Slavery in ancient Rome

8669: 5613: 6097: 4254: 5788: 5394:. Girls might be apprenticed particularly in the textile industry; contracts specify apprenticeships of varying durations. One four-year contract from Roman Egypt that apprentices an underage girl to a master weaver shows how detailed terms could be. The owner is to feed and clothe the girl, who is to receive periodic pay raises from the weaver as her skills level up, along with eighteen holidays a year. Sick days are to be tacked onto her term of service, and the weaver is responsible for taxes. The contractual aspect of benefits and obligations seems "distinctly modern" and indicates that a slave on a skills track might have opportunities, bargaining power, and relative social security nearly on a par with or exceeding free but low-skill workers living at a subsistence level. The widely attested success of freedmen might have been one possible motivation for 9209: 4945: 7119: 5020: 7166: 3163: 8124: 3810: 6674: 3957: 4210: 3723:

as a slave, since the price would be determined by the captive's individual qualities, but sometimes the ransom demand could not be met. If a slave was kidnapped, the owner might or might not decide that the amount of ransom was worthwhile. If multiple people from the same city were taken at the same time and demands for payment could not be met privately, the home city might try to pay the ransom from public funds, but these efforts too might come up short. The captive could then resort to borrowing the ransom money from profiteering lenders, in effect putting himself into debt bondage to them. Selling the kidnap victim on the open market was a last but not infrequent resort.

170: 2696: 4338:, bloody before the first bath. At a time when infant mortality might have been as high as 40 percent, the newborn was thought in its first week of life to be in a perilous liminal state between biological existence and social birth, and the first bath was one of many rituals marking this transition and supporting the mother and child. The Constantinian law has been viewed as an effort to stop the practice of exposure as infanticide or as "an insurance policy on behalf of individual slave-owners" designed to protect the property of those who, unknowingly or not, had bought an infant later claimed or shown to have been born free. In the historical period, 2377: 7353: 2631:. Lacking legal standing as a person, a slave could not enter into legal contracts on his own behalf; in effect, he remained a perpetual minor. A slave could not be sued or be the plaintiff in a lawsuit. The testimony of a slave could not be accepted in a court of law unless the slave was tortured—a practice based on the belief that slaves in a position to be privy to their masters' affairs should be too virtuously loyal to reveal damaging evidence unless coerced, even though the Romans were aware that testimony produced under torture was unreliable. A slave was not permitted to testify against his master unless the charge was treason ( 6766:. Cicero remarked that he wrote to Tiro "for the sake of keeping to established practice" and occasionally revealed personal care and concern for his slave, whose education he had taken into his own hands. He sought Tiro's opinions and seems to have expected him to speak with exceptional freedom, though in collecting Cicero's papers for publication, Tiro did not publish his own replies along with those of other correspondents. While these letters suggest a personal connection between master and slave, each letter contains a direct command, suggesting that Cicero relied on familiarity to ensure performance and loyalty from Tiro. 2863: 4693:, expanded trade and exerted dominance eastward. The long-established port of Rhodes, known as a "law and order" state, had legal and regulatory barriers to exploitation by the new Italian "entrepreneurs", who got a more porous reception in Delos as they set up shop in the latter 3rd century BC. To disadvantage Rhodes, and ultimately devastating its economy, in 166 BC the Romans declared Delos a free port, meaning that merchants there would no longer have to pay the 2 percent customs tax. The piratical slave trade then flooded into Delos "with no questions asked" about the source and status of captives. While the geographer 8786: 5352: 4803: 2497: 9382:, slaves are central to the plot. In this play, Simo, a wealthy Athenian wants his son, Pamphilius, to marry one girl but Pamphilius has his sights set on another. Much of the conflict in this play revolves around schemes with Pamphilius's slave, Davos, and the rest of the characters in the story. Many times throughout the play, slaves are allowed to engage in activity, such as the inner and personal lives of their owners, that would not normally be seen with slaves in every day society. This is a form of satire by Terence due to the unrealistic nature of events that occurs between slaves and citizens in his plays. 8516: 6005:. But the agency of slaves in conducting business could raise complex legal issues, with hazards for the slave and potential blowback for the master. If a slave was accused of fraud, for example, or a suit was brought in civil court, the master faced a dilemma: he could acknowledge his ownership and defend the slave, making himself liable for paying damages if they lost the case, or he could decline to defend the slave and surrender all claims to ownership and future patronage. The slave was therefore vulnerable to the master's calculations on the relative advantages of defending him or not. 7645: 4883: 7847:), a place of work confinement, built partially underground, where slaves were often kept in chains for disobedience, acts of resistance, or committing crimes. Slaves sent to the ergastulum might be sold for exploitation in gladiatorial games. However, despite the assumptions of some scholars and modern images of chained slaves at hard labor, there is no evidence that agricultural slaves routinely worked in chain gangs. Roman writers on agriculture regarded slaves who were controllable only through chaining as an inferior form of farm labor and deprecated their use on the commercial 3439: 8029: 5402: 7879: 2360: 2238: 6547: 6013:, for example, spelled out that if a Roman slave violated local banking regulations, the owner could either pay a fine or punish the slave; the punishment was specified as fifty blows and six months of prison. If the slave had to testify in cases involving contract law to defend either his master or his own actions, there is no indication that he was exempt from the law that his testimony could be accepted only under torture; the slave therefore had a compelling incentive to meet the most scrupulously high standards in conducting business. 5627: 6286:

five million, representing 10–15% of the total population of 50–60 million inhabitants. An estimated 49% of all slaves were owned by the elite, who made up less than 1.5% of the empire's population. About half of all slaves worked in the countryside where they were a small percentage of the population except on some large agricultural, especially imperial, estates; the remainder of the other half were a significant percentage – 25% or more – in towns and cities as domestics and workers in commercial enterprises and manufacturers.

3515: 6960: 2955: 3303: 30: 6788: 2669:, a master who killed a slave without just cause could be tried for homicide. From the mid to late 2nd century AD, slaves had more standing to complain of cruel or unfair treatment by their owners. But since even in late antiquity slaves still could not file lawsuits, could not testify without first undergoing torture, and could be punished by being burnt alive for testifying against their masters, it is unclear how these offenses could be brought to court and prosecuted; evidence is scant that they were. 4592: 8613: 5248: 3612: 2435:. His marriage, however, was not automatically renewed; another agreement of consent by both parties had to be arranged. The loss of citizenship was a consequence of submitting to an enemy sovereign state; freeborn people kidnapped by bandits or pirates were regarded as seized illegally, and therefore they could be ransomed, or their sale into slavery rendered void, without compromising their citizen status. This contrast between the consequences for status from war 9332: 8750:) that offered care of the dead. With the permission of their master, slaves could join burial societies along with free people of modest means and freed slaves who pooled their resources to ensure decent entombment and commemoration. Most slaves did not have the opportunity to develop a personal relationship with a free person or participate in social networking and were disposed of in mass graves along with "free" people who were destitute. The Augustan poet 6901: 7823: 9340: 8392: 5882: 4420:. In late antiquity, selling off the family's children was viewed in Christian rhetoric as a symptom of moral decay caused by taxation, moneylenders, the government, and prostitution. Sources that moralize from an upper-class perspective about parents selling children may at times be misrepresenting contracts for apprenticeships and labor that were necessary for wage-earning families, especially since many of these were arranged by mothers. 9205:

encouraged to have children with approved male partners. The agricultural writer Columella rewarded especially fecund women with extra time off for a mother of three, and early manumission for a mother of four or more. There is little or no evidence that estate owners bought women for the purpose of “breeding,” since the useful proportion of male to female slaves was constrained by the fewer number of tasks for which women were employed.

7468: 8997:, mildness or mercy, toward those who were slaves by law. But since emotion-based compassion was likewise a response to external conditions, it was not grounds for political action—true freedom was wisdom, and true slavery the lack thereof. By denying that material and institutional conditions for human flourishing mattered, Stoics had no impulse toward abolition and were limited to seeing the institution of slavery as, in the words of 6569:

improve their conditions in the moment. No single picture of the "typical" Roman slave's life emerges from the widely ranging conditions of work performed by slaves and the complex distinctions of legal status that affected the terms of their service, their prospects of manumission, and the degree to which they enjoyed rights if freed. The stratification of free Roman society manifests also in slave society, from penal slaves

8063:

was inflicted on rebellious slaves; Hannibal had crucified an Italian serving as his guide only a few weeks before, and several previous crucifixions by the Carthaginians were known to the Greeks and Romans. The few mentions of what might be construed as Roman crucifixion before that time are more likely to have been archaic punishments such as being bound to a stake and flogged, or being suspended from a tree (perhaps an

5848:. Less savory tasks also fell to public slaves, such as carrying out executions. Some well-qualified public slaves did skilled office work such as accounting and secretarial services: "the greater part of the business of Rome seems to have been conducted through slaves." Often entrusted with managerial roles, they were permitted to earn money for their own use, and they were paid a yearly stipend from the treasury. 7967: 3098:(informal marriage partner) to him or her. Heirs might choose to complicate testamentary manumission, as a common condition was that the slave had to buy his freedom from the heir, and a slave still fulfilling the condition of his freedom could be sold. If there was no rightful heir, a master might not only free the slave but make him the heir. A formal manumission could not be revoked by the patron, and 8198: 2785:, there is more evidence that the formation of family units, though not recognized as such for purposes of law and inheritance, was supported within larger urban households and on rural estates. Roman jurists who weigh in on actions that might break up slave families generally favored keeping them together, and protections for them appear several times in the compendium of Roman law known as the 6503:, Jews, and Syrians were by nature more susceptible to living as slaves. Asia Minor was such an important source of slaves that the typical slave was stereotyped as a Cappadocian or Phrygian. In practice, Jews were "both slaves and slaveholders. They were the slaves of Jews and non-Jews and owned both Jewish and non-Jewish slaves” throughout the Classical period. Historian of Christianity 5515: 5065:, a dealer in bodies. Slave-traders had a reputation for dishonesty and deceptive practices, but most of the moral judgments are about defrauding customers rather than the welfare of the slaves. While the senatorial class disdained commerce in general as sordid, rhetoric reviling slave-traders in particular is found widely in Latin literature. Although slaves play leading roles in the 7208:, which broke out among rural workers, was the master's refusal to accept responsibility for providing clothing. When the enslaved herdsmen came asking, the master, Damophilos, told them to get their own clothes, so they did—by banding together to raid small farms and waylay travelers. When violence escalated to full-scale insurrection, Damophilos was among the first to be killed. 6085:

had control of their income and more freedom to make decisions about their living arrangements. Their lack of legal standing arose from the kind of work they did—perceived as a morally suspect manipulation of and simultaneous surrender to others' desires for pleasure—not the fact that they worked alongside slaves, since that would be true of nearly all forms of labor in Rome.

3707:("Captives", ca. 200 BC). The cultural assumption that enslavement was a natural result of defeat in war is reflected in the ubiquity of Imperial art depicting captives, an image that appears not only in public contexts that serve overt purposes of propaganda and triumphalism but also on objects that seem intended for household and personal display, such as figurines, lamps, 6516:

perpetual state of unease, not necessarily able to anticipate when the next act of cruelty or degradation would come yet certain it would." Many if not most slaves could expect to be subjected to relentless labor; corporal punishment or physical abuse in varying degrees of severity; sexual exploitation; or the caprices of owners in selling or threatening to sell them.

4547:

holding them, and permanent enslavement was thus considered an appropriate consequence. Self-sale by a Roman soldier would be a form of desertion, and execution was the penalty. Romans enslaved as prisoners of war were similarly deemed ineligible to have their citizenship restored if they had surrendered their liberty without fighting hard enough to keep it (see the

7585:, who was killed by one of his household slaves (all 400 were executed), and Larcius Maceo, a praetor who was murdered in his private bath, occasioned panic among slaveholders but failed to catch fire as the Sicilian rebellions had. None of the sporadic attempts at rebellion over the next centuries encompassed nearly as much territory as that led by Spartacus. 9045:

manager will not refrain from exploiting slave labor in the mines. It is not shameful, however, to earn income from property, and that includes slaves if they are employing their skills or arts in ways that are appropriate to them and do not require "excessive toil" from anyone. The recovery of Philodemus's work is still ongoing, as a major source is the

8905:, a hardening of the heart. The many, sometimes inadvertent acknowledgments of the slave's humanity in Roman literature and law; the individual expressions of esteem or affection toward a slave by an owner; and pleas for the humanitarian treatment of slaves particularly among Stoics all produce a dissonance within a moral framework largely dependent on 8105:, will be carried to the site of execution, probably by the slave to be executed, who will also be scourged before affixed to it. Advertisements for gladiatorial games sometimes promoted crucifixions as part of the spectacle, presumably as a prelude to beast-baiting or burning at the stake, since it was a notoriously slow and "static" way to die. 5963:(translated loosely as "agent")—who might be the business owner's slave, another person's slave, a freedman, or a freeborn person such as his son—could operate a branch business in the provinces on behalf of a business owner living in Italy, or in Italy on behalf of a provincial owner. Other managerial positions regularly held by slaves were 4543:) at the time of sale when the trafficked person himself did not. Fraud could also be alleged if the person sold had been under the age of twenty. Legal argumentation makes it clear that protecting the buyer's investment was a priority, but if either of these circumstances was proved, the liberty of the enslaved person could be reclaimed. 79:, by law they could be subjected to corporal punishment, sexual exploitation, torture, and summary execution. The most brutal forms of punishment were reserved for slaves. The adequacy of their diet, shelter, clothing, and healthcare was dependent on their perceived utility to owners whose impulses might be cruel or situationally humane. 17305:

of Augustus is without foundation. Brunt himself suggests that there were about 3 million slaves out of a total population in Italy of about 7.5 million at this date, but he readily concedes that this is no more than a guess. As Lo Cascio has cogently noted, that guess in effect is a product of Brunt's low estimate of the free population

7763:

punishment, Augustus ordered the boy set free, the rest of the crystal smashed, and the lamprey pond backfilled. Vedius, who became a "stock villain" in Latin literature, fell so out of favor for this and other more political reasons that Augustus eventually razed his entire villa. Seneca bookends his moral criticism of Vedius in

8823:. The majority of slaves suffered in grinding toil but are mostly silent and undifferentiated in ancient sources, while the freedmen and imperial slaves who enjoyed social mobility are represented because of their success: "the ideology of slaveowning had been successfully transmitted to those who had once been its victims." 6592:(cruel slave mistress) emerges from Roman literature as the woman who flies into a rage at her handmaids' minor faults, stabbing them with pins or biting them and then punishing them with a beating. But Cicero was concerned that his grief over the death of Sositheus, a companionable young slave who had served him as a reader 2612:, and a married woman's slaves could act as her agents independently of her husband. Despite structural symmetries, the distinction between the father's governance of his children and of his slaves is put bluntly by Cicero: the master can expect his children to obey him readily but will need to "coerce and break his slave." 6635:, which presumably gave advice to the trade on assessing slave fitness and possibly their care, since health defects could invalidate a sale. Ongoing care would have depended on the utility of keeping workers healthy to maximize productivity, and at times on the owner's humane impulses or attachment to a particular slave. 4937:(301 AD), a maximum price for skilled slaves aged 16–40 is fixed as up to double that of an unskilled slave, which was the equivalent of 3 tons of wheat for a male and 2.5 for a female. Actual pricing would differ by time and place. Evidence for real prices is rare and known mostly from papyri documents preserved in 2469:, “slaves of the enemy.” A ransom could be paid to redeem a captive individually or as a group; an individual ransomed by someone outside his family was required to pay back the money before his full rights could be restored, and although he was a freeborn person, his status was ambiguous until the lien was lifted. 9131:, a Christian monk writing polemic for Christian slaveowners in Gaul around AD 440, wrote that kindly treatment could be a more effective way of obtaining obedience than physical punishment, but he still regarded slaves as ‘wicked and worthy of our contempt’, and he never imagined a social system without slavery. 3080:; a Roman citizen declared the slave free, the owner did not contest it, the citizen touched the slave with a staff and pronounced a formula, and the magistrate confirmed it. The owner might also free the slave simply by having him entered in the official roll of citizens during census-taking; on principle, the 3146:, manumission within a church, in AD 316 and 323, though the law was not put into effect in Africa till AD 401. Churches were allowed to manumit slaves among their membership, and clergy could free their own slaves by simple declaration without filing documents or the presence of witnesses. Laws such as the 3472:). A few scholars have suggested that freeborn people selling themselves into slavery was a more frequent occurrence than literary sources alone would indicate. The relative proportion of these causes of enslavement within the slave population is hard to determine and remains a subject of scholarly debate. 4530:

represented in Roman literature, presumably because they were shameful and against the law. The limited evidence is primarily to be found in Imperial legal sources, which indicate that “self-sale” as a path to enslavement was as well recognized as being captured in war or being born to an enslaved mother.

