Regulation of gene expression

45: 255: 1147: 1066: 53: 532: 4872: 4912: 694: 4884: 370: 325:" when densely clustered). Analysis of the pattern of methylation in a given region of DNA (which can be a promoter) can be achieved through a method called bisulfite mapping. Methylated cytosine residues are unchanged by the treatment, whereas unmethylated ones are changed to uracil. The differences are analyzed by DNA sequencing or by methods developed to quantify SNPs, such as 725: 414:: The gene is turned on. Lactose is inhibiting the repressor, allowing the RNA polymerase to bind with the promoter, and express the genes, which synthesize lactase. Eventually, the lactase will digest all of the lactose, until there is none to bind to the repressor. The repressor will then bind to the operator, stopping the manufacture of lactase. 817:(miRNAs) as well as for regulatory proteins. By binding to specific sites within the 3'-UTR, miRNAs can decrease gene expression of various mRNAs by either inhibiting translation or directly causing degradation of the transcript. The 3'-UTR also may have silencer regions that bind repressor proteins that inhibit the expression of a mRNA. 998:). They are formed sequentially from anterior to posterior. This is achieved in amniotes possibly by means of two opposing gradients, Retinoic acid in the anterior (wavefront) and Wnt and Fgf in the posterior, coupled to an oscillating pattern (segmentation clock) composed of FGF + Notch and Wnt in antiphase. 888:

The translation of mRNA can also be controlled by a number of mechanisms, mostly at the level of initiation. Recruitment of the small ribosomal subunit can indeed be modulated by mRNA secondary structure, antisense RNA binding, or protein binding. In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, a large number of

681:

In rodent models, drugs of abuse, including cocaine, methamphetamine, alcohol and tobacco smoke products, all cause DNA damage in the brain. During repair of DNA damages some individual repair events can alter the methylation of DNA and/or the acetylations or methylations of histones at the sites of

1025:

Up-regulation is a process which occurs within a cell triggered by a signal (originating internal or external to the cell), which results in increased expression of one or more genes and as a result the proteins encoded by those genes. Conversely, down-regulation is a process resulting in decreased

785:

After the DNA is transcribed and mRNA is formed, there must be some sort of regulation on how much the mRNA is translated into proteins. Cells do this by modulating the capping, splicing, addition of a Poly(A) Tail, the sequence-specific nuclear export rates, and, in several contexts, sequestration

770:

neural genome both one hour and 24 hours after the conditioning in the hippocampus. This causes about 500 genes to be up-regulated (often due to demethylation of CpG sites in a promoter region) and about 1,000 genes to be down-regulated (often due to newly formed 5-methylcytosine at CpG sites in a

835:

and annotations, listed 28,645 entries in 233 biologic species. Of these, 1,881 miRNAs were in annotated human miRNA loci. miRNAs were predicted to have an average of about four hundred target mRNAs (affecting expression of several hundred genes). Freidman et al. estimate that >45,000 miRNA

1194:

In general, most experiments investigating differential expression used whole cell extracts of RNA, called steady-state levels, to determine which genes changed and by how much. These are, however, not informative of where the regulation has occurred and may mask conflicting regulatory processes

1081:

Repressible systems - A repressible system is on except in the presence of some molecule (called a corepressor) that suppresses gene expression. The molecule is said to "repress expression". The manner by which this happens is dependent on the control mechanisms as well as differences between

1077:

Inducible systems - An inducible system is off unless there is the presence of some molecule (called an inducer) that allows for gene expression. The molecule is said to "induce expression". The manner by which this happens is dependent on the control mechanisms as well as differences between

677:

returned to the level of never-smokers within five years of smoking cessation. However, 2,568 CpGs among 942 genes remained differentially methylated in former versus never smokers. Such remaining epigenetic changes can be viewed as “molecular scars” that may affect gene expression.

669:. This increases expression in the brain of the protein FosB, important in addiction. Cigarette addiction was also studied in about 16,000 humans, including never smokers, current smokers, and those who had quit smoking for up to 30 years. In blood cells, more than 18,000 446:, coding sequences on the DNA strand that are close to or overlapping the promoter region, impeding RNA polymerase's progress along the strand, thus impeding the expression of the gene. The image to the right demonstrates regulation by a repressor in the lac operon. 839:

Direct experiments show that a single miRNA can reduce the stability of hundreds of unique mRNAs. Other experiments show that a single miRNA may repress the production of hundreds of proteins, but that this repression often is relatively mild (less than 2-fold).

605:

or passenger mutations. However, transcriptional silencing may be of more importance than mutation in causing progression to cancer. For example, in colorectal cancers about 600 to 800 genes are transcriptionally silenced by CpG island methylation (see

889:

RNA binding proteins exist, which often are directed to their target sequence by the secondary structure of the transcript, which may change depending on certain conditions, such as temperature or presence of a ligand (aptamer). Some transcripts act as

673:(of the roughly 450,000 analyzed CpG sites in the genome) had frequently altered methylation among current smokers. These CpG sites occurred in over 7,000 genes, or roughly a third of known human genes. The majority of the differentially methylated 1033:

occurs, for example, when a cell is deficient in some kind of receptor. In this case, more receptor protein is synthesized and transported to the membrane of the cell and, thus, the sensitivity of the cell is brought back to normal, reestablishing

462:

are sites on the DNA helix that are bound by activators in order to loop the DNA bringing a specific promoter to the initiation complex. Enhancers are much more common in eukaryotes than prokaryotes, where only a few examples exist (to date).

458:, encouraging the expression of the gene. Activators do this by increasing the attraction of RNA polymerase for the promoter, through interactions with subunits of the RNA polymerase or indirectly by changing the structure of the DNA. 736:, can result in a life-long fearful memory after a single training event. Cytosine methylation is altered in the promoter regions of about 9.17% of all genes in the hippocampus neuron DNA of a rat that has been subjected to a brief 786:

of the RNA transcript. These processes occur in eukaryotes but not in prokaryotes. This modulation is a result of a protein or transcript that, in turn, is regulated and may have an affinity for certain sequences.

771:

promoter region). The pattern of induced and repressed genes within neurons appears to provide a molecular basis for forming the first transient memory of this training event in the hippocampus of the rat brain.

499:, and the localizations and functions are highly diverse now. Some still reside in chromatin where they interact with proteins. While this lncRNA ultimately affects gene expression in neuronal disorders such as 986:

in the limb, which creates a gradient of active Gli3, which activates Gremlin, which inhibits BMPs also secreted in the limb, results in the formation of an alternating pattern of activity as a result of this

824:. MREs are sequences to which miRNAs bind. These are prevalent motifs within 3'-UTRs. Among all regulatory motifs within the 3'-UTRs (e.g. including silencer regions), MREs make up about half of the motifs. 410:: The gene is essentially turned off. There is no lactose to inhibit the repressor, so the repressor binds to the operator, which obstructs the RNA polymerase from binding to the promoter and making lactase. 83:

are widely observed in biology, for example to trigger developmental pathways, respond to environmental stimuli, or adapt to new food sources. Virtually any step of gene expression can be modulated, from

2513:

Weber M, Hellmann I, Stadler MB, Ramos L, Pääbo S, Rebhan M, Schübeler D (April 2007). "Distribution, silencing potential and evolutionary impact of promoter DNA methylation in the human genome".

2068:

de Souza MF, Gonçales TA, Steinmetz A, Moura DJ, Saffi J, Gomez R, Barros HM (April 2014). "Cocaine induces DNA damage in distinct brain areas of female rats under different hormonal conditions".

713:

In mammals, methylation of cytosine (see Figure) in DNA is a major regulatory mediator. Methylated cytosines primarily occur in dinucleotide sequences where cytosine is followed by a guanine, a

3434:

Schwanekamp JA, Sartor MA, Karyala S, Halbleib D, Medvedovic M, Tomlinson CR (2006). "Genome-wide analyses show that nuclear and cytoplasmic RNA levels are differentially affected by dioxin".

928:

Viruses, despite having only a few genes, possess mechanisms to regulate their gene expression, typically into an early and late phase, using collinear systems regulated by anti-terminators (

523:, although there are no approved drugs that targert lncRNAs yet. The number of lncRNAs in the human genome remains poorly defined, but some estimates range from 16,000 to 100,000 lnc genes. 2764:

Lim LP, Lau NC, Garrett-Engele P, Grimson A, Schelter JM, Castle J, et al. (February 2005). "Microarray analysis shows that some microRNAs downregulate large numbers of target mRNAs".

203:

of a protein. The following is a list of stages where gene expression is regulated, where the most extensively utilized point is transcription initiation, the first stage in transcription:

836:

target sites within human mRNA 3'-UTRs are conserved above background levels, and >60% of human protein-coding genes have been under selective pressure to maintain pairing to miRNAs.

4888: 705:. The image shows a cytosine single ring base and a methyl group added on to the 5 carbon. In mammals, DNA methylation occurs almost exclusively at a cytosine that is followed by a 282:. Hence these modifications may up or down regulate the expression of a gene. Some of these modifications that regulate gene expression are inheritable and are referred to as 3594: 294:

Transcription of DNA is dictated by its structure. In general, the density of its packing is indicative of the frequency of transcription. Octameric protein complexes called

2238:"Biomarkers of disease can be detected in mice as early as 4 weeks after initiation of exposure to third-hand smoke levels equivalent to those found in homes of smokers" 843:

The effects of miRNA dysregulation of gene expression seem to be important in cancer. For instance, in gastrointestinal cancers, a 2015 paper identified nine miRNAs as

638:

alterations affecting gene expression, within particular regions of the brain. Drugs of abuse cause three types of epigenetic alteration in the brain. These are (1)

1269:, and non-sense transcripts are degradated. Therefore, the differences in nuclear and cytoplasmic levels can be seen by separating the two fractions by gentle lysis. 2605:

Maeder ML, Angstman JF, Richardson ME, Linder SJ, Cascio VM, Tsai SQ, Ho QH, Sander JD, Reyon D, Bernstein BE, Costello JF, Wilkinson MF, Joung JK (December 2013).

