2650:
2636:
5477:
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5497:
2791:) has been coined to describe situations where typically advantaged people are relegated to inferior positions or denied social opportunities to benefit racial and ethnic minorities, or, in some instances, women. However, scholars argue that a critical component of racism is the broad exercise of authority and power and that isolated instances of favoring the disadvantaged over the privileged cannot be seen as constituting racism.
51:
5487:
2494:, arguing that while "members of all racial groups can harbor negative attitudes toward members of other groups", there is no "black institutional racism" or "reverse institutional racism" since people of color have not created a socially ingrained system of racial domination over white people. Psychologist and educator
2832:
Reverse racism is a concept commonly associated with conservative opposition to affirmative action and other color-conscious victories of the civil rights movement in the United States and anti-racist movements abroad. While traditional forms of racism involve prejudice and discrimination on the part
2312:
While not empirically supported, belief in reverse racism is widespread in the United States, primarily among white people. Psychological studies with white
Americans have shown that belief in anti-white racism is linked with support for the existing racial hierarchy in the U.S. as well as the belief
4290:
The students maintained that the university was living in the apartheid past with the upper echelons reserved for whites. The students are demanding that some jobs be reserved for Blacks. AZASM had denied the charge of reverse racism. They maintain it is unfair for thousands of Black teachers to be
2951:
Reverse racism is the idea that the Civil Rights
Movement not only ended the subordination of communities of color in all aspects of social life but also simultaneously led to a similar subordination of Whites. This idea is primarily supported by Whites who perceive gains in racial equity as losses
2354:
report that as of the early 2010s many white
Americans feel as though they suffer the greatest discrimination among racial groups, despite data to the contrary. Whereas Black respondents see anti-Black racism as a continuing problem, white ones tend to think it has largely disappeared, to the point
2099:
as a group are disadvantaged. Racial and ethnic minorities generally lack the power to damage the interests of whites, who remain the dominant group in the U.S. Claims of reverse racism tend to ignore such disparities in the exercise of power and authority, which most scholars argue constitute an
4222:
ffirmative action and black economic empowerment were controversial and often misrepresented. In a society in which the greater majority of desk and management jobs were held by whites, there was a clear need for action to move towards a more level job market. Yet many whites have persisted in
2340:
in the mid-1990s found that most white respondents (80%) thought it was likely that a white worker might lose a job or a promotion to a less qualified Black worker, while most Black respondents (57%) thought this was unlikely. A majority (57%) of white respondents to a 2016 survey by the
2503:
only for behaviors committed by Whites in the context of a White-dominated society is a way of acknowledging the ever-present power differential afforded Whites by the culture and institutions that make up the system of advantage and continue to reinforce notions of White superiority."
2381:, Damon Mayrl and Aliya Saperstein find that whites who claim to have experienced racial discrimination are "more likely to be racially self-aware, to be pessimistic about the future, and to have a recent history of unemployment compared to their non-discrimination-reporting peers".
2476:, individual members of minority groups in the United States "may be racists" toward white people, but cannot wield institutional power or shape the opportunities available to the majority as the white majority does in relation to minorities. Sociologists
2218:, modern programs such as affirmative action aim to reduce racial inequality. Despite affirmative-action programs' successes in doing so, conservative opponents claimed that such programs constituted a form of anti-white racism. For example, sociologist
2273:
writes that the actual number of reverse discrimination cases filed with the EEOC is quite small, and the vast majority are dismissed as unfounded. Between 1990 and 1994, courts in the U.S. rejected all reverse discrimination cases as without merit.
1030:
2364:
Bonilla-Silva describes the "anti–affirmative action and 'reverse racism' mentality" that has become dominant since the 1980s as part of a "mean-spirited white racial animus". He argues that this results from a new dominant ideology of
2498:
argues that racial bigotry or prejudices held by people of color are not comparable to white racism since "there is no systematic cultural and institutional support or sanction" for them. Tatum writes, "In my view, reserving the term
2359:
Whites have replaced Blacks as the primary victims of discrimination. This emerging perspective is particularly notable because by nearly any metric statistics continue to indicate drastically poorer outcomes for Black than White
2162:
itself prevents moving beyond the legacy of racism. The concept of reverse racism has also been used in relation to various expressions of hostility, prejudice or discrimination toward white people by members of minority groups.
2732:: "Many Americans—including some people of color—staunchly believe in the existence of reverse racism, or racism against whites. The evidence to support this perception of 'whiteness as disadvantage' is highly suspect."
2345:
said they believed discrimination against white people was as significant a problem as discrimination against Black people, while only a minority of
African Americans (29%) and Hispanics (38%) agreed. Researchers at
2833:
of whites against blacks, reverse racism is alleged to be a new form of anti-white racism practiced by blacks and/or the so-called civil rights establishment (alternately referred to as the anti-racism industry).
2389:
While there has been little empirical study on the subject of reverse racism, the few existing studies have found little evidence that white males, in particular, are victimized by affirmative-action programs.
2289:(DEI) programs as being discriminatory towards whites. US courts have seen a small increase in reverse discrimination claims, with some individual plaintiffs being awarded damages against companies such as
3749:
3248:
2313:
that "hard work" and meritocracy explain any racial disparities. The idea that whites have become a socially disadvantaged group has contributed to the rise of conservative social movements such as the
4348:
But old feelings die hard, and some groups – in particular the
Afrikaner and Indian minorities – even complain that they are now being targeted by a reverse racism.
3773:
2738:: "Claims of reverse racism are often deployed to undermine efforts toward racial equity, particularly affirmative action measures, but evidence for these claims has been rigorously debunked"
991:
2410:'Reverse racism' is a cogent description of affirmative action only if one considers the cancer of racism to be morally and medically indistinguishable from the therapy we apply to it".
2107:
against social gains by people of color. While the U.S. dominates the debate over the issue, the concept of reverse racism has been used internationally to some extent wherever
3803:
2300:
In June 2023, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down affirmative action in university admissions, which plaintiffs had argued were discriminatory against white and Asian students.
2226:
that affirmative action was a form of reverse racism violating white people's right to equal protection under the law. This view was boosted by the
Supreme Court's decision in
3713:
2398:
and long-standing oppression of Blacks by whites, who remain the dominant group. Such disparities in power and authority are seen by scholars as an essential component of
4314:
2321:. Conservatives in the U.S. tend to believe that affirmative action based on membership in a designated racial group threatens the American system of individualism and
3275:
2710:, p. 137: "Not much sober empirical study has been applied to the subject, but the studies that do exist find little evidence that reverse racism in fact exists."
1499:
3864:
3209:
3740:
3372:
523:
2925:
Roussell, Aaron; Henne, Kathryn; Glover, Karen S.; Willits, Dale (2019). "Impossibility of a 'Reverse Racism' Effect: A Rejoinder to James, James, and Vila".
5268:
3606:
Wilkins, Clara L.; Wellman, Joseph D.; Kaiser, Cheryl R. (2013). "Status legitimizing beliefs predict positivity toward Whites who claim anti-White bias".
4237:
5541:
3343:
739:
3391:
2304:
describes the three dissenting
Justices as criticizing the majority for "engag in white grievance politics and embracing the 'myth' of reverse racism."
2336:
The perception of decreasing anti-Black discrimination has been correlated with white people's belief in rising anti-white discrimination. A survey in
3683:
5420:
4630:
3410:
1910:
1271:
2726:, p. 16: "While there is no empirical basis for white people experiencing 'reverse racism', this view is held by a large number of Americans."
2446:
2228:
2040:
690:
3501:
Spanierman, Lisa; Cabrera, Nolan (2014). "The
Emotions of White Racism and Antiracism". In Watson, V.; Howard-Wagner, D.; Spanierman, L. (eds.).
4254:
2425:
imply that racism is defined solely by individual beliefs and prejudices, ignoring the material relations between different groups. Sociologist
5536:
603:
3581:
Cyr, Lauren (2018). "Literature Review: Interdisciplinary
Findings on Diversity and Inclusion". In Kim Gertz, S.; Huang, B.; Cyr, L. (eds.).
