:"A New Species of Rail from the Solomon-Islands and Convergent Evolution of Insular Flightlessness"
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349:
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McNab, B. K. (October 1994). "Energy Conservation and the Evolution of Flightlessness in Birds".
2012:"Ancient DNA reveals elephant birds and kiwi are sister taxa and clarifies ratite bird evolution"
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439:
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17:
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Cooper, A.; Lalueza-Fox, C.; Anderson, S.; Rambaut, A.; Austin, J.; Ward, R. (8 February 2001).
713:, at 0.9 to 1.9 kilograms (2.0–4.2 lb) and 35 to 45 centimetres (14–18 in).
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Tambussi, C.P.; Noriega, J.I.; Gazdzicki, A.; Tatur, A.; Reguero, M.A.; Vizcaino, S.F. (1994).
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to make federal inspection of ratite meat mandatory as of April 2001 (21 U.S.C. 451 et seq.).
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2634:"Testing gradual and speciational models of evolution in extant taxa: the example of ratites"
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1780:. Vol. XXVII. Red Lion Court Fleet Street, London UK: Taylor and Francis. p. 570.
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659:. Shorter than an emu, but heavier and solidly built, cassowaries prefer thickly vegetated
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3214:"Patterns of correlated character evolution in flightless birds: a phylogenetic approach"
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By 2014, a mitochondrial DNA phylogeny including fossil members placed ostriches on the
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from Central Europe may imply that the "out-of-Gondwana" hypothesis is oversimplified.
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147:
2251:"Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequences of Two Extinct Moas Clarify Ratite Evolution"
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forest. They can be dangerous when surprised or cornered because of their razor-sharp
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lived in New Zealand before the arrival of humans, ranging from turkey-sized to the
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1592:. Rheas' tracts are next longest at 8–9 m (26–30 ft), and they also have
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750:, was the heaviest bird ever known. Although shorter than the tallest moa, a large
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3080:"Ratite bird from the Paleogene La Meseta Formation, Seymour Island, Antarctica"
1963:
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Some extinct ratites might have had odder lifestyles, such as the narrow-billed
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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1109:
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Also native to Australia and the islands to the north are the three species of
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525:. They are mostly large, long-necked, and long-legged, the exception being the
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Wright, Natalie A.; Steadman, David W.; Witt, Christopher C. (26 April 2016).
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Laurin, M.; Gussekloo, S.W.S.; Marjanovic, D.; Legendre, L.; Cubo, J. (2012).
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1404:, though evidence for similar advanced cognitive skills is currently lacking.
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have ratites, or did have until the fairly recent past. So did Europe in the
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Members of the four genera of large extant ratites. Clockwise from top left:
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Molecular phylogenies of the ratites have generally placed ostriches in the
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2955:"A Theory on How Flightless Birds Spread Across the World: They Flew There"
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2137:"Convergent regulatory evolution and loss of flight in paleognathous birds"
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1971:
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295:
139:
3114:"Tracking Marsupial Evolution Using Archaic Genomic Retroposon Insertions"
1913:
Fowler, Murray E. (June 1991). "Comparative Clinical Anatomy of Ratites".
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Without exception, ratite chicks are capable of swimming and even diving.
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2986:"Kiwi genome provides insights into evolution of a nocturnal lifestyle"
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Cracraft, J (October 1974). "Phylogeny and evolution of ratite birds".
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544:. The modern bird superorder Palaeognathae consists of ratites and the
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2047:
2740:"Phylogenomic evidence for multiple losses of flight in ratite birds"
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3342:"Predictable evolution toward flightlessness in volant island birds"
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Baker, A. J.; Haddrath, O.; McPherson, J. D.; Cloutier, A. (2014).
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2875:"A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their Evolutionary History"
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Catalogue of British Birds in the Collection of the British Museum
853:, a possible early relative of the rhea). However, more primitive
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approaches to ratite classification: one combines the groups as
2424:
Akishinonomiya, F.; Willerslev, E.; Hasegawa, M. (2016-12-15).
2349:"A Miocene ostrich fossil from Gansu Province, northwest China"
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2834:"Ratite Nonmonophyly: Independent Evidence from 40 Novel Loci"
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2009:
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3428:
Bruning, D. F. (2003). "Rheas". In Hutchins, Michael (ed.).
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Smith, J. V.; Braun, E. L.; Kimball, R. T. (January 2012).
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10.1206/0003-0082(2005)491[0001:ANSOTF]2.0.CO;2
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Bourdon, Estelle; De Ricqles, Armand; Cubo, Jorge (2009).
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Leonard, L.; Dyke, G. J.; Van Tuinen, M. (October 2005).