321:

is a common method of gene silencing. DNA is typically methylated by methyltransferase enzymes on cytosine nucleotides in a CpG dinucleotide sequence (also called "

559: 1377: 2815:

Selbach M, Schwanhäusser B, Thierfelder N, Fang Z, Khanin R, Rajewsky N (September 2008). "Widespread changes in protein synthesis induced by microRNAs".

634:

One of the cardinal features of addiction is its persistence. The persistent behavioral changes appear to be due to long-lasting changes, resulting from

351:

also dissociate the DNA from the histone complex, allowing transcription to proceed. Often, DNA methylation and histone deacetylation work together in

131:), in the color formation of maize seeds, the first discovery of a gene regulation system is widely considered to be the identification in 1961 of the 944:

is a transcriptional activator that controls the expression of GAL1, GAL7, and GAL10 (all of which code for the metabolic of galactose in yeast). The

813:(mRNAs) often contain regulatory sequences that post-transcriptionally influence gene expression. Such 3'-UTRs often contain both binding sites for 1121:

creating an oscillator by taking advantage in the time delay of transcription and translation, given that the mRNA and protein half-life is shorter

747:

Methylation of CpGs in a promoter region of a gene represses transcription while methylation of CpGs in the body of a gene increases expression.

2111:

Johnson Z, Venters J, Guarraci FA, Zewail-Foote M (June 2015). "Methamphetamine induces DNA damage in specific regions of the female rat brain".

555: 542:

refers to the modification of genes that is not changing the DNA or RNA sequence. Epigenetic modifications are also a key factor in influencing

298:

together with a segment of DNA wound around the eight histone proteins (together referred to as a nucleosome) are responsible for the amount of

821: 171:

sequence. Although this does not explain how gene regulation originated, evolutionary biologists include it as a partial explanation of how

554:) and more than 100 modifications of RNA in mammalian cells.” Those modifications result in altered protein binding to DNA and a change in 1250:

Due to post-transcriptional regulation, transcription rates and total RNA levels differ significantly. To measure the transcription rates

337:), measuring the relative amounts of C/T at the CG dinucleotide. Abnormal methylation patterns are thought to be involved in oncogenesis. 4952: 4450: 1052:, or drug for a prolonged period of time, and the expression of the receptor protein is decreased in order to protect the cell (see also 550:

and their chemical modifications regulate gene expression in a more efficient manner. There are several modifications of DNA (usually

3542: 3517:

An open database for decoding the transcriptional regulatory networks of non-coding RNAs and protein-coding genes from ChIP-seq data.

1005:-encoded genes, which results in the production of sexless splicing factor in females, resulting in the female isoform of doublesex. 4947: 1096:

binds an upstream activation sequence (UAS) to activate the transcription of the GAL1/GAL7/GAL10 cassette. On the other hand, a

4419: 1097: 2197:"Alcohol induces DNA damage and the Fanconi anemia D2 protein implicating FANCD2 in the DNA damage response pathways in brain" 3710: 3483: 666: 639: 607: 576: 167:

in the embryo, leading to the creation of different cell types that possess different gene expression profiles from the same

418:

Regulation of transcription thus controls when transcription occurs and how much RNA is created. Transcription of a gene by

491:

in the sense that they have specified subcellular locations and functions. They were first discovered to be located in the

450:

position RNA polymerase at the start of a protein-coding sequence and then release the polymerase to transcribe the mRNA.

4475: 4384: 1467:"Altered chromosomal methylation patterns accompany oncogene-induced transformation of human bronchial epithelial cells" 1100:

response to the presence of glucose can inhibit GAL4 and therefore stop the expression of the GAL1/GAL7/GAL10 cassette.

4794: 4497: 4229: 3957: 3574: 958: 850:

The effects of miRNA dysregulation of gene expression also seem to be important in neuropsychiatric disorders, such as

467:

are regions of DNA sequences that, when bound by particular transcription factors, can silence expression of the gene.

180: 17: 721:

in the human genome is approximately 28 million. and generally about 70% of all CpG sites have a methylated cytosine.

4786: 4726: 3929: 3682: 3272: 1213:

When studying gene expression, there are several methods to look at the various stages. In eukaryotes these include:

763: 230: 38: 3336:"Control of gene expression during T cell activation: alternate regulation of mRNA transcription and mRNA stability" 310:. Such modifications are considered to be responsible for more or less permanent changes in gene expression levels. 4186: 3972: 3967: 1972:"Molecular mechanism for a gateway drug: epigenetic changes initiated by nicotine prime gene expression by cocaine" 659: 623: 905:

is a process in which a molecule (e.g., a drug) induces (i.e., initiates or enhances) the expression of an enzyme.

598: 582: 4848: 4731: 4443: 3836: 3780: 1664:"A genome-wide analysis of CpG dinucleotides in the human genome distinguishes two distinct classes of promoters" 1501:"The prokaryotic enhancer binding protein NTRC has an ATPase activity which is phosphorylation and DNA dependent" 1346: 1198: 1112:

negative feedback: the gene product downregulates its own production directly or indirectly, which can result in

902: 806: 795: 780: 651: 200: 93: 3025:"Micro spies from the brain to the periphery: new clues from studies on microRNAs in neuropsychiatric disorders" 67:, includes a wide range of mechanisms that are used by cells to increase or decrease the production of specific 3775: 1372: 1126:

positive feedback: the gene product upregulates its own production directly or indirectly, which can result in

355:. The combination of the two seems to be a signal for DNA to be packed more densely, lowering gene expression. 4363: 4853: 3863: 3535: 1357: 988: 622:

may occur more frequently by over-expressed microRNA-182 than by hypermethylation of the BRCA1 promoter (see

2607:"Targeted DNA demethylation and activation of endogenous genes using programmable TALE-TET1 fusion proteins" 44: 4470: 3599: 751:

play a central role in demethylation of methylated cytosines. Demethylation of CpGs in a gene promoter by

447: 254: 4181: 3504: 1302:-bound gives and indication of transcripts active in transcription (although a more dated method, called 983: 31: 2656:"Processing and transcriptome expansion at the mRNA 3' end in health and disease: finding the right end" 4902: 4876: 4436: 4373: 4239: 4071: 3814: 1287: 364: 85: 1001:

Sex determination in the soma of a Drosophila requires the sensing of the ratio of autosomal genes to

4066: 1819:

Tessitore A, Cicciarelli G, Del Vecchio F, Gaggiano A, Verzella D, Fischietti M, et al. (2014).

1092: 940: 859: 344: 2923:

Palmero EI, de Campos SG, Campos M, de Souza NC, Guerreiro ID, Carvalho AL, Marques MM (July 2011).

2019:

Joehanes R, Just AC, Marioni RE, Pilling LC, Reynolds LM, Mandaviya PR, et al. (October 2016).

1416:"DNA methylation patterns associate with genetic and gene expression variation in HapMap cell lines" 30:"Gene modulation" redirects here. For information on therapeutic regulation of gene expression, see 4932: 3858: 3646: 3559: 3528: 3508: 3500:

Plant Transcription Factor Database and Plant Transcriptional Regulation Data and Analysis Platform

1259: 979: 883: 225: 196: 160: 27:

Modifying mechanisms used by cells to increase or decrease the production of specific gene products

4515: 4307: 4244: 4219: 4102: 4022: 3819: 3636: 3621: 3287:"Control of yeast GAL genes by MIG1 repressor: a transcriptional cascade in the glucose response" 2375:

Jabbari K, Bernardi G (May 2004). "Cytosine methylation and CpG, TpG (CpA) and TpA frequencies".

1244: 1230: 1167: 1015: 914: 685:

Such epigenetic scars likely contribute to the persistent epigenetic changes found in addiction.

504: 435: 97: 665:

Chronic nicotine intake in mice alters brain cell epigenetic control of gene expression through

4292: 4191: 4176: 4145: 4046: 3824: 3749: 3641: 3387:"The balance sheet for transcription: an analysis of nuclear RNA metabolism in mammalian cells" 3267:

Gilbert SF (2003). Developmental biology, 7th ed., Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates, 65–6.

1466: 1234: 867: 863: 508: 500: 238: 4674: 4669: 4611: 4525: 4403: 4297: 4224: 4123: 4061: 4056: 3987: 3922: 3739: 3724: 3604: 3225:

Dequéant ML, Pourquié O (May 2008). "Segmental patterning of the vertebrate embryonic axis".

964: 724: 283: 56:

Diagram showing at which stages in the DNA-mRNA-protein pathway expression can be controlled

4774: 4631: 4480: 4312: 4155: 4150: 4032: 4027: 4014: 3846: 3744: 3662: 2879: 2824: 2773: 2412:"Neural circuits and mechanisms involved in Pavlovian fear conditioning: a critical review" 1775: 1675: 1181: 1146: 451: 348: 216: 1109:

Repressor/Inducer: an activation of a sensor results in the change of expression of a gene

8: 4643: 4638: 4616: 4562: 4408: 3672: 1970:

Levine A, Huang Y, Drisaldi B, Griffin EA, Pollak DD, Xu S, et al. (November 2011).