6543:, a destination about 1,500 miles from her home. The conditions experienced by the hundreds of thousands traded in Roman antiquity have been described as "personal degradation and humiliation, cultural disorientation, material deprivation, severance of familial bonds, emotional and psychological trauma." 6151:, who might start selling sex under economic duress and be self-employed. A few freedwomen who were former prostitutes amassed enough wealth to become public benefactors, but most enslaved brothel workers are likely to have received little or no payment for their own use. Male prostitutes also existed. 5695:, slaves as a legal penalty. Their status under the law differed from that of other slaves; they could not buy their freedom, be sold, or be set free. They were expected to live and often die in the mines. In the later Empire, the permanence of their status was indicated by a tattooing of the forehead. 7944:, Greek slaves who had been tattooed ask the god to remove their markings, and in some cases thank him for doing so. Less miraculous means might also be sought, as various sources record medical procedures for removing stigmata, mostly herbal applications for which complete success was not guaranteed. 18028:

Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," p. 344, noting Cicero's tactful if condescending dismissal that "professions such as medicine, architecture, and teaching of the liberal arts which either involve higher learning or are utilitarian to no small degree are honorable for those whose social

9568:

put wives in a subordinate position; from the time of Augustus, a married woman remained under her own father's power, granting a female Roman citizen an unusual degree of independence from her husband relative to many other ancient societies. In the event of divorce, wealth the wife brought into the

9311:

Slaves appear widely in genres of Roman literature written mostly by or for the elite, including history, letters, drama, satire, and prose narrative. These expressions may have served to navigate master-slave relationships in terms of slaves' behavior and punishment. Literary examples often focus on

8179:

Roman law recognized that slaves might be driven to suicidal despair. A suicide attempt was one of the pieces of information about a slave that had to be disclosed on a bill of sale, indicating that such attempts occurred often enough to be of concern. However, the law did not always regard slaves as

8062:

meted out specifically to slaves, traitors, and bandits. Crucifixion is rarely mentioned among the Greeks, and the Romans said that they had learned the technique from the Carthaginians during the Punic Wars. The earliest crucifixion among the Romans definitively described as such dates to 217 BC and

7987:. Some were found still on the necks of human skeletons or with remains, suggesting that the collars might be worn for life and not just as a temporary ID tag; others seem to have been removed, lost, or discarded. In circumference, they are about the same size as Roman neck shackles (see relief under 7974:

What appears to be a distinctly Roman practice is the riveting of a "humiliating" metal collar around the former fugitive's neck. Because of the role the hope of manumission played in motivating the industry of slaves, the Romans may have preferred removable collars to permanent disfigurement, or for

7947:

The evidence for Roman branding of slaves is less certain. The methodical tortures to which slaves were subjected juridically included the application of hot metal plates or rods, which would leave marks that could be seen as brands, since the branding of herd animals is known in the Roman world. The

7785:

exceeded community standards of cruelty, but the office was often left vacant or manipulated toward other ideological ends, and there is little or no evidence that the censors would rebuke others of their class for the abuse of slaves. Unless the excessive cruelty had been blatantly public, there was

7536:

Spartacus's plan seems to have been to head to northern Italy, where the men could disperse and head to their countries of origin, free; but the Gauls were keen on plundering first and spent weeks ravaging southern Italy, giving the Romans a more urgent reason and time to make up for their "tardy and

7344:. Diodorus gives the total number of slaves participating in the first rebellion as 200,000 (elsewhere, the figure is given as 60,000–70,000), and 40,000 in the second. While these large round numbers in ancient sources seem inflated, their significance here lies in indicating the scope of rebellion. 6285:

The percentage of the population of Italy who were slaves by the end of the 1st century BC is estimated at about 20% to 30% of Italy's population, upwards of one to two million slaves. One study estimated that for the empire as a whole during the period 260–425 AD, the slave population was just under

3050:

Scholars have differed on the rate of manumission. Manual laborers treated as chattel were least likely to be manumitted; skilled or highly educated urban slaves most likely. The hope was always greater than the reality, though it may have motivated some slaves to work harder and conform to the ideal

19413:

33:3 (2016), pp. 362-400, citing the 2013 production as an example of the "heavily revised version … has become canonical" (p. 398) and describing it as "no longer … an exploration of musical national diversity" but nationalist (p. 399) and devoid of the ethnic diversity of Spartacus's followers as

17304:

Recent studies of Italian demography have further increased doubts about a rapid expansion of the peninsula's servile population in this era. No direct evidence exists for the number of slaves in Italy at any time. Brunt has little trouble showing that Beloch's estimate of 2 million during the reign

9369:

Trickster slaves are more numerous and often use their masters' unfortunate situation to create a "topsy-turvy" world in which they are the masters and their masters are subservient to them. The master will often ask the slave for a favor and the slave only complies once the master has made it clear

9219:

Despite the controls and restrictions placed on a slave's sexuality, Roman art and literature often perversely portray slaves as lascivious, voyeuristic, and sexually knowing, indicating a deep ambivalence about master-slave relations. Roman art connoisseurs did not shy away from displaying explicit

9204:

A slave's own expressions of sexuality were closely controlled. An estate owner usually restricted the heterosexual activities of his male slaves to females he also owned; any children born from these unions added to his wealth. Because home-reared slaves were valued, female slaves on an estate were

8834:

were being formulated, murder was regarded as a pollution of the community that had to be expiated. Killing an individual was sanctioned when doing so removed a threat from the community, as in war and for capital punishment; homicide was not a statutory offense under Roman law until 80 BC. "'Life',

8498:

is mostly a modern fantasy arising from the presence of prostitutes at temples and festivals, either as members of the participating community or peripherally plying their trade where potential customers would congregate. Temple slaves were not traded as chattel, and the Romans, given their instinct

8167:

Such an act could be considered honorable or rational in antiquity, and a slave might commit suicide for the same reasons a free person would, such as an agonizing health condition, religious fanaticism, or mental health crisis. But suicide among the enslaved might also be the ultimate way to resist

7793:

was deportation and confiscation of property, but a slave was put to death. The liberty of a Roman citizen, by contrast, was defined by freedom from physical coercion and by the judicial right of appeal after receiving a capital sentence. This definition holds into the early Imperial era as a common

7699:

himself is among the spectators, and the emperor pardons both Androclus and the lion, who are thereafter spotted strolling freely about the city as companions. Gellius sketches the story within the specific framework of a Roman slave's experience: desperation, escape, capture and punishment, and the

7580:

Though they failed, the Servile Wars left Romans with a deep-seated fear of slave uprisings that resulted in stricter laws regulating the keeping of slaves and harsher measures and punishments to keep enslaved people under control. In AD 10, the senate decreed that if a master was killed by one or a

7174:

Domestic slaves who would be visible to the family and their guests were given garments that met their owners’ standards for pleasing appearance and quality. Presentability was desired for slaves who served as personal attendants. Slaves wore few accessories but were themselves an extension of their

7130:

was clothing of lesser quality that lacked distinguishing features—slaves did not wear clothing meant to identify them as such. The clothing of slaves was determined primarily by the kind of work they did and secondarily by the wealth of the household they belonged to. Most working slaves would have

6779:, part of the household from birth or childhood, and as Cicero's trusted secretary, he would have been afforded better living and working conditions than most slaves. He was freed before his master's death and was successful enough to retire on his own country estate, where he died at the age of 99. 6646:

Pliny himself had sent his slave Zosimus, for whom he expresses his affection and esteem at length, to Egypt to seek therapy for a lung disease that had him coughing up blood. Zosimus was restored to health and at some point was manumitted, but the symptoms later returned. Pliny then wrote to ask if

6607:

in turn records an anecdote about Plutarch that exemplifies what slaveholders meant by restraint and moderate behavior. Plutarch owned a slave who had a philosophical education, despite or because of which he had developed a rebellious character. When Plutarch “for some offense or other” ordered him

6568:

At the same time, despite this "natal alienation," slaves could not have been completely deprived by their masters of agency in carrying out everyday actions; even if the ongoing negotiation of power was grossly asymmetrical, as human beings slaves would have sought emotional connections and ways to

6158:

banned the sale of slaves to pimps or gladiator managers "without cause," indicating that prostitution and violence in the arena were considered beyond the pale of standard servitude. Legislation under Christian emperors likewise forbade masters to employ slaves as stage actors against their will or

5751:

Not all mining labor was unfree, as indicated for example by an employment contract dating to AD 164. The employee agrees to provide "healthy and vigorous labor" at a gold mine for wages of 70 denarii and a term of service from May to November; if he chooses to quit before that time, 5 sesterces for

4529:

The liberty of the Roman citizen was an "inviolable" principle of Roman law, and therefore it was illegal for a freeborn person to sell himself—in theory. In practice, self-enslavement might be overlooked unless one of the parties took issue with the terms of the contract. "Self-sales" are not well

4404:

meant that there was no legal penalty for the parent as seller. The sales contract itself was always technically void because of the traded child's free status, which if unknown to the buyer entitled him to a refund. Even if the sale had not been contracted as temporary, parents who came into better

4244:

However, slave traffickers would have preyed on neglected children who were old enough to be out and about on their own, enticing them with "sweets, cakes, and toys". Child slaves obtained in this way were especially in danger of being reared as prostitutes or gladiators or even being maimed to make

3745:

usually encouraged buying back enslaved Jews, but advised that “one should not ransom captives for more than their value, for the good order of the world” because inflated ransoms would only “motivate Romans to enslave even more Jews”. In the early Church, ransoming captives was considered a work of

62:

played an important role in society and the economy. Unskilled or low-skill slaves labored in the fields, mines, and mills with few opportunities for advancement and little chance of freedom. Skilled and educated slaves—including artisans, chefs, domestic staff and personal attendants, entertainers,

9640:

were of an adult son to carry on the family line when there were no heirs. Adoption was a complex legal process involving inheritance rights and concomitant duties to the house and family gods, and not a usual way to bring a young child into a family to nurture; see Neil W. Bernstein, "Adoptees and

9149:

Because slaves were regarded as property under Roman law, the slaveholder had license to use them for sex or to hire them out to service other people. While sexual attitudes differed substantially among the Jewish community, up to the 2nd century AD it was still assumed that male slaveholders would

9044:

Philodemus proposes that slaves should receive moral instruction, recognizing them as capable of learning and of acting as moral agents. A good property manager should show mildness of character, sensitivity, philanthropy, and decency towards slaves and all subordinates, whereas the wealth-obsessed

7920:

when Encolpius and Giton fake tattooing as an absurd form of disguise. Tattooing slaves with text to mark them as previous fugitives is most abundantly attested among the Greeks, and there is "no direct evidence for what was inscribed on runaways' foreheads in Rome," though criminals generally were

7762:

pond to be fed upon. The boy wriggled away and threw himself at Augustus's feet, begging to be killed rather than eaten alive—apparently aware that the lamprey "clamps its mouth on the victim and bores a dentated tongue into the flesh to ingest blood". Taken aback by the sheer novelty of this cruel

6602:

writes approvingly that Cato bought slaves for their robust utility and never paid extra for mere good looks; but he finds fault with Cato for using his slaves like "beasts of burden" and then selling them off when they started to age "instead of feeding them when they were useless"—the implication

6084:

had few legal protections even if they were Roman citizens who were not subject to being traded as slaves. They were liable to corporal punishment of the kinds usually reserved for slaves. Their daily life probably differed little from that of a slave within the same area of employment, though they

5707:

or higher and were most of the populace—in ways that would have been intolerable during the Republic. Slaves could also end up in the mines as punishment, and even in the mines were subject to harsher discipline than the formerly free convicts. Women could be sentenced to lighter work at the mines.

4582:

has argued that "Rome had a functioning labor market and a unified labor force" in which slavery played an integral role. Since wages could be earned by both free and some enslaved workers, and fluctuated in response to labor shortages, the condition of mobility required for market dynamism was met

4156:

Typically on a farm, children start helping out with age-appropriate tasks quite early. Ancient sources that mention very young children born into rural slavery have them feeding and tending chickens or other poultry, picking up sticks, learning how to weed, gathering apples, and minding the farm's

3722:

has a long history in human trafficking. The primary goal of kidnapping was not enslavement but maximizing profit, as the relatives of captives were expected to pay ransom. People who cared about getting the captive back were motivated to pay more than a stranger would if the captive were auctioned

2893:

came from the slave's own savings, including profits set aside from what was owed to the master as a result of sales or business transactions conducted by the slave, and anything given to a slave by a third party for "meritorious services". The slave's own earnings could also be the original source

128:

Moral discourse on slavery was concerned with the treatment of slaves, and abolitionist views were almost nonexistent. Inscriptions set up by slaves and freedpersons and the art and decoration of their houses offer glimpses of how they saw themselves. A few writers and philosophers of the Roman era

9292:

No laws prohibited a Roman from exploiting slaves he owned for sex, but he was not entitled to compel any enslaved person he chose to have sex; doing so might be regarded as a form of theft, since the owner retained the right to his property. If a free man did force himself on someone else's slave

9172:

for sex were criticized if this use became known as indiscreet or excessive. Social censure was not so much indignation at the owner's abuse of the slave as disdain for his lack of self-mastery. It reflected poorly on an upper-class male to resort sexually to a female slave of his household, but a

8558:

Numerous Mithraic inscriptions from the reaches of the empire record the names of both privately held slaves and imperial slaves, and even one Pylades in Roman Gaul who was the slave of an imperial slave. Mithraic cult, which valued submission to authority and promotion through a hierarchy, was in

7636:

In a society where slavery was not based on race, a slave who escaped could hope to blend in and go unnoticed among the free. One of Cicero's slaves on his literary staff, named Dionysius, ran away and took several books with him. Although the eventual fate of this Dionysius is unknown, two years

6730:

and left a fortune of 800,000. There were also free itinerant doctors who could be hired to provide care to households that lacked the means or desire to have a full-time medical attendant. Some slaves might assist with healthcare as nurses, midwives, medics, or orderlies. During the Imperial era,

6472:

However, Greek and Roman ethnographers did attribute a set of characteristics to peoples based on their understanding, or misunderstanding, of cultural customs that differed from their own, and on where a people lived, believing that climate and environmental factors affected temperament. Place of

5230:

service, and manual labor such as mining. Both free and enslaved labor was employed for nearly all forms of work, though the proportion of free workers to slaves might vary by task and at different time periods. Legal texts state that slaves' skills were to be protected from misuse; examples given

4932:

were most often bought cheap for everyday tasks or labor, but some were thought of as a kind of luxury good and brought high prices, if they possessed a sought-after, specialized skill or a special quality such as beauty. Most of the slaves traded on the market were in their teens and twenties. In

2271:

put a stop to creditors enslaving a defaulting debtor as a private action, though a debtor could still be compelled by a legal judgment to work off his debt. Otherwise, the only means of enslaving a freeborn citizen that the Romans of the Republican era recognized as lawful was military defeat and

70:

At all levels of employment, free working people, former slaves, and the enslaved mostly did the same kinds of jobs. Elite Romans whose wealth came from property ownership saw little difference between slavery and a dependence on earning wages from labor. Slaves were themselves considered property

63:

business managers, accountants and bankers, educators at all levels, secretaries and librarians, civil servants, and physicians—occupied a more privileged tier of servitude and could hope to obtain freedom through one of several well-defined paths with protections under the law. The possibility of

7740:

observed slaves being kicked, beaten with fists, and having their teeth knocked out or their eyes gouged out, witnessing the impromptu blinding of one slave by means of a reed pen. Galen himself had been taught not to strike a slave with his hand but always to use a reed whip or strap. The future

7454:

had a string of early successes against Roman troops as the number of rebels grew to "immense proportions". Unlike the first rebellion, however, they were unable to hold towns or maintain supply lines, and seem to have lacked the long-term strategic objectives of Eunus; the less focused, at times

6587:

set up by slaves and freedmen preserve only glimpses of how they saw themselves. Elite literature indicates that how a Roman treated a slave was viewed as evidence of the master's character. Although the judicial torture of slaves was standard practice, a zeal for torture, particularly of a slave

6119:

In the Late Republic, about half the gladiators who fought in Roman arenas were slaves, though the most skilled were often free volunteers. Freeborn gladiators erased the distinction between citizen and slave by taking an oath to subject their bodies to physical abuse, including being branded and

4992:

of twelve months. Roman jurists closely parsed what might constitute a defect—not, for instance, missing teeth, since perfectly healthy infants, it was reasoned, lack teeth. Slaves who were sold for a single price as a functional unit, such as a theatre troupe, could be returned as a group if one

109:

In antiquity, slavery was seen as the political consequence of one group dominating another, and people of any race, ethnicity, or place of origin might become slaves, including freeborn Romans. Slavery was practiced within all communities of the Roman Empire, including among Jews and Christians.

