Right of revolution

1935:

arbitrary king. "Both natural law and English constitutional doctrine gave the colonists a right to revolt against the sovereign's oppression." But these understandings about the right of revolution on the eve of the American Revolution rested on a traditional model of government. That model posited the existence of a hypothetical bargain struck in the mists of antiquity between a king and a people. "In this bargain, the people were protected by the monarch in exchange for the people giving the king allegiance. This was a contractual relationship. American revolutionaries accused George III of breaching his implied duty of protection under that contract, thereby releasing the people in the colonies from their allegiance. The sovereign's breach of the hypothetical contract gave rise to the subjects' right of revolution – grounded on both natural law and English constitutional doctrine."

1783:, Locke discusses the pro-monarchy philosopher William Barclay's notions about the preconditions for the right of revolution against a monarch: "First. He says it must be with reverence. Secondly. It must be without retribution or punishment; and the reason he gives is, 'because an inferior cannot punish a superior'." Locke disagreed with both these preconditions, explaining that it is impossible to strike against any opposition 'with reverence' and that an oppressor loses his superiority by being an oppressor. Elsewhere Barclay insists that a king must be dethroned as a precondition for the right of revolution against a monarchy: "The people, therefore, can never come by a power over him unless he does something that makes him cease to be a king", which may only happen if the king tries to overturn his kingdom or make his rule dependent on force provided by another country. 2227:

provisions that mirrored the traditional right of revolution. ... Other state constitutions adopted different versions of this right to "alter or abolish" government that did not sound like the traditional right of revolution. In these provisions, the ability of the people to revise constitutions existed regardless of the traditional preconditions for the right of revolution. ... Increasingly, as Americans included it in their constitutions, the right of revolution came to be seen as a constitutional principle permitting the people as the sovereign to control government and revise their constitutions without limit. In this way, the right broke loose from its traditional moorings of resistance to oppression. The alter or abolish provisions could now be interpreted consistent with the constitutional principle that in America, the sovereign was the people.

48: 2925:, which all admit. Whenever the burdens of the Government under which it acts become so onerous that it cannot bear them, or if anticipated evil shall be so great that the State believes it would be better off – even risking the perils of secession – out of the Union than in it, then that State, in my opinion, like all people upon earth, has the right to exercise the great fundamental principle of self-preservation, and go out of the Union – though, of course, at its own peril – and bear the risk of the consequences. And while no State may have the constitutional right to secede from the Union, the President may not be wrong when he says the Federal Government has no power under the Constitution to compel the State to come back into the Union. It may be a 1274:

institutions that act "as guards and fences to the properties of all society". In other writings, he used the analogy of a robber to explain why tyrannical infringement on property makes for unjust law: "Should a robber break into my house, and, with a dagger at my throat, make me seal deeds to convey my estate to him, would this give him any title? Just such a title by his sword has an unjust conqueror who forces me into submission. The injury and the crime is equal, whether committed by the wearer of a crown or some petty villain." Thus, according to Locke, if a government acts against a citizen's right of property, that citizen may exercise his right of revolution against that government.

840: 1814: 1355: 1428: 1062:, he observed that contemporary monarchs pretend to reign "by the grace of God", but the pretense was "a mere cheat" so that they could "reign without control". He believed that "Earthly princes depose themselves while they rise up against God", so "it behooves us to spit upon their heads than to obey them". When ordinary citizens are confronted with tyranny, he wrote, ordinary citizens have to suffer it. But magistrates have the duty to "curb the tyranny of kings", as had the 633: 1507: 1166: 988:. He considers a law not to be a law at all, but an act of violence, if it contradicts either human or Divine good, overextends the power of the lawgiver, or hampers different parts of society unequally. For Aquinas, overthrowing a tyrant does not make a population seditious. Rather, the tyranny of tyrants means they commit "sedition", by which Aquinas means disturbance of those who work together lawfully for the good of the multitude: 757: 1415:, he gave an account of the historical limitation of kingly power by the multitude, a conflict he termed "liberty". This progress was sought "by obtaining a recognition of certain immunities, called political liberties or rights, which it was to be regarded as a breach of duty in the ruler to infringe, and which if he did infringe, specific resistance, or general rebellion, was held to be justifiable". On the question of 1314: 2240: 1922:

opposed with force. This right implied a duty on the part of the people to resist unconstitutional acts. As Alexander Hamilton noted in 1775, government exercised powers to protect "the absolute rights" of the people and government forfeited those powers and the people could reclaim them if government breached this constitutional contract.

1419:, Mill came down firmly in favour of the virtue of "the act of a private citizen in striking down a criminal, who, by raising himself above the law, has placed himself beyond the reach of legal punishment or control, has been accounted by whole nations, and by some of the best and wisest of men, not a crime, but an act of exalted virtue". 3310:. In Chapter 2, "Revolutionary Constitutionalism", Professor Fritz notes that after the Revolution, "ncreasingly, as Americans included it in their constitutions, the right of revolution came to be seen as a constitutional principle permitting the people as the sovereign to control government and revise their constitutions without limit." 1281:'s rebellion against the King of Assyria to make the case that God supported any people rebelling against unrighteous rule, saying that "it is plain that shaking off a power which force, and not right, hath set over any one, though it hath the name of rebellion, yet it is no offence before God, but that which He allows and countenances". 1390:, stating that "there is no right of sedition, and still less of revolution", the reason being that "it is only by submission to the universal legislative will, that a condition of law and order is possible." Moreover, Kant believed that any "forcible compulsion of , on the part of the people, cannot be justified under the pretext of a 807:. Believing they had the right to violently rebel to get better treatment and greater appreciation from the state, he rhetorically asked the common soldiery why they submitted to the centurions while military life entailed such low pay and so many years in service. Many soldiers shared his feelings. According to the historian 1459:

long. Mankind will not bear it. If a sovereign oppresses his people to a great degree, they will rise and cut off his head. There is a remedy in human nature against tyranny, that will keep us safe under every form of government. Had not the people of France thought themselves honoured as sharing in the brilliant actions of

3454:, I:111 (identifying the collective right of the people “to preserve their rights by force and even rebellion against constituted authority”), III:427n31 (quoting Viscount Bolingbroke that the "collective Body of the People" had the right to "break the Bargain between the King and the Nation"); Pauline Maier, 1627:. This preface from 24 June 1793 contained a declaration of the rights of man and citizen including right to rebellion in §35: "When the government violates the rights of the people, insurrection is for the people, and for every portion thereof, the most sacred of rights and the most indispensable of duties." 689:) is the right or duty of a people to "alter or abolish" a government that acts against their common interests or threatens the safety of the people without justifiable cause. Stated throughout history in one form or another, the belief in this right has been used to justify various revolutions, including the 2954:, 1986–1993), I:111 (identifying the collective right of the people "to preserve their rights by force and even rebellion against constituted authority"), III:427n31 (quoting Viscount Bolingbroke that the "collective Body of the People" had the right to "break the Bargain between the King and the Nation"). 2111:

Articles 33–35: Resistance to oppression is the consequence of the other rights of man. There is oppression against the social body when a single one of its members is oppressed. There is oppression against every member when the social body is oppressed. When the government violates the rights of the

2052:

That all power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are founded on their authority, and instituted for their peace, safety, and happiness; for the advancement of those ends they have at all times, an unalienable and indefeasible right to alter, reform, or abolish the government in such

2036:

All power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are founded on their authority and instituted for their peace, safety and happiness. For the advancement of these ends they have at all times an inalienable and indefeasible right to alter, reform or abolish their government in such manner