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618:, which may have been ratites, existed in North America.
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540:, which is more recently regarded as containing only the
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2550:"The evolution of flightlessness: Is history important?"
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Phillips MJ, Gibb GC, Crimp EA, Penny D (January 2010).
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they do use them in courtship and predator distraction.
1871:
1825:. Zwaag, The Netherlands: Universal Taxonomic Services
1819:"Systema Naturae 2000 / Taxon: Order Struthioniformes"
558:). Unlike other flightless birds, the ratites have no
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831:, whose descendants were isolated from each other by
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Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws
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Boletim do Museu Nacional (Rio de Janeiro), Geologia
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Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology
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2930:"Bird evolutionary tree given a shake by DNA study"
2347:Hou, L.; Zhou, Z.; Zhang, F.; Wang, Z. (Aug 2005).
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2401:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
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3548:Farner, Donald S.; King, James R. (2013-09-03).
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2302:
2300:
1943:Allentoft, M. E.; Rawlence, N. J. (2012-01-20).
1844:Harshman, John; Brown, Joseph W. (13 May 2010).
2873:Hackett, Shannon J.; et al. (2008-06-27).
2744:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2674:
2418:
2416:
2414:
2412:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1938:
1936:
1627:, and could imply similar animalivorous diets.
2625:
2308:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1981:
1867:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1859:
760:as well as three species of the smaller genus
580:group; tinamous fall within them, and are the
2297:
2196:
1843:
692:The smallest ratites are the five species of
3446:
3071:
2518:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2510:
2508:
2506:
2409:
2080:
2078:
2076:
2074:
1933:
1777:Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum
1407:
1340:are underdeveloped. They do not have keeled
3292:
3105:
3028:
2732:
2730:
2728:
2726:
2724:
1978:
1856:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1741:. London, UK: British Museum. p. 133.
1664:
567:
3568:
3547:
3423:
3421:
3419:
3417:
3415:
3333:
3263:
2946:
2683:"A New Specimen of the Fossil Palaeognath
2342:
2340:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2122:
129:
3519:. Springer Science & Business Media.
3495:
3489:
3383:
3365:
3316:
3257:
3232:
3162:
3145:
3135:
3011:
3001:
2849:
2825:
2816:
2804:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
2773:
2763:
2649:
2503:
2494:
2449:
2244:
2242:
2222:
2160:
2102:
2071:
2046:
1952:Annals of Anatomy - Anatomischer Anzeiger
1889:
716:
288:included but traditionally excluded taxa
2721:
2604:
2598:
2466:
1753:
847:epoch about 56 million years ago (e.g.,
773:
738:settlers, who arrived around A.D. 1280.
3427:
3412:
3298:
3034:
2872:
2866:
2790:
2337:
2119:
1797:Integrated Taxonomic Information System
1727:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1570:
14:
3689:
3574:
3409:for definitions of the two latin words
2952:
2927:
2921:
2522:
2239:
1912:
1816:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1687:List of Struthioniformes by population
644:Of the living species, the Australian
3620:
3619:
3168:
1906:
1837:
1810:
1651:
1263:extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs
3611:Websites With Information On Ratites
3514:
3211:
3205:
2547:
2472:
1915:Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine
1790:
1731:
946:
3712:Taxa named by William Plane Pycraft
2197:Haddrath, O.; Baker, A. J. (2001).
1784:
1698:
1640:that is inserted into the female's
1575:
1392:have generally smaller brains than
24:
3707:Extant Thanetian first appearances
3430:Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia
2619:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1974.tb07648.x
2525:Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia
1671:Food Safety and Inspection Service
681:, large fast-running birds of the
25:
3733:
3604:
2687:from the Lower Eocene of Denmark"
1623:, compared to the shorebird-like
1305:
769:
566:— hence the name, from the Latin
2818:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2008.00509.x
2651:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2011.02422.x
2203:Proceedings of the Royal Society
1556:
1542:
1528:
1514:
1500:
1486:
1472:
1458:
1444:
1428:
1414:
490:
162:
53:
3541:
3508:
3400:
2638:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
2541:
2331:10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.07.001
2091:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1817:Brands, Sheila J., ed. (2020).
1675:Poultry Products Inspection Act
1630:
632:
3582:(Report). 2005. Archived from
1580:Ratite chicks tend to be more
1327:
517:) is any of a group of mostly
13:
1:
3455:Brain, Behavior and Evolution
3407:http://www.freedictionary.com
3057:10.1080/03115518.2016.1184898
2483:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
1774:; Sharpe, R. Bowdler (1895).