9365:

or slaves make up the majority of the stock characters, and generally fall into two basic categories: loyal slaves and tricksters. Loyal slaves often help their master in their plan to woo or obtain a lover—the most popular driver of plot in Roman comedy. Slaves are often dim, timid, and worried

8990:

affirmation of universal human dignity extended to slaves and women. Cicero, who had some Stoic inclinations, did not think that slaves were by nature inferior. Because human dignity was inherent, it could not be affected by external circumstances such as enslavement or poverty. The individual's

7548:

Spartacus headed south, hoping to cross to Sicily and "resuscitate the embers" of the slave rebellion three decades earlier; instead, the pirates who had accepted payment for transport set sail without him. After some weeks of increasingly successful fighting, Crassus obtained a victory in which

5747:

in Rome, a punishment formerly reserved for slaves, and to the new state-owned factories that made clothing for the military and imperial household. The Imperial novelty of sentencing free people to hard labor may have compensated for a declining supply of war captives to enslave, though ancient

5698:

Convicts numbering in the tens of thousands were condemned to the notoriously brutal conditions of enslavement in the mines and quarries. Christians felt that their community was particularly subject to this penalty. The condemnation of free inhabitants of the Empire to conditions of slavery was

4291:

A healthy exposed infant might be taken in for fosterage or adoption by a family, but even this practice could treat the child as an investment: if the birth family later wished to reclaim their offspring, they were entitled to do so but had to reimburse expenses for nurturance. Traffickers also

4201:

in Greek), and in art, as slaves were often depicted as smaller in proportion to free subjects to show their lesser status, and children older than infants and toddlers often look like small adults in art. Since as a matter of Roman law, a father had the right to contract out all dependents of a

19176:

Some scholars question whether Sicilian grain production or ranching was extensive enough at this time to sustain such large-scale slaveholding, or the extent to which the rebellions might also have attracted poorer or disadvantaged free persons: Gerald P. Verbrugghe, "Sicily 210-70 B.C.: Livy,

8383:

would put on the apparel of the free women, spend one night in the enemy camp, and send a signal to the Romans about the most advantageous time to launch a counterattack. Although the historicity of the underlying tale may be doubtful, it indicates that the Romans thought they had already had a

7833:

Chaining was a legal penalty imposed with some specificity; chains weighing ten pounds were ordered for the enslaved captives who rebelled in 198 BC. Archaeological evidence of fetters, manacles, and shackles has been found mainly in the northern provinces and only infrequently in Italian villa

6717:

At Rome, medicine was considered an unsuitable occupation for the upper classes because it requires tending to the needs of another's body. Elite households were attended by Greek physicians, either one of great prestige enticed to Rome with privileges and an offer of citizenship, or a staff of

6713:

restricted slaves to practicing medicine only on fellow slaves. Though denied advanced theoretical study, slaves were part of a two-tier system to deliver care to the lower classes, and could receive often extensive training as physicians' assistants, becoming well versed in practical medicine.

5938:

and served similar functions as the public slaves of the Roman state. Municipal public slaves could be freed by their municipal council. Imperial and municipal slaves are better documented than most slaves because their higher status prompted them to identify themselves as such in inscriptions.

5389:

Training programs and apprenticeships are well if briefly documented. Slaves whose ability was noticed might be trained from a young age in trades requiring a high degree of artistry or expertise; for example, an epitaph mourns the premature death of a talented boy, only age 12, who was already

5374:

itself should not be thought of as a "private" home in the modern sense, as business was often conducted there, and even commerce—the first-floor rooms facing the street might be shops used or rented out as commercial spaces. The work done or the goods made and sold by enslaved labor from these

4759:

in Phrygia as ranking second in trade only to Ephesus in the region, observing that it was “the common warehouse for those from Italy and from Greece”—a center for imports from the west, with slaves the most likely commodity for export trade. Markets are also likely to have existed in Syria and

4546:

Since it was difficult to prove who knew what when, the most solid evidence for voluntary enslavement was whether the formerly free person had consented by receiving a share of the proceeds from the sale. A person who knowingly surrendered the rights of Roman citizenship was thought unworthy of

3480:

During the Republican era (509–27 BC), warfare was arguably the greatest source of slaves, and certainly accounted for the marked increase in the number of slaves held by Romans during the Middle and Late Republic. A major battle might result in captives numbering in the hundreds to the tens of

3051:

of the "faithful servant." Dangling liberty as a reward, slaveholders could navigate the moral issues of enslaving people through placing the burden of merit on slaves—"good" slaves deserved freedom, and others did not. Manumission after a period of service may have been a negotiated outcome of

2941:

Slaves with the skills and opportunities to earn money might hope to save enough to buy their freedom. There was a risk to the still-enslaved person that the master would renege and take back the earnings, but one of the expanded protections for slaves in the Imperial era was that a manumission

5122:

Slaves were also sold widely by people who made their main living in other ways and by merchants dealing primarily in other goods. In late antiquity, itinerant Galatians protected by powerful patrons become prominent in the North African trade. Although elite owners generally acquired slaves

5080:

that lobbied for legislation and perhaps also for the purpose of raising investment capital. Most of those known by name are Roman citizens; of these, most are freedmen. Only a few slave-traders receive prominent mention by name in literature; one Toranius Flaccus was considered a witty dinner

7608:

Slave-catching was an unusually intensive police activity in that it involved coordination among all four forms of policing in the Roman Empire, which otherwise operated more or less independently: civilian or private security forces; the imperial guard; troops under the command of provincial

6289:

Slaves (especially foreigners) had higher mortality rates and lower birth rates than natives and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions. The average recorded age at death for the slaves of the city of Rome was extraordinarily low: seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for

3458:: in the ancient Roman world, people might become enslaved as a result of warfare, piracy and kidnapping, or child abandonment—the fear of falling into slavery, expressed frequently in Roman literature, was not just rhetorical exaggeration. A significant number of the enslaved population were 6515:

The "gross power differential" inherent in slavery is not peculiar to Rome, but as a universal characteristic of the institution, it defines Roman practice as it does that of other slave cultures: "slaves stood powerless before their masters' or mistresses' whims and presumably remained in a

4968:

hung from the neck or called out by the auctioneer. The slave being auctioned might be placed on a stand for viewing. Prospective buyers could feel the slave, have them move or jump, or ask for them to be undressed to make sure the dealer wasn't concealing a physical defect. The wearing of a

9288:

that prohibited the employment of the slave as a prostitute. The restriction remained in force for the term of enslavement and throughout subsequent sales, and if it was violated, the illegally prostituted slave was granted freedom, regardless of whether the buyer had known the covenant was

6608:

stripped and whipped, instead of screaming the slave began to shout that to act in anger in such a way was shameful for someone with philosophical pretensions. Plutarch simply replied, with utter composure, that he wasn't angry; they could continue their discussion along with the lashes. In

2792:

Among the laws Augustus issued pertaining to marriage and sexual morality was one permitting legal marriage between a freedwoman and a freeborn man of any rank below the senatorial, and legitimizing their heirs. A master could free a slave for the purpose of marrying her, becoming both her

2305:

the following year, Hannibal again stipulated a redemption of captives, but the senate after debate again voted not to pay, preferring to send a message that soldiers should fight to victory or die. Hannibal then sold these prisoners of war to the Greeks, and they remained slaves until the

7154:, the handmaids wear ankle boots, and ancillary hairstyles are simpler than those of the centrally depicted mistress. Female slaves tucked in the loose fabric of their tunics under the bust and shaped the sleeves with belting to give themselves more freedom of movement for their tasks. An 3348:, are thought to have been freedmen. Building impressive tombs and monuments for themselves and their families was another way for freedmen to demonstrate their achievements. Despite their wealth and influence, they might still be looked down on by the traditional aristocracy as a vulgar 3036:, a young woman in her reproductive years seems to have had the greatest chance for manumission, allowing her to marry and bear legitimate, free children, though in general women might not have expected manumission until their reproductive years had passed. A slave who had a large enough 3734:. As the story came to be told, Caesar insisted that they raise it to fifty. He spent thirty-eight days in captivity as they waited for the ransom to be delivered. Upon release, he is said to have returned and subjected his captors to the form of execution by custom reserved for slaves, 2801:, which required the intention of only one of the partners. But when marriage had been a condition of the freedwoman's manumission agreement, she lacked these rights. If she wanted to divorce her patron and marry someone else, she had to obtain his consent; provide evidence that he was 9028:, something inseparable from a person's nature. But Epicureans never advocated for abolition, and again like the Stoics and other philosophical schools, they spoke of slavery most often as a metaphor, specifically the moral state of "enslavement" to custom or other psychological ills. 8328:, the cap of freedom, as did free citizens, who normally went about bareheaded. Some ancient sources suggest that master and slave dined together, while others indicate that the slaves feasted first, or that the masters actually served the food. The practice may have varied over time. 4222:

Scholarly views vary on the extent to which child abandonment in its several forms was a significant source for potential slaves. The children of poor citizens who were left orphaned were vulnerable to enslavement, and at least some children brought into a household to be fostered as

9104:), and the "faithful parabolic slave" is rewarded with greater responsibilities, not manumission. Slaves are portrayed in roles that are typical of Roman culture—agricultural workers, financial agents, household stewards, and overseers—as well as "a body awaiting discipline." In the 7239:

tells the story of how one Pupius Piso, having ordered his slave not to speak unless spoken to, waited in embarrassment and in vain for the guest of honor to arrive at his dinner party. The slave had received the guest's regrets, but the master didn't ask him to speak, so he didn't.

7211:

At one point, the Roman senate debated whether to require slaves to wear a sort of uniform to distinguish them as such, but eventually decided that was a bad idea: it would make the enslaved more conscious of having a group identity, and they would see how strong their numbers were.

4566:

During the period of Roman imperial expansion, the increase in wealth amongst the Roman elite and the substantial growth of slavery transformed the economy. Multitudes of slaves were brought to Italy and purchased by wealthy landowners to labour on their estates. Land investment and

4520:

was abolished as a way to secure a loan, a form of debt bondage might still result after a debtor defaulted. It remained illegal to enslave a free person for this reason or to pledge a minor to secure a parent's debt, and the legal penalties attached to the creditor, not the debtor.

4295:

Infant exposure as a source of slaves also assumes predictable sites where traders could expect a regular "harvest"; successful births would be most concentrated in urban environments, and likely sites for infant depositories are temples and other religious sites such as the obscure

2745:

and "upwardly mobile" slaves who held privileged positions might form a heterosexual union with a partner that was intended to be lasting or permanent, within which children might be reared. Such a union, either arranged or approved and recognized by the slave's owner, was called

4606:

referred to as "the regular, daily traffic in slaves" involved every part of the Roman Empire and occurred across borders as well. The trade was only lightly regulated by law. Slave markets seem to have existed in most cities of the Empire, but outside Rome the largest center was

8272:

see the feast as a way to manipulate obedience, indicating that physical compulsion was not the only technique for domination; social theory suggests that the communal meal also promotes household cohesion and norms by articulating the hierarchy through its temporary subversion.

4806:

An example of small perforated copper-alloy figurines (2nd–3rd century AD) depicting captives, found scattered widely in Britain and along the Rhine-Danube Roman frontier; they are thought to be connected to slave-trading, but their possible use or significance remains a mystery

7197:) every other year, and would have to turn in the old outfit so it could be recycled for patchwork. The fragility of textiles makes them rare in the archaeological record, but a store of regularly cut pieces measuring about 10 by 15 centimeters from Roman Egypt, found at the 2823:, as a matter of law Roman slaves could not own property. However, they could be allowed to hold and manage property, which they could use as if it were their own, even though it ultimately belonged to their master. A fund or property set aside for a slave's use was called a 7682:, who had him beaten unjustly every day. Driven to escape, he seeks solitude in the wilderness, resigned to death by starvation, which would at least bring him peace. When he comes upon a lion nursing its wounded paw, he removes the thorn causing pain, thereby becoming a 5670:

Prison sentences for citizens were not a part of the Roman criminal justice system; jails were meant for holding prisoners transitionally. Instead, in the Imperial era the convicted would be sentenced to hard labor and sent to camps where they would be put to work in the

5555:

The ratio of male slaves to female on a farm was likely to be even more disproportionate than in a household (perhaps as high as 80 percent). The relatively few women would spin and weave wool, make clothes, and work in the kitchen. The slaves on a farm were managed by a

5339:—were sometimes superior to those of many free urban poor in Rome, though even in the grandest houses, they would have lived "packed in to basement rooms and odd crannies." Still, household slaves likely enjoyed the highest standard of living among Roman slaves, next to 7435:, had been holding hearings and releasing the enslaved in numbers great enough to offend the privilege of the slaveholding landowners, who pressured him to desist—whereupon the slaves revolted. The rebellion started in two households and soon encompassed 22,000 slaves. 4502:

who was a handsome, upstanding youth suffered sexual harassment by the holder of the debt. The cautionary tale highlighted the incongruities of subjecting one free citizen to another's use, and the legal response was aimed at establishing the citizen's right to liberty

2220:

in 396 BC. Defensive wars also drained manpower for agriculture, increasing the demand for labor—a demand that could be met by the availability of war captives. From the sixth through the third centuries BC, Rome gradually became a “slave society,” with the first two

7175:

masters’ accessories. Because Roman clothing lacked structured pockets, the slaves who always accompanied the well-to-do on excursions carried anything needed. They might hold parasols or wield fans to shield the privileged from the heat. They went with them to the

7725:

As the Romans increased the numbers of slaves they held, their fear of them grew, as did the severity of discipline. Cato the Elder whipped the household slaves for even small mistakes and kept his enslaved agricultural workers in chains during the winter. In the

7458:

Eunus and Salvius each had held a privileged place in his household when enslaved; both Eunus and Athenion are noted as having been born into freedom. These experiences may have enhanced their ability to lead through articulating a vision of life beyond slavery.

5275:, teacher, secretary, seamstress, accountant, and physician. For large households, job descriptions indicate a high degree of specialization: handmaids might be assigned to the upkeep, storage, and readiness of the mistress's wardrobe or specifically mirrors or 9280:

The significant body of law and legal argumentation pertaining to slavery and prostitution indicates that Romans recognized the moral conflict between their family values and forcing a woman into prostitution. The contract when a slave was sold might include a

5096:

A few slave-traders were comfortable enough with their occupation that they had themselves identified as such in their epitaphs. Others are known from inscriptions recognizing them as benefactors, indicating that they were prosperous and locally prominent. The

2142:, "freedmen who are Roman citizens," indicating that as early as the 5th century BC, former slaves were a significant demographic that the law needed to address, with a legal path to freedom and the opportunity to participate in the legal and political system. 7860:. As a category of property value, the “chained slave” had to be identified as such if sold, and would bring a lower price on the market. As a category of legal status, after the Augustan law that created a class of slaves to be counted permanently among the 7422:

had its roots in the piratical kidnapping that subjected freeborn people to random seizure and enslavement mostly in the eastern Mediterranean. People who had been enslaved illegally in this way had a right to reclaim their freedom under the recently passed

3298:

managed to be elected praetor, his legal acts would remain valid if his true status were discovered, because the Roman people had chosen to entrust him with power. Limitations were placed only on the former slaves themselves and did not apply to their sons.