1775:

John Locke believed in the precondition that the right of violent insurrection could only be retained by those challenging tyranny, stipulating "that force is to be opposed to nothing but to unjust and unlawful force". The right of revolution only gave a people the right to rebel against unjust rule,

1610:

Simply put, "An insurrection, whatever may be its immediate cause, eventually endangers all government." However, Hamilton did point out that the wide geography of the United States meant that a federal army could not provide absolute limitation on the right of revolution, since, "If the federal army

1605:

That seditions and insurrections are, unhappily, maladies as inseparable from the body politic as tumours and eruptions from the natural body; that the idea of governing all at all times by the simple force of law (which we have been told is the only admissible principle of republican government) has

1588:

Whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and

1344:

The contract of government is so completely dissolved by despotism, that the despot is master only so long as he remains the strongest; as soon as he can be expelled, he has no right to complain of violence. The popular insurrection that ends in the death or deposition of a Sultan is as lawful an act

1273:

For Locke, these governments undid themselves by standing in the way of a citizen's right to property. He believed that "governments are dissolved" when "they endeavour to invade the property of the subject", since it is the right of the people to "choose and authorise a legislative" and accompanying

2226:

The constitutional logic of recognizing the people, not a king, as the sovereign implied the irrelevance of a right of revolution in America. This did not develop instantly or uniformly after the establishment of American governments. Some of the first state constitutions included "alter or abolish"

1752:

Thinkers often emphasise the great responsibility in taking hold of the right to revolution. Aquinas believed that would-be revolutionaries held no right to rebel against a tyrant if "the tyrant's rule be disturbed so inordinantly that his subjects suffer greater harm from the consequent disturbance

1748:

argued that a dissident should openly criticise his nation's policies, "provided that his words are not likely either to fall on deaf ears or to lead to the loss of his own life", he also stipulated against seemingly necessary violent insurrection: "force against his native land he should not use in

1369:

would have strongly disagreed with Locke and Rousseau as regards the notion of there being any general principle of a right to revolution. He believed that "if the ruler or regent, as the organ of the supreme power, proceeds in violation of the laws, as in imposing taxes, recruiting soldiers, and so

2003:

are perverted, and public liberty manifestly endangered, and all other means of redress are ineffectual, the people may, and of right ought to reform the old, or establish a new government. The doctrine of nonresistance against arbitrary power, and oppression, is absurd, slavish, and destructive of

1930:

suggested that using the law of redress would be "extraordinary", for example applying if the king broke the original contract, violated "the fundamental laws", or abandoned the kingdom. During the Stamp Act crisis of the 1760s the Massachusetts Provincial Congress considered resistance to the king

1925:

The law of redress had limits like the right of revolution under natural law. The law of redress, like the right of revolution, was not an individual right. It belonged to the community as a whole, as one of the parties to the original constitutional contract. It was not a means of first resort, or

1917:

called "the law of redress against public oppression". Like the natural law's right of revolution, this constitutional law of redress justified the people resisting the sovereign. This law of redress arose from a contract between the people and the king to preserve the public welfare. This original

1458:

Boswell emphasised this sentence "with peculiar pleasure, as a noble instance of that truly dignified spirit of freedom which ever glowed in his heart". Johnson seemed to believe that some form of a right to revolution inhered in natural law. He considered "that in no government power can be abused

2019:

All power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are founded on their authority and instituted for their peace, safety, happiness and the protection of property. For the advancement of these ends, they have at all times an inalienable and indefeasible right to alter, reform or abolish

830:

suppressed a rebellion of Gallic peasants violently resisting exploitation by their masters. These fought for their natural rights against the miserable conditions they were placed under. Gibbon says that they "asserted the natural rights of men, but they asserted those rights with the most savage

1921:

This well-accepted law of redress justified a people resisting unconstitutional acts of government. Liberty depended upon the people's "ultimate" right to resist. Unconstitutional commands breaching the "voluntary compact between the rulers and the ruled" could be "ignored" and arbitrary commands

1150:

Italy, left without life, waits for him who shall yet heal her wounds and put an end to the ravaging and plundering of Lombardy, to the swindling and taxing of the kingdom and of Tuscany, and cleanse those sores that for long have festered. It is seen how she entreats God to send someone who will

2081:

All political power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are founded on their authority, and instituted for their benefit. The faith of the people of Texas stands pledged to the preservation of a republican form of government, and, subject to this limitation only, they have at all

1931:

justified if freedom came under attack from "the hand of oppression" and "the merciless feet of tyranny". A decade later the "indictment" of George III in the Declaration of Independence sought to end his sovereign reign over the colonies because he violated the original constitutional contract.

1757:

was equally cautious, warning that "to establish a better regimen in the stead of that which a man has overthrown, many who have attempted it have foundered". Even the American Declaration of Independence admits that "Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be

1298:

However, Locke was not only a proponent of fighting tyranny through civil disobedience of unjust laws. He also suggested using violent insurrection in situations where an illegitimate centre of power, such as a rogue executive, has used force to subdue the supreme power in the land, that is, the

1847:, have written that with the end of the Revolution, Americans did not renounce the right of revolution. In fact they codified it in their new constitutions and even today 35 constitutions of American states have the same or similar provisions on the right of revolution as in the preamble of the 1796:

disapproves of the Cretan constitution's provision for the aristocratic right of revolution against the Cosmi, the ten most important magistrates in the country: "Worst of all is the suspension of the office of Cosmi, a device to which the nobles often have recourse when they will not submit to

1303:

For having erected a legislative with an intent that should exercise the power of making laws, ... when they are hindered by any force from what is so necessary to the society, and wherein the safety and preservation of the people consists, the people have a right to remove it by force. In all

1664:, "private individuals were forbidden to take force against their rulers either for malice or because of private injuries". Instead, "not just a few individuals, but the 'Body of the People' had to feel concerned" before the right of revolution was justified and with most writers speaking of a 1284:

Like Aquinas, Locke believed that the truly seditious or rebellious individuals are not those who change the legislative to ensure public wellbeing, but the despots who violated public wellbeing in the first place with their illegitimate laws: "For when men, by entering into society and civil

1934:

As explained in legal historian Christian Fritz's description of the role of the right of revolution in American Revolution, American independence was justified by conventional theories under Anglo-American constitutional thought at the time about the people's collective right to cast off an

1771:

argued that, since they have consented to invest their sovereign with the right of rulership, monarchical subjects can only change rulers with the original sovereign's permission. He states that "they that are subjects to a monarch cannot without his leave cast off monarchy and return to the

743:

would bless the authority of a just ruler, but would be displeased and withdraw its mandate from a despotic ruler. The Mandate of Heaven would then transfer to those who would rule best. Chinese historians interpreted a successful revolt as evidence that the Mandate of Heaven had passed on.

1253:, or to reduce them to Slavery under Arbitrary Power, they put themselves into a state of War with the People, who are thereupon absolved from any farther Obedience, and are left to the common Refuge, which God hath provided for all Men, against Force and Violence. Whensoever therefore the 1831:

In the American Revolutionary context, one finds expressions of the right of revolution both as subject to precondition and as unrestrained by conditions. On the eve of the American Revolution, for example, Americans considered their plight to justify exercise of the right of revolution.

1772:

confusion of a disunited multitude; nor transfer their person from him that beareth it to another man, or other assembly of men". Elsewhere he emphasises this point by saying that "the commands of them that have the right to command are not by their subjects to be censured nor disputed".