1692:
987:
3137:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000436
1850:The Tree of Life Web Project
1366:Ostriches have the greatest
822:
521:birds within the infraclass
7:
3212:Cubo, Arthur (4 May 2001).
1964:10.1016/j.aanat.2011.04.002
1680:
1161:(cassowaries, 3 spp.)
696:from New Zealand. Kiwi are
27:Polyphyletic group of birds
10:
3738:
3278:10.1016/j.cbpa.2006.02.025
2928:Holmes, Bob (2008-06-26).
1336:, or tinamous. First, the
625:
621:
3628:
3551:Avian Biology: Volume III
3525:10.1007/978-3-540-89628-9
3299:Diamond, J. (July 1991).
3128:Public Library of Science
3003:10.1186/s13059-015-0711-4
2953:Zimmer, C. (2014-05-22).
2691:American Museum Novitates
2451:10.1016/j.cub.2016.10.029
1408:Gallery of living species
1172:
1156:
1148:
1123:
1106:
1098:
1090:
1060:(tinamous, 46 spp.)
1055:
1038:
1030:
1022:
1015:
989:
981:
974:
953:(ostriches, 2 spp.)
948:
940:
933:
746:, the "elephant bird" of
721:At least nine species of
591:Most parts of the former
529:, which is also the only
316:
309:
292:
284:
226:
221:
159:Scientific classification
157:
137:
128:
34:
2475:"Hindlimb morphology of
2353:Chinese Science Bulletin
1665:United States regulation
3575:Womach, Jasper (2005).
3367:10.1073/pnas.1522931113
3243:10.1023/a:1011695406277
3171:The American Naturalist
2899:10.1126/science.1157704
2765:10.1073/pnas.0803242105
2548:Roff, Derek A. (1994).
2375:(inactive 2024-09-12).
2205:. Biological Sciences.
2162:10.1126/science.aat7244
2039:10.1126/science.1251981
1596:. They are also mainly
1564:North Island brown kiwi
994:(rheas, 2~3 spp.)
3517:Paleogene Fossil Birds
3266:Comp Biochem Physiol A
2496:10.4202/app.00650.2019
2215:10.1098/rspb.2001.1587
793:
717:Holocene extinct forms
614:origin for the clade.
568:
338:Fissipedes bidactyles
250:(cassowaries and emus)
3669:Paleobiology Database
3515:Mayr, Gerald (2009).
3087:Polish Polar Research
2851:10.1093/sysbio/sys067
2311:Earth-Science Reviews
2104:10.1093/molbev/msu153
1891:10.1093/sysbio/syp079
1321:K–Pg extinction event
1257:in birds tends to be
895:evolved independently
777:
3221:Evolutionary Ecology
2555:Evolutionary Ecology
1571:Behavior and ecology
1437:S. camelus massaicus
1246:Vicariant speciation
1128:(kiwi, 5 spp.)
704:. They nest in deep
475:Struthiornithiformes
3722:Paraphyletic groups
3717:Polyphyletic groups
3358:2016PNAS..113.4765W
3049:2017Alch...41..101A
2891:2008Sci...320.1763H
2885:(5884): 1763–1768.
2756:2008PNAS..10513462H
2750:(36): 13462–13467.
2568:1994EvEco...8..639R
2442:2017CBio...27...68Y
2365:2005ChSBu..50.1808H
2323:2014ESRv..138..394B
2267:2001Natur.409..704C
2153:2019Sci...364...74S
2031:2014Sci...344..898M
1733:Gray, George Robert
1550:Little spotted kiwi
1344:. Their wishbones (
1177:(emus, 1 sp.)
927: recent
792:, each with its egg
711:little spotted kiwi
677:has two species of
2959:The New York Times
2838:Systematic Biology
2576:10.1007/BF01237847
2373:10.1360/982005-575
1878:Systematic Biology
1793:"Struthioniformes"
1772:Salvadori, Tomasso
1652:Ratites and humans
1536:Great spotted kiwi
1494:Northern cassowary
1480:Southern cassowary
1370:, rheas show some
907:based on Mitchell
794:
148:southern cassowary
3684:
3683:
3622:Taxon identifiers
3561:978-1-4832-6943-6
3534:978-3-540-89628-9
3467:10.1159/000111456
3439:978-0-7876-5784-0
3352:(17): 4765–4770.
2473:Mayr, G. (2019).
2359:(16): 1808–1810.
2261:(6821): 704–707.
2209:(1470): 939–945.
2025:(6186): 898–900.