2858:

served an ethic of self-sufficiency and might motivate slaves to be more productive in ways that ultimately benefitted the slave owner, leading over time to more sophisticated opportunities for business development and wealth management for enslaved people.

14650:

57:4 (1962), p. 170. The policing action of Rhodes has also been seen as a "naval protection racket" that allowed it to exercise control over shipping in the name of suppressing "piracy": Philip de Souza, "Rome's Contribution to the Development of Piracy,"

7074:

Gladiators are sometimes memorialized by what appear to be “stage names,” such as Pardus ("the Leopard") or Smaragdus ("Emerald"). A slave who took a path other than citizen integration might also adopt a new name. The “Salvius” who was the first leader of

2314:

recovered 1,200 men who had survived some twenty years of slavery after Cannae. The war that most dramatically escalated the number of slaves brought into Roman society at the same time had exposed an unprecedented number of Roman citizens to enslavement.

7951:

Slaves who played visible or public roles on behalf of a household, and female slaves in general, were not disfigured with markings. That stigmatized slaves were those who had been marked as irredeemably criminal is indicated by their inclusion among the

5544:

finds it convenient to house slaves next to the cattle or sheep they tend. Roman law was explicit that farm slaves were to be equated with quadrupeds kept in herds. They were far less likely to be manumitted than either skilled urban or household slaves.

5536:) may have lived in more healthful conditions than their urban counterparts in trade and manufacturing. Roman agricultural writers expect that the workforce of a farm will be mostly slaves, who are regarded as speaking versions of the animals they tend. 6851:, would been called by his Greek name Agatho (“the Good”) as a slave. Upon manumission he appended his patron's Latin names, Publius Curtilius, to create his full citizen name. Naturalized citizens followed this same convention, which might result in a 6437:, particularly not race as characterized by skin color, with the caveat that modern definitions of "race" may not align with ancient expressions of the concept. Slaves were drawn from all over Europe and the Mediterranean, including but not limited to 7786:

no process for bringing it to the attention of the authorities—the slave boy targeted by Vedius was saved extrajudicially by the chance presence of an emperor willing to be offended, the only person with the authority to stop what was allowed by law.

7391:. To assure a food supply, they refrained from laying waste to the farms around their strongholds and did not target small farmers. They were militarily capable of mounting direct confrontations with Roman troops, which were brought to bear speedily. 6951:

were popular among the Romans but had not been used among free Greeks for either themselves or their slaves. Several of Cicero's slaves are known by name, mainly from the extensive collection of his letters; those with Greek names include the readers

4826:

were resulting in large lots of new slaves brought to market, and resurge in the 40s and 30s. Archaeology into the 21st century has continued to produce evidence of slave trafficking in parts of the Empire where it had been little attested, such as

4292:

could pick up surviving infants and rear them with training as slaves, but since children under the age of five are unlikely to provide much labor of value, it is unclear how investing the five years of adult labor in nurturing would be profitable.

1668: 10573:(as quoted by Festus p. 244L), because these could evade possession without dishonoring the owner: a horse could bolt, but weapons could only be lost through the failure of their possessor and therefore could not be restored—as explained by Leigh, 10330:

158: 3/4 (2015), pp. 319–322. Some captives from Carrhae and from two later attempts to avenge the defeat may have been restored in 20 BC when Augustus negotiated the return of the standards; see J. M. Alonso-Núñez, “An Augustan World History: The

7813:

In the later Imperial era, the status of "convict" versus "slave" often becomes a distinction without a practical difference as free people of lower social status were increasingly subjected to more severe legal penalties once reserved for slaves.

4366:

entitled fathers to dispose of their dependents as they saw fit. They could sell their children just as they did slaves, though in practice, the father who sold his child was likely too impoverished to own slaves. The father relinquished his power

3883:

might be reared alongside the owner's own child of the same age, even sharing the same wet-nurse. They had greater opportunities for education and might be educated along with the freeborn children of the household. Many "intellectual slaves" were

6806:, adopting Cicero's family name. The use of a single male name in an inscription or legal document is usually taken to indicate that the person was a slave. By the Late Republic, the nomenclature of freeborn Roman men had become normalized as the 3418:—if manumitted were counted as a potential threat to society along with enemies defeated in war, regardless of whether their master's punishments had been justified. If they came within a hundred miles of Rome, they were subject to reenslavement. 7243:

A master might even seek to extend his control over a slave beyond his own death; although wills were a common way to manumit slaves, they sometimes included clauses that expressly prohibited the freeing of certain slaves perceived as unworthy.

6112:. Actors were known to mock politicians from the stage, and there was established law from the 4th century BC and into the late Republic that they could be subjected to physical punishment as slaves were. The comic playwright known in English as 7978:

Some forty-five examples of Roman slave collars have been documented, most found in Rome and central Italy, with three from cities in Roman North Africa. All date from the Christian era of the 4th and 5th centuries, and some have the Christian

7410:. The rebel slaves were able to sustain their movement within the difficult Sicilian environment for four years—eight or more, in some accounts—before Roman forces managed a decisive defeat, primarily by besieging and starving out Tauromenium. 9236:

one of the most egalitarian facilities among men in Roman society. Like slavery, prostitution was a legal way to use a human body other than one's own—and in both cases a use that a free person was to resist absolutely in the name of liberty.

8720:

for a freedperson. This legal status is usually absent for gladiators, who were social outcasts regardless of having been freeborn, manumitted, or enslaved at the time of death; instead they were identified by their fighting specialty such as

7573:, the father of the future emperor Augustus. In 60 BC, Octavius received a commission from the senate to hunt down fugitives who were alleged (emphasis on "alleged") to be the remnants of Spartacus's men and slaves who had been drawn into the 9039:

in which he admonishes masters not to impede their moral progress by directing violence or inhumane or indecent acts against slaves; he attributes violent rebellion among slaves to the injustices perpetrated by their masters. In the treatise

7772:

Such acts of casual sadism are perhaps to be distinguished from the head of household's ancient right to pass sentence on a dependent for perceived wrongdoing, but the slaveholder's right to punish a slave was only weakly limited by law. The

8757:

Although slaves were denied the right to make contracts or conduct other legal matters in their own name, it was possible for a master to allow his slave to make less formal arrangements that functioned like a will. In a letter to a friend,

5279:. Rich households with specialists who might not be needed full-time year round, such as goldsmiths or furniture painters, might lease them out to friends and desirable associates or give them license to run their own shop as part of their 9220:

sexuality in their collections at home, but when figures identifiable as slaves appear in erotic paintings within a domestic scenario, they are either hovering in the background or performing routine peripheral tasks, not engaging in sex.

7509:

historians and creative artists, has captured the popular imagination over the centuries to such an extent that an understanding of the rebellion beyond his tactical victories is hard to retrieve from the various ideologies it has served.

5922:

functions of government, the institution waned in the Imperial era as the emperor's own slaves assumed their administrative roles. Vast numbers of imperial slaves helped drive the large-scale public works of the Roman Empire; for example,

6063:

or disrepute, regardless of whether they were enslaved or technically free. Like slaves, they could not bring a case in court nor have someone represent them; like freedmen, they were not eligible to hold public office. In a legal sense,

4130:

was a child attendant who went to school with the master's children, carrying their things and attending lessons with them. Large households might train their own staff, some even running in-house schools, or send slaves ages 12 to 18 to

8868:

assert that "slaves too are men. The milk they have drunk is just the same even if an evil fate has oppressed them." When the jurists argue for resolution of legal issues in favor of slaves, they draw on a Roman vocabulary of moral duty

4976:

A rare depiction of an auction, on a funeral monument from about the same time as the edict, shows a male slave wearing a loincloth and possibly shackles and standing on a pedestal- or podium-like structure. To the left is an auctioneer

4822:), and have been interpreted as evidence that Pompey's success in shutting down piracy caused an increase in the slave trade in the lower Danube basin to meet demand. The hoards drop off in frequency for the 50s BC, when Julius Caesar's 8796:

Slavery as an institution was practiced within every community of the Greco-Roman world, including Jewish and Christian communities who at times struggled to reconcile the practice within their beliefs. Some Jewish sects, such as the

4253: 2918:—including not only slaves, but adult sons who remained minors by law until their father's death. All wealth belonged to the head of household except for that owned independently by his wife, whose slaves might operate with their own 9370:

that the slave is in charge, beseeching him and calling him lord, sometimes even a god. These slaves are threatened with numerous punishments for their treachery, but always escape the fulfillment of these threats through their wit.

3134:

prohibited the manumission of slaves younger than thirty years of age, with some exceptions. Slaves of the emperor's own household were among those most likely to receive manumission, and the usual legal requirements did not apply.

4033:

In families that had to work, whether technically free or enslaved, children could begin acquiring work habits as early as age five, when they became developmentally capable of carrying out small tasks. The transitional period from

9244:

were such that an adult male was free to enjoy same-sex relations without compromising his perceived virility, but only as an exercise of dominance and not with his adult peers or their underage sons—in effect, he was to limit his

8234:. The observance featured the ceremonial beating of a slave girl by free women, who brought her into the temple and then drove her from it. Slave women were otherwise forbidden from participation. It has been conjectured that this 6262:

Demographic studies of antiquity are plagued by incomplete data requiring extrapolation and conjecture. Conclusions should be understood as relative, and scholars who employ demographic models typically issue caveats. For example:

4312:, who laughs as she sends them off to the great houses of noble families to be quietly reared as their own. Large households staffed wet nurses and other childcare attendants who would share childrearing duties for foster children 2680:

their slaves. Laws in late antiquity discouraging the subjection of Christians to Jewish owners suggest that they were aimed at protecting Christian identity, since Christian households continued to have slaves who were Christian.

6662:

decreed any slave who survived abandonment could not be reclaimed by his owner and was automatically free. Law was also enacted under Claudius that criminalized the killing of a sick or disabled slave as murder even by his owner.

7169:

A dinner party in a wall painting from Pompeii: a small slave in a white tunic (lower left) helps the master with his shoes; the slave in the center offers him a drink; another slave (lower right) supports a vomiting guest who's

6076:

as a legal penalty. Those who displayed themselves to entertain others had surrendered the right of citizens not to subject their body to use: "They lived by providing sex, violence, and laughter for the pleasure of the public."

5787: 5217:

brought into Italy for his direct employment in a wide range of roles, indicating that the Romans saw a difference between obtaining slaves who were to be incorporated into the life of the household and those traded for profit.

9079:

In the Christian scriptures, fair treatment of slaves was enjoined upon owners, and slaves were advised to obey their earthly masters, even if they were unjust, and to obtain freedom lawfully if possible. In the theology of the

2591:

was recognized in Roman law as a form of household-level governance. The head of household was entitled to manage his dependents and to administer ad hoc justice to them with minimal oversight from the state. In early Rome, the

9560:

is not used to express a husband's power over his wife, though summary execution of a wife was considered justifiable under some circumstances, such as adultery or drunkenness, that varied by historical period. In early Rome,

5987:

in particular could expect to become wealthy and be manumitted; their wives were often free. Although these most lucrative financial positions were held most often by male slaves, inscriptions also record women in the role of

4964:, who had jurisdiction over market transactions, had a section aimed at protecting buyers of slaves by requiring any disease or defect to be divulged at time of sale. Information about the slave was either written on a tablet 8818:

The apparent ease of manumission, along with some Roman laws and practices that mitigated slavery, has led some scholars to view Roman slavery as a more benign institution, or at least a more open system, than the race-based

6956:) Sositheus and Dionysius; Pollex, a footman; and Acastus. The slaves and freedmen Cicero mentions by name are most often his secretaries and literary assistants; he rarely refers by name to slaves whose duties were humbler. 6742:, developed his surgical techniques attending to the injuries of enslaved gladiators, and recorded a case study of one gladiator who had suffered a grievous wound to the abdomen but made a complete recovery after a high-risk 3113:, "among friends," with the owner proclaiming a slave's freedom in front of witnesses. During the Republic, informal manumission did not confer citizen status, but Augustus took steps to clarify the status of those so freed. 2487:

law also applied to enemy seizure of mobile property, it was the means by which military-support slaves taken by the enemy were brought back into possession and restored to their former slave status under their Roman owners.

2035:(1st century AD) was nostalgic for a time when "the ancients" lived more intimately in a household with no need for "legions of slaves"—but still imagined this simpler domestic life as supported by the possession of a slave. 9546:

encompassing extensive coercive and proprietary rights" (p. 255). Saller emphasizes throughout that this is a reductively legalistic view that in no way encompasses the full range of emotional and moral relations within the

5139:

During the Republic, the only regular revenue from slaveholding collected by the state was a tax placed on manumissions starting in 357 BC, amounting to 5 percent of the slave's estimated value. In 183 BC, Cato the Elder as

7190:). Columella recommended weather-resistant clothing of leather, patchwork, and “thick shoulder capes” for farm workers. A male farm slave working for the stern and frugal Cato could expect to be issued a tunic and a cloak 4135:, imperially run vocational schools providing skills and refinement. Adolescent slaves as young as 13 might be capably employed in accounting and other office work, as well as serving as heralds, messengers, and couriers. 8608:

habit.” One of the ways that Roman epitaphs differ from those of the Greeks is that the name of the commemorator is typically given along with that of the deceased. Commemorations are found both for slaves and by slaves.

3046:

with whom he had cohabited or a partner in business. Neither age nor length of service was automatic grounds for manumission; "masterly generosity was not the driving force behind the Romans' dealings with their slaves."

9231:

feature prostitutes performing sex acts. Sexual services were cheap enough that urban male slaves, unlike their rural counterparts, could frequent brothels to seek gratification, just as upper-class men did, making the

9008:(died ca. AD 135), spent his youth as a slave. Writing in colloquial Greek, he addressed a broad audience, consonant with the Stoic belief that the pursuit of philosophy should not just be the province of an elite. 4056:, as in most cultures. In general, ten was the age at which child slaves were regarded as useful enough to be traded as such. Among working people of some means, a child slave might be an investment; an example from the 14686:

Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," p. 169, citing Polybius 30,29, 31.7; Livy 33.30; Strabo 10.5.4, and p. 171, noting that "it is evident that Rome had no real understanding of the economic implications of her

6477:) was one of the pieces of information that had to be disclosed at time of sale. Slaves from certain "nations" were thought to perform better at tasks that might be of value to the prospective buyer. The Roman scholar 18853:

Joshel, “Slavery in the Roman World,” pp. 133, 137. The scene may suggest a sequential narrative—changing into party shoes, drinking, the aftermath upon departure—rather than the simultaneous actions of two different

4283:

suckling at the she-wolf. Families who could not afford to raise a child might expose an unwanted infant—usually imagined as abandoning it under outdoor conditions that were likely to cause its death, thus a means of

9200:

for dinner parties, generally boys, were chosen at a young age for their grace and good looks, qualities that were cultivated, sometimes through formal training, to convey sexual allure and potential use by guests.

5239:. Regardless of the status of the worker, labor in the service of another was regarded as a form of submission in the ancient world, and Romans of the governing class regarded wage-earning as equivalent to slavery. 4288:. A serious birth defect was considered grounds for exposure even among the upper classes. One view is that healthy infants who survived exposure were usually enslaved and were even a significant source of slaves. 4074:

Training for skilled work typically started at ages 12 to 14, lasting six months to six years, depending on the occupation. Jobs for which child slaves apprenticed include textile production, metalworking such as

3500:

Warfare continued to produce slaves for Rome throughout the Imperial period, though war captives arguably became less important as a source around the beginning of the 1st century AD, after the major campaigns of

7090:, for example “our Marcus”. In speaking of himself to a person of higher status, a slave might identify by his role in relation to his master's first name; Cicero records a conversation in which a slave owned by 6135:. However, Romans saw prostitution as worse than slavery, since slavery did not inherently or permanently damage the slave's personal morality, and so a woman's contract might include a clause specifying that 2346:

lost at Carrhae motivated military minds for decades, “considerably less official concern was expressed about the liberation of Roman prisoners.” Writing about thirty years after the battle, the Augustan poet

20800:

The text of the inscription is not entirely clear on this point, but references in Plautus make the slave as the bearer of the cross the more likely reading: Cook, "Envisioning Crucifixion," pp. 266–267. The

9208: 2228:

Slavery with the possibility of manumission became so embedded in Roman society that by the 2nd century AD, most free citizens in the city of Rome are likely to have had slaves "somewhere in their ancestry."