1840:, the Declaration was the last-ditch effort of an oppressed people—the position in which many Americans saw themselves in 1776. Jefferson's litany of colonial grievances was an effort to establish that Americans met their burden to exercise the natural law right of revolution. 1875:'s 1784 constitution required the perversion of the ends of government and the endangering of public liberty and that all other means of redress were to no avail. But in contrast, other states dispensed with the onerous preconditions on the exercise of the right. In the 1776 934:, an English charter issued in 1215, which required the King to renounce certain rights and accept that his will could be bound by the law. It included a "security clause" that gave the right to a committee of barons to overrule the will of the King through force if needed. 1776:

not any rule: "whoever, either ruler or subject, by force goes about to invade the rights of either prince or people, and lays the foundation for overturning the constitution and frame of any just government, he is guilty of the greatest crime I think a man is capable of".

1867:, describes a duality in American views on preconditions to the right of revolution: "Some of the first state constitutions included 'alter or abolish' provisions that mirrored the traditional right of revolution" in that they required dire preconditions to its exercise. 1743:

Certain theories of the right of revolution impose significant preconditions on its exercise, sometimes limiting its invocation to the most dire circumstances. Aristotle insisted that "men of rank" who "excel in virtue have the best right of all to rebel". Although

909:, likewise stemming from this tradition, was used to justify disobeying the King's orders that were deemed to go against the law; this legal principle was used in everything from bypassing censorship to justifying open rebellions, as e.g. was famously exploited by 2098:

Article 11: Any act directed against a person, apart from the cases and without the forms determined by law, is arbitrary and tyrannical; if attempt is made to execute such act by force, the person who is the object thereof has the right to resist it by force.

992:

Indeed it is the tyrant rather that is guilty of sedition, since he encourages discord and sedition among his subjects, that he may lord over them more securely; for this is tyranny, since it is ordered to the private good of the ruler and to the injury of the

1855:

in 1780, preserved the people's right "to reform, alter, or totally change" government not only for their protection or safety but also whenever their "prosperity and happiness require it". This expression was not unusual in the early American constitutions.

1906:

invoked the natural law right of revolution, natural law was not the sole justification for American independence. English constitutional doctrine also supported the colonists' actions, at least up to a point. By the 1760s, English law recognized what

744:

Throughout Chinese history, rebels who opposed the ruling dynasty made the claim that the Mandate of Heaven had passed, giving them the right to revolt. Ruling dynasties were often uncomfortable with this, and the writings of the Confucian philosopher

2068:

3d. That Government ought to be instituted for the common benefit, protection and security of the people; and that the doctrine of non-resistance against arbitrary power and oppression is absurd, slavish, and destructive to the good and happiness of

2173:

Citizens have the right to resist anybody who would do away with the democratic order of human rights and fundamental freedoms, established by this Charter, if the actions of constitutional bodies or the effective use of legal means have been

2946:(Cambridge University Press, 2008), 14 (noting that under English constitutional law the right of revolution "belonged to the community as a whole, as one of the parties to the original constitutional contract"). See also John Phillip Reid, 3458:, 1765–1776, 33–34 ("Private individuals were forbidden to take force against their rulers either for malice or because of private injuries, even if no redress for their grievances were afforded by the regularly constituted government"). 899:, and with ample powers to veto any action of the King deemed to against the customs and laws of the kingdom; this provided an uniquely complete institutional and constitutional framework with which to disobey the King. The legal lemma " 1534:, Locke's mentor, patron and friend, introduced the bill, but it was ultimately unsuccessful. Alternatively, the work is better associated with the revolutionary conspiracies that swirled around what would come to be known as the 791:

observes, after Tarquin's overthrow, "the ambitious Roman who should dare to assume their title or imitate tyranny was devoted to the infernal gods: each of his fellow-citizens was armed with the sword of justice; and the act of

2929:

in the constitution; but I should like to know where the power exists in the Constitution of the United States to authorize the Federal Government to coerce a sovereign State. It does not exist in any terms, at any rate, in the

856:, who in 1018 had a dramatic confrontation with the King of Sweden. The lawspeaker claimed the King of Sweden was accountable to the people and would be overthrown by them if he continued with his unpopular war with Norway. 1652:

Although some explanations of the right of revolution leave open the possibility of its exercise as an individual right, it was clearly understood to be a collective right under English constitutional and political theory.

1951:

mention this right or guarantee this right to citizens because of the destabilizing effect such a guarantee would likely produce. Among the examples of an articulation of a right of revolution as positive law include:

780:"stands deprived by his own act of honours and immunities, by the neglect of the duty for which the honour was bestowed upon him". For Gracchus, he "who assails the power of the people is no longer a tribune at all". 1679:

as stating "That particular men are allowed ... to have no other remedy but patience; but the body of the people may with, with respect, resist intolerable tyranny, for when it is moderate they ought to endure it."

822:

on the grounds that Nero's crimes meant he no longer deserved the love of the people: "I began to hate you when you became the murderer of your mother and your wife, a charioteer, an actor, and an incendiary."

2152:

Observance of the constitution is entrusted to the patriotism of the Greeks who shall have the right and the duty to resist by all possible means against anyone who attempts the violent abolition of the

1114:

was widely considered to be a mistake. Instead, the safest course of action for the people was to endure tyranny for as long as it could be borne, rather than run the larger risks of armed revolution.

1295:, he argued that "if the law, indeed, be concerning things that lie not within the verge of the magistrates authority, ... men are not in these cases obliged by that law, against their consciences." 1086:. That Calvin could support a right of resistance in theory did not mean that he thought such resistance prudent in all circumstances. At least publicly, he disagreed with the Scottish Calvinist 1232:, to replace the government with one that served the interests of citizens. In some cases, Locke saw revolution as an obligation. For him, the right of revolution acted as a safeguard against 1289:– that is, bring back again the state of war, and are properly rebels". Also like Aquinas, Locke considered it just for a subject to disobey any ruler overextending his political power. In 1836:

justified American resistance as an expression of "the law of nature" redressing violations of "the first principles of civil society" and invasions of "the rights of a whole people". For

3659: 1918:

contract was "a central dogma in English and British constitutional law" since "time immemorial". The Declaration's long list of grievances declared that this bargain had been breached.

1146:

exhorts the Medici family to take up violent insurrection "to liberate Italy from the barbarians". He explains why contemporary circumstances justify the Medici's right of revolution:

3467:

Some commentators endorsed the right of resistance if Parliament "jeopardized the constitution", but most identified the need for oppression and tyranny before its exercise. See Reid,

1718:

states that "when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their

1285:

government, have excluded force, and introduced laws for the preservation of property, peace, and unity among themselves, those who set up force again in opposition to the law, do

811:, "The throng applauded from various motives, some pointing to the marks of the lash, others to their grey locks, and most of them to their threadbare garments and naked limbs." 1805:

believed that this institution successfully hindered the abuse of power, thanks to the existing precondition of a powerful patriotism felt by the Cretans towards their island.

1601:

successfully made the case for a federal standing army, in opposition to Locke's principle that a republican government rules not by violence, but by law. Hamilton thought:

1749:

order to bring about a change of constitution, when it is not possible for the best constitution to be introduced without driving men into exile or putting them to death".

1409:

believed in a morally justifiable form of right to revolution against tyranny, placing him firmly in the tradition of Aquinas, Locke, and Rousseau. In his introduction to

1797:

justice." For Aristotle, this is evidence of oligarchical interference codified into supposedly constitutional, republican government. In contrary to this view, the

1345:

as those by which he disposed, the day before, of the lives and fortunes of his subjects. He was maintained by force alone, it is force alone that overthrows him.