2369:", which treats racial inequality as a thing of the past, thereby allowing it to continue by opposing concrete efforts at reform. Journalist
3538:
Wilkins, C. L.; Kaiser, C. R. (2013). "Racial
Progress as Threat to the Status Hierarchy: Implications for Perceptions of Anti-White Bias".
5220:
3707:
How Immigration and Concerns About Cultural Changes Are Shaping the 2016 Election: Findings from the 2016 PRRI/Brookings Immigration Survey
2150:
identifies three main claims about reverse racism: (1) that government programs to redress racial inequality create "invisible victims" in
1276:
2402:; in this view, isolated examples of favoring disadvantaged people do not constitute racism. In a widely reprinted article, legal scholar
5203:
1246:
832:
348:
2445:
says the notion of reverse racism represents a denial of the historical and contemporary reality of racial discrimination. Sociologist
508:
3886:
Mayrl, Damon; Saperstein, Aliya (2013). "When white people report racial discrimination: The role of region, religion, and politics".
2534:
5531:
5390:
3794:
2453:
rely on false parallels, as they ignore the power differences between whites and people of color at the group level". Anthropologist
5526:
5106:
4696:
3706:
430:
318:
5126:
4724:
2266:
2143:
2124:
4305:
3455:
Bax, Anna (2018). "'The C-Word' Meets 'the N-Word': The Slur-Once-Removed and the Discursive Construction of 'Reverse Racism'".
5462:
2603:
have also sometimes claimed to be victimized by reverse racism of the new government. Similar accusations have been leveled by
2009:
695:
440:
268:
253:
248:
78:
4680:
4601:
4570:
4477:
4439:
4175:
4046:
4005:
3964:
3934:
3658:
3590:
3510:
3314:
3177:
3136:
3050:
3018:
2980:
2906:
2859:
2825:
2776:
2469:, "runs counter to or ignores empirically observable racial asymmetries regarding material resources and structural power".
582:
513:
233:
4399:
Dalamba, Yolisa (2000). "Towards An African Renaissance: Identity, Race And Representation In Post-Apartheid South Africa".
3267:
2716:, p. 185: "here is no evidence that is a social fact, or that a pattern of disadvantageous outcomes for white people
2594:
2033:
1052:
323:
137:
2593:
in 1995 described "racism in reverse" when Black students demonstrated in favor of changing the racial makeup of staff at
4875:
2547:
2391:
2103:
Allegations of reverse racism by opponents of affirmative action began to emerge in the 1970s, and have formed part of a
1712:
1368:
1281:
1172:
822:
640:
258:
243:
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4099:
3855:
2342:
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722:
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4458:
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3166:
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3083:
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2611:
groups, who feel that they have not been dominant historically but now suffer from discrimination by the government.
2566:
2139:
896:
727:
189:
167:
2587:. Affirmative action in South Africa's white-dominated civil service was also met with charges of "reverse racism".
2210:
in the U.S. had effectively "won the battle over the meaning of racism". Where past race-conscious policies such as
2095:
Belief in reverse racism is widespread in the United States; however, there is little to no empirical evidence that
5500:
5256:
5225:
5121:
2378:
2286:
2265:(regarding employment discrimination). Such cases are rare; out of almost half a million complaints filed with the
1665:
1494:
1388:
827:
717:
2597:. Students denied Mandela's claim and argued that a great deal of ongoing actual racism persisted from apartheid.
5208:
3583:
Diversity and Inclusion in Higher Education and Societal Contexts: International and Interdisciplinary Approaches
2026:
1241:
734:
478:
273:
5380:
5237:
4590:
2355:
that they see prejudice against white people as being more prevalent. Among white respondents since the 1990s:
333:
488:
2207:
1940:
1650:
313:
4361:
2624:
South African critics of the "reverse racism" concept use similar arguments as those employed by Americans.
5450:
5312:
5302:
5295:
5099:
4470:
Encyclopedia of U.S. Political History, Volume 7: The Clash of Conservatism and Liberalism, 1976 to Present
3774:"White Trump voters think they face more discrimination than blacks. The Trump administration is listening"
3675:
2198:
view that any preferential treatment linked to membership in a racial group was morally wrong. Sociologist
1199:
1147:
68:
4613:
2191:, often based on third- or fourth-hand reports, such as of a white person losing a job to a Black person.
5327:
5143:
4717:
2668:
1853:
1697:
1102:
685:
623:
4276:
Sinclair, Abiola (September 16, 1995). "Media Watch: All is not well, disappointments, racial clashes".
3041:
Racism Without Racists: Color-blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States
5084:
3503:
Unveiling Whiteness in the Twenty-First Century: Global Manifestations, Transdisciplinary Interventions
1960:
707:
368:
83:
4488:
5400:
5244:
2618:
2600:
2537:
to individual allegations of reverse racism rather than the broader social impact of the term/concept
1293:
1107:
996:
876:
530:
498:
147:
73:
2583:
has been used by some white South Africans concerned about "reverse apartheid" following the end of
5017:
1559:
1447:
1288:
1057:
981:
804:
759:
613:
493:
468:
398:
328:
204:
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5410:
5215:
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5133:
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2184:
2155:
1858:
1838:
1692:
1682:
1640:
1256:
1097:
946:
941:
911:
906:
849:
784:
769:
702:
675:
660:
34:
4064:"'It's different for guys': Gendered narratives of racial conflict among white California youth"
886:
5375:
5278:
5198:
5027:
4968:
4870:
4767:
4710:
4541:
2663:
2513:
2282:
2195:
2057:
1955:
1930:
1920:
1378:
1358:
1221:
1092:
976:
921:
891:
871:
799:
779:
754:
749:
744:
655:
618:
591:
562:
557:
483:
132:
122:
3441:
2243:
Legal cases concerning so-called "reverse racism" date back as far as the 1970s, for instance
5521:
5430:
5322:
5317:
5232:
5193:
5000:
4995:
4213:
2374:
2270:
1925:
1885:
1818:
1707:
1655:
1574:
1323:
1087:
986:
961:
956:
936:
931:
926:
866:
814:
774:
680:
650:
540:
142:
4673:
Race Still Matters: The Reality of African American Lives and the Myth of Postracial Society
4612:
4329:
4304:
3854:
3793:
3772:
3739:
5385:
5251:
4895:
4832:
4802:
4787:
4772:
2655:
2495:
2486:
2395:
2255:
1796:
1308:
1182:
1001:
881:
839:
789:
764:
572:
535:
263:
117:
4561:
Graves, Joseph L.; Goodman, Alan H. (2021). "Everything You Wanted to Know About Racism".
4430:
Anderson, Kristin J. (2010). "'Affirmative Action is reverse racism': The myth of merit".
3089:
Race And Ethnic Conflict: Contending Views On Prejudice, Discrimination, And Ethnoviolence
2269:(EEOC) between 1987 and 1994, four percent were about reverse discrimination. Sociologist
8:
5405:
5160:
5039:
4792:
3741:"Whites think discrimination against whites is a bigger problem than bias against blacks"
2442:
2159:
1970:
1833:
1452:
1348:
1328:
1117:
1025:
971:
951:
916:
809:
596:
393:
16:
Concept that affirmative action and similar programs constitute anti-white discrimination
2604:
2542:
22:
5435:
5415:
5074:
5005:
4973:
4940:
4930:
4812:
4576:
4330:
4091:
3563:
3480:
3240:
2370:
2366:
2314:
2261:
2249:
2180:
2061:
1737:
1732:
1722:
1670:
1660:
1635:
1569:
1527:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1333:
608:
2142:
opposition to color-conscious policies aimed at addressing racial inequality, such as
5094:
5059:
5049:
5010:
4950:
4900:
4822:
4807:
4777:
4676:
4659:
4639:
4622:
4597:
4566:
4549:
4526:
4503:
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4454:
4435:
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4339:
4281:
4246:
4205:
4171:
4095:
4083:
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4001:
3960:
3930:
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3654:
3586:
3555:
3506:
3472:
3429:
3310:
3232:
3173:
3132:
3092:
3046:
3014:
2976:
2942:
2902:
2855:
2821:
2772:
2481:
2373:
writes that white people's belief in reverse racism has steadily increased since the
2172:
2069:
2002:
1915:
1843:
1828:
1611:
1554:
1353:
1261:
1152:
1072:
901:
172:
3373:"Even some justices are raising questions about the U.S. Supreme Court's legitimacy"
3344:"DEI under siege: Why more businesses are being accused of 'reverse discrimination'"
3244:
2621:
and the Mbeki administration with reverse racism since Mandela's departure in 1999.