6024:

also show privileged slaves acting as estate managers and agents, collecting rent and produce from tenant farmers, or investing money and conducting business on behalf of their master, as well as serving as

6008:

This situation was more than hypothetical; some local laws in the provinces seem aimed at dealing with the legal peculiarities of the relative freedom Romans gave slaves at this operational level. A city in

2929:

enabled both adult sons and capable slaves to manage property, turn a profit, and negotiate contracts. Legal texts do not recognize a fundamental distinction between slaves and sons acting as business agent

2789:. A master who left his rural estate to an heir often included the workforce of slaves, sometimes with express provisions that slave families—father and mother, children, and grandchildren—be kept together. 2189:) under natural law, but since slavery was held to be a universal practice, individual nations would develop their own civil laws pertaining to slaves. In ancient warfare, the victor had the right under the 9312:

extreme cases, such as the crucifixion of hundreds of slaves for the murder of their master, and while such instances are exceptional, the underlying problems must have concerned the authors and audiences.

94:, kidnapping and piracy put freeborn people all around the Mediterranean at risk of illegal enslavement, to which the children of poor families were especially vulnerable. Although a law was passed to ban 8004:, a wage-earning prostitute. The tags are typically inscribed with the owner's name, status, and occupation, and the "address" to which the slave should be returned. The most common instructional text is 7297:

but were again defeated, resulting in the execution of another five hundred. This uprising prompted more policing of the streets and the building of places of confinement. Two years later, it took a full

8640:

The commemoration of slaves often included their job—cook, jeweler, hairdresser—or an emblem of their work such as tools. The funerary relief of the freed silversmith Publius Curtilius Agatho (see under

8086:, reserved for slaves during the Republican era, and the worst punishment that could be inflicted on a slave. Crucifying Roman citizens is one of Cicero's most vehement accusations in the prosecution of 17359:

No contemporary or systematic census of slave numbers is known; in the Empire, under-reporting of male slave numbers would have reduced the tax liabilities attached to their ownership. See Kyle Harper,

6963:

The only known instance of a Roman tombstone representing the deceased with a work of art and not his own portrait: the freedman Titus Octavius Diadumenus was objectified and named for a type of statue

2447:

may be reflected in the similar Jewish distinction between a “captive of a kingdom” and a “captive of banditry,” in what would be a rare example of Roman law influencing the language and formulation of

16430:, writing of those who were subjected to mutilations that reduced their capacity to work and were then sent to the copper mines "not so much for service as for the sake of ill treatment and hardship" ( 5983:, slaves were placed in these roles for the very reason that they lacked independent personhood and legally could act only as an instrument of their master rather than as a third-party representative. 4558:

often resulted in voiding the contract, even if the enslaved person had consented, as a private contract did not override the state's interest in regulating citizenship, which carried tax obligations.

2427:

A Roman enslaved in war under such circumstances lost his citizen rights at home. His right to own property was forfeited, his marriage was dissolved, and if he was head of a household his legal power

16893:

The Representation and Perception of Roman Imperial Power: Proceedings of the Third Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Roman Empire, c. 200 B.C.–A.D. 476), Rome, March 20-23, 2002

7220:

Open rebellion and mass violence arose among the large population of the enslaved only sporadically across the millennium of ancient Roman history. A more persistent form of resistance was escape; as

9020:

admitted enslaved people to their philosophical circles and, like the Stoics, rejected the Aristotelian view that some people were destined by nature to be slaves. In Epicurean terms, slavery was an

1663: 8184:

wrote, “A slave acts to commit suicide when he seeks death out of wickedness or evil ways or because of some crime that he has committed, but not when he is able no longer to bear his bodily pain.”

13789:

48, 855): "Kidnappers often entice little boys by offering them sweets, and cakes, and marbles, and other such things; then they deprive them of their freedom and their very life," in reference to

9542:. … The Roman family was unquestionably patriarchal, in the sense that it was defined with reference to the father, who was endowed with a special authority in the household … a striking 8375:

in 390 BC, the Romans next had suffered a stinging defeat by the Fidenates, who demanded that they hand over their wives and virgin daughters as hostages to secure a peace. A handmaid named either

6832:, a distinguishing last name that originally was earned by an individual but then might be passed down, added to, or replaced. When a slave was manumitted, he was renamed as free by the use of the 9119:) called for good treatment for slaves and condemned slavery, while others supported it. That Christians might be susceptible to accusations of hypocrisy from outside the faith was anticipated in 6159:

to prevent actors from retiring from the theatre. Sexual slavery was forbidden by the Church, and Christianization was a factor in curtailing or altogether ending traditional spectacles and games

2773:

The master had the legal right to break up or sell off family members, and it has sometimes been assumed that they did so arbitrarily. But because of the value Romans placed on home-reared slaves

7110:, “Marcus Perennius's Cerdo”. A standard phrase in sales contracts refers to the slave “named so-and-so, or by whatever name he/she is called”—the slave's name was subject to the master's whim. 6588:

known to be loyal and truthful, was considered contemptible. Masters were expected to be neither gratuitously cruel and wrathful nor overly affectionate and attached to a slave. The type of the

4141:

were a mix of free and enslaved people that might tour independently or be sponsored by a household, and children are widely attested among the entertainers. Some of the youngest performers are

3991:

is used for a range of foster children, including orphans, "poor relations," and apprentices, most often attested between the ages of 9 and 14, mainly in prosperous urbanized areas. Of attested

10296:

stirred up both scholarly imagination and scholarly indignation in a series of articles and finally a book arguing that enslaved Roman survivors of Carrhae were traded, or escaped and settled,

9578:

Generally, fertility also is a motive for the purchase of female slaves; according to one survey of the evidence, more than 30 percent of women traded were of prime childbearing age (20 to 25).

3569:, he killed all the males and sold 2,130 women and children into slavery. What appears to have been a unique instance of over-supply in the Roman market for slaves occurred in AD 137 after the 3231:

as outlined in their manumission agreement, but the possible penalties—which range in severity from a reprimand and fines to condemnation to hard labor—never include a return to enslavement.

2657:

Owing to a growing body of laws, in the imperial period a master could face penalties for killing a slave without just cause and could be compelled to sell a slave on grounds of mistreatment.

6939:

In the Late Republic and Early Empire, more differentiation between slave and free names seems to have been desired. In Cicero's day, Greek names were the trend. Fanciful Greek names such as

4720:

may have taken up the slack. The Delian slave economy had been artificially exuberant, and by averting their gaze the Romans exacerbated the piracy problem that would vex them for centuries.

4193:

can identify adolescents and children as working alongside adults, but not whether they were free or enslaved. Children can be difficult to distinguish from slaves both in verbal sources, as

2412:

in AD 260. According to hostile Christian sources, the aging emperor was treated as a slave and subjected to a grotesque array of humiliations. Reliefs and inscriptions located at the sacred

17992:

59:4 (1985), p. 504. Free people had no recourse, though pharmacological malpractice that resulted in death by poisoning could result in a charge of homicide against the physician under the

6643:(medical attendants or physicians), but he observes that while “slaves and free persons differ not at all when they are in ill health, the free receive gentler and more merciful treatment.” 5878:, though they could be in the possession of the state temporarily as captives or confiscated property, and as the quasi-marital partner of a public slave would share some of his privileges. 4712:

But as the Romans established better-located and more sophisticated trading centers in the East, Delos lost its privilege as a free port and was left to be sacked in 88 and 69 BC during the

9158:(5th century AD) condemned the immorality of his audience in regarding their female slaves as natural outlets for their sexual appetites, exactly as "pagan" masters had done in the time of 7135:(301 AD) lists clothes for “common people or slaves” as a single category. In a crowd, slaves would not have been immediately legible as unfree, as the everyday attire of most people was a 6507:

has noted, “The relevant factors for slave structures and the existence of slavery itself were geographical and socio-economic and had little if anything to do with ethnicity or religion.”

3946:

or that domestic reproduction was the single most important source of slaves; modern estimates depend on the interpretation of often uncertain data, including the overall number of slaves.

3779:, piratical kidnapping continued to contribute to the Roman slave supply into the later Imperial era, though it may not have been a major source of new slaves. In the early 5th century AD, 8766:) so that their last wishes could be carried out, including who should receive their possessions or other gifts and bequests. The beneficiaries have to be other members of the household ( 8754:, himself the son of a freedman, wrote of "a fellow slave contracted to transport the castaway corpses to narrow rooms on a cheap chest; here lay the common grave of the wretched masses." 7717:, but with "a plot featuring kidnapping, enslavement, chaining, direct discussions of flight, and torturous punishments … that were extreme enough to serve as an example to other slaves.” 6201:

assessed taxes based on both land and the inhabitants of that land, it became administratively inconvenient for peasants to leave the land where they were counted in the census. In 332 AD

6878:, for example, was a very common name for slaves that was also in wide use as a free praenomen in Rome and throughout Italy during this time, morphing into names for freedpersons such as 2750:. Though not technically a marriage, it had legal implications that were addressed by Roman jurists in case law and expressed an intention to marry if both partners gained manumission. A 6992:

are cautions against assuming a slave's ethnicity based on the linguistic origin of their name. The first-century BC scholar Varro noted that some slaves had geographical names, such as

5072:

Professional slave-traders are rather shadowy figures, as their social standing and identities are not well documented in ancient sources. They appear to have formed trade organizations

15059:

21.1.44 pr 1–2 and 21.1.1), as cited by Lisa A. Hughes, "The Proclamation of Non-Defective Slaves and the Curule Aediles' Edict: Some Epigraphic and Iconographic Evidence from Capua,"

7906:

except as part of a criminal sentence, when a forehead tattoo came with a beating. The Romans picked up slave tattooing from the Greeks, who in turn had acquired it from the Persians.

3340:, whose shared family name suggests that their partnership toward a solid, profitable business began during enslavement. A few freedmen became very wealthy. The brothers who owned the 4013:, and those of enslaved status seem to have had a good chance of manumission. They are sometimes explicitly provided for in wills; for example, a trust was left to one young freedman 2476:

to determine whether returned soldiers had been captured or surrendered willingly. Traitors, deserters, and those who had a chance to escape but made no attempt were not eligible for

9189:

within the household, along with men having easy, even ubiquitous access outside the home to legal, inexpensive, and often highly specialized services from professional sex workers.

5867:. A public slave acquired his own position and it was not passed down to a son. Public slaves held testamentary rights that even informally manumitted freedmen were not permitted: a 4379:(5th century BC) limited the number of times a father could sell his children: a daughter only once, but a son as many as three. This kind of serial selling only of the son suggests 4385:, a temporary obligation as a result of debt which was formally abolished by the end of the 4th century BC. A dodge around freeborn status that continued into late antiquity was to 2424:

over the Romans, with emperors in subjection and legionaries paying tribute. Shapur's inscriptions record that the Roman troops he had enslaved came from all reaches of the empire.

129:

were former slaves or the sons of freed slaves. Some scholars have made efforts to imagine more deeply the lived experiences of slaves in the Roman world through comparisons to the

5562:, who was often a slave himself. Male slaves who had proven their loyalty and ability to manage others might be allowed to form a long-term relationship with a female fellow slave 5378:

Through the end of the 2nd century BC, skilled labor throughout Italy, such as pottery design and manufacture, was still predominated by free workers, whose corporations or guilds

4157:

donkey. Young children were not expected to work all day long. Older children might tend small flocks of animals that were driven out in the morning and returned before nightfall.

9135:, who came from an aristocratic background and likely grew up in a home where slave labor was utilized, described slavery as being against God's intention and resulting from sin. 3001:(fund or property) the slave or minor had managed, less the self-purchase cost of the slave buying his freedom. That the two procedures are parallel in undoing the control of the 13913:

Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child," p. 198, asserting that "The selling of children had very little to do with child-exposure from the perspective of social history" (p. 206).

4985:

of former slaves, the Publilii, who were either depicting their own history or, like many freedmen, expressing pride in conducting their own business successfully and honestly.

8805:, did articulate anti-slavery principles—which is one of the things that "made them look like fringe utopians" for their time. Both literary and juristic texts in Latin invoke 4988:

If defects were fraudulently concealed, a six-month return policy required the dealer to take back the slave and issue a refund, or to make a partial refund during an extended

4697:'s figure of 10,000 slaves traded daily is more hyperbole than statistic, slaves became the number one Delian commodity. The large commercial agricultural operations in Sicily 3659:

was that he began the practice of integrating war captives into Roman society through enslaving rather than slaughtering them. Julius Caesar concluded his campaign against the

21689:(Berlin 1982); see also the tabulation made by Richard P. Saller and Brent D. Shaw, “Tombstones and Roman Family Relations in the Principate: Civilians, Soldiers and Slaves,” 5779:

except in wartime when there was a shortage of free oarsman. While it's likely that merchants regularly used enslaved oarsmen for shipping, the practice is not well attested.

2091:, Rome was an ethnically diverse population and incorporated former slaves as citizens. Dionysius found it remarkable that when Romans manumitted their slaves, they gave them 19280:

Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," pp. 436–437 (reviewing other scholars on the subject) and moderating views of Eunus's actual monarchical ambitions pp. 439–440

10004:

184 (2008), p. 78, specifically on the relation of Livy's account of the asylum to the Augustan program of broadening the political participation of freedmen and provincials.

7597:

of the owner's property—themselves. From the perspective of owners, runaway slaves not only caused economic harm but stoked fears of a return to the social upheavals of the

7000:, and was likely right to think these names indicated places where they were traded and not their ethnic origin, which by law had to be stated separately in sales documents. 12531:

45:3 (2012), p. p. 662, calling attention to Jacques Ramin and Paul Veyne, "Droit romain et sociéte: les hommes libres qui passent pour esclaves et l'esclavage volontaire,"

10025:

33:3 (1983), p. 445, on Greek attitudes that therefore "the Romans were simply robbers and bandits, strangers to the laws of gods or men," citing Dionysius 1.4.1–3. 1.89–90.

7186:

Clothing for laborers was meant to be economical, durable, and practical. A relief from Roman Germany shows mine workers wearing a tunic and an apron of leather “feathers” (

7637:

later he remained free. Certain temples in Greece had long offered asylum to slaves who ran away, and in the Imperial era, a fugitive could claim asylum at the foot of the

18500:

The status of some servants he names is not clear from context; they could be either slaves or freedmen still working for him; Treggiari, "The Freedmen of Cicero," p. 196.

6236:

reserved for slaves in the Republican era. By the 5th century, the legal status that had distinguished free citizen from slave had all but vanished; what remained was the

23207: 14677:

Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," pp. 170, 176, citing a number of inscriptions on the Italian presence at an earlier date than had conventionally been thought.

8665:—that expresses his pride in his citizen status, just as the choice of marble as the medium rather than the more common limestone gives evidence of his level of success. 8016:("because I've run away"). The tag on the most intact example of these collars reads "I have escaped, catch me; when you return me to my master Zoninus, you'll receive a 5085:

relied on Toranius as a procurer of female slaves, and even forgave him upon learning that the supposedly twin boys he had purchased were in fact not consanguineous, the

4575:, Rome's military conquests and the subsequent introduction of vast wealth and slaves into Italy had effects comparable to widespread and rapid technological innovation. 12992:

Catherine Hezser, “Seduced by the Enemy or Wise Strategy? The Presentation of Non-Violence and Accommodation with Foreign Powers in Ancient Jewish Literary Sources,” in

7179:

to watch over their valuable clothing, since theft was common in the dressing areas. At dinner parties, guests took off their outdoor shoes and put on light house shoes

2111:, attracted "mostly former slaves, vagabonds, and runaways all looking for a fresh start" as citizens of the new city, which Livy considers a source of Rome's strength. 67:

and subsequent citizenship was a distinguishing feature of Rome's system of slavery, resulting in a significant and influential number of freedpersons in Roman society.