2913:"The Congressional Globe: containing The Debates and Proceedings of the Second Session of the Thirty-Sixth Congress: also, of the Special Session of the Senate" 2125:, as well as a clause in its Article 20 (since 1968) recognizing the right of the people to resist unconstitutional tyranny, if all other measures have failed: 1902:

An example of the dual nature of the right of revolution as both a natural law and as positive law is found in the American revolutionary context. Although the

1668:'whole people who are the Public', or the body of the people acting in their 'public Authority', indicating a broad consensus involving all ranks of society". 869:

If He should hereafter tyrannise the kingdom against the fueros or liberties, the kingdom should be free to choose another king, even if he were a pagan,"

1151:

deliver her from these wrongs and barbarous insolencies. It is seen also that she is ready and willing to follow a banner if only someone will raise it.

787:"when he acted wrongfully; and for the crime of one single man, the ancient government under which Rome was built was abolished forever." As historian 3298: 47: 2092: 1269:, the People had put into their hands, for quite contrary ends, and it devolves to the People, who have a Right to resume their original Liberty. 3723: 3670: 1635:

The inherent (rather than constitutional) right to revolt was cited in the year prior the civil war's start as justifying the secession of the

1531: 3630:

Randy Barnett, The Rights Retained by the People, The History and Meaning of the Ninth Amendment, George Mason University Press, 1989), p. 364

2186:

Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that

2118: 2102:

Article 12: Those who incite, dispatch, sign, or execute arbitrary acts, or cause them to be executed, are guilty and must be punished. ...

1503:. Although Locke's treatise was published the year after, his ideas were already widely current in the English political system at the time. 1722:, to throw off such Government" (emphasis added). The phrase "long train of abuses" is a reference to John Locke's similar statement in the 748:(372–289 BCE) were often suppressed for declaring that the people have the right to overthrow a ruler that did not provide for their needs. 1023: 661: 1569: 3708: 2921:

But, sir, while a State has no power under the Constitution conferred upon it, to secede from the Federal Government or from the Union,

2159: 1860:'s 1818 constitution articulated the people's right "at all times" to alter government "in such a manner as they may think expedient". 1471:

Revolutionary movements subsequent to this, all drew on Locke's theory as a justification for the exercise of the right of revolution.

2112:

people, insurrection is for the people, and for every portion thereof, the most sacred of rights and the most indispensable of duties.

1611:

should be able to quell the resistance of one State, the distant States would have it in their power to make head with fresh forces."

3931: 1044:, were widely known and often feared for advocating resistance to tyranny and often tyrannicide—one of the implications of the 369: 2128:

All Germans shall have the right to resist any person seeking to abolish this constitutional order, if no other remedy is available.

2218:. In a study of the idea of rule by the people in the American Revolution and in early post-revolutionary America, legal historian 1526:'s ascension to the throne, it has been argued that the bulk of the writing was instead completed between 1679 and 1680 during the 1200:, especially the last two chapters, "Of Tyranny" and "Of the Dissolution of Government". The right formed an important part of his 3921: 3800: 1823: 3307: 2180: 2146: 320: 1606:

no place but in the reveries of those political doctors whose sagacity disdains the admonitions of experimental instruction.

1903: 1848: 914: 560: 3008: 1913: 1700:

to rebel, because the right to rebellion ruins the order of power, whereas the duty to rebel goes beyond and breaks it."

17: 3042: 3592: 1962: 1688:

Some philosophers argue that it is not only the right of a people to overthrow an oppressive government but also their

461: 3546: 3911: 3052: 3018: 2526: 2310: 1883:'s 1776 constitution required only that the people considered a change to be "most conducive" to the public welfare. 1454:

If the abuse be enormous, Nature will rise up, and claiming her original rights, overturn a corrupt political system.

409: 2082:

times the inalienable right to alter, reform or abolish their government in such manner as they may think expedient.

1715: 654: 2542:, Part I–II, Question 96, Article 4 (Fathers of the English Dominican Province, trans.). In R. M. Hutchins (Ed.), 848:

marks one of the earliest attempts to limit a sovereign's authority and it is seen as a symbol of the rule of law.

3413:

The Federal and State Constitutions Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws of the ... United States of America

3367:

See Maryland 1776 Constitution, Bill of Rights, Sec. 4; New Hampshire 1784 Constitution, Bill of Rights, Art. 10.

2965:

From Resistance to Revolution: Colonial Radicals and the Development of American Opposition to Britain, 1765–1776

765: 2578: 2062: 1291: 379: 938:

directly influenced the development of parliamentary democracy and many constitutional documents, such as the

2951: 1989: 1636: 918: 796:, however repugnant to gratitude or prudence, had been already sanctified by the judgement of his country." 3916: 3875: 3376:

Virginia 1776 Constitution, Bill of Rights, Sec. 3; Pennsylvania 1776 Constitution, Bill of Rights, Sec. 5.

2030: 1975: 533: 488: 451: 439: 384: 1992:

guarantees its citizens the right to reform government, in Article 10 of the New Hampshire constitution's

1584:

which violated the colonist's natural right to life, liberty, and property. According to the declaration:

839: 3901: 3810: 2088: 1944: 1620: 1370:

on, contrary to the law of equality in the distribution of the political burdens, the subject may oppose

1241: 1196: 1170: 906: 853: 647: 595: 3906: 3793: 1813: 1710:

to rebel is extremely important to stress, for it shows that they thought they were complying with the

939: 473: 468: 3456:

From Resistance to Revolution: Colonial Radicals and the Development of American Opposition to Britain

1354: 1257:

shall transgress this fundamental Rule of Society; and either by Ambition, Fear, Folly or Corruption,

3720: 2046: 1386: 580: 374: 332: 2122: 2013: 1851:. For instance, constitutions considered to be "conservative", such as those of post-revolutionary 1676: 1511: 2105:

Article 27: Let any individual who would usurp sovereignty be put to death instantly by free men.

863:, allegedly issued in the Pyrenees in the 850s, which enshrined the Iberian legal principle that " 1763: 1560: 1336: 1322: 1122: 901: 523: 178: 3768: 2121:, the federal constitution, contains both entrenched, un-amendable clauses protecting human and 2016:

guarantees a right to alter, reform or abolish their government in the Kentucky Bill of Rights:

1891:

Descriptions of the Right of Revolution also differ in whether that right is considered to be a

2263: 1727: 1523: 1492: 183: 82: 1593:

However, the Revolution did change course to set certain limits on the right of rebellion. In

1564:

used the concept as an argument for rejection of the British monarchy and separation from the

1143: 3786: 2912: 2075: 2000: 1484: 1463:, they would not have endured him; and we may say the same of the King of Prussia's people." 1331: 1063: 555: 503: 483: 421: 401: 396: 230: 110: 105: 77: 72: 892: 3880: 3870: 3356:

American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War

3299:

American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War

2944:

American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War

2268: 1865:

American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War

1798: 1788: 1187: 955: 793: 678: 513: 508: 290: 267: 168: 120: 67: 62: 31: 3249:, pp. 445–548). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1915) 3129:, pp. 318–319). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1877) 3099:, pp. 800–814). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1928) 2739:, pp. 439–441), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1887) 2718:, pp. 361–362), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1937) 2550:, pp. 445–548). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1947) 2488:

Adorno, R. (2020). "Obedezco pero no cumplo": Surviving Censorship in Early Modern Spain.

2333:, pp. 671–681). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1927) 1304:

states and conditions the true remedy of force without authority is to oppose force to it.