1362: 1266: 643: 615: 602: 484: 459: 340: 279: 207: 192: 2883: 2828: 2777: 1779: 1679: 1396: 4097: 3807: 3690: 3416: 3362: 3335: 3302: 3250: 3207: 3102: 3075: 3051: 3024: 3000: 2973: 2949: 2924: 2900: 2867: 2848: 2797: 2741: 2716: 2680: 2655: 2631: 2606: 2582: 2558:"Gene body methylation can alter gene expression and is a therapeutic target in cancer" 2557: 2538: 2490: 2465: 2436: 2411: 2352: 2327: 2303: 2278: 2136: 2093: 2045: 2020: 1996: 1971: 1947: 1922: 1895: 1874: 1847: 1820: 1796: 1763: 1762:

Vogelstein B, Papadopoulos N, Velculescu VE, Zhou S, Diaz LA, Kinzler KW (March 2013).

1698: 1663: 1644: 1631: 1606: 1582: 1549: 1516: 1442: 1415: 1414:

Bell JT, Pai AA, Pickrell JK, Gaffney DJ, Pique-Regi R, Degner JF, et al. (2011).

994:

Somitogenesis is the creation of segments (somites) from a uniform tissue (Pre-somitic

909: 832: 611: 455: 443: 427: 423: 120: 3311: 3286: 1525: 1500: 948:

has been used in a variety of organisms across various phyla to study gene expression.

4815: 4459: 4358: 4138: 4133: 4042: 3479: 3451: 3408: 3367: 3316: 3268: 3242: 3199: 3158: 3107: 3056: 3005: 2954: 2905: 2840: 2789: 2746: 2685: 2636: 2587: 2530: 2495: 2441: 2392: 2357: 2308: 2259: 2218: 2213: 2196: 2177: 2128: 2085: 2050: 2001: 1952: 1900: 1886: 1852: 1801: 1744: 1703: 1648: 1636: 1587: 1569: 1530: 1481: 1447: 1324:

RNA and protein degradation rates are measured by means of transcription inhibitors (

1310: 1222: 759: 737: 733: 176: 4342: 3891: 3420: 3211: 2940: 2542: 2427: 2140: 2097: 2036: 139: 4368: 4337: 4332: 4287: 3915: 3443: 3398: 3357: 3347: 3306: 3298: 3254: 3234: 3189: 3148: 3143: 3138: 3126: 3097: 3087: 3046: 3036: 2995: 2985: 2944: 2936: 2895: 2887: 2852: 2832: 2801: 2781: 2736: 2728: 2675: 2667: 2626: 2618: 2577: 2569: 2522: 2485: 2477: 2431: 2423: 2384: 2347: 2339: 2298: 2290: 2249: 2208: 2167: 2120: 2077: 2040: 2032: 1991: 1983: 1942: 1934: 1890: 1882: 1842: 1832: 1791: 1783: 1734: 1693: 1683: 1626: 1618: 1577: 1561: 1520: 1512: 1437: 1427: 1314: 1272:

Alternative splicing can be analysed with a splicing array or with a tiling array (

1203: 1132:

bistable switches when two genes inhibit each other and both have positive feedback

1045: 855: 511:, others, such as, PNCTR(pyrimidine-rich non-coding transcriptors), play a role in 152: 1607:"Crosstalk between epitranscriptomic and epigenetic mechanisms in gene regulation" 4779: 4505: 4378: 4282: 4092: 3868: 3705: 3551: 3473: 3447: 2294: 1987: 1188: 1087: 1041: 945: 871: 594: 543: 318: 303: 271: 80: 2156:"The peroxidative DNA damage and apoptosis in methamphetamine-treated rat brain" 1290:. The quantity of transcripts bound to specific protein can be also analysed by 1254:

assays can be done and newer high-throughput methods are being developed, using

1065: 119:

by allowing the cell to express protein when needed. Although as early as 1951,

4916: 4810: 4761: 4721: 3907: 3695: 3667: 3334:

Cheadle C, Fan J, Cho-Chung YS, Werner T, Ray J, Do L, et al. (May 2005).

3076:"The Emerging Role of microRNAs in Schizophrenia and Autism Spectrum Disorders" 2388: 1668:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

1565: 1367: 1352: 1318: 1275: 1251: 1207: 1002: 586: 464: 419: 352: 326: 275: 89: 2974:"Epigenetic reduction of DNA repair in progression to gastrointestinal cancer" 2925:"Mechanisms and role of microRNA deregulation in cancer onset and progression" 2671: 2573: 1622: 4926: 4820: 4711: 4626: 4346: 4260: 4128: 3962: 3939: 3896: 3583: 3092: 3041: 3022: 1573: 1432: 1333: 1325: 1053: 1030: 851: 810: 488: 480: 302:

of DNA, and these complexes can be temporarily modified by processes such as

164: 143: 3403: 3386: 2328:"DNA methylation in human epigenomes depends on local topology of CpG sites" 2124: 2081: 1787: 1688: 1329: 1073:

Gene Regulation can be summarized by the response of the respective system:

682:

damage, and thus can contribute to leaving an epigenetic scar on chromatin.

4942: 4937: 4756: 4664: 4659: 4171: 3992: 3982: 3770: 3700: 3569: 3455: 3412: 3371: 3352: 3246: 3203: 3162: 3153: 3111: 3060: 3009: 2958: 2909: 2866:

Baek D, Villén J, Shin C, Camargo FD, Gygi SP, Bartel DP (September 2008).

2844: 2793: 2750: 2689: 2640: 2591: 2534: 2499: 2445: 2396: 2361: 2312: 2263: 2222: 2181: 2132: 2089: 2054: 2005: 1956: 1904: 1856: 1805: 1748: 1707: 1640: 1591: 1451: 1265:

Only 5% of the RNA polymerised in the nucleus exits, and not only introns,

1163: 1155: 1118:

inhibition of run-away reactions when coupled with a positive feedback loop

929: 520: 492: 431: 299: 68: 3320: 2990: 2732: 2481: 1837: 1534: 1485: 430:

or set of promoters, making it more or less likely to bind to them (i.e.,

96:

of a protein. Often, one gene regulator controls another, and so on, in a

52: 4838: 4567: 4107: 4087: 3873: 3802: 2556:

Yang X, Han H, De Carvalho DD, Lay FD, Jones PA, Liang G (October 2014).

2343: 1237:, or any other DNA-binding element to which a good antibody is available. 1035: 844: 767: 752: 748: 741: 728:

The identified areas of the human brain are involved in memory formation.

635: 551: 539: 512: 307: 2891: 2836: 2785: 531: 4594: 4589: 4584: 4351: 4051: 4004: 3831: 2254: 2237: 2172: 2155: 1818: 1739: 1722: 978:

Pattern generation of the hand (digits - interdigits): the gradient of

922: 322: 243: 132: 108: 3178:"A history of research on yeasts 7: enzymic adaptation and regulation" 1550:"Gene regulation by long non-coding RNAs and its biological functions" 4621: 4302: 4270: 4037: 3943: 3499: 3194: 3177: 2622: 2154:

Tokunaga I, Ishigami A, Kubo S, Gotohda T, Kitamura O (August 2008).

1240: 1226: 1218: 1173: 1159: 1151: 688: 597:

the gene becomes silenced. Colorectal cancers typically have 3 to 6

516: 496: 439: 263: 220: 212: 172: 112: 4428: 3238: 3023:

Maffioletti E, Tardito D, Gennarelli M, Bocchio-Chiavetto L (2014).

1938: 1761: 4911: 4684: 4679: 4572: 4265: 4234: 3851: 3841: 3765: 3514: 3436:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Gene Structure and Expression

2814: 2526: 2466:"Experience-dependent epigenomic reorganization in the hippocampus" 2195:

Rulten SL, Hodder E, Ripley TL, Stephens DN, Mayne LV (July 2008).

1303: 1299: 1291: 1217:

The local chromatin environment of the region can be determined by

995: 972: 890: 814: 801: 718: 714: 702: 674: 670: 655: 647: 590: 476: 334: 295: 116: 3520: 2110: 925:

is an interesting example of how gene expression can be regulated.

693: 4790: 4765: 4740: 4736: 4716: 4529: 3997: 3587: 1283: 1069:

Gene regulation works using operators and repressors in bacteria.

1049: 828: 789: 706: 610:). Transcriptional repression in cancer can also occur by other 547: 330: 267: 147: 104: 72: 3433: 2653: 454:

enhance the interaction between RNA polymerase and a particular

4601: 4579: 3977: 698: 168: 3127:"MicroRNA and Posttranscriptional Dysregulation in Psychiatry" 2922: 2604: 2464:

Duke CG, Kennedy AJ, Gavin CF, Day JJ, Sweatt JD (July 2017).

2067: 262:

In eukaryotes, the of large regions of DNA can depend on its

4803: 3609: 1255: 847:

altered and effective in down-regulating DNA repair enzymes.

619: 565: 369: 1465:

Vertino PM, Spillare EA, Harris CC, Baylin SB (April 1993).

475:

RNA can be an important regulator of gene activity, e.g. by

4606: 4275: 2763: 2153: 1464: 1295: 1115:

keeping transcript levels constant/proportional to a factor

1090:

is an example of both an inducible and repressible system.

629: 2715:

Friedman RC, Farh KK, Burge CB, Bartel DP (January 2009).

2325: 2194: 2018: 1969: 1166:, wherein the lighter staining regions are generally more 4519: 4509: 3579: 3333: 2717:"Most mammalian mRNAs are conserved targets of microRNAs" 2512: 1349:(small molecules that mimic transcription factor protein) 933: 76: 2654:

Ogorodnikov A, Kargapolova Y, Danckwardt S (June 2016).