1236:
1235:
1231:
1230:
1222:
1221:
1213:
1212:
1204:
1203:
1195:
1194:
1186:
1185:
1137:
1136:
1112:(elephant birds)
1078:
1077:
1069:
1068:
1003:
1002:
962:
961:
833:continental drift
743:Aepyornis maximus
731:Dinornis robustus
700:-sized, shy, and
482:
481:
474:
465:
452:
443:
434:
425:
416:
407:
398:
389:
380:
371:
362:
353:
344:
335:
326:
302:Lithornithiformes
277:
269:
260:
256:Aepyornithiformes
251:
243:
235:
123:
122:
16:(Redirected from
3729:
3702:Flightless birds
3677:
3676:
3664:
3663:
3662:
3649:
3648:
3647:
3617:
3616:
3599:
3598:
3596:
3594:
3588:
3581:
3572:
3566:
3565:
3545:
3539:
3538:
3512:
3506:
3505:
3493:
3487:
3486:
3450:
3444:
3443:
3425:
3410:
3404:
3398:
3397:
3387:
3369:
3337:
3331:
3330:
3320:
3296:
3290:
3289:
3261:
3255:
3254:
3236:
3218:
3209:
3203:
3202:
3166:
3160:
3159:
3149:
3139:
3109:
3103:
3102:
3100:
3098:
3084:
3075:
3069:
3068:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3015:
3005:
2980:
2974:
2973:
2971:
2970:
2961:. Archived from
2950:
2944:
2943:
2941:
2940:
2925:
2919:
2918:
2870:
2864:
2863:
2853:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2794:
2788:
2787:
2777:
2767:
2734:
2719:
2718:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2653:
2629:
2623:
2622:
2602:
2596:
2595:
2545:
2539:
2538:
2520:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2470:
2464:
2463:
2453:
2420:
2407:
2406:
2400:
2392:
2344:
2335:
2334:
2306:
2295:
2294:
2275:10.1038/35055536
2246:
2237:
2236:
2226:
2194:
2183:
2182:
2164:
2132:
2117:
2116:
2106:
2097:(7): 1686–1696.
2082:
2069:
2068:
2050:
2016:
2007:
1976:
1975:
1949:
1940:
1931:
1930:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1893:
1869:
1854:
1853:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1768:
1751:
1750:
1729:
1576:Feeding and diet
1560:
1546:
1532:
1518:
1504:
1490:
1476:
1462:
1448:
1432:
1418:
1151:
1150:
1101:
1100:
1093:
1092:
1042:Dinornithiformes
1033:
1032:
1025:
1024:
1018:
1017:
984:
983:
977:
976:
943:
942:
936:
935:
924:
923:
901:
900:
809:Struthioniformes
778:Comparison of a
571:
538:Struthioniformes
516:
515:
512:
511:
508:
505:
502:
499:
496:
469:
456:
447:
438:
429:
420:
411:
402:
393:
384:
375:
366:
357:
348:
339:
330:
321:
275:
267:
265:Dinornithiformes
259:(elephant birds)
258:
249:
241:
233:
231:Struthioniformes
222:Groups included
167:
166:
133:
116:
115:
52:
38:Temporal range:
37:
32:
31:
21:
3737:
3736:
3732:
3731:
3730:
3728:
3727:
3726:
3687:
3686:
3685:
3680:
3672:
3667:
3658:
3657:
3652:
3643:
3642:
3637:
3624:
3607:
3602:
3592:
3590:
3586:
3579:
3573:
3569:
3562:
3546:
3542:
3535:
3513:
3509:
3494:
3490:
3451:
3447:
3440:
3426:
3413:
3405:
3401:
3338:
3334:
3318:10.2307/4088088
3297:
3293:
3262:
3258:
3234:10.1.1.115.1294
3216:
3210:
3206:
3167:
3163:
3110:
3106:
3096:
3094:
3082:
3076:
3072:
3033:
3029:
2981:
2977:
2968:
2966:
2951:
2947:
2938:
2936:
2926:
2922:
2871:
2867:
2830:
2826:
2795:
2791:
2735:
2722:
2679:
2675:
2630:
2626:
2603:
2599:
2546:
2542:
2535:
2521:
2504:
2471:
2467:
2430:Current Biology
2421:
2410:
2394:
2393:
2345:
2338:
2307:
2298:
2247:
2240:
2195:
2186:
2147:(6435): 74–78.