8: 3926: 1754: 1551: 1547: 1488: 1480: 1179: 1110: 1049: 1029: 1002: 943: 690: 617: 590: 543: 528: 444: 364: 342: 337: 295: 225: 3660:"Preface to the Constitution of 1793 (Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen)" 2875:, pp. 96–98), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1787) 2603:, pp. 36–37). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1908) 2375:, pp. 1–184). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1927) 305: 3839: 3618: 2886:"Readings from the French Revolution – Chapter 13: Preface to the Constitution of 1793" 2684:, pp. 1–22), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1923) 2278: 2219: 2142: 1908: 1833: 1598: 1447: 1178:, developed the idea of "right of revolution". This notion was used as a basis for the 959: 910: 880: 867:." Specifically, the 6th charter of Sobrarbe (first mentioned in 1117) specified that " 860: 702: 698: 612: 548: 498: 456: 426: 414: 352: 327: 315: 300: 285: 240: 130: 115: 3709:

The official English language translation of the Greek Constitution as of May 27, 2008

3121:

M. de Montaigne (1952). "Of Presumption" (C. Cotton, trans.). In W. C. Hazlitt (ed.),

2854:, pp. 1–3), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1776) 1530:, which attempted to prevent James II from ever taking the throne in the first place. 3865: 3694: 3303: 3048: 3014: 2885: 2522: 2306: 2245: 1895:(a law whose content is set by nature and that therefore has validity everywhere) or 1624: 1594: 1515: 1496: 1091: 1037: 1007: 888: 884: 784: 773: 736: 694: 600: 570: 538: 478: 310: 205: 195: 125: 100: 3773: 3640: 3270:, p. 54). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1914) 1427: 173: 2283: 2258: 2215: 2138: 1837: 1577: 1406: 1358: 1221: 1010:

advocated direct revolutionary assassination of unethical tyrannical rulers in his

984: 872: 575: 493: 391: 359: 235: 2573: 1568:, as opposed to merely self-government within it. The right was also cited in the 1186:

Perhaps no other major philosopher wrote as much about the right of revolution as

3860: 3844: 3824: 3727: 3596: 3398:

John Phillip Reid, "The Irrelevance of the Declaration", in Hendrik Hartog, ed.,

2473: 2167: 1844: 1384:) to this injustice, but not active resistance." He reaffirms this repeatedly in 1201: 1041: 972:; the Bull was the first constitutional document of the nation of Hungary, while 962:

noblemen, including the right to disobey the King when he acted contrary to law (

637: 565: 518: 434: 347: 3607: 2214:, the right of the people to remove the government has become embedded into the 1714:

of natural law and of nature's God when they threw off absolute despotism." The

776:

tried to justify depriving power from tribune Marcus Octavius by arguing that a

3829: 2435: 2163: 2058: 1993: 1565: 1535: 1527: 1443: 1431: 1204:, in which he defined the basis of social relationships. Locke said that under 1105: 1083: 1059: 979: 896: 815: 783:

He strengthened his argument by highlighting the precedent of the overthrow of

761: 262: 163: 153: 3568: 1265:

over the Lives, Liberties, and Estates of the People; By this breach of Trust

3895: 3834: 1985: 1879:

constitution the right would arise simply if government was "inadequate" and

1872: 1852: 1818: 1768: 1657: 1573: 1439: 1366: 1118: 1100:

The Catholic Church shared Calvin's prudential concerns – the Pope condemned

1094: 997: 788: 724: 257: 190: 3589: 852:

One example of the emergence of a right of revolution can be traced back to

3763: 2253: 2187: 2026: 1948: 1896: 1880: 1703: 1555: 1067: 819: 728: 2303:

Challenging the Mandate of Heaven: Social Protest and State Power in China

2141:

have contained a right to resist in their concluding article. The current

1726:, where he explicitly established overthrow of a tyrant as an obligation. 3321:"The Crime of Terrorism and the Right of Revolution in International Law" 2191: 1899:(law enacted or adopted by proper authority for governing of the state). 1892: 1857: 1802: 1580:, two thirds of which consists of a list of the wrongs committed by King 1500: 1416: 1251:

Legislators endeavor to take away, and destroy the Property of the People

1229: 1205: 1130: 1055: 1045: 947: 930: 844: 585: 3739: 1827:

depicts another idealization of the exercise of the right of revolution.

1334:

would be in agreement on Locke's point about force, stating in his work

632: 3778: 3629: 1730:

likewise held that it is the duty of the people to resist unjust laws.

1581: 1506: 1411: 1225: 1191: 1175: 1165: 1138: 1101: 871:

thereby enshrining the right of rebellion against the King. During the

607: 200: 39: 3415:, V:2594 (noting that the King breached his contract with the people). 3411:

New Jersey 1776 Constitution, Preamble in Francis Newton Thorpe, ed.,

1028:

Theological notions of the right of revolution were elaborated in the

3721:

English translation of the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms

2506:

Cortés after the conquest of Mexico: constructing legacy in New Spain

2207: 2179:

This right is inferred in the third paragraph of the preamble to the

2043: 1793: 1619:

The right of revolution was also included in the 1793 preface to the

1460: 1087: 220: 158: 3241:, Book II, Chapter 10 (B. Jowett, trans.). In R. M. Hutchins (ed.), 1817:

The presentation of the draft of the Declaration of Independence in

1706:

writes of the American revolutionaries, "The notion that they had a

3320: 2211: 2010: 1958: 1947:

seek legitimacy by appealing to the right of revolution, far fewer

1876: 1868: 1546:

The right to revolution played a large part in the writings of the

1380: 1317: 1278: 1126: 1079: 827: 804: 800: 756: 252: 2595:, Chapter XXVI (W. K. Marriott, trans.). In R. M. Hutchins (ed.), 1365:

Not all Enlightenment thinkers supported the rebellion principle.

1361:

was a proponent of the right to revolution in the name of liberty.

2436:"Chapter VI. Royal Oaths in Aragon and the Oath of the Aragonese" 2273: 1926:

response to trivial or casual errors of government. Blackstone's

1217: 1033: 808: 777: 745: 215: 148: 3769:

The Founders Constitution, Vol. 1 Chapter 3, Right of Revolution

3730:

on the website of the Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic

3389:(4 vols., Oxford, 1765–1769, Facsimile ed., repr., 1979), I:238. 2475:

Las libertades de Aragón: ensayo histórico, jurídico y político

2134: 2095:" with several right of revolution provisions which stated in 1967: 1692:

to do so. Howard Evans Kiefer opines, "It seems to me that the

1313: 1233: 1209: 1075: 1071: 976:

was the first constitutional charter of the nation of England.

210: 3437:

Alexander Hamilton, "The Farmer Refuted" (February 23, 1775),

1522:

Although Locke claimed that his book's purpose was to justify

1518:, when a people rose up to exercise their right of revolution. 1434:

saw the justifications for the right to rebel against tyranny.

1228:

against the government when it acted against the interests of

2933:(Iverson said this in 1860; 1861 is when Globe published it.) 1745: 951: 732: 3400:

Law in the American Revolution and the Revolution in the Law

2065:

of November 21, 1789 contains in its Declaration of Rights:

1326:

argues in favour of the right of revolution against despots.

3159:, pp. 101–104). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. 2033:, under Article 1, Section 2 of the Declaration of Rights: 1213: 922: 803:, the soldier Percennius fomented mutiny in the legions of 740: 247: 3654: 3652: 3650: 3648: 2442:, Princeton University Press, pp. 158–226, 1968-12-31 2367:, Book I (A. J. Church, trans.). In R. M. Hutchins (Ed.), 1224:; under the social contract, the people could instigate a 3336:

Massachusetts 1780 Constitution, Bill of Rights, Art. 7.