2326:

Lövkvist C, Dodd IB, Sneppen K, Haerter JO (June 2016).

1923:"Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction" 1044:

occurs, for example, when a cell is overstimulated by a

570: 156:

only in the presence of lactose and absence of glucose.

123:

showed interaction between two genetic loci, Activator (

2714: 2235: 2113:

Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology & Physiology

2070:

Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology & Physiology

1821:"MicroRNAs in the DNA Damage/Repair Network and Cancer" 1548:

Statello L, Guo CJ, Chen LL, Huarte M (February 2021).

963:

A large number of studied regulatory systems come from

258:

Histone tails and their function in chromatin formation

115:

as it increases the versatility and adaptability of an

1413: 186: 4900: 2865: 2555: 1547: 1378:

Regulator gene glucosyltransferases (Rgg/SHP) systems

975:

cluster with their nested antero-posterior patterning

624:

Low expression of BRCA1 in breast and ovarian cancers

515:. Given their role in disease, lncRNAs are potential 1060: 1020: 732:

In a rat, a painful learning experience, contextual

426:

alter the specificity of RNA polymerase for a given

3284: 2463: 1407: 618:. In breast cancer, transcriptional repression of 191:Any step of gene expression may be modulated, from 159:In multicellular organisms, gene regulation drives 48:

Regulation of gene expression by a hormone receptor

3471: 3384: 2971: 2236:Adhami N, Chen Y, Martins-Green M (October 2017). 1661: 774: 766:(DMRs) (of 500 nucleotides each) occur in the rat 689:Regulation of transcription in learning and memory 306:or more permanently modified by processes such as 2279:"Epigenome Maintenance in Response to DNA Damage" 1170:active, whereas darker regions are more inactive. 4924: 3937: 3285:Nehlin JO, Carlberg M, Ronne H (November 1991). 3224: 2276: 1723:"DNA methylation patterns and epigenetic memory" 1298:will give an indication of sequestered protein; 593:. When many of a gene's promoter CpG sites are 3385:Jackson DA, Pombo A, Iborra F (February 2000). 2374: 1868: 1866: 1202:), but it is still the most commonly analysed ( 343:is also an important process in transcription. 266:structure, which can be altered as a result of 2201:Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 1920: 1916: 1914: 1662:Saxonov S, Berg P, Brutlag DL (January 2006). 896: 790:Three prime untranslated regions and microRNAs 755:activity increases transcription of the gene. 358: 4444: 3923: 3536: 3124: 2459: 2457: 2455: 1604: 1306:fractionation, is still popular in some labs) 526: 3427: 3378: 3327: 3118: 3067: 3016: 2965: 2916: 2757: 2598: 2549: 2506: 2319: 2270: 2229: 2188: 2147: 2104: 2061: 2021:"Epigenetic Signatures of Cigarette Smoking" 2012: 1963: 1863: 1812: 877: 744:is where new memories are initially stored. 3278: 2868:"The impact of microRNAs on protein output" 2710: 2708: 2647: 2368: 1911: 1755: 1655: 1498: 1458: 1026:gene and corresponding protein expression. 4451: 4437: 3930: 3916: 3691:Precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA / hnRNA) 3543: 3529: 3073: 2978:World Journal of Gastrointestinal Oncology 2452: 1492: 1397:"Can genes be turned on and off in cells?" 614:mechanisms, such as altered expression of 566:Special cases in human biology and disease 3507:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine 3475:Gene regulation: a eukaryotic perspective 3402: 3361: 3351: 3310: 3193: 3152: 3142: 3101: 3091: 3050: 3040: 2999: 2989: 2948: 2899: 2740: 2679: 2630: 2581: 2489: 2435: 2351: 2302: 2277:Dabin J, Fortuny A, Polo SE (June 2016). 2253: 2212: 2171: 2044: 1995: 1946: 1894: 1875:"Epigenetic mechanisms of drug addiction" 1846: 1836: 1795: 1738: 1697: 1687: 1630: 1581: 1524: 1441: 1431: 2705: 1145: 1064: 952: 723: 692: 630:Regulation of transcription in addiction 530: 422:can be regulated by several mechanisms. 368: 253: 51: 43: 3175: 2409: 2403: 1921:Robison AJ, Nestler EJ (October 2011). 1872: 1389: 1383: 1154:of a human, showing an overview of the 1103: 519:and may be useful targets for drugs or 14: 4925: 4420:Index of evolutionary biology articles 2416:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 1605:Kan RL, Chen J, Sallam T (July 2021). 1554:Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology 249: 179:, and it is central to the science of 4458: 4432: 3911: 3711:Histone acetylation and deacetylation 3524: 2972:Bernstein C, Bernstein H (May 2015). 762:is applied to a rat, more than 5,000 697:DNA methylation is the addition of a 608:regulation of transcription in cancer 581:In vertebrates, the majority of gene 577:Regulation of transcription in cancer 571:Regulation of transcription in cancer 3776:Ribosome-nascent chain complex (RNC) 3505:Regulation of Gene Expression (MeSH) 3125:Geaghan M, Cairns MJ (August 2015). 2160:The Journal of Medical Investigation 2025:Circulation: Cardiovascular Genetics 1720: 1243:interactions can be investigated by 982:(secreted inducing factor) from the 893:and self-regulate their expression. 470: 146:, in which some enzymes involved in 4883: 3550: 1714: 187:Regulated stages of gene expression 24: 4953:Evolutionary developmental biology 4230:Evolutionary developmental biology 3303:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1991.tb04901.x 3029:Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 1517:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1992.tb05281.x 1321:data is relative and not absolute. 1309:Protein levels can be analysed by 1162:, which is a method that includes 959:Evolutionary developmental biology 535:Overview of Epigenetic mechanisms. 181:evolutionary developmental biology 25: 4964: 4727:Post-transcriptional modification 3493: 1825:International Journal of Genomics 1358:Conserved non-coding DNA sequence 1082:prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. 1078:prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. 1061:Inducible vs. repressible systems 1021:Up-regulation and down-regulation 764:differentially methylated regions 701:group to the DNA that happens at 231:Post-transcriptional modification 103:Gene regulation is essential for 39:Glossary of gene expression terms 4910: 4882: 4871: 4870: 4187:Evolution of sexual reproduction 2214:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00673.x 1887:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.04.004 1347:Artificial transcription factors 1313:, which can be compared only to 1141: 807:Three prime untranslated regions 660:Epigenetics of cocaine addiction 546:. They occur on genomic DNA and 4948:Post-translational modification 4732:Post-translational modification 3781:Post-translational modification 3465: 3261: 3218: 3169: 2941:10.1590/S1415-47572011000300001 2859: 2808: 2696: 2428:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.06.005 2037:10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.116.001506 1499:Austin S, Dixon R (June 1992). 1199:post-transcriptional regulation 796:Three prime untranslated region 781:Post-transcriptional regulation 775:Post-transcriptional regulation 201:post-translational modification 94:post-translational modification 3958:Genotype–phenotype distinction 3144:10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.12.009 2929:Genetics and Molecular Biology 1976:Science Translational Medicine 1598: 1541: 1373:Spatiotemporal gene expression 831:web site, an archive of miRNA 822:miRNA response elements (MREs) 652:downregulation or upregulation 487:(lncRNA). LncRNAs differ from 13: 1: 4854:Post-translational regulation 4215:Regulation of gene expression 1332:) or translation inhibitors ( 1180:For DNA and RNA methods, see 448:General transcription factors 289: 79:). Sophisticated programs of 61:Regulation of gene expression 4802:High-throughput technique (" 4385:Endless Forms Most Beautiful 4165:Evolution of genetic systems 3973:Gene–environment correlation 3968:Gene–environment interaction 3448:10.1016/j.bbaexp.2006.07.005 2295:10.1016/j.molcel.2016.04.006 1988:10.1126/scitranslmed.3003062 1927:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 1009: 150:metabolism are expressed by 7: 4680:Functional biology/medicine 4364:Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard 3472:Latchman, David S. (2005). 1873:Nestler EJ (January 2014). 1340: 984:zone of polarizing activity 897:Examples of gene regulation 359:Regulation of transcription 313: 32:therapeutic gene modulation 10: 4969: 4240:Hedgehog signaling pathway 4117:Developmental architecture 2389:10.1016/j.gene.2004.02.043 1764:"Cancer genome landscapes" 1566:10.1038/s41580-020-00315-9 1186: 1179: 1171: 1013: 956: 932:) or splicing modulators ( 881: 820:The 3'-UTR often contains 799: 793: 778: 574: 527:Epigenetic gene regulation 365:Transcriptional regulation 362: 270:modifications directed by 86:transcriptional initiation 36: 29: 4866: 4829: 4749: 4704: 4697: 4652: 4539: 4496: 4489: 4466: 4417: 4396: 4325: 4253: 4207: 4200: 4164: 4116: 4080: 4067:Transgressive segregation 4013: 3950: 3884: 3793: 3758: 3732: 3723: 3681: 3655: 3629: 3620: 3558: 3074:Mellios N, Sur M (2012). 2672:10.1007/s00424-016-1828-3 2574:10.1016/j.ccr.2014.07.028 1623:10.1016/j.tig.2021.06.014 1221:analysis by pulling down 1187:For protein methods, see 989:reaction–diffusion system 878:Regulation of translation 860:major depressive disorder 646:, (2) DNA methylation at 436:prokaryotic transcription 345:Histone acetyltransferase 3842:sequestration (P-bodies) 3509:Medical Subject Headings 3227:Nature Reviews. Genetics 3176:Barnett JA (July 2004). 3093:10.3389/fpsyt.2012.00039 3042:10.3389/fncel.2014.00075 2410:Kim JJ, Jung MW (2006). 1433:10.1186/gb-2011-12-1-r10 884:Translational regulation 161:cellular differentiation 4245:Notch signaling pathway 4220:Gene regulatory network 4103:Dual inheritance theory 3820:Gene regulatory network 3404:10.1096/fasebj.14.2.242 3080:Frontiers in Psychiatry 2125:10.1111/1440-1681.12404 2082:10.1111/1440-1681.12218 1788:10.1126/science.1235122 1727:Genes & Development 1721:Bird A (January 2002). 1689:10.1073/pnas.0510310103 1401:Genetics Home Reference 1245:synthetic genetic array 1231:Trithorax-group protein 1016:Gene regulatory network 971:The colinearity of the 915:Drosophila melanogaster 717:. The total number of 667:acetylation of histones 601:mutations and 33 to 66 347:enzymes (HATs) such as 98:gene regulatory network 4293:cis-regulatory element 4201:Control of development 4081:Non-genetic influences 4047:evolutionary landscape 3825:cis-regulatory element 3353:10.1186/1471-2164-6-75 2332:Nucleic Acids Research 1235:Polycomb-group protein 1177: 1070: 729: 710: 560:translation efficiency 536: 415: 259: 57: 49: 4675:Developmental biology 4670:Computational biology 4404:Nature versus nurture 4308:Cell surface receptor 4225:Evo-devo gene toolkit 4124:Developmental biology 4062:Polygenic inheritance 3988:Quantitative genetics 3131:Biological Psychiatry 2991:10.4251/wjgo.v7.i5.30 2733:10.1101/gr.082701.108 2482:10.1101/lm.045112.117 2470:Learning & Memory 1258:labelling instead of 1172:Further information: 1149: 1068: 965:developmental biology 953:Developmental biology 727: 696: 650:, and (3) epigenetic 534: 372: 284:epigenetic regulation 257: 55: 47: 4849:Post-transcriptional 4313:Transcription factor 4028:Genetic assimilation 4015:Genetic architecture 3847:alternative splicing 3837:Post-transcriptional 3663:Transcription factor 3478:. Psychology Press. 