2133:
2120:
2083:
2072:
2014:
2008:
1979:
1947:
1941:
1934:
1911:
1907:
1870:
1857:
1846:"Palaeognathae"
1842:
1838:
1828:
1826:
1823:The Taxonomicon
1815:
1811:
1801:
1799:
1789:
1785:
1769:
1754:
1730:
1699:
1695:
1683:
1667:
1654:
1633:
1578:
1573:
1566:
1561:
1552:
1547:
1538:
1533:
1524:
1519:
1510:
1508:Dwarf cassowary
1505:
1496:
1491:
1482:
1477:
1468:
1463:
1454:
1449:
1440:
1433:
1424:
1419:
1410:
1330:
1312:pectoral muscle
1308:
1286:Pseudocrypturus
1232:
1223:
1214:
1205:
1196:
1187:
1138:
1079:
1070:
1004:
963:
912:
841:plate tectonics
825:
772:
719:
635:
630:
628:List of ratites
624:
584:of the extinct
533:extant ratite.
493:
489:
478:
280:
161:
124:
119:Late Cretaceous
114:
113:
108:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
47:
46:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3735:
3725:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3682:
3681:
3679:
3678:
3665:
3650:
3634:
3632:
3626:
3625:
3614:
3613:
3606:
3605:External links
3603:
3601:
3600:
3567:
3560:
3540:
3533:
3507:
3500:. Nova Série.
3488:
3445:
3438:
3411:
3399:
3332:
3311:(3): 461–470.
3291:
3272:(3): 628–648.
3256:
3227:(8): 693–702.
3204:
3183:10.1086/285697
3177:(4): 628–648.
3161:
3104:
3070:
3043:(1): 101–111.
3027:
2996:(1): 147–162.
2990:Genome Biology
2975:
2945:
2920:
2865:
2824:
2811:(3): 641–663.
2789:
2720:
2693:(3491): 1–11.
2673:
2644:(2): 293–303.
2624:
2613:(4): 494–521.
2597:
2562:(6): 639–657.
2540:
2534:978-0787657840
2533:
2502:
2465:
2408:
2336:
2296:
2238:
2184:
2118:
2070:
1977:
1932:
1921:(2): 204–227.
1905:
1855:
1836:
1809:
1783:
1752:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1690:
1689:
1682:
1679:
1666:
1663:
1653:
1650:
1632:
1629:
1606:elephant birds
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1568:
1567:
1562:
1555:
1553:
1548:
1541:
1539:
1534:
1527:
1525:
1520:
1513:
1511:
1506:
1499:
1497:
1492:
1485:
1483:
1478:
1471:
1469:
1464:
1457:
1455:
1450:
1443:
1441:
1435:Ostrich herd (
1434:
1427:
1425:
1420:
1413:
1409:
1406:
1358:palaeognathous
1338:breast muscles
1329:
1326:
1307:
1306:Loss of flight
1304:
1250:plate tectonic
1234:
1233:
1229:
1228:
1225:
1224:
1220:
1219:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1210:
1207:
1206:
1202:
1201:
1198:
1197:
1193:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1184:
1183:
1180:
1179:
1171:
1168:
1167:
1164:
1163:
1155:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1143:
1140:
1139:
1135:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1122:
1119:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1110:Aepyornithidae
1105:
1099:
1097:
1091:
1089:
1085:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1076:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1067:
1066:
1063:
1062:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1037:
1031:
1029:
1023:
1021:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1009:
1006:
1005:
1001:
1000:
997:
996:
988:
982:
980:
975:
973:
969:
968:
965:
964:
960:
959:
956:
955:
947:
941:
939:
934:
932:
922:
919:
918:
824:
821:
796:There are two
771:
770:Classification
768:
718:
715:
634:
631:
623:
620:
593:supercontinent
480:
479:
477:
476:
466:
453:
444:
435:
426:
417:
410:Pressirostres
408:
399:
390:
381:
372:
363:
354:
345:
336:
327:
317:
314:
313:
307:
306:
305:
304:
298:
290:
289:
282:
281:
279:
278:
273:Apterygiformes
270:
261:
252:
247:Casuariiformes
244:
236:
227:
224:
223:
219:
218:
213:
209:
208:
203:
199:
198:
193:
189:
188:
183:
179:
178:
173:
169:
168:
155:
154:
135:
134:
126:
125:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3734:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3694:
3692:
3675:
3670:
3666:
3661:
3655:
3651:
3646:
3640:
3636:
3635:
3633:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3618:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3589:on 2011-08-10
3585:
3578:
3571:
3563:
3557:
3553:
3552:
3544:
3536:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3511:
3503:
3499:
3492:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3449:
3441:
3435:
3431:
3424:
3422:
3420:
3418:
3416:
3408:
3403:
3395:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3336:
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3324:
3319:
3314:
3310:
3306:
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3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
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3240:
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3226:
3222:
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3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
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3172:
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3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
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3120:
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3081:
3074:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
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3038:
3031:
3023:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2979:
2965:on 2014-05-23
2964:
2960:
2956:
2949:
2935:
2934:New Scientist
2931:
2924:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2869:
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2852:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2828:
2819:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2805:
2800:
2793:
2785:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2733:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2725:
2716:
2712:
2708:
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2692:
2688:
2686:
2677:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2643:
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2469:
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2350:
2343:
2341:
2332:
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2324:
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2280:
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2243:
2234:
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2172:
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2129:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2114:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2079:
2077:
2075:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2013:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1946:
1939:
1937:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1909:
1901:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1884:(1): 90–107.