2020:

their government in such manner as they may deem proper.

3645: 3345:

Connecticut 1818 Constitution, Bill of Rights, Sec. 2.

2919:. Washington: Congressional Globe Office. p. 11. 2820:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1988), 59–61. 2409:, p. 144). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. 895:, an office first mentioned in 1115, appointed by the 2354:, p. 92). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. 982:

also writes about the right to resist tyranny in the

2235: 1495:, due to the former's unacceptable leanings towards 1263:

or put into the hands of any other an Absolute Power

3044:

Prophetic Tradition and Radical Rhetoric in America

2162:, a part of the constitutional systems of both the 1058:believed something similar. In a commentary on the 2490:Textual Cultures: Texts, Contexts, Interpretation 1090:'s call for revolution against the Catholic Queen 3426:Constitutional History of the American Revolution 2948:Constitutional History of the American Revolution 2495:(1), 29-74. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/763162. 2471: 1808: 1647: 3893: 3608:Constitution of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 2093:Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen 1006:, categorically denied any right of resistance. 3138:T. Jefferson, Declaration of Independence, p. 1 2078:contains similar wording in Article 1, Sect 2: 1696:to rebel is much more understandable than that 887:to thwart royal authority, and in the medieval 3302:. (Cambridge University Press, 2008) at p. 25 3151:, Part II, Chapter XVIII. In N. Fuller (ed.), 2794:), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. 2760:), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. 2637:), Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica. 2460:«Hacia la edición crítica del Fuero de Tudela» 2325:(J. Dryden, trans.). In R. M. Hutchins (ed.), 2206:Some have argued that because in modern times 1886: 1532:Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury 913:to justify his otherwise illegal invasion and 3794: 3696:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany 3112:, Part II–II, Question 42, Article 2, Reply 3 2710:. (G. D. H. Cole, trans.) In R. M. Hutchins, 2563:, Part II–II, Question 42, Article 2, Reply 3 2462:, Revista Jurídica de Navarra, núm. 4 (1987). 2119:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany 1738: 1446:'s attack on the widespread assumption that " 1117:The right of revolution was expounded by the 723:To justify their overthrowing of the earlier 655: 3590:Constitution of the Commonwealth of Kentucky 3091:(J. Harward, trans.). In M. J. Adler (ed.), 2544:The Summa Theologica of Saint Thomas Aquinas 2422:, Cuadernos de Historia de España, 7 (1947). 1965:, maintained a right of rebellion, known as 1024:Resistance theory in the early modern period 3510:Reid, "Irrelevance of the Declaration", 84. 3262:(T. Nugent, trans.). In M. J. Adler (ed.), 3007:Kiefer, Howard Evans; Munitz, Milton Karl. 1938: 963: 3801: 3787: 2160:Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms 1843:Certain scholars, such as legal historian 1541: 1514:on 14 July 1789 has come to symbolize the 1474: 1239:Locke defended the right of revolution in 818:justified his right of revolution against 662: 648: 2731:. (W. Hastie, trans.) In R. M. Hutchins, 1758:changed for light and transient causes". 1277:Locke drew on the Old Testament story of 3808: 3325:Connecticut Journal of International Law 3123:The Essays of Michel Eyquem de Montaigne 3006: 2399:The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 2344:The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 1812: 1614: 1505: 1426: 1353: 1312: 1308: 1164: 968:). The Golden Bull is often compared to 838: 755: 3549:(in Spanish). Government of El Salvador 3358:(Cambridge University Press, 2008), 24. 859:Another example were the semi-mythical 14: 3894: 3669:. college.columbia.edu. Archived from 3619:Constitution of the State of Tennessee 3040: 2923:each State has the right of revolution 2327:Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans 1642: 1155: 1017: 3782: 3740:Universal Declaration of Human Rights 3711:on the website of Hellenic Parliament 3569:"State Constitution – Bill of Rights" 3228:, Chapter XIX, Section 235–237, p. 80 2910: 2181:Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1630: 735:promulgated the concept known as the 2430: 2428: 1904:American Declaration of Independence 1849:American Declaration of Independence 1753:than from the tyrant's government". 1683: 958:. The law established the rights of 3774:North Carolina Constitution of 1789 3387:Commentaries on the Laws of England 3185:, Chapter XVIII, Section 204, p. 72 2369:The Annals and Histories of Tacitus 2201: 1914:Commentaries on the Laws of England 1401: 917:against the explicit orders of the 24: 3751:Fritz, American Sovereigns, 24–25. 2892:. Columbia University. p. 135 2629:, Chapter XVI, Section 176, p. 66 2508:. Oklahoma State University, 2013. 2472:Danvila y Collado, Manuel (1881). 2004:the good and happiness of mankind. 1194:. He developed the concept in his 834: 25: 3943: 3757: 3211:, Chapter XIX, Section 235, p. 79 3198:, Chapter XIX, Section 230, p. 78 2997:, chapter XIX, Section 233, p. 79 2697:, Chapter III, Section 155, p. 61 2663:, chapter XIX, section 226, p. 77 2650:, Chapter XVI, Section 196, p. 70 2616:, Chapter XIX, Section 221, p. 75 2425: 1466: 1422: 713: 3932:Concepts in political philosophy 3571:. New Hampshire State Government 3439:The Papers of Alexander Hamilton 3285:The Papers of Alexander Hamilton 3268:Great Books of the Western World 3247:Great Books of the Western World 3157:Great Books of the Western World 3127:Great Books of the Western World 3097:Great Books of the Western World 3041:Darsey, James (September 1999). 2873:Great Books of the Western World 2852:Great Books of the Western World 2816:Laslett, Peter. "Introduction". 2792:Great Books of the Western World 2758:Great Books of the Western World 2737:Great Books of the Western World 2716:Great Books of the Western World 2682:Great Books of the Western World 2635:Great Books of the Western World 2601:Great Books of the Western World 2548:Great Books of the Western World 2407:Great Books of the Western World 2373:Great Books of the Western World 2352:Great Books of the Western World 2331:Great Books of the Western World 2238: 1733: 1716:U.S. Declaration of Independence 1349: 718: 631: 46: 3745: 3733: 3714: 3702: 3688: 3634: 3623: 3612: 3601: 3583: 3561: 3539: 3526: 3513: 3504: 3491: 3478: 3461: 3444: 3431: 3418: 3405: 3392: 3379: 3370: 3361: 3348: 3339: 3330: 3313: 3290: 3273: 3252: 3231: 3214: 3201: 3188: 3175: 3162: 3141: 3132: 3115: 3102: 3081: 3068: 3034: 3000: 2983: 2970: 2957: 2936: 2904: 2878: 2857: 2844:The Declaration of Independence 2836: 2823: 2810: 2797: 2776: 2763: 2742: 2721: 2700: 2687: 2666: 2653: 2640: 2619: 2606: 2585: 2566: 2553: 2532: 2511: 2498: 2482: 2465: 2418:Ramos Loscertales, José María, 2053:manner as they may think proper 1675:, John Locke quotes the jurist 766:overthrow of the Roman monarchy 751: 674:Concept in political philosophy 3922:Control (social and political) 3428:(4 vols., 1986–1993), III:140. 