1384:Notes and references 1286:RNA is complexed as 1182:nucleic acid methods 1129:signal amplification 1104:Theoretical circuits 967:. Examples include: 644:histone methylations 349:CREB-binding protein 217:chromatin remodeling 37:For vocabulary, see 4644:Histone methylation 4409:Morphogenetic field 4326:Influential figures 3771:Transfer RNA (tRNA) 2892:10.1038/nature07242 2884:2008Natur.455...64B 2837:10.1038/nature07228 2829:2008Natur.455...58S 2786:10.1038/nature03315 2778:2005Natur.433..769L 1881:. 76 Pt B: 259–68. 1838:10.1155/2014/820248 1780:2013Sci...339.1546V 1680:2006PNAS..103.1412S 1363:Enhancer (genetics) 910:heat shock proteins 868:Alzheimer's disease 864:Parkinson's disease 662:for some details.) 485:long non-coding RNA 424:Specificity factors 341:Histone acetylation 280:DNA-binding protein 250:Modification of DNA 208:Signal transduction 127:) and Dissociator ( 4098:Genomic imprinting 3885:Influential people 3864:Post-translational 3683:Post-transcription 2344:10.1093/nar/gkw124 2255:10.1042/CS20171053 2173:10.2152/jmi.55.241 1740:10.1101/gad.947102 1611:Trends in Genetics 1178: 1135:pattern generation 1071: 730: 711: 537: 416: 377:: RNA Polymerase, 319:Methylation of DNA 260: 121:Barbara McClintock 58: 50: 18:Regulatory protein 4898: 4897: 4877:Molecular biology 4862: 4861: 4816:Mass spectrometry 4693: 4692: 4460:Molecular biology 4426: 4425: 4359:Eric F. Wieschaus 4321: 4320: 4139:Pattern formation 4043:Fitness landscape 3905: 3904: 3789: 3788: 3719: 3718: 3595:Special transfers 3485:978-0-415-36510-9 2248:(19): 2409–2426. 1982:(107): 107ra109. 1879:Neuropharmacology 1774:(6127): 1546–58. 1311:Mass spectrometry 1267:abortive products 1223:RNA Polymerase II 1168:transcriptionally 912:in the fruit fly 908:The induction of 760:fear conditioning 740:experience. The 738:fear conditioning 734:fear conditioning 642:acetylations and 509:Alzheimer disease 471:Regulation by RNA 221:chromatin domains 16:(Redirected from 4960: 4915: 4914: 4906: 4886: 4885: 4874: 4873: 4807: 4702: 4701: 4555: 4550: 4494: 4493: 4453: 4446: 4439: 4430: 4429: 4369:William McGinnis 4338:Richard Lewontin 4333:C. H. Waddington 4205: 4204: 4182:Neutral networks 3932: 3925: 3918: 3909: 3908: 3730: 3729: 3627: 3626: 3545: 3538: 3531: 3522: 3521: 3489: 3460: 3459: 3442:(8–9): 388–402. 3431: 3425: 3424: 3406: 3382: 3376: 3375: 3365: 3355: 3331: 3325: 3324: 3314: 3291:The EMBO Journal 3282: 3276: 3265: 3259: 3258: 3222: 3216: 3215: 3197: 3195:10.1002/yea.1113 3173: 3167: 3166: 3156: 3146: 3122: 3116: 3115: 3105: 3095: 3071: 3065: 3064: 3054: 3044: 3020: 3014: 3013: 3003: 2993: 2969: 2963: 2962: 2952: 2920: 2914: 2913: 2903: 2863: 2857: 2856: 2812: 2806: 2805: 2772:(7027): 769–73. 2761: 2755: 2754: 2744: 2712: 2703: 2700: 2694: 2693: 2683: 2651: 2645: 2644: 2634: 2623:10.1038/nbt.2726 2602: 2596: 2595: 2585: 2553: 2547: 2546: 2510: 2504: 2503: 2493: 2461: 2450: 2449: 2439: 2407: 2401: 2400: 2372: 2366: 2365: 2355: 2323: 2317: 2316: 2306: 2274: 2268: 2267: 2257: 2242:Clinical Science 2233: 2227: 2226: 2216: 2192: 2186: 2185: 2175: 2151: 2145: 2144: 2108: 2102: 2101: 2065: 2059: 2058: 2048: 2016: 2010: 2009: 1999: 1967: 1961: 1960: 1950: 1918: 1909: 1908: 1898: 1870: 1861: 1860: 1850: 1840: 1816: 1810: 1809: 1799: 1759: 1753: 1752: 1742: 1718: 1712: 1711: 1701: 1691: 1659: 1653: 1652: 1634: 1602: 1596: 1595: 1585: 1545: 1539: 1538: 1528: 1505:The EMBO Journal 1496: 1490: 1489: 1471: 1462: 1456: 1455: 1445: 1435: 1411: 1405: 1404: 1393: 1336:), respectively. 1315:quantitative PCR 1204:quantitative PCR 1046:neurotransmitter 903:Enzyme induction 856:bipolar disorder 827:As of 2014, the 758:When contextual 333:) or MassArray ( 244:mRNA degradation 138:, discovered by 21: 4968: 4967: 4963: 4962: 4961: 4959: 4958: 4957: 4933:Gene expression 4923: 4922: 4921: 4909: 4901: 4899: 4894: 4858: 4831:Gene regulation 4825: 4801: 4762:Model organisms 4745: 4722:Cell signalling 4689: 4648: 4553: 4548: 4535: 4506:DNA replication 4485: 4462: 4457: 4427: 4422: 4413: 4392: 4379:Sean B. Carroll 4317: 4249: 4196: 4160: 4112: 4093:Maternal effect 4076: 4009: 3946: 3936: 3906: 3901: 3880: 3815:Transcriptional 3785: 3754: 3715: 3706:Polyadenylation 3677: 3651: 3616: 3610:Protein→Protein 3561: 3554: 3552:Gene expression 3549: 3496: 3486: 3468: 3463: 3432: 3428: 3383: 3379: 3332: 3328: 3283: 3279: 3266: 3262: 3239:10.1038/nrg2320 3223: 3219: 3174: 3170: 3154:1959.13/1335073 3123: 3119: 3072: 3068: 3021: 3017: 2970: 2966: 2921: 2917: 2878:(7209): 64–71. 2864: 2860: 2823:(7209): 58–63. 2813: 2809: 2762: 2758: 2721:Genome Research 2713: 2706: 2701: 2697: 2666:(6): 993–1012. 2660:Pflügers Archiv 2652: 2648: 2617:(12): 1137–42. 2611:Nat. Biotechnol 2603: 2599: 2554: 2550: 2511: 2507: 2462: 2453: 2408: 2404: 2373: 2369: 2338:(11): 5123–32. 2324: 2320: 2275: 2271: 2234: 2230: 2193: 2189: 2152: 2148: 2109: 2105: 2066: 2062: 2017: 2013: 1968: 1964: 1939:10.1038/nrn3111 1919: 1912: 1871: 1864: 1817: 1813: 1760: 1756: 1719: 1715: 1660: 1656: 1603: 1599: 1546: 1542: 1497: 1493: 1474:Cancer Research 1469: 1463: 1459: 1412: 1408: 1395: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1343: 1294:. For example, 1229:modifications, 1192: 1189:protein methods 1185: 1176: 1164:Giemsa staining 1144: 1106: 1088:GAL4/UAS system 1063: 1042:Down-regulation 1023: 1018: 1012: 961: 955: 946:GAL4/UAS system 899: 886: 880: 872:autism spectrum 804: 798: 792: 783: 777: 691: 632: 579: 573: 568: 544:gene expression 529: 473: 367: 361: 316: 304:phosphorylation 292: 272:DNA methylation 252: 189: 177:molecular level 81:gene expression 65:gene regulation 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4966: 4956: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4920: 4919: 4896: 4895: 4893: 4892: 4880: 4867: 4864: 4863: 4860: 4859: 4857: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4835: 4833: 4827: 4826: 4824: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4811:DNA microarray 4808: 4798: 4797: 4784: 4783: 4782: 4777: 4769: 4759: 4753: 4751: 4747: 4746: 4744: 4743: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4708: 4706: 4699: 4695: 4694: 4691: 4690: 4688: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4672: 4667: 4662: 4656: 4654: 4650: 4649: 4647: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4635: 4634: 4629: 4619: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4599: 4598: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4577: 4576: 4575: 4570: 4559: 4558: 4557: 4556: 4551: 4543: 4541: 4537: 4536: 4534: 4533: 4523: 4513: 4502: 4500: 4491: 4487: 4486: 4484: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4467: 4464: 4463: 4456: 4455: 4448: 4441: 4433: 4424: 4423: 4418: 4415: 4414: 4412: 4411: 4406: 4400: 4398: 4394: 4393: 4391: 4390: 4389: 4388: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4355: 4354: 4343:François Jacob 4340: 4335: 4329: 4327: 4323: 4322: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4285: 4280: 4279: 4278: 4268: 4263: 4257: 4255: 4251: 4250: 4248: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4211: 4209: 4202: 4198: 4197: 4195: 4194: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4168: 4166: 4162: 4161: 4159: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4142: 4141: 4136: 4126: 4120: 4118: 4114: 4113: 4111: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4090: 4084: 4082: 4078: 4077: 4075: 4074: 4072:Sequence space 4069: 4064: 4059: 4054: 4049: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4019: 4017: 4011: 4010: 4008: 4007: 4002: 4001: 4000: 3990: 3985: 3980: 3975: 3970: 3965: 3960: 3954: 3952: 3948: 3947: 3935: 3934: 3927: 3920: 3912: 3903: 3902: 3900: 3899: 3894: 3892:François Jacob 3888: 3886: 3882: 3881: 3879: 3878: 3877: 3876: 3871: 3861: 3856: 3855: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3834: 3829: 3828: 3827: 3822: 3812: 3811: 3810: 3799: 3797: 3791: 3790: 3787: 3786: 3784: 3783: 3778: 3773: 3768: 3762: 3760: 3756: 3755: 3753: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3736: 3734: 3727: 3721: 3720: 3717: 3716: 3714: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3687: 3685: 3679: 3678: 3676: 3675: 3670: 3668:RNA polymerase 3665: 3659: 3657: 3653: 3652: 3650: 3649: 3644: 3639: 3633: 3631: 3624: 3618: 3617: 3615: 3614: 3613: 3612: 3607: 3602: 3592: 3591: 3590: 3572: 3566: 3564: 3556: 3555: 3548: 3547: 3540: 3533: 3525: 3519: 3518: 3512: 3502: 3495: 3494:External links 3492: 3491: 3490: 3484: 3467: 3464: 3462: 3461: 3426: 3377: 3326: 3297:(11): 3373–7. 3277: 3260: 3217: 3168: 3117: 3066: 3015: 2964: 2915: 2858: 2807: 2756: 2704: 2695: 2646: 2597: 2548: 2527:10.1038/ng1990 2505: 2476:(7): 278–288. 2451: 2422:(2): 188–202. 2402: 2367: 2318: 2283:Molecular Cell 2269: 2228: 2207:(7): 1186–96. 2187: 2166:(3–4): 241–5. 2146: 2103: 2060: 2031:(5): 436–447. 2011: 1962: 1933:(11): 623–37. 1910: 1862: 1811: 1754: 1713: 1654: 1617:(2): 182–193. 1597: 1540: 1511:(6): 2219–28. 1491: 1457: 1420:Genome Biology 1406: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1381: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1368:Gene structure 1365: 1360: 1355: 1353:Cellular model 1350: 1342: 1339: 1338: 1337: 1322: 1307: 1280: 1276:DNA microarray 1270: 1263: 1252:nuclear run-on 1248: 1238: 1208:DNA microarray 1143: 1140: 1139: 1138: 1137: 1136: 1133: 1130: 1124: 1123: 1122: 1119: 1116: 1110: 1105: 1102: 1084: 1083: 1079: 1062: 1059: 1058: 1057: 1039: 1022: 1019: 1014:Main article: 1011: 1008: 1007: 1006: 1003:sex chromosome 999: 992: 980:sonic hedgehog 976: 957:Main article: 954: 951: 950: 949: 937: 926: 919: 906: 898: 895: 882:Main article: 879: 876: 845:epigenetically 811:messenger RNAs 800:Main article: 794:Main article: 791: 788: 779:Main article: 776: 773: 690: 687: 631: 628: 589:with numerous 575:Main article: 572: 569: 567: 564: 528: 525: 472: 469: 420:RNA polymerase 363:Main article: 360: 357: 353:gene silencing 327:Pyrosequencing 315: 312: 291: 288: 251: 248: 247: 246: 241: 236: 233: 228: 223: 210: 188: 185: 183:("evo-devo"). 