1883:
1879:
1875:
1868:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1860:
1851:
1847:
1840:
1824:
1820:
1813:
1798:
1794:
1791:ITIS (2007).
1787:
1779:
1778:
1773:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1739:
1734:
1728:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1718:
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1685:
1684:
1678:
1676:
1672:
1662:
1660:
1649:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1628:
1626:
1625:lithornithids
1622:
1621:
1616:
1615:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1586:insectivorous
1583:
1565:
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1554:
1551:
1545:
1540:
1537:
1531:
1526:
1523:
1517:
1512:
1509:
1503:
1498:
1495:
1489:
1484:
1481:
1475:
1470:
1467:
1466:Darwin's rhea
1461:
1456:
1453:
1452:American rhea
1447:
1442:
1438:
1431:
1426:
1423:
1417:
1412:
1411:
1405:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1382:
1379:
1375:
1373:
1369:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1325:
1322:
1319:However, the
1316:
1313:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1294:
1293:
1292:Paracathartes
1288:
1287:
1282:
1281:
1274:
1272:
1266:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1248:based on the
1247:
1243:
1241:
1227:
1226:
1218:
1217:
1209:
1208:
1200:
1199:
1191:
1190:
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1181:
1178:
1176:
1170:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1162:
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1133:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1121:
1120:
1117:
1116:
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1094:
1087:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1074:
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1065:
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1059:
1053:
1052:
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1045:
1043:
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1034:
1027:
1026:
1020:
1019:
1012:
1011:
1008:
1007:
999:
998:
995:
993:
986:
985:
979:
978:
971:
970:
967:
966:
958:
957:
954:
952:
951:Struthionidae
945:
944:
938:
937:
930:
926:
925:
921:
920:
916:
913:and Yonezawa
910:
906:
903:
902:
899:
898:commonplace.
896:
891:
886:
884:
883:sister groups
879:
874:
872:
871:
866:
865:
858:
856:
852:
851:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
820:
818:
817:Casuariformes
814:
810:
807:
803:
799:
791:
790:
785:
781:
776:
767:
765:
764:
759:
758:
753:
749:
745:
744:
739:
737:
733:
732:
728:
724:
714:
712:
707:
703:
699:
695:
690:
688:
687:American rhea
685:. The larger
684:
680:
676:
675:South America
672:
670:
666:
662:
658:
653:
651:
647:
642:
640:
629:
619:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
594:
589:
587:
583:
579:
575:
570:
565:
561:
557:
553:
550:
547:
543:
539:
534:
532:
528:
524:
523:Palaeognathae
520:
514:
487:
472:
467:
463:
459:
454:
450:
445:
441:
436:
432:
427:
423:
418:
414:
409:
405:
400:
396:
391:
387:
382:
378:
373:
369:
364:
360:
355:
351:
346:
342:
337:
333:
328:
324:
319:
318:
315:
312:
308:
303:
299:
297:
294:
293:
291:
287:
286:Cladistically
283:
274:
271:
266:
262:
257:
253:
248:
245:
240:
237:
232:
229:
228:
225:
220:
217:
216:Palaeognathae
214:
211:
210:
207:
204:
201:
200:
197:
194:
191:
190:
187:
184:
181:
180:
177:
174:
171:
170:
165:
160:
156:
153:
149:
145:
141:
136:
132:
127:
120:
112:
107:
102:
97:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
57:
51:
45:
41:
33:
30:
19:
3629:
3591:. Retrieved
3584:the original
3570:
3554:. Elsevier.
3550:
3543:
3516:
3510:
3501:
3497:
3491:
3461:(2): 87–99.
3458:
3454:
3448:
3429:
3402:
3349:
3345:
3335:
3308:
3304:
3294:
3269:
3265:
3259:
3224:
3220:
3207:
3174:
3170:
3164:
3130:: e1000436.
3123:
3119:PLOS Biology
3117:
3107:
3095:. Retrieved
3093:(1–2): 15–20
3090:
3086:
3073:
3040:
3036:
3030:
2993:
2989:
2978:
2967:. Retrieved
2963:the original
2958:
2948:
2937:. Retrieved
2933:
2923:
2882:
2878:
2868:
2844:(1): 35–49.