2674:A Letter Concerning Toleration 2521:. Pearson Education. (2003). 2452: 2412: 2391: 2378: 2357: 2336: 2315: 2295: 1982:("the right to insurrection"). 1963:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 1809:During the American Revolution 1648:Individual or collective right 1292:A Letter Concerning Toleration 764:was established following the 13: 1: 3258:Baron de Montesquieu (1952). 3172:, Part II, Chapter XX, p. 112 2978:From Resistance to Revolution 2952:University of Wisconsin Press 2867:, No. 28, in R. M. Hutchins, 2363:P. Cornelius Tacitus (1952). 2289: 1724:Second Treatise of Government 1662:From Resistance to Revolution 1637:Confederate States of America 1160: 3876:Collective rights management 2967:(Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 33. 1980:el derecho a la insurrección 1976:Constitutions of El Salvador 1945:declarations of independence 1493:William III of Orange-Nassau 891:to create the figure of the 7: 3667:National Assembly of France 3547:"Derecho a la Insurrección" 3226:Concerning Civil Government 3224:, I. iii. c. 16. in Locke, 3209:Concerning Civil Government 3196:Concerning Civil Government 3183:Concerning Civil Government 2995:Concerning Civil Government 2818:Two Treatises of Government 2708:On the Origin of Inequality 2695:Concerning Civil Government 2661:Concerning Civil Government 2648:Concerning Civil Government 2627:Concerning Civil Government 2614:Concerning Civil Government 2401:. In R. M. Hutchins (ed.), 2346:. In R. M. Hutchins (ed.), 2231: 2089:French Constitution of 1793 2025:Similar wording is used in 1887:Natural law or positive law 1824:Declaration of Independence 1781:Two Treatises of Government 1673:Two Treatises of Government 1621:French Constitution of 1793 1570:Declaration of Independence 1337:On the Origin of Inequality 1242:Two Treatises of Government 1197:Two Treatises of Government 1171:Two Treatises of Government 10: 3948: 3764:Locke and the Social Order 3699:(English translation; PDF) 3471:, III:121, 427n31; Maier, 2676:. In C. L. Sherman (ed.), 2574:"The Calvinist Connection" 2458:Martín Duque, Ángel Juan, 1739:In philosophical discourse 1442:noted the literary critic 1021: 940:United States Constitution 708: 3853: 3817: 3742:, United Nations website. 3010:Ethics and Social Justice 2582:, October 2008, pp. 27–31 2301:Perry, Elizabeth (2002). 2037:as they may think proper. 1871:'s 1776 constitution and 1387:The Metaphysics of Morals 1129:thinkers who legitimized 3912:Enlightenment philosophy 3854:Rights of other entities 3296:See Christian G. Fritz, 2942:See Christian G. Fritz, 2420:«Los fueros de Sobrarbe» 2170:, states in Article 23: 2137:constitutions since the 1939:Examples as positive law 1548:American revolutionaries 1512:storming of the Bastille 1448:the King can do no wrong 2917:The Congressional Globe 2911:Rives, John C. (1861). 2591:N. Machiavelli (1952). 2478:. Imprenta de Fortanet. 2190:should be protected by 1660:has noted in her study 1542:The American Revolution 1475:The Glorious Revolution 1323:Discourse on Inequality 1136:In the last chapter of 1123:French Wars of Religion 902:Obedezco pero no cumplo 95:By other characteristic 3641:The Texas Constitution 3499:Constitutional History 3469:Constitutional History 3452:Constitutional History 2831:Revolutionary Politics 2504:Loudamy, Randall Ray. 2264:Confederation (Poland) 2229: 2208:democratic governments 2196: 2176: 2155: 2130: 2114: 2084: 2071: 2055: 2039: 2022: 2006: 1828: 1728:Martin Luther King Jr. 1608: 1591: 1519: 1491:and replaced him with 1456: 1435: 1362: 1347: 1327: 1306: 1271: 1267:they forfeit the Power 1202:social contract theory 1183: 1153: 1121:in the context of the 995: 964: 879:were used both in the 865:laws come before kings 854:Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker 849: 769: 3283:(February 23, 1775), 3222:Contra Monarchomachus 2991:Contra Monarchomachos 2869:American State Papers 2865:The Federalist Papers 2848:American State Papers 2846:, in R. M. Hutchins, 2842:T. Jefferson (1952). 2224: 2210:can be overthrown by 2184: 2171: 2150: 2126: 2096: 2079: 2076:Constitution of Texas 2066: 2050: 2042:Article I, §1 of the 2034: 2017: 1997: 1978:have long recognized 1816: 1671:In the second of his 1615:The French Revolution 1603: 1586: 1550:in the run up to the 1509: 1485:Parliament of England 1452: 1430: 1357: 1342: 1332:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1316: 1309:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1301: 1247: 1168: 1148: 1064:Tribunes of the Plebs 990: 842: 759: 397:Bulgarian unification 73:Counter-revolutionary 3881:Corporate personhood 3871:Collective agreement 3676:on February 27, 2014 3385:William Blackstone, 3354:Christian G. Fritz, 3319:See Marsavelski, A. 3279:Alexander Hamilton, 2993:, iii. 8. in Locke, 2863:A. Hamilton (1952). 2729:The Science of Right 2706:J. Rousseau (1952). 2269:Political corruption 1799:French Enlightenment 1487:effectively deposed 1438:Scottish biographer 956:Andrew II of Hungary 921:and his officers in 897:Aragonese parliament 877:Charters of Sobrarbe 861:Charters of Sobrarbe 772:The populist leader 679:political philosophy 169:Contentious politics 40:Political revolution 3917:Popular sovereignty 3534:American Sovereigns 3521:American Sovereigns 3424:John Phillip Reid, 3266:(1st ed., vol. 38, 3155:(1st ed., Vol. 23, 3125:(1st ed., vol. 25, 3078:, Book V, Chapter 1 2890:Columbia University 2871:(1st ed., vol. 43, 2850:(1st ed., Vol. 43, 2790:(1st ed., vol. 44, 2782:J. Boswell (1952). 2773:, Chapter 2, p. 274 2756:(1st ed., vol. 43, 2748:J. S. Mill (1952). 2735:(1st ed., vol. 42, 2714:(1st ed., vol. 28, 2680:(1st ed., Vol. 35, 2633:(1st ed., vol. 35, 2599:(1st ed., vol. 23, 2546:(1st ed., vol. 20, 2538:T. Aquinas (1952). 