11300: 9111:

There is little evidence that Christian theologians of the Roman Imperial era problematized slavery as morally indefensible. Certain senior Christian leaders (such as

9096:

said nothing toward abolishing slavery, nor were religionists of the faith admonished against owning slaves in the first two centuries of Christianity's existence. The

7541:

before turning back for a possible assault on Rome, about which he then changed his mind. After more rebel military successes without clear objectives, the senate gave

5851:

Because they had an opportunity to prove their merit, public slaves could acquire a reputation and influence, and their chances for manumission were higher. During the

133:, but no portrait of the "typical" Roman slave emerges from the wide range of work performed by slaves and freedmen and the complex distinctions among their social and 22017:(Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 238 for "anxieties and tensions," as outlined by Keith Bradley, "The Problem of Slavery in Classical Culture" (review article), 8830:

and what it meant to be moral was not founded on the value of an individual life and preserving it, regardless of the social status of that life. In early Rome as the

8260:

on March 1, matrons gave slaves of their household a feast, a custom that also evokes Saturnalian role reversal. Each matron feasted her own slaves in her capacity as

6218:, differentiating a slave, a worker hired under contract, and a peasant tied to the land became at best academic, as socio-legal status devolved into a bifurcation of 5764:; these would have employed the usual combination of free and slave labor. Mine administration and management was often handled by imperial slaves and freedmen of the 1794: 10281:

In 36 BC, during a failed attempt to recover the standards lost, Mark Antony is supposed to have been guided by a survivor of Carrhae who had served under Parthians:

9293:

for sex, he could not be charged with rape because the slave lacked legal personhood. But an owner who wanted to press charges against a man who raped someone in his

9185:, she had the right to exercise control over sexual access to female slaves who were her property. This decorum may have helped alleviate the sexual exploitation of 9108:, parables that frame divine punishment from God as analogous to the punishments inflicted by masters on slaves assume the just proportionality of such punishments. 6020:

and accounting. At times, an estate might be managed by slaves while free persons provided manual labor. Households that are settings for narratives in the Christian

5226:

Slaves worked in a wide range of occupations that can be roughly divided into five categories: household or domestic service, urban crafts and services, agriculture,

3121:" status for these informally manumitted slaves, a sort of "half-way house between slavery and freedom" that, for example, did not confer the right to make a will. 2208:

Although Rome's earliest wars were defensive, a Roman victory would still result in the enslavement of the defeated under these circumstances, as is recorded at the

21849:

Keith Bradley, "'The Bitter Chain of Slavery’: Reflections on Slavery in Ancient Rome," Snowden Lectures, Hellenic Centre of Harvard University (November 2, 2020),

8535:

are made by slaves, sometimes for the sake of their masters' wellbeing. The slave Vitalis is known from three inscriptions involving the cult of Mithras at Apulum (

4578:

Scholars differ on how the particulars of Roman slavery as an institution can be framed within theories of labor markets in the overall economy. Economic historian

3138:

By the early 4th century AD, when the Empire was becoming Christianized, slaves could be freed by a ritual in a church, officiated by an ordained bishop or priest.

8991:

dignity could be damaged, however, by a lack of self-governance. Anger and cruelty damaged the person who felt them, and therefore a slave owner ought to exercise

5498:

were usually freeborn men for hire or freedmen, but the names of some high-profile enslaved architects are known, including Corumbus, the slave of Caesar's friend

4233:

and apprentice him, an arrangement that does not preclude affection and could result in passing along the business with an expectation of care in old age. One way

3336:

More typical among freedmen success stories would be the cloak dealership of Lucius Arlenus Demetrius, enslaved from Cilicia, and Lucius Arlenus Artemidorus, from

7521:. The two best-known leaders are the Thracian fighter Spartacus, who in some accounts is said to have served formerly in the Roman auxiliary troops, and the Gaul 7063:, Latinized forms of Greek names. Greek names became so common for slaves that they began to be regarded as inherently servile; this taint may be why home-reared 4389:

the minor child's labor up to age 20 or 25, so that the holder of the lease did not own the child as property but had full-time use through the legal transfer of

22319:

Mary Ann Beavis, "Ancient Slavery as an Interpretive Context for the New Testament Servant Parables with Special Reference to the Unjust Steward (Luke 16:1-8),"

22271:"1 Peter 2:18 Slaves, in reverent fear of God submit yourselves to your masters, not only to those who are good and considerate, but also to those who are harsh" 13761: 2898:

rather than a grant by the master, and in inscriptions slaves and freedpersons at times assert that they had paid for the dedication "with their own money." The

2318:

In the later Republic and during the Imperial period, thousands of soldiers, citizens, and their slaves in the Roman East were taken captive and enslaved by the

8741:

in popular media—images of gladiators, sometimes labeled by name, appeared widely on everyday items such as oil lamps and vessels that could long survive them.

8164:

that they would rather be executed than enslaved. When he ordered them sold anyway, they committed suicide en masse, some of them first killing their children.

8160:

by an individual to avoid enslavement or submission as a result of war are not rare in the Roman world. In one incident, a group of captive Germanic women told

6100:

Terra cotta relief (late 1st century BC–early 1st century AD): a slave seeks refuge at an altar to escape his master's punishment in a scene from Roman comedy (

5582:

who supervised food preparation and textile production for the estate held her position on her own merit and only infrequently was the woman who lived with the

3865:, whose epitaphs sometimes identify them as such, and at times they would have been the biological children of free males of the household. Frequent mention of 23519: 8744:

Epitaphs represent only slaves who were more highly favored or esteemed within their household or who belonged to communities or social organizations (such as

7620:

expresses sympathy for runaway slaves, and some Christians seem to have taken in runaways, fugitives were still a concern as the Empire was Christianized. The

6271:

that 100,000 new slaves were needed annually, and that for the empire as a whole from 50 BC to AD 150 in excess of 500,000 new slaves were required each year,

2540:, a metaphor for possession and hence control and subordination. Agricultural slaves, certain farmland within the Italian peninsula, and farm animals were all 1653: 1184: 8668: 3674:, "under the spear" symbolic of Roman sovereignty, and "to sell under the spear" came to mean simply "to auction off." But war captives were said to be sold 3209:, and freedmen could “network” with other patrons as well. An edict in 118 BC stated that the freedman was legally responsible only for services or projects 2099:

sought to account for both this heterogeneity and the role of freedmen in Roman society. The legendary founding by Romulus began with his establishment of a

6096: 5612: 2938:. However, legal restrictions on making loans to unemancipated sons, introduced in the mid 1st century AD, made them less useful than slaves in this role. 12824:) indicating that the seller offered no warranty on the slaves: Joseph A. Howley, "Why Read the Jurists?: Aulus Gellius on Reading Across Disciplines," in 6120:

beaten, both marks of slavery. Enslaved gladiators who enjoyed success in the arena were occasionally rewarded with manumission but remained in a state of

5901:

The term "imperial slave" is broader and includes not only slaves owned by the emperor and serving in the imperial bureaucracy but also more generally the

5844:, and other officials. They were often employed as messengers. They might be assigned to revenue collection, archives, waterworks, firefighting, and other 5748:

sources don't discuss the economic impact as such, which was secondary to demonstrating the "coercive capacities of the state"—the cruelty was the point.

1538: 910: 647: 15636:

4.3 and other mentions that this trade was not in mules as is sometimes thought; this view is accepted also by Scheidel, "The Roman Slave Supply," p. 301.

8318:

most famously celebrated by slaves was the Saturnalia, a December observance of role reversals during which time slaves enjoyed a rich banquet, gambling,

7789:

When slaves did commit an actual crime, the penalties prescribed by law were far more severe than for free persons. For instance, the regular penalty for

7754:("On Anger"), Seneca offers a lurid anecdote on the proportionality of punishment, famously retold, referenced, and analyzed. At a dinner party hosted by 5431:, multistory buildings with shops on the ground floor and apartments above. Most apartments in Rome lacked proper kitchens and might have only a charcoal 18349:

J. F. Drinkwater, “The Rise and Fall of the Gallic Julii: Aspects of the Development of the Aristocracy of the Three Gauls under the Early Empire,”

7293:, which they may have held briefly before being met with force and fleeing, though two thousand were captured and executed. They next made an attempt on 5101:, an obscure guardian spirit to do with the slave market, is honored presumably by slave-traders in four inscriptions, one of which is dedicated to this 1274: 915: 22510:(Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté, 2007), p. 286, observing that having sex with one's own slaves was considered "one step up from masturbation". 5304:

required a three-year apprenticeship; in one Roman legal case, it was ruled that a slave who had studied for only two months could not be considered an

4638:

The largest market on the Italian peninsula, as might be expected, was the city of Rome, where the most notorious slave-traders set up shop next to the

4551:

above); as the Roman Republic devolved, political rhetoric feverishly urged citizens to resist the shame of falling into "slavery" under one-man rule.

9484:, whose early 20th-century book on Roman law pertaining to slavery remains an essential reference, gave up on "the hopeless task of defining liberty" ( 5272: 3773:, and piracy was still a concern addressed during the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. While large-scale piracy was more or less controlled during the 125:, when individual escape was a more persistent form of resistance. Fugitive slave-hunting was the most concerted form of policing in the Roman Empire. 8044:: the crucified Christ is serenely detached from the suffering of torture and defiantly alive on a dead tree, while Judas hangs dead on a living tree 7581:

group of his slaves, all the slaves "under the same roof" were to be tortured and executed. In the early Imperial period, the slave uprisings against

4405:

days could restore their children to free status by paying the original sale price plus 20 percent to cover the costs of their care during servitude.

3869:

in literary sources indicates that home-reared slaves not only were preferred to those obtained in slave markets but received preferential treatment.

22950: 12036:

Integration in Rome and in the Roman World: Proceedings of the Tenth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Lille, June 23-25, 2011)

8507:; however, as the sites of such temples are often associated with trading centers, they might have played some role in facilitating the slave trade. 6523:

The enslaved who were traded on the open market might find themselves transported great distances across the empire: the epitaph of a slave woman in

4257:

Infant exposure with subsequent fosterage is a narrative premise in one of the best-known Roman myths: in this relief (2nd century AD), the shepherd

2134:, dated traditionally to 451/450 BC, do not contain law defining slavery, the existence of which is taken as a given. But there are mentions of 17618:

Catherine Hezser, "Slavery and the Jews," p. 439. A similar conclusion is expressed by Dale B. Martin, “Slavery and the Ancient Jewish Family,” in

7274:, and when at times as many as half the Roman male population of fighting age would have been away serving in the military. The Augustan historian 7126:

Certain items of clothing or adornment were restricted by law to freeborn people entitled to wear them as markers of high status; “slave clothing”

6746:. From the perspective of the physician, the diversity of the city of Rome and its slave population made it an “exceptional field of observation”. 4474:) as surety for a loan. He might also hand over his son as collateral. Although the bondsman could expect to face humiliation and some abuse, as a 607: 7695:

in the arena. But as it turns out, the lion he had befriended has also been captured, and instead of attacking him fawns over him affectionately.

5175:

imposed the first tax on Roman citizens as purchasers of slaves, at a rate of 2 percent, estimated to generate annual revenues of about 5 million

2846:

likely originated on agricultural estates in setting aside small parcels of land where slave families could grow some of their own food. The word

9425:

This timeline is a framework for understanding periods of Roman history as they are referred to in this article. It is not meant as definitional.

9373:

Plautus’ plays represent slavery "as a complex institution that raised perplexing problems in human relationships involving masters and slaves".

7745:

at age 12 is supposed to have ordered one of his bath attendants to be thrown into the furnace, though this order may not have been carried out.

2193:

to enslave a defeated population; however, if a settlement had been reached through diplomatic negotiations or formal surrender, the people were

17433: 9001:, "no big deal." From a philosophical perspective, what mattered was the conduct of the individual owner, not the reform of legal institutions. 8967:

4. The institution of slavery can be abused, and these abuses, such as the wrongful enslavement of free people, can be criticized and corrected.

6647:

he could send Zosimus for rehab in the more healthful climate of a friend's country estate in a part of Gaul that is today the south of France.

5548:

Large farms employing slaves for planting and harvesting are found in the eastern empire as well as Europe, and are alluded to in the Christian

5323:

in the countryside) might be supported by a staff of hundreds; or on the lower end of scholarly estimates, perhaps an average of 100 slaves per

3021:

of the minor son three times at once, based on the archaic provision of the Twelve Tables that a son sold three times was freed of his father's

2854:). Any surplus could be sold at market. Like other practices that encouraged agency among slaves in furthering their skills, this early form of 82:

Some people were born into slavery as the child of an enslaved mother. Others became slaves. War captives were considered legally enslaved, and

23324: 9443:

This article treats the Christianization of the Roman Empire as a turning point that affects legislative, moral, social, and cultural concerns.

3180:

A male slave who had been legally manumitted by a Roman citizen enjoyed not only passive freedom from ownership, but active political freedom (

3084:

had the unilateral power to free any slave to serve the interests of the state as a citizen. Slaves could also be freed in their owner's will (

962: 22474:‘The Bitter Chain of Slavery’: Reflections on Slavery in Ancient Rome. Keith Bradley. Curated studies. Hellenic Centre of Harvard University. 22383:‘The Bitter Chain of Slavery’: Reflections on Slavery in Ancient Rome. Keith Bradley. Curated studies. Hellenic Centre of Harvard University. 9971:‘The Bitter Chain of Slavery’: Reflections on Slavery in Ancient Rome. Keith Bradley. Curated studies. Hellenic Centre of Harvard University. 7533:

as the insurgency grew to 70,000 men "with alarming speed," both slaves and free herdsmen joining up, ultimately reaching a force of 120,000.

6520:

was a particularly harsh "slave-driver" whose exploitation was "unmitigated by any consideration of the needs of the slave as a human being."

5127:

returned bankrupt from his proconsulate in Africa, he is thought to have restored his fortunes by trading in slaves, possibly specializing in

3624: 3088:), sometimes on condition of service or payment before or after freedom. A slave rewarded with manumission in a will at times also received a 2942:

agreement between the slave and his master could be enforced. While very few slaves ever controlled large sums of money, slaves who managed a

2638:. When a slave committed a crime, the punishment exacted was likely to be far more severe than for the same crime committed by a free person. 23406: 22506:(University of Chicago Press, 2002), pp. 307–308. See also Holt Parker, "Free Women and Male Slaves, or Mandingo meets the Roman Empire," in 15171: 5111:, perhaps reflecting the heavy trade in Syrian slaves from which arose a Syrian neighborhood in the city of Rome. The cultivation of various 2368:

employed enslaved Roman engineers, craftsmen, and labor for his monumental building program at such sites as Naqsh-e Rostam, present-day Iran

1742: 17350:, p. 198 notes the difficulty in estimating the size of the slave population and the supply needed to maintain and grow the population. 8596:

are one of the most common forms of Roman writing to survive, arising from the intersection of two salient activities of Roman culture: the

23948: 22540:; Gaca's argument is not primarily based on property rights but on the idea that rape would be an imposition of the military sphere on the 15561:

Palmyrena: City, Hinterland and Caravan Trade Between Orient and Occident. Proceedings of the Conference Held in Athens, December 1-3, 2012

1658: 1508: 23990: 23978: 8347:

set during the Saturnalia, Horace portrays a slave as offering sharp criticism to his master. But everyone knew that the leveling of the

7019:

for a Sarmatian woman. In late antiquity, Christians might bear Greek names expressing a willing servility as a religious value, such as

6057:

Gladiators, entertainers such as actors and dancers, and prostitutes were among those persons in Rome who existed in the social limbo of

5327:

during the time of Augustus. Possibly half the slaves in the city of Rome served in the houses of the senatorial order and of the richer

2766:

obtained free status before the death of the other, as commemorated in epitaphs. These quasi marital unions were especially common among

989: 22948:

Bankston, Zach (2012). "Administrative Slavery in the Ancient Roman Republic: The Value of Marcus Tullius Tiro in Ciceronian Rhetoric".

10830: 8172:'s slaves was so distraught after doing something he thought his master would disapprove of that he killed himself. An inscription from 7232: 7224:

remarked, "Fugitive slaves are almost an obsession in the sources." Runaway slaves were considered criminals and were harshly punished.