2841:
2837:
2827:
2808:
2802:
2792:
2747:
2743:
2690:
2684:
2676:
2641:
2637:
2627:
2610:
2606:
2600:
2559:
2553:
2543:
2524:
2486:
2482:
2476:
2468:
2436:(1): 68–77.
2433:
2429:
2397:cite journal
2356:
2352:
2314:
2310:
2258:
2254:
2206:
2202:
2144:
2140:
2094:
2090:
2022:
2018:
1958:(1): 36–51.
1955:
1951:
1918:
1914:
1908:
1881:
1877:
1849:
1839:
1827:. Retrieved
1822:
1812:
1800:. Retrieved
1796:
1786:
1776:
1737:
1668:
1655:
1634:
1631:Reproduction
1618:
1612:
1610:
1579:
1436:
1383:
1380:
1376:
1372:dichromatism
1365:
1354:preen glands
1331:
1317:
1309:
1296:
1290:
1284:
1278:
1275:
1267:
1244:
1237:
1173:
1157:
1124:
1107:
1056:
1039:
990:
949:
914:
908:
890:polyphyletic
887:
875:
868:
862:
859:
848:
837:monophyletic
826:
816:
812:
808:
795:
787:
761:
755:
751:
741:
740:
729:
720:
691:
673:
654:
643:
637:The African
636:
633:Living forms
590:
582:sister group
578:polyphyletic
554:(compare to
535:
485:
483:
455:Grallatores
449:MacGillivray
446:Cursitrices
401:Brevipennes
356:Struthiones
296:Tinamiformes
212:Infraclass:
140:greater rhea
29:
3654:Wikispecies
3097:28 December
2317:: 394–408.
1829:14 November
1669:The USDA's
1614:Diogenornis
1590:herbivorous
1390:paleognaths
1328:Description
1159:Casuariidae
1126:Apterygidae
929:paleognaths
855:paleognaths
850:Diogenornis
763:Mullerornis
616:Geranoidids
392:Megistanes
365:Campestres
234:(ostriches)
3691:Categories
2969:2014-05-24
2939:2009-02-04
2048:2328/35953
1693:References
1646:copulation
1598:herbivores
1582:omnivorous
1386:allometric
1368:dimorphism
1175:Dromaiidae
813:Rheiformes
752:A. maximus
748:Madagascar
669:New Guinea
626:See also:
556:Neognathae
519:flightless
458:Keyserling
347:Retipedes
329:Nudipedes
239:Rheiformes
48:56–0
3376:1091-6490
3229:CiteSeerX
3065:132516050
2707:2246/5660
2685:Lithornis
2584:0269-7653
2477:Palaeotis
2389:129449364
2381:1861-9541
2171:0036-8075
2065:206555952
1747:427298119
1620:Palaeotis
1402:songbirds
1394:neognaths
1334:Tinamidae
1298:Palaeotis
1280:Lithornis
1255:Gigantism
1058:Tinamidae
905:Cladogram
870:Remiornis
864:Palaeotis
845:Paleocene
823:Evolution
798:taxonomic
757:Aepyornis
727:giant moa
702:nocturnal
657:cassowary
650:woodlands
612:Laurasian
600:Paleocene
562:on their
549:Neotropic
531:nocturnal
468:Proceres
374:Cursores
182:Kingdom:
176:Eukaryota
117:Possible
40:Paleocene
3639:Wikidata
3483:31628714
3475:18032885
3394:27071105
3286:16632395
3199:86511951
3156:20668664
3022:26201466
2907:18583609
2860:22831877
2784:18765814
2715:55323962
2668:22483929
2660:22107024
2592:13524994
2460:27989673
2283:11217857
2233:11370967
2179:30948549
2113:24825849
2057:24855267
1972:21596537
1927:20095143
1900:20525622
1735:(1863).
1681:See also
1346:furculae
1154:
1104:
1096:
1088:
1036:
1028:
1013:
972:
931:
829:Gondwana
802:families
789:Dinornis
661:tropical
608:Holocene
596:Gondwana
552:tinamous
546:flighted
437:Rasores
428:Ratitae
422:Temminck
419:Inertes
395:Vieillot
383:Proceri
341:Schäffer
332:Schäffer
323:Linnaeus
320:Grallae
311:Synonyms
196:Chordata
192:Phylum:
186:Animalia
172:Domain:
44:Holocene
3697:Ratites
3660:Ratitae
3630:Ratitae
3385:4855539
3354:Bibcode
3327:4088088
3191:2462941
3147:2910653
3045:Bibcode
3013:4511969
2915:6472805
2887:Bibcode
2879:Science
2775:2533212
2752:Bibcode
2564:Bibcode
2438:Bibcode
2361:Bibcode
2319:Bibcode
2291:4430050
2263:Bibcode
2224:1088691
2149:Bibcode
2141:Science
2027:Bibcode
2019:Science
1659:emu oil
1644:during
1638:phallus
1422:Ostrich
1398:parrots
1388:basis,
1361:palates
1259:insular
992:Rheidae
917:(2016)
819:etc.).