140:François Jacob 90:RNA processing 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4965: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4930: 4928: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4907: 4904: 4891: 4890: 4881: 4879: 4878: 4869: 4868: 4865: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4836: 4834: 4832: 4828: 4822: 4821:Lab-on-a-chip 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4805: 4800: 4799: 4796: 4795:Radioactivity 4792: 4788: 4785: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4773: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4763: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4754: 4752: 4748: 4742: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4712:Cultured meat 4710: 4709: 4707: 4703: 4700: 4696: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4657: 4655: 4651: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4633: 4632:trp repressor 4630: 4628: 4627:lac repressor 4625: 4624: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4582: 4581: 4578: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4565: 4564: 4561: 4560: 4552: 4547: 4546: 4545: 4544: 4542: 4538: 4531: 4527: 4524: 4521: 4517: 4516:Transcription 4514: 4511: 4507: 4504: 4503: 4501: 4499: 4498:Central dogma 4495: 4492: 4488: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4468: 4465: 4461: 4454: 4449: 4447: 4442: 4440: 4435: 4434: 4431: 4421: 4416: 4410: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4401: 4399: 4395: 4387: 4386: 4382: 4381: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4353: 4350: 4349: 4348: 4347:Jacques Monod 4344: 4341: 4339: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4330: 4328: 4324: 4314: 4311: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4301: 4299: 4296: 4294: 4291: 4289: 4286: 4284: 4281: 4277: 4274: 4273: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4261:Homeotic gene 4259: 4258: 4256: 4252: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4212: 4210: 4206: 4203: 4199: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4170: 4169: 4167: 4163: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4144: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4131: 4130: 4129:Morphogenesis 4127: 4125: 4122: 4121: 4119: 4115: 4109: 4106: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4085: 4083: 4079: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4020: 4018: 4016: 4012: 4006: 4003: 3999: 3996: 3995: 3994: 3991: 3989: 3986: 3984: 3981: 3979: 3976: 3974: 3971: 3969: 3966: 3964: 3963:Reaction norm 3961: 3959: 3956: 3955: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3933: 3928: 3926: 3921: 3919: 3914: 3913: 3910: 3898: 3897:Jacques Monod 3895: 3893: 3890: 3889: 3887: 3883: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3866: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3859:Translational 3857: 3853: 3850: 3848: 3845: 3843: 3840: 3839: 3838: 3835: 3833: 3830: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3817: 3816: 3813: 3809: 3806: 3805: 3804: 3801: 3800: 3798: 3796: 3792: 3782: 3779: 3777: 3774: 3772: 3769: 3767: 3764: 3763: 3761: 3757: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3741: 3738: 3737: 3735: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3722: 3712: 3709: 3707: 3704: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3689: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3680: 3674: 3671: 3669: 3666: 3664: 3661: 3660: 3658: 3654: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3634: 3632: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3622:Transcription 3619: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3603: 3601: 3598: 3597: 3596: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3578: 3577: 3576: 3575:Central dogma 3573: 3571: 3568: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3557: 3553: 3546: 3541: 3539: 3534: 3532: 3527: 3526: 3523: 3516: 3513: 3510: 3506: 3503: 3501: 3498: 3497: 3487: 3481: 3477: 3476: 3470: 3469: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3430: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3405: 3400: 3397:(2): 242–54. 3396: 3392: 3391:FASEB Journal 3388: 3381: 3373: 3369: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3330: 3322: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3281: 3274: 3273:0-87893-258-5 3270: 3264: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3233:(5): 370–82. 3232: 3228: 3221: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3196: 3191: 3188:(9): 703–46. 3187: 3183: 3179: 3172: 3164: 3160: 3155: 3150: 3145: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3121: 3113: 3109: 3104: 3099: 3094: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3070: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3048: 3043: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3019: 3011: 3007: 3002: 2997: 2992: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2968: 2960: 2956: 2951: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2935:(3): 363–70. 2934: 2930: 2926: 2919: 2911: 2907: 2902: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2862: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2811: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2760: 2752: 2748: 2743: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2727:(1): 92–105. 2726: 2722: 2718: 2711: 2709: 2699: 2691: 2687: 2682: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2650: 2642: 2638: 2633: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2601: 2593: 2589: 2584: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2568:(4): 577–90. 2567: 2563: 2559: 2552: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2521:(4): 457–66. 2520: 2516: 2509: 2501: 2497: 2492: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2460: 2458: 2456: 2447: 2443: 2438: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2406: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2371: 2363: 2359: 2354: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2322: 2314: 2310: 2305: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2289:(5): 712–27. 2288: 2284: 2280: 2273: 2265: 2261: 2256: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2232: 2224: 2220: 2215: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2191: 2183: 2179: 2174: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2150: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2107: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2064: 2056: 2052: 2047: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2015: 2007: 2003: 1998: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1966: 1958: 1954: 1949: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1917: 1915: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1869: 1867: 1858: 1854: 1849: 1844: 1839: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1815: 1807: 1803: 1798: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1758: 1750: 1746: 1741: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1717: 1709: 1705: 1700: 1695: 1690: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1674:(5): 1412–7. 1673: 1669: 1665: 1658: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1633: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1601: 1593: 1589: 1584: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1560:(2): 96–118. 1559: 1555: 1551: 1544: 1536: 1532: 1527: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1495: 1487: 1483: 1480:(7): 1684–9. 1479: 1475: 1468: 1461: 1453: 1449: 1444: 1439: 1434: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1410: 1402: 1398: 1392: 1388: 1379: 1376: 1374: 1371: 1369: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1359: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1348: 1345: 1344: 1335: 1334:Cycloheximide 1331: 1327: 1326:actinomycin D 1323: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1278: 1277: 1271: 1268: 1264: 1261: 1260:radioactivity 1257: 1253: 1249: 1246: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1215: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1200: 1190: 1183: 1175: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1148: 1142:Study methods 1134: 1131: 1128: 1127: 1125: 1120: 1117: 1114: 1113: 1111: 1108: 1107: 1101: 1099: 1095: 1094: 1089: 1080: 1076: 1075: 1074: 1067: 1055: 1054:tachyphylaxis 1051: 1047: 1043: 1040: 1037: 1032: 1031:Up-regulation 1029: 1028: 1027: 1017: 1004: 1000: 997: 993: 990: 985: 981: 977: 974: 970: 969: 968: 966: 960: 947: 943: 942: 938: 935: 931: 927: 924: 920: 917: 916: 911: 907: 904: 901: 900: 894: 892: 885: 875: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 852:schizophrenia 848: 846: 841: 837: 834: 830: 825: 823: 818: 816: 812: 809:(3'-UTRs) of 808: 803: 797: 787: 782: 772: 769: 765: 761: 756: 754: 750: 745: 743: 739: 735: 726: 722: 720: 716: 708: 704: 700: 695: 686: 683: 679: 676: 672: 668: 663: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 627: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 578: 563: 561: 557: 556:RNA stability 553: 549: 545: 541: 533: 524: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 481:antisense-RNA 478: 468: 466: 461: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 432:sigma factors 429: 425: 421: 413: 409: 406: 404: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 381:: Repressor, 380: 376: 371: 366: 356: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 311: 309: 305: 301: 297: 287: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 256: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235:RNA transport 234: 232: 229: 227: 226:Transcription 224: 222: 218: 214: 211: 209: 206: 205: 204: 202: 198: 197:transcription 194: 184: 182: 178: 174: 170: 166: 165:morphogenesis 162: 157: 155: 154: 149: 145: 144:Jacques Monod 141: 137: 135: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 101: 99: 95: 92:, and to the 91: 87: 82: 78: 74: 70: 69:gene products 66: 62: 54: 46: 40: 33: 19: 4887: 4875: 4843: 4830: 4787:Fluorescence 4775:Nucleic acid 4766:C57BL/6 mice 4757:Cell culture 4665:Biochemistry 4660:Cell biology 4383: 4276:eyeless gene 4214: 4172:Evolvability 4146:Segmentation 4023:Canalisation 3993:Heterochrony 3983:Heritability 3951:Key concepts 3874:irreversible 3794: 3759:Key elements 3656:Key elements 3570:Genetic code 3560:Introduction 3474: 3466:Bibliography 3439: 3435: 3429: 3394: 3390: 3380: 3343: 3340:BMC Genomics 3339: 3329: 3294: 3290: 3280: 3263: 3230: 3226: 3220: 3185: 3181: 3171: 3137:(4): 231–9. 