6481:

stated that "in buying human beings as slaves, we pay a higher price for one that is better by nationality." The association of job and

4334:, the first Christian emperor, formalized the buying and selling of newborns during the first hours of life, when the newborn was still 24037: 23113: 8459:, depicted in sacrificial processions as carrying a mallet or axe with which to strike the sacrificial animal, is said in sources from 4944: 1735: 487: 22475: 22384: 16709:

Marianne Béraud, Nicolas Mathieu, Bernard Rémy, "Esclaves et affranchis chez les Voconces au Haut-Empire: L'apport des inscriptions,"

15203:

Hughes, "The Proclamation of Non-Defective Slaves," pp. 240, 243–244, disputing an alternate interpretation of the figure as a statue.

11554: 9972: 8811:

as a principle in relations with slaves, a virtue that broadly encompasses the quality of living as a fully realized human being, and

8331:

Saturnalian license also permitted slaves to enjoy a pretense of disrespect for their masters, and exempted them from punishment. The

8256:, the holiday involved a role reversal: the matron of the household washed the heads of her slaves, as well as her own. Following the 8097:

that made the services of an executioner available to private citizens who had decided to crucify a slave. The law specifies that the

6428: 5752:

each day not worked will be deducted from the total. There is no evidence that convict labor was used in the major mining district in

5300:

contracts written in Greek that indicate the training a worker might require to become skilled, usually for a full year. A beautician

21850: 11248:

Judith Evans-Grubbs, "'Marriage More Shameful Than Adultery'": Slave-Mistress Relationships, 'Mixed Marriages', and Late Roman Law,"

9603:

only reluctantly permitted these prisoners of war to be ransomed, with the provision that they were banned from Italy. Vasile Lica, "

9376:

Terence added a new element to how slaves were portrayed in his plays, due to his personal background as a former slave. In the work

5263:

Epitaphs record at least 55 different jobs a household slave might have, including barber, butler, cook, hairdresser, handmaid (

5123:

through intermediaries, some may have been more directly involved than literary sources like to acknowledge. When the future emperor

4347: 4025:

associated with the arts and crafts suggests that talent was a way disadvantaged children might be noticed and obtain opportunities.

2431:

over his dependents was suspended. If he was released from slavery, his citizen status might be restored along with his property and

937: 13979:

On maternal and neonatal mortality in the Roman world, see for example M. Golden, "Did the Ancients Care When Their Children Died?"

6840:. The use of a cognomen as a distinguishing third name became widespread among freedmen before it was standard for the upper class. 5398:, as a well-connected owner might be able to obtain training for the slave and market access later as a patron to the new freedman. 4862:

conjectured that "enslavables" were traded across borders from present-day Ireland, Scotland, eastern Germany, southern Russia, the

4003:

in terms of privileges. A child chosen for nurturing would not be pledged as surety for a loan nor subject to seizure by creditors.

23953: 9084:, slavery is an everyday reality that must be accepted, but as a condition of this world, it is ultimately rendered meaningless by 8645:

above) shows him in the process of working a cup that lies incomplete by his left hand. He holds a hammer in his right hand, and a

8634: 8065: 7769:("On Mercy"), comparing the torture pond to a snake pit and saying that Vedius was universally despised for his excessive cruelty. 7758:

with Augustus in attendance, a young slave broke a crystal cup. Vedius flew into a rage and ordered him seized and thrown into the

6136: 5019: 3130:

limited the number of slaves that could be freed through a master's will in proportion to the size of the estate. Six years later,

1708: 1528: 701: 21062: 14910:, “Republican Denarii in Romania: The Suppression of Piracy and the Slave-Trade,” Journal of Roman Studies 67 (1977), pp. 117-124. 9690:

Because of the cultural importance of carrying on family lineage, Roman names are of limited variety, so that members of the same

8567:

Christianity gave slaves an equal place within the religion, allowing them to participate in the liturgy. According to tradition,

8230:, whose temple was among Rome's oldest. According to tradition, it was established in the sixth century BC by the slave-born king 6619:

expressed the prevailing utilitarian view that a slave who was treated well would perform a better job than a poorly treated one.

2946:

had a far better chance of obtaining liberty. With this business acumen, certain freedmen went on to amass considerable fortunes.

2608:, was exercised over all members of the extended household except his wife— a free Roman woman could own property of her own as a 25325: 23963: 21571:

Mariana Egri, Matthew M. McCarty, Aurel Rustoiu, and Constantin Inel, "A New Mithraic Community at Apulum (Alba Iulia, Romania)"

7118: 2677: 1871: 15104: 9273:

castrated under the age of ten were rare and as expensive as a skilled artisan. The trade in eunuch slaves during the reign of

2465:. Not all war captives were eligible for reintegration; the terms of a treaty might permit the other side to retain captives as 25270: 23958: 23692: 21528:

89 (1999), p. 46, n. 35 citing Mary Beard and John Henderson, "'With This Body I Thee Wed': Sacred Prostitution in Antiquity,"

18274: 16626:

Buchwitz, "Giving and Taking: The Effects of Roman Inheritance Law on the Social Position of Slaves," pp. 183–184, citing

13790: 7605:

were hired to hunt down runaways. Advertisements were posted with precise descriptions of escaped slaves, and offered rewards.

5499: 5386:

might own a few slaves. In the Imperial era, as many of 90 percent of workers in these areas might be slaves or former slaves.

4187:, crawling into the narrowest parts of shafts to retrieve loose ore, which was passed to the outside in baskets hand to hand. 3679: 972: 390: 22486:

Neil W. Bernstein, "Adoptees and Exposed Children in Roman Declamation: Commodification, Luxury, and the Threat of Violence,"

22257: 15955: 14593:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126, documented for instance by wax tablets from the Villa of Murecine.

13862:

Neil W. Bernstein, "Adoptees and Exposed Children in Roman Declamation: Commodification, Luxury, and the Threat of Violence,"

8248: 7067:, who generally had enhanced opportunities, are statistically more likely to have received a Latin name that would help them “ 3697:

Roman culture produced artistic responses to the visibility of captives as early as the Punic Wars, when the comic playwright

2885:

as an allowance. The master's obligation to provide for the slave's subsistence was not counted as part of this discretionary

25356: 25240: 24065: 23592: 23308: 23217: 23196: 23052: 23033: 17994: 17393: 17369: 17297: 15265: 14460: 13284: 12396: 9673:, a spouse in a sort of common-law marriage or a marriage conducted according to rites not recognized within Roman law. If a 9212:

Two slaves stand by as a bride awakens to sexuality on her wedding night, in a bedroom fresco from the Casa della Farnesina,

7658:, a different take from the scenes of violence in the Roman arena for which Gérôme helped establish modern visual conventions 7383:, but soon spread to include slaves in the thousands. They attained a major strategic objective in controlling both Enna and 5231:

include not using a stage actor as a bath attendant, not forcing a professional athlete to clean latrines, and not sending a

3596:

may have been desirable conquests primarily as sources of manpower, and so too Roman campaigns across the frontiers of their

3162: 1550: 1227: 999: 20442:

Trimble, "The Zoninus Collar," pp. 447–448, 459. Some collars have been lost after being documented in the early modern era.

9144: 8629:

Simple epitaphs for domestic slaves might be set up in the communal tomb of their household. This inclusion perpetuated the

4431:

by ordering local magistrates to distribute free grain to poor families, later abolishing the "power of life and death" the

2802: 2126:

Some legal and religious developments pertaining to slavery thus can be discerned even in Rome's earliest institutions. The

25330: 25205: 24358: 20056:

Michelle T. Clarke, "Doing Violence to the Roman Idea of Liberty? Freedom as bodily integrity in Roman Political Thought,"

16761:

Harris, "Roman Terracotta Lamps: The Organization of an Industry," pp. 140–141; Johnston, "Law and Commercial Life," p. 56

9269:

that a male slave should be groomed effeminately and used sexually, because a slave's human dignity should not be debased.

9266: 9192:"Not one single surviving legal text refers in any way whatever to sexual abuse of slave children," states legal historian 7549:

Spartacus was said to have died, though his body was not identified; 5,000 fugitives fled north and ran into troops led by

7403: 7165: 1980: 1747: 1703: 1346: 9767:

was a hobby dear to some upperclass Romans, both for pleasure and as a source of fresh delicacies for the table. Lampreys

9150:

have sexual access to female slaves within their own household, an assumption not subjected to Christian criticism in the

6650:

Individual acts of compassion by slaveholders stand apart as exceptions. The practice of abandoning sick slaves on Rome's

23911: 22168:

Social Justice and the Legitimacy of Slavery: The Role of Philosophical Asceticism from Ancient Judaism to Late Antiquity

16292:

seems to be a penal workhouse not necessarily for agricultural labor, as when Livy (2.2.6) contrasts a debtor who is led

15939:(Brown Judaic Studies 2020), pp. 49–50, basing his guess of one hundred per household on his earlier demographic work in 9315:

Lost works thought to have been written by slaves or former slaves include a history of the Sicilian slave rebellions by

7570: 7446:

to rally the many enslaved Cilicians among the rebels. He organized the slaves into cavalry and infantry units, besieged

6920:

regardless of age; a slave was one who was never emancipated into adulthood and thus never allowed to become fully a man

6908:

Ancient Roman scholars thought that in earliest times slaves had been given the first name of their master suffixed with

4048:

occurred among the Romans from the ages of five to seven, with the upper classes enjoying a more prolonged and sheltered

2031:, the body of a household's dependents—a word especially, or sometimes limited to, referring to the slaves collectively. 1789: 1421: 1081: 932: 728: 637: 21106:

3.22, 4.22. On social theory, Dolansky cites C. Grignon, "Commensality and Social Morphology: An Essay of Typology," in

15128: 9181:

in particular was judged by her female slaves' sexual behavior, which was expected to be moral or at least discreet; as

5905:, the slaves employed in the emperor's household, including those on his wife's staff. Women were therefore part of the 4423:

The Christianization of the later empire shifted priorities within the inherent contradictions of this legal framework.

23582: 23016:

Dolansky, Fanny (2010). "Celebrating the Saturnalia: religious ritual and Roman domestic life". In Beryl Rawson (ed.).

22246: 21715:

Funerary Relief of Publius Curtilius Agatho, Silversmith, feat. Kenneth Lapatin (audio file), Getty Museum Collection,

18147:

Véronique Boudon-Millot, “Greek and Roman Patients under Galen's Gaze: A Doctor at the Crossroads of Two Cultures,” in

17248: 8924:

outlines six moral views that express various and inconsistent "anxieties and tensions" inherent in slavery throughout

8332: 7281:

The first recorded rebellion comes in 217 BC, when an informer reported that twenty-five slaves were conspiring on the

4153:. Child slaves are also found as dancers and singers, preparing as professionals for popular forms of musical theater. 2759: 1809: 1498: 1252: 17626:, Egypt, Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, and evidence of Jewish slaves in Jerusalem, Galilee, Egypt, Italy, and Greece. 17338:

95: 64–79. Scheidel, p. 170, has estimated between 1 and 1.5 million slaves in the 1st century BC.

10710:

66:3/4 (2012), pp. 381-413, noting (p. 382) that "farmland" may have been defined more narrowly as land designated as

8953:

2. Slavery can be justified for its utility— culturally, the most "numerous and authoritative" of the views expressed.

7691:

One day when the lion is out on the hunt, Androclus goes walking and is captured by soldiers, taken back to Rome, and

5897:; Gaudenia Marcellina, the natural daughter of Evangelus from a previous union; and their freedpersons and descendants 4973:

marked a slave who didn't come with a warranty; chalk-whitened feet were a sign of foreigners newly arrived in Italy.

3032:) were routinely manumitted at ages 30 to 35—an age that should not be taken as standard for other slaves. Within the 25250: 24010: 23577: 23572: 23548: 23399: 22997: 22235: 21550:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128, citing Strabo 12.558 on the chief priest of Ma at Comana.

19585:

Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," p. 443; "Roman Slavery and Roman Law," p. 488 on the number executed.

15666:

18.2, and remarking on "Cato's bitter statement that handsome slaves cost more than a farm" (Diodorus Siculus 31.24).

14655:

6 (2008), p. 76, drawing on V. Gabrielsen, "Economic Activity, Maritime Trade and Piracy in the Hellenistic Aegean,"

12632: 8692:

Although not required on tombstones, the deceased's status at times can be identified by Latin abbreviations such as

8123: 7937: 7609:

governors, or municipal public slaves used as a quasi-police force; and the Roman army. Augustus himself boasted in

6577:

at the top, with an in-between range of slaves whose skills and knowledge gave them social value not defined by law.

5975:, a keeper of accounts who handled disbursements in the household and served generally as its steward. Because Roman 5358:

at work in a wall painting from Pompeii; free and enslaved people often can't be distinguished in depictions of labor

4834:

Slaves were traded from outside Roman borders at several points, as mentioned by literary sources such as Strabo and

3533:

As an example of the impact on one community, it was during this period that the greatest numbers of slaves from the

3313:

During the early Imperial period, some freedmen became very powerful. Those who were part of the emperor's household

2298: 1626: 1503: 927: 696: 563: 21827:

Jacobo Rodríguez Garrido, "Imperial Legislation Concerning Junian Latins: From Tiberius to the Severan Dynasty," in

14885:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," pp. 126, 138 n. 97 (with numerous citations of primary sources).

14776:

pp. 66–65, calling the Romans "criminally negligent" and callously indifferent because of their appetite for slaves.

9241: 8958:

3. Slavery is an evil and should be condemned as an institution—"few and isolated" voices not to be construed as an

8737:, a status which was not typically asserted. Gladiators who had become celebrities might also be remembered by fans 6528: 6031:(household managers or "economists") in charge of allocating and disbursing food and funds to other members of the 3055:, though a citizen who had entered willingly into unfree servitude was barred from full restoration of his rights. 25351: 25265: 23938: 23587: 23514: 23376: 17541:

Kathryn Tempest, "Saints and Sinners: Some Thoughts on the Presentation of Character in Attic Oratory and Cicero's

16436:

8.12.10), as referenced in this context by Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," pp. 141, 147.

9246: 8847: 8559:

harmony with the structure of Roman society, and thus the participation of slaves posed no threat to social order.

8176:

records the killing of a freedman by one of his slaves, who then committed suicide by drowning himself in a river.

7086:

In Latin epitaphs, a slave commemorating his deceased master sometimes refers to him by praenomen with the pronoun

5791:

Inscription from the base of a statue honoring the imperial freedman Publius Aelius Liberalis as the patron of the

5455:

and dining-in establishments were for the lower classes; fine dining was offered in wealthy homes with an enslaved

3809: 3750:, and after the Empire came under Christian rule, churches spent “enormous funds” to buy back Christian prisoners. 1762: 967: 952: 898: 583: 573: 568: 397: 253: 21511:, Turkey): Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128, citing Strabo 12.12.535, 537, 557–559, 567. 11229:

Thomas A.J. McGinn, "Missing Females? Augustus' Encouragement of Marriage between Freeborn Males and Freedwomen,"

9173:

right to consent or refuse did not exist for her. The treatment of slaves and their own conduct within the elite

8079:

urging the hated person to commit suicide by hanging use language that overlaps with some details of crucifixion.

5874:

Since women did not serve in the government, women were not themselves public slaves in the privileged sense of a

4689:

had kept some check on piratical kidnapping and illegal slave trading until Rome, on the wave of their unexpected

3788: 3058:

There were three kinds of legally binding manumission: by the rod, by the census, and by the terms of the owner's

1473: 23531: 23464: 23352: 20947: 19594:

A legal principle reaching "the level of the preposterous" notes Keith R. Bradley, "Roman Slavery and Roman Law,

16596:

Wolfram Buchwitz, "Giving and Taking: The Effects of Roman Inheritance Law on the Social Position of Slaves," in

12994:

Between Cooperation and Hostility: Multiple Identities in Ancient Judaism and the Interaction with Foreign Powers

9406: 8441:, the senior priests of the state, and carried out their day-to-day business. An epitaph records the career of a 6290:

females). By comparison, average life expectancy at birth for the population as a whole was in the mid-twenties.