804:in the
784:ostrich
706:burrows
698:chicken
639:ostrich
622:Species
564:sternum
542:ostrich
471:Sunder.
431:Ranzani
386:Illiger
377:Illiger
368:Illiger
350:Scopoli
276:(kiwis)
242:(rheas)
202:Class:
144:ostrich
35:Ratites
18:Ratites
3645:Q19170
3593:15 Jul
3558:
3531:
3504:: 1–8.
3481:
3473:
3436:
3392:
3382:
3374:
3325:
3284:
3251:951896
3249:
3231:
3197:
3189:
3154:
3144:
3063:
3020:
3010:
2913:
2905:
2858:
2782:
2772:
2713:
2666:
2658:
2590:
2582:
2531:
2458:
2387:
2379:
2289:
2281:
2255:Nature
2231:
2221:
2177:
2169:
2111:
2063:
2055:
1970:
1925:
1898:
1802:13 Jun
1745:
1642:cloaca
1384:On an
1350:femurs
1342:sterna
1044:(moa)
915:et al.
911:(2014)
909:et al.
786:, and
683:Pampas
665:talons
604:Eocene
486:ratite
473:, 1872
464:, 1840
460:&
451:, 1840
442:, 1826
440:Vigors
433:, 1823
424:, 1820
415:, 1817
413:Cuvier
406:, 1817
404:Cuvier
397:, 1816
388:, 1811
379:, 1811
370:, 1811
361:, 1790
359:Latham
352:, 1777
343:, 1774
334:, 1774
325:, 1760
121:record
3674:98818
3587:(PDF)
3580:(PDF)
3479:S2CID
3323:JSTOR
3247:S2CID
3217:(PDF)
3195:S2CID
3187:JSTOR
3126:(7).
3083:(PDF)
3061:S2CID
2911:S2CID
2711:S2CID
2664:S2CID
2588:S2CID
2385:S2CID
2287:S2CID
2061:S2CID
2015:(PDF)
1948:(PDF)
1923:JSTOR
1594:caeca
1271:niche
1240:basal
878:basal
806:order
736:Māori
667:. In
569:ratis
268:(moa)
3595:2009
3556:ISBN
3529:ISBN
3471:PMID
3434:ISBN
3390:PMID
3372:ISSN
3282:PMID
3152:PMID
3099:2019
3018:PMID
2903:PMID
2856:PMID
2780:PMID
2656:PMID
2607:Ibis
2580:ISSN
2529:ISBN
2456:PMID
2403:link
2377:ISSN
2279:PMID
2229:PMID
2175:PMID
2167:ISSN
2109:PMID
2053:PMID
1968:PMID
1896:PMID
1831:2020
1804:2012
1743:OCLC
1617:and
1604:and
1602:Moas
1400:and
1295:and
867:and
780:kiwi
694:kiwi
679:rhea
602:and
574:raft
560:keel
527:kiwi
206:Aves
150:and
56:PreꞒ
3521:doi
3463:doi
3380:PMC
3362:doi
3350:113
3313:doi
3309:108
3305:Auk
3274:doi
3270:145
3239:doi
3179:doi
3175:144
3142:PMC
3132:doi
3053:doi
3008:PMC
2998:doi
2895:doi
2883:320
2846:doi
2813:doi
2809:156
2770:PMC
2760:doi
2748:105
2703:hdl
2695:doi
2646:doi
2615:doi
2611:116
2572:doi
2491:doi
2446:doi
2369:doi
2327:doi
2315:138
2271:doi
2259:409
2219:PMC
2211:doi
2207:268
2157:doi
2145:364
2099:doi
2043:hdl
2035:doi
2023:344
1960:doi
1956:194
1886:doi
1584:or
1522:Emu
723:moa
646:emu
586:moa
462:Bl.
152:emu
3693::
3671::
3656::
3641::
3527:.
3502:41
3477:.
3469:.
3459:71
3457:.
3414:^
3388:.
3378:.
3370:.
3360:.
3348:.
3344:.
3321:.
3307:.
3303:.
3280:.
3268:.
3245:.
3237:.
3225:14
3223:.
3219:.
3193:.
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