5188:
5165:
5148:
5138:
5116:
5079:
5069:
5054:
5044:
4963:
4958:
4935:
4925:
4671:
Suiter, Tad (2016). "Reverse Racism: A Discursive History". In Kiuchi, Yuya (ed.).
4651:
4580:
4408:
4075:
3895:
3615:
3567:
3547:
3484:
3464:
3411:"Supreme Court affirmative action decision could impact racial equity in higher ed"
3224:
2934:
2673:
2347:
2326:
1965:
1950:
1880:
1801:
1771:
1586:
1422:
1122:
670:
665:
503:
388:
5480:
5445:
5337:
5170:
5089:
5064:
5032:
5022:
4990:
4985:
4880:
4837:
4827:
4817:
4782:
4762:
4747:
4217:
2477:
2473:
2458:
2438:
2215:
2176:
2151:
2147:
2108:
2096:
2085:
2065:
1980:
1890:
1786:
1727:
1579:
1564:
1544:
1509:
1216:
1127:
1062:
844:
794:
567:
413:
4489:"Reverse Racism!: Affirmative Action, the Family, and the Dream That Is America"
2437:
in the context of U.S. race relations in that it obscures the "central issue of
2194:
Allegations of reverse racism emerged prominently in the 1970s, building on the
2187:. Claims of reverse racism in the early 21st century tend to rely on individual
5111:
4980:
3619:
2678:
2590:
2414:
2330:
2104:
1975:
1905:
1895:
1813:
1806:
1791:
1781:
1601:
1537:
1479:
1474:
1459:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1112:
1047:
545:
518:
358:
42:
4197:
5515:
5273:
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4507:
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4343:
4285:
4250:
4209:
4087:
4079:
3907:
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2946:
2462:
2294:
2219:
1987:
1596:
1532:
1517:
1373:
1338:
1318:
1189:
1132:
1067:
435:
338:
4655:
4063:
3676:"Americans are split on "reverse racism". That still doesn't mean it exists"
2938:
5440:
5285:
4663:
3712:(Report). Washington, D.C.: Public Religion Research Institute. p. 2.
3559:
3236:
3127:
McBride, David (2005). "Affirmative Action". In Carlisle, Rodney P. (ed.).
2614:
2454:
2403:
2337:
2318:
2237:
2233:
2089:
2081:
2077:
1823:
1702:
1522:
1489:
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1383:
1363:
1343:
966:
859:
854:
577:
552:
403:
343:
308:
278:
4412:
2080:
social movements, and reflects a belief that social and economic gains by
5365:
5332:
4910:
4890:
4451:
New Right, New Racism: Race and Reaction in the United States and Britain
2767:
Yee, June Ying (2008). "Racism, Types of". In Shaefer, Richard T. (ed.).
2322:
2199:
1717:
1677:
1645:
1504:
1464:
1298:
1211:
1162:
1137:
1037:
712:
425:
408:
363:
283:
21:
For a definition of the term "reverse racism", see the Wiktionary entry
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4905:
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1992:
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452:
447:
418:
353:
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out of work while white teachers sit up in good jobs in Black schools.
3392:"US Supreme Court rejects affirmative action in university admissions"
2971:
Dennis, Rutledge M. (2004). "Racism". In Kuper, A.; Kuper, J. (eds.).
5425:
5360:
4865:
3856:"How The Myth of Reverse Racism Drives the Affirmative Action Debate"
3309:(1st ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. p. 197.
2608:
2584:
2290:
2112:
1900:
1848:
1549:
1142:
228:
4596:. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. pp. 9, 145, 163.
3305:
Racial Domination, Racial Progress: The Sociology of Race in America
3168:
Black Lives, White Lives: Three Decades of Race Relations in America
3129:
Encyclopedia of Politics: The Left and The Right, Volume 1: The Left
3045:(3rd ed.). Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 211.
2635:
2457:
argues that charges of reverse racism tend to deny the existence of
5395:
2434:
2211:
2188:
1865:
1687:
1606:
1251:
1177:
1082:
1042:
383:
378:
373:
298:
293:
238:
3998:
Colorblindness, Post-raciality, and Whiteness in the United States
3268:"Whites Believe They Are Victims of Racism More Often Than Blacks"
2717:
2333:
against government actions meant to remedy racial discrimination.
2206:
among whites by the late 1970s, suggesting that conservatives and
5355:
2351:
2325:. Ansell associates the idea of reverse racism with that of the "
2154:
men; (2) that racial preferences violate the individual right of
303:
199:
179:
152:
127:
50:
4468:
Brown, Michael K. (2010). "Race". In Valelly, Richard M. (ed.).
4168:
Race, Class and Gender in the United States: An Integrated Study
3649:
Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations
4733:
3210:"Whites See Racism as a Zero-Sum Game That They Are Now Losing"
2399:
2073:
1303:
288:
184:
162:
157:
107:
4131:
4119:
2259:(regarding discrimination in higher education admissions) and
5370:
4697:
List of cases involving allegations of reverse discrimination
4542:"Reverse Racism, or How the Pot Got to Call the Kettle Black"
2202:
argues that reverse racism had become the primary meaning of
1313:
112:
3084:"Talking Past Each Other: Black and White Languages of Race"
3064:
3062:
3323:
2617:, a prominent white anti-apartheid politician, charged the
1945:
1776:
2924:
2899:
The Psychology of Racial Colorblindness: A Critical Review
2735:
4702:
4170:(6th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. p. 129.
3172:. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 346.
3059:
2441:" disadvantaging people of color. Critical race theorist
3792:
Norton, Michael I.; Sommers, Samuel R. (May 23, 2011b).
2854:(2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications. p. 185.
4563:
Racism, Not Race: Answers to Frequently Asked Questions
3131:. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications. p. 8.
3105:
2877:
2875:
2873:
2871:
3519:
3145:
2769:
Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society, Volume 3
4525:(2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 715–717.
4196:
de Villiers, Susan; Simanowitz, Stefan (March 2012).
4195:
3834:
3585:. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 24.
3032:
3030:
3626:
3605:
3186:
2868:
2631:
2465:
says the concept of reverse racism, which she calls
3673:
4589:
4516:
4432:Benign Bigotry: The Psychology of Subtle Prejudice
4306:"For Mixed-Race South Africans, Equity Is Elusive"
4236:
3952:
3922:
3646:
3302:
3165:
3082:
3038:
3027:
3004:
2236:for minority students were discriminatory against
5421:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
3500:
3496:
3494:
3087:. In Pincus, Fred L.; Ehrlich, Howard J. (eds.).
2723:
2138:in the United States is commonly associated with
1911:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
5513:
4434:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 278–334.
4331:"South Africans try to 'beat' a segregated past"
4204:. Vol. 294, no. 1704. pp. 39–45.
4189:
4153:Tatum, Beverly Daniel (2004). "Defining Racism:
4137:
4125:
3300:
3208:Norton, Michael I.; Sommers, Samuel R. (2011a).
2449:writes, "most claims that whites are victimized
2245:Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
2229:Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
3885:
3705:Jones, Robert P.; et al. (June 23, 2016).
3296:
3294:
3203:
3201:
3122:
3120:
2998:
2996:
2994:
2992:
2920:
2918:
1555:Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
4699:, U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
4675:. Albany: State University of New York Press.
4228:
3824:
3791:
3491:
3207:
3091:. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. p. 23.
2892:
2890:
1031:SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups
4718:
4640:"Challenging a culture of racial equivalence"
4565:. Columbia University Press. pp. 59–81.
4560:
4296:
4269:
4148:
4146:
4055:
3914:
3764:
3731:
3599:
3537:
3531:
3390:Chung, Andrew; Kruzel, John (June 29, 2023).
3329:
3301:Desmond, Matthew; Emirbayer, Mustafa (2010).
3036:
2975:(3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 843–845.
2966:
2964:
2962:
2960:
2845:
2843:
2841:
2811:
2809:
2807:
2805:
2803:
2801:
2799:
2551:that contextualizes different points of view.