2405:(1st ed., Vol. 40, 2371:(1st ed., vol. 15, 2350:(1st ed., Vol. 41, 2329:(1st ed., Vol. 14, 2087:The preface to the 1755:Michel de Montaigne 1643:Nature of the right 1558:'s political tract 1552:American Revolution 1489:James II of England 1481:Glorious Revolution 1180:Glorious Revolution 1156:Philosophical views 1144:Niccolò Machiavelli 1111:Regnans in Excelsis 1050:School of Salamanca 1030:early modern period 1018:Early modern Europe 1003:Livre de Politiques 944:Golden Bull of 1222 928:Another example is 799:After the death of 727:, the kings of the 691:American Revolution 683:right of revolution 638:Politics portal 18:Right to revolution 3902:Political concepts 3840:Self-determination 3726:2013-06-13 at the 3595:2009-07-03 at the 3281:The Farmer Refuted 3260:The Spirit of Laws 3245:(1st ed., vol. 9, 3237:Aristotle (1952). 3147:T. Hobbes (1952). 3095:(1st ed., Vol. 7, 3089:The Seventh Letter 2397:E. Gibbon (1952). 2342:E. Gibbon (1952). 2279:Regulatory capture 2220:Christian G. Fritz 2143:Greek Constitution 2001:ends of government 1909:William Blackstone 1834:Alexander Hamilton 1829: 1631:American Civil War 1599:Alexander Hamilton 1520: 1436: 1396:casus necessitatis 1392:right of necessity 1363: 1328: 1212:have the right to 1184: 915:conquest of Mexico 893:Justicia de Aragón 881:kingdom of Navarre 850: 770: 731:(1122–256 BCE) of 703:Iranian Revolution 699:Russian Revolution 687:right of rebellion 613:Second Arab Spring 3907:Collective rights 3889: 3888: 3866:Return of results 3327:, vol. 28, p. 270 3308:978-0-521-88188-3 2672:J. Locke (1952). 2625:J. Locke (1952). 2593:To Liberate Italy 2517:Ralph V. Turner. 2388:, Book XV, p. 174 2323:Tiberius Gracchus 2321:Plutarch (1952). 2246:Philosophy portal 1684:Right versus duty 1625:French Revolution 1595:Federalist No. 28 1516:French Revolution 1259:endeavor to grasp 1038:Robert Bellarmine 1008:John of Salisbury 954:, issued by King 889:kingdom of Aragon 885:kingdom of Aragon 785:Tarquin the Proud 774:Tiberius Gracchus 737:Mandate of Heaven 695:French Revolution 672: 671: 206:Mass mobilization 196:Guerrilla warfare 16:(Redirected from 3939: 3803: 3796: 3789: 3780: 3779: 3752: 3749: 3743: 3737: 3731: 3718: 3712: 3706: 3700: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3675: 3664: 3656: 3643: 3638: 3632: 3627: 3621: 3616: 3610: 3605: 3599: 3587: 3581: 3580: 3578: 3576: 3565: 3559: 3558: 3556: 3554: 3543: 3537: 3530: 3524: 3517: 3511: 3508: 3502: 3495: 3489: 3488:, I:243 and 238. 3482: 3476: 3465: 3459: 3448: 3442: 3435: 3429: 3422: 3416: 3409: 3403: 3396: 3390: 3383: 3377: 3374: 3368: 3365: 3359: 3352: 3346: 3343: 3337: 3334: 3328: 3317: 3311: 3294: 3288: 3277: 3271: 3256: 3250: 3235: 3229: 3218: 3212: 3205: 3199: 3192: 3186: 3179: 3173: 3166: 3160: 3145: 3139: 3136: 3130: 3119: 3113: 3110:Summa Theologica 3106: 3100: 3085: 3079: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3038: 3032: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3004: 2998: 2987: 2981: 2974: 2968: 2961: 2955: 2940: 2934: 2932: 2908: 2902: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2882: 2876: 2861: 2855: 2840: 2834: 2827: 2821: 2814: 2808: 2801: 2795: 2780: 2774: 2767: 2761: 2746: 2740: 2727:I. Kant (1952). 2725: 2719: 2704: 2698: 2691: 2685: 2670: 2664: 2657: 2651: 2644: 2638: 2623: 2617: 2610: 2604: 2589: 2583: 2570: 2564: 2561:Summa Theologica 2557: 2551: 2540:Summa Theologica 2536: 2530: 2515: 2509: 2502: 2496: 2486: 2480: 2479: 2469: 2463: 2456: 2450: 2449: 2448: 2447: 2432: 2423: 2416: 2410: 2395: 2389: 2382: 2376: 2361: 2355: 2340: 2334: 2319: 2313: 2299: 2284:Right to protest 2259:Civil resistance 2248: 2243: 2242: 2241: 2216:political system 2202:Modern relevance 2183:, which states: 2139:Greek Revolution 1961:, nobles of the 1838:Thomas Jefferson 1786:In his treatise 1667: 1578:Thomas Jefferson 1528:Exclusion Crisis 1407:John Stuart Mill 1402:John Stuart Mill 1359:John Stuart Mill 1222:private property 985:Summa Theologica 967: 873:High Middle Ages 664: 657: 650: 636: 635: 489:Hungarian (1956) 321:Spanish American 50: 27: 26: 21: 3947: 3946: 3942: 3941: 3940: 3938: 3937: 3936: 3892: 3891: 3890: 3885: 3861:Protected group 3849: 3845:Right of return 3825:Right to 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3798: 3791: 3783: 3777: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3759: 3758:External links 3756: 3754: 3753: 3744: 3732: 3713: 3701: 3687: 3644: 3633: 3622: 3611: 3600: 3582: 3560: 3538: 3525: 3512: 3503: 3490: 3477: 3460: 3443: 3430: 3417: 3404: 3391: 3378: 3369: 3360: 3347: 3338: 3329: 3312: 3289: 3272: 3251: 3230: 3213: 3200: 3187: 3174: 3161: 3140: 3131: 3114: 3101: 3087:Plato (1952). 3080: 3067: 3053: 3033: 3019: 2999: 2982: 2969: 2956: 2935: 2903: 2877: 2856: 2835: 2822: 2809: 2796: 2775: 2762: 2741: 2720: 2699: 2686: 2665: 2652: 2639: 2618: 2605: 2584: 2565: 2552: 2531: 2510: 2497: 2481: 2464: 2451: 2424: 2411: 2390: 2377: 2356: 2335: 2314: 2293: 2291: 2288: 2287: 2286: 2281: 2276: 2271: 2266: 2261: 2256: 2250: 2249: 2233: 2230: 2203: 2200: 2198: 2197: 2177: 2164:Czech Republic 2156: 2131: 2123:natural rights 2115: 2085: 2072: 2059:North Carolina 2056: 2040: 2023: 2007: 1994:Bill of Rights 1983: 1972: 1954: 1943:Although many 1940: 1937: 1888: 1885: 1810: 1807: 1740: 1737: 1735: 1732: 1685: 1682: 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1299:legislature: 1296: 1294: 1293: 1288: 1282: 1280: 1275: 1270: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1249:Whenever the 1246: 1245:in this way: 1244: 1243: 1237: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1198: 1193: 1189: 1188:Enlightenment 1181: 1177: 1174:, written by 1173: 1172: 1167: 1152: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1140: 1134: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1119:Monarchomachs 1115: 1113: 1112: 1107: 1103: 1098: 1096: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1051: 1048:focus of the 1047: 1043: 1039: 1036:, especially 1035: 1031: 1025: 1015: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1004: 999: 998:Nicole Oresme 994: 989: 987: 986: 981: 977: 975: 971: 966: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 932: 926: 924: 920: 916: 912: 911:Hernán Cortés 908: 907:Castilian law 904: 903: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 857: 855: 847: 846: 841: 832: 829: 826:In 285 C.E., 824: 821: 817: 812: 810: 806: 802: 797: 795: 790: 789:Edward Gibbon 786: 781: 779: 775: 767: 763: 758: 749: 747: 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Sharpe. 2192:rule of law 2174:frustrated. 2147:Article 120 1893:natural law 1858:Connecticut 1803:Montesquieu 1623:during the 1524:William III 1501:Catholicism 1479:During the 1417:tyrannicide 1255:Legislative 1206:natural law 1056:John Calvin 1046:natural law 974:Magna Carta 970:Magna Carta 948:golden bull 936:Magna Carta 931:Magna Carta 883:and in the 845:Magna Carta 586:Arab Spring 184:Human chain 174:Coup d'état 83:Proletarian 3927:Revolution 3896:Categories 3680:5 November 3473:Resistance 3450:See Reid, 2950:(4 vols., 2829:Ashcraft, 2786:, p. 120, 2771:On Liberty 2754:J. S. 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