3134: 3130: 3120: 3083: 3079: 3069: 3032: 3028: 3018: 2984:(5): 30–46. 2981: 2977: 2967: 2932: 2928: 2918: 2875: 2871: 2861: 2820: 2816: 2810: 2769: 2765: 2759: 2724: 2720: 2698: 2663: 2659: 2649: 2614: 2610: 2600: 2565: 2561: 2551: 2518: 2514: 2508: 2473: 2469: 2419: 2415: 2405: 2380: 2376: 2370: 2335: 2331: 2321: 2286: 2282: 2272: 2245: 2241: 2231: 2204: 2200: 2190: 2163: 2159: 2149: 2119:(6): 570–5. 2116: 2112: 2106: 2076:(4): 265–9. 2073: 2069: 2063: 2028: 2024: 2014: 1979: 1975: 1965: 1930: 1926: 1878: 1828: 1824: 1814: 1771: 1767: 1757: 1730: 1726: 1716: 1671: 1667: 1657: 1614: 1610: 1600: 1557: 1553: 1543: 1508: 1504: 1494: 1477: 1473: 1460: 1423: 1419: 1409: 1400: 1391: 1273: 1212: 1196: 1193: 1156:human genome 1091: 1085: 1072: 1024: 962: 939: 930:lambda phage 913: 887: 849: 842: 838: 826: 819: 805: 784: 757: 746: 731: 712: 684: 680: 664: 633: 580: 538: 521:gene therapy 474: 442:bind to the 417: 411: 407: 402: 398: 394: 390: 389:: Operator, 386: 385:: Promoter, 382: 378: 374: 373: 339: 317: 300:supercoiling 293: 261: 190: 158: 151: 133: 128: 124: 102: 64: 60: 59: 4889:WikiProject 4698:Engineering 4653:Linked life 4568:Pribnow box 4526:Translation 4374:Mike Levine 4283:Distal-less 4108:Polyphenism 4088:Epigenetics 3940:development 3725:Translation 3562:to genetics 2702:miRBase.org 2562:Cancer Cell 1733:(1): 6–21. 1036:homeostasis 874:disorders. 768:hippocampus 749:TET enzymes 742:hippocampus 552:methylation 540:Epigenetics 513:lung cancer 393:: Lactose, 323:CpG islands 308:methylation 239:Translation 175:works at a 109:prokaryotes 4927:Categories 4839:Epigenetic 4750:Techniques 4612:Terminator 4595:trp operon 4590:lac operon 4585:gal operon 4352:Lac operon 4177:Robustness 4156:Modularity 4151:Metamerism 4057:Plasticity 4052:Pleiotropy 4005:Heterotopy 3869:reversible 3832:lac operon 3808:imprinting 3803:Epigenetic 3795:Regulation 3750:Eukaryotic 3696:5' capping 3647:Eukaryotic 2515:Nat. Genet 1831:: 820248. 1426:(1): R10. 1330:α-Amanitin 1319:microarray 1150:Schematic 923:Lac operon 753:TET enzyme 636:epigenetic 612:epigenetic 603:hitchhiker 595:methylated 587:CpG island 585:contain a 517:biomarkers 505:Huntington 452:Activators 440:Repressors 290:Structural 113:eukaryotes 4764:(such as 4622:Repressor 4303:Morphogen 4288:Engrailed 4271:Pax genes 4192:Tinkering 4038:Epistasis 4033:Dominance 3944:phenotype 3740:Bacterial 3637:Bacterial 2383:: 143–9. 1649:236200223 1574:1471-0072 1317:data, as 1241:Epistatic 1227:Histone 3 1219:ChIP-chip 1174:Karyotype 1160:G banding 1152:karyogram 1010:Circuitry 891:ribozymes 833:sequences 815:microRNAs 719:CpG sites 675:CpG sites 671:CpG sites 656:microRNAs 648:CpG sites 616:microRNAs 591:CpG sites 583:promoters 501:Parkinson 497:chromatin 479:(miRNA), 465:Silencers 460:Enhancers 264:chromatin 213:Chromatin 193:signaling 173:evolution 4771:Methods 4705:Concepts 4685:Genetics 4639:Silencer 4617:Enhancer 4573:TATA box 4563:Promoter 4554:Heredity 4490:Overview 4481:Glossary 4266:Hox gene 4254:Elements 4235:Homeobox 3852:microRNA 3766:Ribosome 3745:Archaeal 3701:Splicing 3673:Promoter 3642:Archaeal 3586: → 3582: → 3515:ChIPBase 3456:16962184 3421:23518786 3413:10657981 3372:15907206 3247:18414404 3212:36606279 3204:15282797 3163:25636176 3112:22539927 3061:24653674 3010:25987950 2959:21931505 2910:18668037 2845:18668040 2794:15685193 2751:18955434 2690:27220521 2641:24108092 2592:25263941 2543:22446734 2535:17334365 2500:28620075 2446:16120461 2397:15177689 2362:26932361 2313:27259203 2264:28912356 2223:18482162 2182:18797138 2141:24182756 2133:25867833 2098:20849951 2090:24552452 2055:27651444 2006:22049069 1957:21989194 1905:23643695 1857:24616890 1806:23539594 1749:11782440 1708:16432200 1641:34294427 1592:33353982 1452:21251332 1341:See also 1304:polysome 1300:ribosome 1292:RIP-Chip 1247:analysis 996:Mesoderm 973:Hox gene 802:MicroRNA 715:CpG site 703:cytosine 658:. (See 548:histones 477:microRNA 456:promoter 444:Operator 434:used in 428:promoter 405:: lacA. 401:: lacY, 397:: lacZ, 335:Sequenom 314:Chemical 296:histones 117:organism 4917:Biology 4844:Genetic 4791:Pigment 4780:Protein 4741:Wet lab 4737:Dry lab 4717:Mitosis 4549:Genetic 4540:Element 4530:protein 4471:History 4397:Debates 4208:Systems 4134:Eyespot 3998:Neoteny 3605:RNA→DNA 3600:RNA→RNA 3588:Protein 3363:1156890 3321:1915298 3255:2526914 3103:3336189 3052:3949217 3001:4434036 2950:3168173 2901:2745094 2880:Bibcode 2853:4429008 2825:Bibcode 2802:4430576 2774:Bibcode 2742:2612969 2681:4893057 2632:3858462 2583:4224113 2491:5473107 2437:4342048 2353:4914085 2304:5476208 2046:5267325 1997:4042673 1948:3272277 1896:3766384 1848:3926391 1797:3749880 1776:Bibcode 1768:Science 1699:1345710 1676:Bibcode 1632:9093201 1583:7754182 1535:1534752 1486:8453642 1443:3091299 1284:in vivo 1050:hormone 829:miRBase 707:guanine 640:histone 493:nucleus 331:Biotage 268:histone 153:E. coli 148:lactose 105:viruses 73:protein 4903:Portal 4804:-omics 4793:& 4602:Intron 4580:Operon 4298:Ligand 3978:Operon 3511:(MeSH) 3482: 3454: 3419: 3411: 3370: 3360: 3346:: 75. 3319: 3312:453065 3309: 3271: 3253: 3245: 3210: 3202: 3161: 3110: 3100: 3086:: 39. 3059: 3049: 3035:: 75. 3008: 2998: 2957: 2947: 2908: 2898: 2872:Nature 2851: 2843: 2817:Nature 2800: 2792: 2766:Nature 2749: 2739: 2688: 2678: 2639: 2629: 2590: 2580: 2541: 2533: 2498: 2488: 2444: 2434: 2395: 2360: 2350: 2311: 2301: 2262: 2221: 2180: 2139: 2131: 2096: 2088: 2053: 2043: 2004: 1994: 1955: 1945: 1903: 1893: 1855: 1845: 1804: 1794: 1747: 1706: 1696: 1647: 1639: 1629: 1590: 1580: 1572: 1533: 1526:556689 1523: 1484: 1450: 1440: 699:methyl 599:driver 507:, and 412:Bottom 169:genome 136:operon 4476:Index 3733:Types 3630:Types 3417:S2CID 3251:S2CID 3208:S2CID 3182:Yeast 2849:S2CID 2798:S2CID 2539:S2CID 2137:S2CID 2094:S2CID 1645:S2CID 1470:(PDF) 1256:thiol 620:BRCA1 489:mRNAs 483:, or 278:, or 276:ncRNA 88:, to 63:, or 4607:Exon 3938:The 3480:ISBN 3452:PMID 3440:1759 3409:PMID 3368:PMID 3317:PMID 3269:ISBN 3243:PMID 3200:PMID 3159:PMID 3108:PMID 3057:PMID 3006:PMID 2955:PMID 2906:PMID 2841:PMID 2790:PMID 2747:PMID 2686:PMID 2637:PMID 2588:PMID 2531:PMID 2496:PMID 2442:PMID 2393:PMID 2377:Gene 2358:PMID 2309:PMID 2260:PMID 2219:PMID 2178:PMID 2129:PMID 2086:PMID 2051:PMID 2002:PMID 1953:PMID 1901:PMID 1853:PMID 1829:2014 1802:PMID 1745:PMID 1704:PMID 1637:PMID 1588:PMID 1570:ISSN 1531:PMID 1482:PMID 1448:PMID 1296:DCP2 1288:RNPs 1282:All 1274:see 1206:and 1197:see 1098:MIG1 1093:Gal4 1086:The 941:Gal4 921:The 870:and 558:and 495:and 163:and 142:and 111:and 4943:RNA 4938:DNA 4520:RNA 4510:DNA 3942:of 3584:RNA 3580:DNA 3444:doi 3399:doi 3358:PMC 3348:doi 3307:PMC 3299:doi 3235:doi 3190:doi 3149:hdl 3139:doi 3098:PMC 3088:doi 3047:PMC 3037:doi 2996:PMC 2986:doi 2945:PMC 2937:doi 2896:PMC 2888:doi 2876:455 2833:doi 2821:455 2782:doi 2770:433 2737:PMC 2729:doi 2676:PMC 2668:doi 2664:468 2627:PMC 2619:doi 2578:PMC 2570:doi 2523:doi 2486:PMC 2478:doi 2432:PMC 2424:doi 2385:doi 2381:333 2348:PMC 2340:doi 2299:PMC 2291:doi 2250:doi 2246:131 2209:doi 2168:doi 2121:doi 2078:doi 2041:PMC 2033:doi 1992:PMC 1984:doi 1943:PMC 1935:doi 1891:PMC 1883:doi 1843:PMC 1833:doi 1792:PMC 1784:doi 1772:339 1735:doi 1694:PMC 1684:doi 1672:103 1627:PMC 1619:doi 1578:PMC 1562:doi 1521:PMC 1513:doi 1438:PMC 1428:doi 1328:or 1210:). 1158:on 934:HIV 654:of 626:). 438:). 408:Top 199:to 195:to 134:lac 77:RNA 75:or 4929:: 4806:") 4789:, 4739:/ 4345:+ 3450:. 3438:. 3415:. 3407:. 3395:14 3393:. 3389:. 3366:. 3356:. 3342:. 3338:. 3315:. 3305:. 3295:10 3293:. 3289:. 3249:. 3241:. 3229:. 3206:. 3198:. 3186:21 3184:. 3180:. 3157:. 3147:. 3135:78 3133:. 3129:. 3106:. 3096:. 3082:. 3078:. 3055:. 3045:. 3031:. 3027:. 3004:. 2994:. 2980:. 2976:. 2953:. 2943:. 2933:34 2931:. 2927:. 2904:. 2894:. 2886:. 2874:. 2870:. 2847:. 2839:. 2831:. 2819:. 2796:. 2788:. 2780:. 2768:. 2745:. 2735:. 2725:19 2723:. 2719:. 2707:^ 2684:. 2674:. 2662:. 2658:. 2635:. 2625:. 2615:31 2613:. 2609:. 2586:. 2576:. 2566:26 2564:. 2560:. 2537:. 2529:. 2519:39 2517:. 2494:. 2484:. 2474:24 2472:. 2468:. 2454:^ 2440:. 2430:. 2420:30 2418:. 2414:. 2391:. 2379:. 2356:. 2346:. 2336:44 2334:. 2330:. 2307:. 2297:. 2287:62 2285:. 2281:. 2258:. 2244:. 2240:. 2217:. 2205:32 2203:. 2199:. 2176:. 2164:55 2162:. 2158:. 2135:. 2127:. 2117:42 2115:. 2092:. 2084:. 2074:41 2072:. 2049:. 2039:. 2027:. 2023:. 2000:. 1990:. 1978:. 1974:. 1951:. 1941:. 1931:12 1929:. 1925:. 1913:^ 1899:. 1889:. 1877:. 1865:^ 1851:. 1841:. 1827:. 1823:. 1800:. 1790:. 1782:. 1770:. 1766:. 1743:. 1731:16 1729:. 1725:. 1702:. 1692:. 1682:. 1670:. 1666:. 1643:. 1635:. 1625:. 1615:38 1613:. 1609:. 1586:. 1576:. 1568:. 1558:22 1556:. 1552:. 1529:. 1519:. 1509:11 1507:. 1503:. 1478:53 1476:. 1472:. 1446:. 1436:. 1424:12 1422:. 1418:. 1399:. 1279:). 1233:, 1225:, 1056:). 1048:, 936:). 866:, 862:, 858:, 854:, 562:. 503:, 286:. 274:, 219:, 215:, 129:Ds 125:Ac 107:, 100:. 4905:: 4768:) 4532:) 4528:( 4522:) 4518:( 4512:) 4508:( 4452:e 4445:t 4438:v 4045:/ 3931:e 3924:t 3917:v 3544:e 3537:t 3530:v 3488:. 3458:. 3446:: 3423:. 3401:: 3374:. 3350:: 3344:6 3323:. 3301:: 3275:. 3257:. 3237:: 3231:9 3214:. 3192:: 3165:. 3151:: 3141:: 3114:. 3090:: 3084:3 3063:. 3039:: 3033:8 3012:. 2988:: 2982:7 2961:. 2939:: 2912:. 2890:: 2882:: 2855:. 2835:: 2827:: 2804:. 2784:: 2776:: 2753:. 2731:: 2692:. 2670:: 2643:. 2621:: 2594:. 2572:: 2545:. 2525:: 2502:. 2480:: 2448:. 2426:: 2399:. 2387:: 2364:. 2342:: 2315:. 2293:: 2266:. 2252:: 2225:. 2211:: 2184:. 2170:: 2143:. 2123:: 2100:. 2080:: 2057:. 2035:: 2029:9 2008:. 1986:: 1980:3 1959:. 1937:: 1907:. 1885:: 1859:. 1835:: 1808:. 1786:: 1778:: 1751:. 1737:: 1710:. 1686:: 1678:: 1651:. 1621:: 1594:. 1564:: 1537:. 1515:: 1488:. 1454:. 1430:: 1403:. 1262:. 1195:( 1191:. 1184:. 1038:. 991:. 918:. 709:. 403:8 399:7 395:6 391:5 387:4 383:3 379:2 375:1 329:( 71:( 41:. 34:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.