2034:
4392:
4353:
3959:. Lynne Rienner Publishers. pp. 68–69.
3955:Reverse Discrimination: Dismantling the Myth
3846:
3785:
3291:
3198:
3157:
3117:
2989:
2915:
2901:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 91.
4472:. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. p. 318.
4321:
3989:
3667:
3638:
3389:
3074:
2887:
2277:Since 2020, conservative activists such as
1247:List of people killed for being transgender
5542:Political terminology of the United States
4725:
4711:
4143:
3698:
2957:
2838:
2796:
2762:
2760:
2758:
2041:
2027:
5391:Interminority racism in the United States
4521:. In Kuper, Adam; Kuper, Jessica (eds.).
4234:
3608:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
2973:The Social Science Encyclopedia, Volume 2
2567:Learn how and when to remove this message
2183:in the context of debates over providing
4429:
4362:"Against apartheid, at odds with blacks"
4302:
4275:
4183:
4061:
4030:
4020:
3983:
3920:
3771:Ingraham, Christopher (August 2, 2017).
3770:
3738:Fletcher, Michael A. (October 8, 2014).
3737:
3525:
3448:
3151:
3002:
2896:
319:Social determinants of health in poverty
4633:from the original on November 14, 2012.
4587:
4453:. London: Macmillan. pp. 132–138.
4398:
4359:
3925:Being White: Stories of Race and Racism
3852:
3574:
3163:
3126:
3080:
3011:Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies
2771:. SAGE Publications. pp. 1118–19.
2755:
2377:of the 1960s. Using data from the 2006
2267:Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
2125:Race and ethnicity in the United States
2076:. The concept is often associated with
5514:
5463:Sociology of race and ethnic relations
4670:
4610:
4514:
4448:
4380:from the original on September 7, 2024
4327:
4102:from the original on September 7, 2024
3995:
3979:
3950:
3853:Newkirk, Vann R. II (August 5, 2017).
3840:
3828:
3806:from the original on September 7, 2024
3719:from the original on September 7, 2024
3686:from the original on September 7, 2024
3644:
3632:
3278:from the original on September 7, 2024
3254:from the original on September 7, 2024
3192:
3111:
3068:
2970:
2881:
2850:Garner, Steve (2017). "New Racisms?".
2849:
2815:
2713:
2707:
5537:Political terminology in South Africa
4706:
4496:Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly
4486:
4467:
4152:
4041:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 15.
4039:The Everyday Language of White Racism
3704:
3674:Massie, Victoria M. (June 29, 2016).
3366:
3364:
3341:
3217:Perspectives on Psychological Science
2384:
5486:
4637:
4539:
4317:from the original on March 31, 2013.
4036:
3943:
3929:. New York: Routledge. p. 147.
3752:from the original on August 21, 2017
3653:. New York: Routledge. p. 127.
3370:
3342:Guynn, Jessica (December 20, 2023).
2818:Race and Ethnicity: The Key Concepts
2517:
1053:Capital punishment for homosexuality
324:Social determinants of mental health
4876:Discrimination based on nationality
4328:Harman, Dana (September 26, 2002).
4235:MacGregor, Karen (March 24, 1995).
4113:
4024:
3867:from the original on March 18, 2018
3580:
3454:
2766:
2729:
2392:Race relations in the United States
2307:
1173:Genital modification and mutilation
13:
4611:Sanneh, Kelefa (August 10, 2009).
4548:. pp. 128, 130, 132, 135–36.
4423:
4166:". In Rothenberg, Paula S. (ed.).
3457:Journal of Linguistic Anthropology
3361:
2343:Public Religion Research Institute
14:
5558:
4690:
4588:Gresson, Aaron David III (1995).
4303:Polgreen, Lydia (July 27, 2003).
4257:from the original on July 6, 2020
2394:have been historically shaped by
2171:Concerns that the advancement of
5532:Opposition to affirmative action
5495:
5485:
5476:
5475:
4644:The British Journal of Sociology
4238:"Mandela slams 'reverse racism'"
4000:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
3900:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.12.007
3408:
2648:
2634:
2522:
2379:Portraits of American Life Study
2287:diversity, equity, and inclusion
2118:
2111:has diminished, such as in post-
1666:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
1495:Law for Protection of the Nation
1389:White genocide conspiracy theory
49:
5496:
4592:The Recovery of Race in America
4540:Fish, Stanley (November 1993).
4523:The social science encyclopedia
4360:Calvert, Scott (May 13, 2005).
4014:
3973:
3879:
3818:
3505:. Lexington Books. p. 16.
3402:
3383:
3335:
3274:(Press release). May 23, 2011.
3037:Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo (2010).
3006:"Reverse Racism/Discrimination"
2927:Criminology & Public Policy
2820:. Routledge. pp. 135–136.
2724:Spanierman & Cabrera (2014)
2507:
2461:and power in society. Linguist
2100:essential component of racism.
1500:MSM blood donation restrictions
1242:LGBT grooming conspiracy theory
5381:Go back to where you came from
4449:Ansell, Amy Elizabeth (1997).
4198:"South Africa: The ANC at 100"
4138:Desmond & Emirbayer (2010)
4126:Desmond & Emirbayer (2010)
3371:Kanu, Hassan (July 11, 2023).
2816:Ansell, Amy Elizabeth (2013).
2698:
1513:(as religious or racial quota)
1:
3003:Cashmore, Ellis, ed. (2004).
2748:
2158:before the law; and (3) that
1941:Second-generation gender bias
1651:Constitutional colorblindness
314:Social determinants of health
4515:Dennis, Rutledge M. (1996).
3825:Norton & Sommers (2011a)
2897:Mazzocco, Philip J. (2017).
2681: – Sociological concept
7:
5527:Majority–minority relations
4401:Journal of Cultural Studies
3996:Pinder, Sherrow O. (2015).
3921:McKinney, Karyn D. (2005).
2669:Racism in the United States
2627:
2214:have been used to maintain
2129:
2056:, sometimes referred to as
1854:Medical model of disability
1698:Hate speech laws by country
10:
5563:
4732:
4223:claiming 'reverse racism'.
3620:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.05.017
3013:. Routledge. p. 373.
2595:South African universities
2511:
2224:Affirmative Discrimination
2166:
2122:
1961:Social model of disability
369:Discrimination against men
20:
5547:Race in the United States
5471:
5348:
5181:
4949:
4851:
4740:
4666:– via ResearchGate.
4487:Chang, Robert S. (1996).
4336:Christian Science Monitor
3827:, p. 215, quoted in
2687: – Form of prejudice
2619:African National Congress
2601:Mixed-race South Africans
2472:According to sociologist
1294:Opposition to immigration
163:Race / Ethnicity
4080:10.1177/0957926510395832
4023:, p. 146. Cited in
3982:, p. 250. Cited in
3951:Pincus, Fred L. (2003).
3552:10.1177/0956797613508412
3229:10.1177/1745691611406922
2852:Racisms: An Introduction
2691:
2232:(1978), which said that
2222:argued in his 1975 book
2179:date back as far as the
2088:cause disadvantages for
2072:are forms of anti-white
2068:programs for redressing
1289:Occupational segregation
1058:Compulsory sterilization
5411:Psychometrics of racism
4861:Anti-miscegenation laws
4656:10.1111/1468-4446.12054
4614:"Discriminating Tastes"
4278:New York Amsterdam News
4202:The Contemporary Review
4068:Discourse & Society
4062:Bucholtz, Mary (2011).
3888:Social Science Research
3645:Feagin, Joe R. (2001).
2939:10.1111/1745-9133.12289
2185:reparations for slavery
1839:Internalized oppression
1693:Fighting Discrimination
1683:Fat acceptance movement
1641:Anti-discrimination law
1267:Native American mascots
5376:Ethnic plastic surgery
4871:Biological determinism
4243:Times Higher Education
4220:– via ProQuest.
4037:Hill, Jane H. (2011).
3795:"Jockeying for Stigma"
2789:reverse discrimination
2736:Roussell et al. (2019)
2664:Racism in South Africa
2585:white-supremacist rule
2514:Racism in South Africa
2431:reverse discrimination
2423:reverse discrimination
2417:writes that the terms
2362:
2060:, is the concept that
2058:reverse discrimination
1956:Social identity threat
1931:Reverse discrimination
1921:Racial color blindness
1379:Violence against women
1359:Sex-selective abortion
5296:In Jewish communities
5274:Hispanic & Latino
4413:10.4314/jcs.v2i1.6231
3540:Psychological Science
3164:Blauner, Bob (1989).
3081:Blauner, Bob (1994).
2720:white people exists."
2545:by rewriting it in a
2429:argues that the term
2375:civil rights movement
2357:
2271:Eduardo Bonilla-Silva
1926:Religious intolerance
1886:Political correctness
1708:Intersex human rights
1656:Cultural assimilation
1324:Religious persecution
1088:Disability hate crime
855:Jewish / Antisemitism
5386:Herrenvolk democracy
4546:The Atlantic Monthly
3330:Bonilla-Silva (2010)
2656:United States portal
2496:Beverly Daniel Tatum
2492:interpersonal racism
2487:institutional racism
2484:distinguish between
2396:European imperialism
2256:Grutter v. Bollinger
2196:racially color-blind
2175:might cause harm to
1309:Political repression
274:Anti-left handedness
264:Anti-intellectualism
5406:Perpetual foreigner
4638:Song, Miri (2014).
4581:10.7312/grav20066.8
3779:The Washington Post
3746:The Washington Post
3071:, pp. 17, 137.
2443:David Theo Goldberg
2160:color consciousness
2146:. Amy E. Ansell of
1834:Historical eugenics
1349:Segregation academy
1329:Religious terrorism
1118:Enemy of the people
1026:Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
514:Jehovah's Witnesses
394:Perpetual foreigner
5436:Racial integration
5416:Race and sexuality
5221:Japanese Americans
4941:Racial segregation
4931:Racial nationalism
4311:The New York Times
3800:The New York Times
3469:10.1111/jola.12185
3440:has generic name (
2385:Scholarly analysis
2371:Vann R. Newkirk II
2367:color-blind racism
2262:Ricci v. DeStefano
2250:Gratz v. Bollinger
2181:Reconstruction Era
2144:affirmative action
2062:affirmative action
1738:Social integration
1733:Self-determination
1723:Racial integration
1671:Diversity training
1661:Cultural pluralism
1636:Affirmative action
1528:Racial segregation
1438:Crime of apartheid
1334:Religious violence
819:Indigenous people
190:Sexual orientation
5509:
5508:
5257:African Americans
5204:Chinese Americans
4901:Ethnic stereotype
4682:978-1-43-846273-8
4603:978-0-8166-2446-1
4572:978-0-231-55373-5
4479:978-1-60-426647-4
4441:978-0-52-187835-7
4366:The Baltimore Sun
4177:978-0-7167-5515-9
4048:978-1-4443-5669-4
4007:978-1-13-743488-3
3966:978-1-58-826203-5
3936:978-0-4159-3572-2
3660:978-0-4159-2532-7
3592:978-3-31-970174-5
3512:978-0-73-919297-9
3316:978-0-07-297051-7
3179:978-0-520-06261-0
3138:978-1-41-290409-4
3114:, pp. 4, 46.
3052:978-1-4422-0218-4
3020:978-1-13-444706-0
2982:978-1-13-435970-7
2908:978-1-13-759967-4
2861:978-1-5264-1285-0
2827:978-0-415-33794-6
2778:978-1-41-292694-2
2577:
2576:
2569:
2531:This section may
2482:Mustafa Emirbayer
2208:centrist liberals
2173:African Americans
2070:racial inequality
2051:
2050:
1916:Racism by country
1844:Intersectionality
1829:Heteronormativity
1612:Voter suppression
1354:Sexual harassment
1153:Forced conversion
1073:Cultural genocide
718:African Americans
524:post–Cold War era
509:Eastern Orthodoxy
259:Anti-drug addicts
254:Anti-homelessness
173:Scientific racism
5554:
5499:
5498:
5489:
5488:
5479:
5478:
5333:Racial supremacy
5291:Jewish Americans
5269:Native Americans
5238:Zainichi Koreans
5226:Japanese Koreans
5209:Zainichi Chinese
5182:Racism by target
4959:Global apartheid
4951:Racism by region
4936:Racial profiling
4926:Racial hierarchy
4727:
4720:
4713:
4704:
4703:
4686:
4667:
4634:
4616:
4607:
4595:
4584:
4557:
4536:
4520:
4511:
4502:(4): 1115–1134.
4493:
4483:
4464:
4445:
4417:
4416:
4396:
4390:
4389:
4387:
4385:
4357:
4351:
4350:
4333:
4325:
4319:
4318:
4308:
4300:
4294:
4293:
4273:
4267:
4266:
4264:
4262:
4240:
4232:
4226:
4225:
4193:
4187:
4181:
4164:
4161:
4157:
4150:
4141:
4135:
4129:
4123:
4117:
4111:
4109:
4107:
4059:
4053:
4052:
4034:
4028:
4018:
4012:
4011:
3993:
3987:
3977:
3971:
3970:
3958:
3949:Fish, quoted in
3947:
3941:
3940:
3928:
3918:
3912:
3911:
3883:
3877:
3876:
3874:
3872:
3858:
3850:
3844:
3838:
3832:
3822:
3816:
3815:
3813:
3811:
3797:
3789:
3783:
3782:
3776:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3759:
3757:
3743:
3735:
3729:
3728:
3726:
3724:
3718:
3711:
3702:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3691:
3671:
3665:
3664:
3652:
3642:
3636:
3630:
3624:
3623:
3603:
3597:
3596:
3578:
3572:
3571:
3535:
3529:
3523:
3517:
3516:
3498:
3489:
3488:
3452:
3446:
3445:
3439:
3435:
3433:
3425:
3423:
3421:
3406:
3400:
3399:
3387:
3381:
3380:
3368:
3359:
3358:
3356:
3354:
3339:
3333:
3327:
3321:
3320:
3308:
3298:
3289:
3287:
3285:
3283:
3263:
3261:
3259:
3253:
3214:
3205:
3196:
3190:
3184:
3183:
3171:
3161:
3155:
3149:
3143:
3142:
3124:
3115:
3109:
3103:
3102:
3086:
3078:
3072:
3066:
3057:
3056:
3044:
3034:
3025:
3024:
3008:
3000:
2987:
2986:
2968:
2955:
2954:
2922:
2913:
2912:
2894:
2885:
2879:
2866:
2865:
2847:
2836:
2835:
2813:
2794:
2793:
2764:
2742:
2702:
2674:Racism in France
2658:
2653:
2652:
2651:
2644:
2639:
2638:
2572:
2565:
2561:
2558:
2552:
2548:balanced fashion
2526:
2525:
2518:
2409:
2348:Tufts University
2327:angry white male
2317:and support for
2308:Public attitudes
2285:have challenged
2156:equal protection
2043:
2036:
2029:
1966:Social privilege
1951:Social exclusion
1881:Police brutality
1802:Multiculturalism
1772:Amatonormativity
1587:Social exclusion
1423:Age of candidacy
1217:Homeless dumping
1123:Ethnic cleansing
53:
30:
29:
5562:
5561:
5557:
5556:
5555:
5553:
5552:
5551:
5512:
5511:
5510:
5505:
5467:
5446:Racism in sport
5344:
5338:White supremacy
5177:
4945:
4881:Ethnic conflict
4853:
4847:
4741:Types of racism
4736:
4731:
4693:
4683:
4604:
4573:
4533:
4491:
4480:
4461:
4442:
4426:
4424:Further reading
4421:
4420:
4397:
4393:
4383:
4381:
4358:
4354:
4326:
4322:
4301:
4297:
4274:
4270:
4260:
4258:
4233:
4229:
4194:
4190:
4184:McKinney (2005)
4178:
4162:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4144:
4136:
4132:
4124:
4120:
4105:
4103:
4060:
4056:
4049:
4035:
4031:
4021:McKinney (2005)
4019:
4015:
4008:
3994:
3990:
3984:Cashmore (2004)
3978:
3974:
3967:
3948:
3944:
3937:
3919:
3915:
3884:
3880:
3870:
3868:
3851:
3847:
3839:
3835:
3823:
3819:
3809:
3807:
3790:
3786:
3769:
3765:
3755:
3753:
3736:
3732:
3722:
3720:
3716:
3709:
3703:
3699:
3689:
3687:
3672:
3668:
3661:
3643:
3639:
3631:
3627:
3604:
3600:
3593:
3579:
3575:
3536:
3532:
3526:Mazzocco (2017)
3524:
3520:
3513:
3499:
3492:
3453:
3449:
3437:
3436:
3427:
3426:
3419:
3417:
3409:News, A. B. C.
3407:
3403:
3388:
3384:
3369:
3362:
3352:
3350:
3340:
3336:
3328:
3324:
3317:
3299:
3292:
3288:
3281:
3279:
3266:
3257:
3255:
3251:
3212:
3206:
3199:
3191:
3187:
3180:
3162:
3158:
3152:Mazzocco (2017)
3150:
3146:
3139:
3125:
3118:
3110:
3106:
3099:
3079:
3075:
3067:
3060:
3053:
3035:
3028:
3021:
3001:
2990:
2983:
2969:
2958:
2952:in White status
2923:
2916:
2909:
2895:
2888:
2880:
2869:
2862:
2848:
2839:
2828:
2814:
2797:
2779:
2765:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2745:
2741:
2703:
2699:
2694:
2654:
2649:
2647:
2640:
2633:
2630:
2579:The concept of
2573:
2562:
2556:
2553:
2543:help improve it
2540:
2527:
2523:
2516:
2510:
2478:Matthew Desmond
2474:Rutledge Dennis
2467:racial reversal
2459:white privilege
2439:systemic racism
2407:
2387:
2310:
2216:white supremacy
2177:white Americans
2169:
2148:Emerson College
2134:The concept of
2132:
2127:
2121:
2109:white supremacy
2105:racial backlash
2097:white Americans
2086:people of color
2066:color-conscious
2047:
2018:
2017:
2016:
2015:
2014:
1891:Polyculturalism
1787:Civil liberties
1759:
1751:
1750:
1749:
1748:
1747:
1728:Reappropriation
1628:
1627:Countermeasures
1620:
1619:
1618:
1617:
1616:
1545:Racial steering
1511:Numerus clausus
1415:
1407:
1406:
1405:
1404:
1403:
1128:Ethnic conflict
1063:Corrective rape
1018:
1010:
1009:
1008:
1007:
1006:
643:
632:
631:
630:
629:
628:
583:minority Muslim
471:
461:
460:
459:
458:
457:
349:HIV/AIDS stigma
221:
213:
212:
211:
210:
209:
158:Mental disorder
100:
92:
91:
90:
89:
88:
61:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5560:
5550:
5549:
5544:
5539:
5534:
5529:
5524:
5507:
5506:
5504:
5503:
5493:
5483:
5472:
5469:
5468:
5466:
5465:
5460:
5458:Reverse racism
5455:
5454:
5453:
5443:
5438:
5433:
5431:Racial figleaf
5428:
5423:
5418:
5413:
5408:
5403:
5398:
5393:
5388:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5352:
5350:
5349:Related topics
5346:
5345:
5343:
5342:
5341:
5340:
5330:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5308:Middle Eastern
5305:
5300:
5299:
5298:
5293:
5283:
5282:
5281:
5271:
5266:
5265:
5264:
5259:
5249:
5248:
5247:
5242:
5241:
5240:
5230:
5229:
5228:
5223:
5213:
5212:
5211:
5206:
5191:
5185:
5183:
5179:
5178:
5176:
5175:
5174:
5173:
5168:
5163:
5153:
5152:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5131:
5130:
5129:
5124:
5119:
5114:
5104:
5103:
5102:
5100:United Kingdom
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5042:
5037:
5036:
5035:
5030:
5025:
5015:
5014:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4993:
4988:
4978:
4977:
4976:
4971:
4961:
4955:
4953:
4947:
4946:
4944:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4928:
4923:
4918:
4913:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4857:
4855:
4852:Manifestations
4849:
4848:
4846:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4820:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4744:
4742:
4738:
4737:
4730:
4729:
4722:
4715:
4707:
4701:
4700:
4692:
4691:External links
4689:
4688:
4687:
4681:
4668:
4650:(1): 107–129.
4635:
4619:The New Yorker
4608:
4602:
4585:
4571:
4558:
4537:
4531:
4512:
4484:
4478:
4465:
4459:
4446:
4440:
4425:
4422:
4419:
4418:
4391:
4352:
4320:
4295:
4280:. p. 26.
4268:
4227:
4188:
4186:, p. 147.
4176:
4142:
4130:
4118:
4074:(4): 385–402.
4054:
4047:
4029:
4013:
4006:
3988:
3986:, p. 373.
3972:
3965:
3942:
3935:
3913:
3894:(3): 742–754.
3878:
3845:
3843:, p. 186.
3833:
3817:
3784:
3763:
3730:
3697:
3666:
3659:
3637:
3625:
3614:(6): 1114–19.
3598:
3591:
3573:
3530:
3518:
3511:
3490:
3463:(2): 114–136.
3447:
3401:
3382:
3360:
3334:
3322:
3315:
3290:
3265:
3197:
3185:
3178:
3156:
3144:
3137:
3116:
3104:
3097:
3073:
3058:
3051:
3026:
3019:
2988:
2981:
2956:
2914:
2907:
2886:
2884:, p. 137.
2867:
2860:
2837:
2826:
2795:
2785:reverse racism
2777:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2740:
2739:
2733:
2727:
2721:
2711:
2704:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2689:
2688:
2682:
2679:Reverse sexism
2676:
2671:
2666:
2660:
2659:
2645:
2629:
2626:
2591:Nelson Mandela
2581:reverse racism
2575:
2574:
2530:
2528:
2521:
2509:
2506:
2452:
2447:Karyn McKinney
2419:reverse racism
2415:Ellis Cashmore
2386:
2383:
2309:
2306:
2279:Stephen Miller
2168:
2165:
2136:reverse racism
2131:
2128:
2120:
2117:
2115:South Africa.
2054:Reverse racism
2049:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2038:
2031:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2013:
2012:
2007:
2006:
2005:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1984:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1937:
1936:
1935:Reverse racism
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1906:Prisoner abuse
1903:
1898:
1896:Power distance
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1814:Ethnic penalty
1811:
1810:
1809:
1807:Neurodiversity
1804:
1794:
1792:Dehumanization
1789:
1784:
1782:Cisnormativity
1779:
1774:
1769:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1760:
1758:Related topics
1757:
1756:
1753:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1674:
1673:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1632:
1631:
1630:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1622:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1602:State religion
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1583:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1541:
1540:
1538:Nuremberg Laws
1535:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1480:Ghetto benches
1477:
1475:Gerrymandering
1472:
1467:
1462:
1460:Gender pay gap
1457:
1456:
1455:
1450:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1417:
1416:
1413:
1412:
1409:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1285:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1237:Lavender scare
1234:
1232:Kill Haole Day
1229:
1227:Indian rolling
1224:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1203:
1202:
1192:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1113:Eliminationism
1110:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1050:
1048:Cancel culture
1045:
1040:
1035:
1034:
1033:
1022:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1017:Manifestations
1016:
1015:
1012:
1011:
1005:
1004:
999:
994:
989:
984:
979:
974:
969:
964:
959:
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
924:
919:
914:
909:
904:
899:
897:Middle Eastern
894:
889:
884:
879:
874:
869:
864:
863:
862:
852:
847:
842:
837:
836:
835:
830:
825:
817:
812:
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
782:
777:
772:
767:
762:
757:
752:
747:
742:
737:
732:
731:
730:
725:
720:
710:
705:
700:
699:
698:
693:
688:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
647:
646:
645:
644:
638:
637:
634:
633:
627:
626:
624:Zoroastrianism
621:
616:
611:
606:
601:
600:
599:
589:
588:
587:
586:
585:
580:
575:
570:
565:
550:
549:
548:
546:Untouchability
543:
533:
528:
527:
526:
521:
516:
511:
506:
496:
491:
486:
481:
475:
474:
473:
472:
467:
466:
463:
462:
456:
455:
450:
445:
444:
443:
438:
433:
423:
422:
421:
416:
406:
401:
396:
391:
386:
381:
376:
371:
366:
361:
359:Leprosy stigma
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
331:
326:
321:
316:
311:
306:
301:
296:
291:
286:
281:
276:
271:
266:
261:
256:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
225:
224:
223:
222:
219:
218:
215:
214:
208:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
176:
175:
170:
160:
155:
150:
145:
140:
135:
130:
125:
120:
115:
110:
104:
103:
102:
101:
98:
97:
94:
93:
87:
86:
81:
76:
71:
65:
64:
63:
62:
59:
58:
55:
54:
46:
45:
43:Discrimination
39:
38:
23:reverse racism
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5559:
5548:
5545:
5543:
5540:
5538:
5535:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5519:
5517:
5502:
5494:
5492:
5484:
5482:
5474:
5473:
5470:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5452:
5449:
5448:
5447:
5444:
5442:
5439:
5437:
5434:
5432:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5422:
5419:
5417:
5414:
5412:
5409:
5407:
5404:
5402:
5399:
5397:
5394:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5353:
5351:
5347:
5339:
5336:
5335:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5328:Wine industry
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5288:
5287:
5284:
5280:
5277:
5276:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5254:
5253:
5250:
5246:
5243:
5239:
5236:
5235:
5234:
5231:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5218:
5217:
5214:
5210:
5207:
5205:
5202:
5201:
5200:
5197:
5196:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5187:
5186:
5184:
5180:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5164:
5162:
5159:
5158:
5157:
5156:South America
5154:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5144:United States
5142:
5140:
5137:
5136:
5135:
5134:North America
5132:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5109:
5108:
5105:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5047:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5020:
5019:
5016:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4983:
4982:
4979:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4966:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4956:
4954:
4952:
4948:
4942:
4939:
4937:
4934:
4932:
4929:
4927:
4924:
4922:
4921:Racialization
4919:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4886:Ethnic hatred
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4858:
4856:
4850:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4803:Laissez-faire
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4788:Institutional
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4773:Environmental
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4745:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4728:
4723:
4721:
4716:
4714:
4709:
4708:
4705:
4698:
4695:
4694:
4684:
4678:
4674:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4636:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4615:
4609:
4605:
4599:
4594:
4593:
4586:
4582:
4578:
4574:
4568:
4564:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4547:
4543:
4538:
4534:
4532:0-415-10829-2
4528:
4524:
4519:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4490:
4485:
4481:
4475:
4471:
4466:
4462:
4460:0-33-364945-1
4456:
4452:
4447:
4443:
4437:
4433:
4428:
4427:
4414:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4395:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4356:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4338:. p. 1.
4337:
4332:
4324:
4316:
4312:
4307:
4299:
4292:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4272:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4239:
4231:
4224:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4192:
4185:
4179:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4149:
4147:
4140:, p. 32.
4139:
4134:
4128:, p. 30.
4127:
4122:
4115:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4058:
4050:
4044:
4040:
4033:
4026:
4022:
4017:
4009:
4003:
3999:
3992:
3985:
3981:
3980:Feagin (2001)
3976:
3968:
3962:
3957:
3956:
3946:
3938:
3932:
3927:
3926:
3917:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3882:
3866:
3862:
3857:
3849:
3842:
3841:Garner (2017)
3837:
3831:, p. 185
3830:
3829:Garner (2017)
3826:
3821:
3805:
3801:
3796:
3788:
3780:
3775:
3767:
3751:
3747:
3742:
3734:
3715:
3708:
3701:
3690:September 18,
3685:
3681:
3677:
3670:
3662:
3656:
3651:
3650:
3641:
3635:, p. 17.
3634:
3633:Ansell (2013)
3629:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3602:
3594:
3588:
3584:
3577:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3546:(2): 439–46.
3545:
3541:
3534:
3528:, p. 85.
3527:
3522:
3514:
3508:
3504:
3497:
3495:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3451:
3443:
3431:
3420:September 17,
3416:
3412:
3405:
3397:
3393:
3386:
3378:
3374:
3367:
3365:
3353:September 17,
3349:
3345:
3338:
3332:, p. 83.
3331:
3326:
3318:
3312:
3307:
3306:
3297:
3295:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3258:September 10,
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3223:(3): 215–18.
3222:
3218:
3211:
3204:
3202:
3195:, p. 57.
3194:
3193:Ansell (2013)
3189:
3181:
3175:
3170:
3169:
3160:
3154:, p. 23.
3153:
3148:
3140:
3134:
3130:
3123:
3121:
3113:
3112:Ansell (2013)
3108:
3100:
3098:0-8133-1661-8
3094:
3090:
3085:
3077:
3070:
3069:Ansell (2013)
3065:
3063:
3054:
3048:
3043:
3042:
3033:
3031:
3022:
3016:
3012:
3007:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2993:
2984:
2978:
2974:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2961:
2953:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2933:(1): E5–E16.
2932:
2928:
2921:
2919:
2910:
2904:
2900:
2893:
2891:
2883:
2882:Ansell (2013)
2878:
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2737:
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2731:
2728:
2725:
2722:
2719:
2715:
2714:Garner (2017)
2712:
2709:
2708:Ansell (2013)
2706:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2686:
2683:
2680:
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2475:
2470:
2468:
2464:
2463:Mary Bucholtz
2460:
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2324:
2320:
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2305:
2303:
2298:
2296:
2295:Novant Health
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2275:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2263:
2258:
2257:
2252:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2239:
2235:
2234:racial quotas
2231:
2230:
2225:
2221:
2220:Nathan Glazer
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2192:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2164:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
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2141:
2137:
2126:
2119:United States
2116:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2098:
2093:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2044:
2039:
2037:
2032:
2030:
2025:
2024:
2022:
2021:
2011:
2008:
2004:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1988:Social stigma
1986:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1968:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
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1637:
1634:
1633:
1624:
1623:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1597:State atheism
1595:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1533:Jim Crow laws
1531:
1530:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1518:One-drop rule
1516:
1514:
1512:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
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1471:
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1461:
1458:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1445:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1433:Blood quantum
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1411:
1410:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1374:Victimisation
1372:
1370:
1369:Trans bashing
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1339:Religious war
1337:
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1319:Racialization
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1198:
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1196:
1193:
1191:
1190:Glass ceiling
1188:
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1179:
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1161:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1133:Ethnic hatred
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1111:
1109:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1068:Counter-jihad
1066:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1039:
1036:
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1028:
1027:
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1023:
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995:
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988:
985:
983:
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975:
973:
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968:
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918:
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865:
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853:
851:
848:
846:
843:
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838:
834:
833:United States
831:
829:
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824:
821:
820:
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811:
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766:
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751:
748:
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729:
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724:
721:
719:
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697:
696:United States
694:
692:
689:
687:
684:
683:
682:
679:
677:
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672:
669:
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664:
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657:
654:
652:
649:
648:
642:
636:
635:
625:
622:
620:
617:
615:
612:
610:
609:Protestantism
607:
605:
602:
598:
595:
594:
593:
590:
584:
581:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
560:
559:
556:
555:
554:
551:
547:
544:
542:
539:
538:
537:
534:
532:
529:
525:
522:
520:
519:LDS or Mormon
517:
515:
512:
510:
507:
505:
502:
501:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
476:
470:
465:
464:
454:
451:
449:
446:
442:
439:
437:
436:Transmisogyny
434:
432:
429:
428:
427:
424:
420:
417:
415:
412:
411:
410:
407:
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402:
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387:
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372:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
339:Gerontophobia
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
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292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
269:Anti-intersex
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
244:Anti-albinism
242:
240:
237:
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226:
217:
216:
206:
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114:
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109:
106:
105:
96:
95:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
70:
69:Institutional
67:
66:
57:
56:
52:
48:
47:
44:
41:
40:
36:
32:
31:
28:
24:
19:
5522:Conservatism
5457:
5451:in Australia
5441:Racial quota
5085:Soviet Union
5028:Saudi Arabia
4969:South Africa
4896:Ethnic slurs
4891:Ethnic jokes
4793:Internalized
4672:
4647:
4643:
4618:
4591:
4562:
4545:
4522:
4499:
4495:
4469:
4450:
4431:
4407:(1): 40–61.
4404:
4400:
4394:
4382:. Retrieved
4365:
4355:
4347:
4335:
4323:
4310:
4298:
4289:
4277:
4271:
4259:. Retrieved
4242:
4230:
4221:
4201:
4191:
4167:
4158:Can We Talk?
4154:
4133:
4121:
4104:. Retrieved
4071:
4067:
4057:
4038:
4032:
4016:
3997:
3991:
3975:
3954:
3945:
3924:
3916:
3891:
3887:
3881:
3869:. Retrieved
3861:The Atlantic
3860:
3848:
3836:
3820:
3810:February 20,
3808:. Retrieved
3799:
3787:
3778:
3766:
3754:. Retrieved
3745:
3733:
3721:. Retrieved
3700:
3688:. Retrieved
3679:
3669:
3648:
3640:
3628:
3611:
3607:
3601:
3582:
3576:
3543:
3539:
3533:
3521:
3502:
3460:
3456:
3450:
3418:. Retrieved
3414:
3404:
3395:
3385:
3376:
3351:. Retrieved
3347:
3337:
3325:
3304:
3280:. Retrieved
3271:
3256:. Retrieved
3220:
3216:
3188:
3167:
3159:
3147:
3128:
3107:
3088:
3076:
3040:
3010:
2972:
2950:
2930:
2926:
2898:
2851:
2831:
2817:
2788:
2784:
2782:
2768:
2700:
2623:
2615:Helen Suzman
2613:
2599:
2589:
2580:
2578:
2563:
2554:
2546:
2535:undue weight
2532:
2508:South Africa
2500:
2491:
2485:
2471:
2466:
2455:Jane H. Hill
2430:
2422:
2418:
2413:Sociologist
2412:
2404:Stanley Fish
2388:
2363:
2358:
2338:Pennsylvania
2335:
2319:Donald Trump
2311:
2301:
2299:
2276:
2260:
2254:
2248:
2244:
2242:
2238:white people
2227:
2223:
2203:
2193:
2170:
2140:conservative
2135:
2133:
2102:
2094:
2090:white people
2082:Black people
2078:conservative
2064:and similar
2053:
2052:
1824:Gender-blind
1703:Human rights
1523:Racial quota
1510:
1490:Jewish quota
1470:Gerontocracy
1465:Gender roles
1443:Disabilities
1428:Blood purity
1394:Wife selling
1384:White flight
1364:Slut-shaming
1344:Scapegoating
1262:Murder music
917:Palestinians
860:Anti-Zionism
728:South Africa
713:Black people
691:South Africa
499:Christianity
489:Baháʼí Faith
404:Sectarianism
344:Heterosexism
309:Ephebiphobia
279:Anti-Masonry
138:Hair texture
27:
18:
5366:Anti-racism
5107:Middle East
5001:South Korea
4996:North Korea
4911:Hate speech
4833:Substantive
4813:Neocolonial
3723:February 8,
3438:|last=
2406:wrote that
2323:meritocracy
2283:Edward Blum
2200:Bob Blauner
1718:Nonviolence
1713:LGBT rights
1678:Empowerment
1646:Anti-racism
1560:Segregation
1505:No kid zone
1299:Persecution
1212:Hate speech
1163:Gay bashing
1138:Ethnic joke
1093:Dog whistle
1038:Blood libel
708:Azerbaijani
604:Neopaganism
597:Persecution
558:Persecution
541:Persecution
504:Catholicism
484:Exclusivism
426:Transphobia
409:Supremacism
364:Lesbophobia
284:Aporophobia
249:Anti-autism
84:Taste-based
79:Statistical
5516:Categories
5245:Vietnamese
5018:Arab world
4916:Hate group
4906:Hate crime
4843:Xenophobia
4823:Scientific
4808:Linguistic
4245:. London.
4218:1013463231
4114:Bax (2018)
4025:Bax (2018)
3756:August 21,
3264:See also:
2749:References
2730:Bax (2018)
2685:Xenoracism
2642:Law portal
2557:March 2019
2512:See also:
2427:Joe Feagin
2360:Americans.
2123:See also:
2084:and other
1998:Stereotype
1993:Speciesism
1876:Oppression
1871:Oikophobia
1767:Allophilia
1743:Toleration
1592:Sodomy law
1485:Internment
1399:Witch-hunt
1277:Blackhawks
1207:Hate group
1195:Hate crime
1168:Gendercide
1158:Freak show
1148:Excellence
1108:Employment
1078:Defamation
997:Vietnamese
992:Venezuelan
877:Lithuanian
531:Falun Gong
453:Xenophobia
448:Vegaphobia
431:Non-binary
389:Pedophobia
354:Homophobia
168:Skin color
128:Disability
99:Attributes
74:Structural
5426:Race card
5361:Alt-right
5161:Argentina
5122:Palestine
5040:Australia
4866:Apartheid
4854:of racism
4627:0028-792X
4554:1072-7825
4508:0094-5617
4374:1930-8965
4344:2166-3262
4286:1059-1818
4251:0049-3929
4210:0010-7565
4182:Cited in
4112:Cited in
4096:145109978
4088:0957-9265
3908:0049-089X
3871:March 18,
3477:1055-1360
3348:USA Today
2947:1745-9133
2609:Afrikaner
2451:as whites
2315:Tea Party
2291:Starbucks
2189:anecdotes
2113:apartheid
1971:Christian
1901:Prejudice
1849:Masculism
1797:Diversity
1575:religious
1550:Redlining
1143:Ethnocide
1103:Education
982:Ukrainian
912:Pakistani
902:Mongolian
823:Australia
805:Hungarian
760:Colombian
740:Bulgarian
614:Rastafari
563:Ahmadiyya
469:Religious
441:Trans men
399:Pregnancy
334:Gayphobia
329:Fatphobia
234:Acephobia
229:Arophobia
205:Viewpoint
5481:Category
5396:Lynching
5371:Casteism
5216:Japanese
5075:Portugal
5006:Thailand
4974:Zimbabwe
4838:Symbolic
4828:Societal
4818:Romantic
4783:Gendered
4763:Cultural
4753:Colorism
4748:Aversive
4664:24697716
4631:Archived
4518:"Racism"
4384:July 18,
4378:Archived
4315:Archived
4261:July 18,
4255:Archived
4214:ProQuest
4106:April 4,
4100:Archived
3865:Archived
3804:Archived
3750:Archived
3714:Archived
3684:Archived
3560:24343099
3430:cite web
3415:ABC News
3282:March 7,
3276:Archived
3272:TuftsNow
3249:Archived
3245:10616480
3237:26168512
2783:he term
2628:See also
2435:oxymoron
2331:backlash
2329:" and a
2212:Jim Crow
2130:Overview
2010:The talk
1946:Snobbery
1866:Net bias
1688:Feminism
1607:Ugly law
1448:Catholic
1414:Policies
1257:Mortgage
1252:Lynching
1183:examples
1178:Genocide
1098:Economic
1083:Democide
1043:Bullying
947:Scottish
942:Romanian
907:Nigerian
850:Japanese
785:Georgian
770:Filipino
703:Assyrian
676:Armenian
666:American
661:Albanian
641:national
619:Yazidism
536:Hinduism
494:Buddhism
384:Nepotism
379:Misogyny
374:Misandry
299:Clannism
294:Biphobia
239:Adultism
148:Language
35:a series
33:Part of
5491:Commons
5401:Passing
5356:Ableism
5279:Mexican
5199:Chinese
5095:Ukraine
5060:Germany
5050:Denmark
5011:Vietnam
4163:
3568:6934961
3485:4768398
3396:Reuters
3377:Reuters
2541:Please
2352:Harvard
2302:Reuters
2167:History
1819:Figleaf
1222:Housing
977:Turkish
922:Pashtun
892:Mexican
872:Kurdish
845:Italian
795:Haitian
780:Finnish
755:Chinese
750:Chechen
745:Catalan
735:Bengali
656:African
639:Ethnic/
592:Judaism
578:Sunnism
568:Shi'ism
479:Atheism
304:Elitism
195:Species
133:Genetic
123:Dialect
5323:Slavic
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