5483:

don't exist. Seneca mentions the specialized training required for poultry-carving, and the habitually indignant

4279:, which the Romans seem to have practiced widely and which is embedded in the founding myth of the exposed twins 4138: 3317:

could become key functionaries in the government bureaucracy. Some rose to positions of great influence, such as

2866:

An inscription declaring that the freedman Gaius Antistius Threptus paid for the dedication "with his own money"

2351:

imagined them married to "barbarian" women and serving the Parthian army, too dishonored to be restored to Rome.

1757: 1523: 329: 17467:, vol. 1 (Lexington Books, 2009), p. 41, noting that "Roman slavery was a nonracist and fluid system". 16334:

Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire, from the Julio-Claudians to Constantine," pp. 131–132.

13756:

Margaret Y. MacDonald, "Children in House Churches in Light of New Research on Families in the Roman World," in

11498:: The Social Profile of a Servile Profession," p. 148, n. 140. The "belonging to" is typically expressed by the 6670:, a physician who harmed or killed a slave through incompetence could be sued by the owner for property damage. 6228:: the tiny percentage of the populace who had access to power and wealth, having attained honors to the rank of 4981:; the gesturing, toga-wearing figure to the right may be a buyer asking questions. The monument was set up by a 4906:

the “opportunistic market”, such as the slave traders who followed the army and handled large numbers of slaves;

3888:. A dedicatory inscription dating to AD 198 lists the names of twenty-four imperial freedmen who were teachers 3753:

Systematic piracy for the purpose of human trafficking was most rampant in the 2nd century BC, when the city of

2910:. Property otherwise could not be owned by the dependents of a household, defined as someone subordinate to the 55:; the young slave to the left carries water and towels, and the one on the right a bough and a basket of flowers 24285: 24210: 23968: 23366: 18084:

43:9 (1966), p. 97, gives 400,00, and Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," the larger sum (p. 347);

10957: 10625:

Daniel Kapust, “Skinner, Petitt and Livy: The Conflict of the Orders and the Ambiguity of Republican Liberty,”

9196:—presumably because no special protections were afforded by law to child slaves. Some household staff, such as 8621: 8207: 7994:

Fugitive slave collars have been found in urban environments rather than settings for hard labor. One tag from

7537:

ineffective" initial response. Crixus and his Gauls were soon dealt with, but Spartacus got as far as north as

7451: 6257: 5033: 4183:

records the purchase of two children, ages 6 and 10 (or 15). Children seem to have been employed especially in

3481:

thousands. The newly enslaved were bought wholesale by dealers who followed the Roman legions. Once during the

3423: 3272:, ordinarily reserved for those of higher rank, for ceremonial functions and their funeral rites. In the towns 1222: 1210: 790: 602: 248: 83: 20576:

Allyson Everingham Sheckler and Mary Joan Winn Leith, "The Crucifixion Conundrum and the Santa Sabina Doors,"

20349:

S. J. Lawrence, “Putting Torture (and Valerius Maximus) to the Test,” Classical Quarterly 66:1 (2016), p. 254.

10450:

109:2 (2019), p. 153, citing Gaius 1.129 and Ulpian 10.4, and pp. 159 and 161 on renewal as a second marriage.

6673: 5647:

In the Republican era, a punishment that slaves feared was hard labor in chains at mill and bakery operations

5435:. Food therefore was widely prepared and sold by free and slave labor at pubs and bars, inns, and food stalls 4209: 3573:

was quashed and more than 100,000 slaves were put on the market. A Jewish slave for a time could be bought at

2650:('a slave has no persona'). He has no personality. He does not own his body; he has no ancestors, no name, no 2076:

over the dependents of his household, including his sons and daughters as well as slaves. The Greek historian

24781: 12302:

Amanda Coles, "Between Patronage and Prejudice: Freedman Magistrates in the Late Roman Republic and Empire,"

11571: 9983:

Kathryn Lomas, Andrew Gardner, and Edward Herring, "Creating Ethnicities and Identities in the Roman World,"

9704: 8815:

asserts that a master whose treatment of slaves is based only on economic considerations is not fully human.

6726:

was an enslaved clinical physician, surgeon, and eye specialist who eventually bought his freedom for 50,000

5187:

to 4 percent, with a misguided attempt to divert the burden to the seller, which only increased prices.

3505:, the first emperor, concluded in his later life. The smaller-scale, less continual warfare of the so-called 1799: 1577: 438: 23062:

Gamauf, Richard (2009). "Slaves Doing Business: The role of Roman Law in the Economy of a Roman Household".

20987:

Bradley, "The Early Development of Roman Slavery," pp. 2–3, noting the existence of archaeological evidence.

17623: 17622:(Brown Judaic Studies 2020), p. 118, citing evidence from inscriptions and papyri of Jewish slave owners in 16227:

Martin, “Slavery and the Ancient Jewish Family,” p. 128, citing for example the parable in Matthew 13:24–30.

7150:

are sometimes shorter, reaching to mid-calf, while the mistress's tunic falls to her feet. In a mosaic from

6132: 6068:

was an official loss of standing for a freeborn person as a result of misconduct, and could be imposed by a

5971:, originally the overseer on an agricultural estate but later in an urban setting a general supervisor; and 4017:

that was to be administered by the fosterer's friend until he reached the age of twenty-five. The number of

3584:

The demand for slaves may account for some expansionist actions that seem to have no other political motive—

24621: 24225: 23677: 23392: 23229: 14907: 11393: 9719: 9615:

50:4 (2001), pp. 598 and 601, especially n. 31, notes that the soldiers should have been eligible for full

8348: 6731:

the desire of freedmen to acquire medical training was such that it was exploited by scam medical schools.

6560: 6052: 4111:. Incidental mentions in literary texts suggest that training programs were methodical: boys learned to be 3956: 3936: 1804: 1643: 1513: 1174: 942: 922: 482: 450: 134: 17: 19102:

Holt, "Crucially Funny," p. 237, citing Livy 22.33.2; see also William A. Oldfather, "Livy i, 26 and the

9456:

is here taken as the beginning of the Christianization of the Roman state and the eventual suppression of

8322:

and other forms of license not normally available to them. To mark their temporary freedom, they wore the

7925:

satirizes a luxuriously attired freedman at the theater who keeps his inscribed forehead under wraps, and

7553:, who "annihilated" them; and Crassus concluded his victory by crucifying 6,000 captured rebels along the 7332:(1st century BC) chronicled the three major slave rebellions of the Roman Republic known as the 5885:

Gravesite marker (2nd century AD) for the wool merchant Titus Aelius Evangelus, likely a freedman of

4092: 2805:

to form intent; or show that he had broken their commitment by planning to marry someone else or taking a

2695: 169: 25320: 25245: 25004: 24060: 23943: 23489: 20778:

John Granger Cook, "Envisioning Crucifixion: Light from Several Inscriptions and the Palatine Graffito,"

18739:

Rose, “The Construction of Mistress and Slave,” p. 43, with reference to George, “Slave Disguise,” p. 44.

17725:

Wasser für Carnuntum: Versorgung, Entsorgung, Badekultur im Römischen Reich und in der Stadt an der Donau

13073: 12682:

Catherine Hezser, “The Social Status of Slaves in the Talmud Yerushalmi and in Graeco-Roman Society,” in

10047: 9193: 8790: 8351:

was temporary and had limits; no social norms were ultimately threatened, because the holiday would end.

7387:, two towns key to holding Sicily that Rome and Carthage had fought over repeatedly during the first two 6858:

Throughout the Republican era, slaves in the city of Rome might bear a name that was also in use by free

6434: 6215: 4639: 4408:

Most parents would have sold their children only under extreme duress. In the mid-80s BC, parents in the

3566: 3318: 2267:

under harsh terms and made freeborn Romans subject to enslavement as a result of financial misfortune. A

1973: 1864: 1814: 1533: 1451: 578: 359: 179: 8082:

From its early use at a time when citizens were infrequently sentenced to death, crucifixion became the

6836:, most often appending his single name to the praenomen and gentilic name of his former master, now his 4537:. A case for fraud could be made if the seller or the buyer knew that the enslaved person was freeborn ( 4175:

documented at mines that mostly relied on free workers are likely to be part of mining families, though

2642:

gradually became "synonymous with the true nature of the individual" in the Roman world, in the view of

25280: 24944: 24836: 24606: 24378: 24200: 24108: 23973: 23916: 23166: 23109: 23064: 20697:,” p. 62, listing (note 5) numerous references in Greek and Roman sources to Carthaginian crucifixions. 20014: 19603: 18149:"Greek" and "Roman" in Latin Medical Texts: Studies in Cultural Change and Exchange in Ancient Medicine 15324: 10096:(Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2002, originally published 1997 by Scholars Press for Emory University), p. 136. 9592: 8937: 8633:

by enlarging the number of survivors and descendants who might carry out tomb maintenance and the many

8300:). A stone at her temple was inscribed "let deserving slaves sit down so that they may stand up free." 6219: 5956: 5495: 4470:. Though the terms of the contract would vary, essentially a free man pledged himself as a bond slave ( 4262: 3550: 2544:, a category of property established in early Rome's rural economy as requiring a formal legal process 2311: 2119:, was said to have been the son of a slave woman, and the cultural role of slavery is embedded in some 2077: 1718: 1570: 1555: 1446: 642: 312: 19905:

1.10, 12.60, as cited by Thomas W. Africa, "Adam Smith, the Wicked Knight, and the Use of Anecdotes,"

18612:

in Rome.” Bruun also argues that naming your own children might have been one of the perks of being a

16996:

Catherine Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions: Public Performance and Prostitution in Ancient Rome," in

14453:

L'esclavitud en l'economia antiga: fonaments discursius de la historiografia moderna (Segles XV-XVIII)

13758:

The World of Jesus and the Early Church: Identity and Interpretation in the Early Communities of Faith

3836:, the child of a legally enslaved mother was born a slave. The Latin word for a slave born within the 3217:

or sworn to in advance; money could not be demanded, and certain freedmen were exempt from any formal

2676:(emperor AD 337–340) barred Jews from owning Christian slaves, converting their slaves to Judaism, or 25300: 24393: 24348: 24275: 24195: 24143: 24133: 24085: 23432: 22760: 21651:

Elizabeth A. Meyer, “Explaining the Epigraphic Habit in the Roman Empire: The Evidence of Epitaphs,”

18241: 16432: 14928:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 124, citing Strabo 5.214 and 11.493; Tacitus,

12141:

Youval Rotman, "Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World", Harvard University Press, 2009 p. 139

11261:

Katharine P. D. Huemoeller, "Freedom in Marriage? Manumission for Marriage in the Roman World,"

10930:(Brown Judaic Studies 2020), p. 118, citing the extensive collection of legal texts by Amnon Linder, 9796:

Weaving in Stones: Garments and Their Accessories in the Mosaic Art of Eretz Israel in Late Antiquity

9472:

is the latest primary source regarded as "ancient" by the scholarship on which this article is based.

9391: 8929: 8910: 8555:); his position gave him the opportunity to earn the wealth required for setting up stone monuments. 8363:

on July 7. The holiday is explained as commemorating the service rendered to Rome by a group of

7688:

for the beast. The two live as companions in the wild for three years, with the lion providing food.

6837: 6229: 6154:

Selling a slave against his will to a training camp for gladiators was a punishment, and the emperor

5915:, an informally recognized union that could become a legal marriage if both parties were manumitted. 5802: 5704: 4272:

Child abandonment, whether through the death of family or intentionally, is to be distinguished from

4067:

who buys a child slave, teaches him the trade, and then sells him at double the original price paid.

3765:

was credited with eradicating piracy from the Mediterranean in 67 BC, but actions were taken against

3206: 3201: 2958:

Fragment of a marble relief (1st century BC) depicting a manumission ceremony and the wearing of the

2794: 2461:, a return after passing out of Roman jurisdiction and then crossing back over one's own “threshold” 1889: 1819: 1713: 1244: 1232: 822: 795: 300: 20508:

Trimble, "The Zoninus Collar," pp. 455–456. The owners range in rank from a linen manufacturer to a

16100:

Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," p. 335, citing Columella, 1 praef. 5 ("workshop" is

15011:

Walter Scheidel, "Real Slave Prices and the Relative Cost of Slave Labor in the Greco-Roman World,"

14945:

Marius Alexianu, "Lexicographers, Paroemiographers, and Slaves-for-Salt: Barter in Ancient Thrace,"

14714:

Strabo 14.5.2, as cited and tamped down by Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," pp. 169, 175.

12426:

1.26, as cited by Deborah Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions: Representing Slave Marks in Antiquity,"

7991:), tight enough to keep them from slipping over the head but not so tight as to restrict breathing. 7921:

labeled with the name of their crime. Literature alludes to the practice, as when the epigrammatist

3783:

was still lamenting wide-scale kidnapping in North Africa. The Christian missionary Patricius, from

24901: 24811: 24320: 24300: 24295: 24280: 24233: 24173: 24128: 23930: 22476:

https://chs.harvard.edu/curated-article/snowden-lectures-keith-bradley-the-bitter-chain-of-slavery/

22385:

https://chs.harvard.edu/curated-article/snowden-lectures-keith-bradley-the-bitter-chain-of-slavery/

21127: 18509:

Anna Anguissola, "Remembering the Greek Masterpieces: Observations on Memory and Roman Copies," in

17064:

Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions," pp. 74–75, citing Livy 7.2.12; Augustus mitigated the practice.

14509:: Keith Bradley, "'The Regular, Daily Traffic in Slaves': Roman History and Contemporary History," 14093:

Ville Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child: Rhetoric and Social Realities in the Late Roman World,"

13819:

Ville Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child: Rhetoric and Social Realities in the Late Roman World,"

13451:

Ville Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child: Rhetoric and Social Realities in the Late Roman World,"

11083:, p. 252; a few scholars who assert otherwise overlook juristic discussions of family law in which 9973:

https://chs.harvard.edu/curated-article/snowden-lectures-keith-bradley-the-bitter-chain-of-slavery/

9637: 9481: 9457: 9074: 8785: 8746: 8597: 8588: 8543:

for the wellbeing of a free man, possibly his master or a fellow Mithraic initiate. Vitalis was an

8427: 8215: 8201:

Bronze plaque recording the fulfillment of a vow to Feronia, a tutelary goddess of freedmen, by an

7582: 6698: 5855:, a public slave could be freed by a magistrate's declaration, with the prior authorization of the 5381: 5351: 5236: 4108: 3972: 3259: 2869: 2727: 2673: 2496: 2343: 2290: 2182: 1594: 1463: 1016: 805: 290: 191: 21851:

https://chs.harvard.edu/curated-article/snowden-lectures-keith-bradley-the-bitter-chain-of-slavery

19249:

Peter Morton, "The Geography of Rebellion: Strategy and Supply in the Two 'Sicilian Slave Wars',"

15567:

6.399. Terpsta expresses doubt about the sufficiency of the standard interpretation, primarily of

13706:

See discussions amongst Walter Scheidel, "Quantifying the Sources of Slaves in the Roman Empire,"

8846:

The value of the life of a slave differed from that of a conquering general in the nature of this

8319: 7703:

The experiences of captives, slaves, and fugitives were on constant display in Roman culture. The

7655: 7231:, without suspecting that this might be deliberate mischief, was concerned that his taking of the 6709:(art or skill) than it was in Rome. The best Greek medical schools did not admit slaves, and some 6680: 6109: 5491:

who rehearses dance-like moves and knife-wielding to meet the exacting standards of his teacher.

4126:

were trained for serving food, as their sexual purity was thought to confer hygienic benefits. A

2762:, deaths, and manumissions in large households concerned with lineage. Sometimes only one partner 2205:, and any force it had depended on "reasoned compliance with standards of international conduct". 470: 102:

to escape poverty. The slave trade, lightly taxed and regulated, flourished in all reaches of the

25310: 25290: 25230: 25220: 25210: 24616: 24205: 24185: 24100: 24090: 23795: 23735: 23715: 23427: 22444:

Jennifer A. Glancy, "The Sexual Use of Slaves: A Response to Kyle Harper on Jewish and Christian

20595: 14574: 14287:

Rio, “Self-sale,” drawing extensively on Ramin and Veyne, “Droit romain et société," pp. 472–497.

12345:

Keith Bradley, "'The Regular, Daily Traffic in Slaves': Roman History and Contemporary History,"

10874:

Marcel Mauss, "A Category of the Human Mind: The Notion of the Person, the Notion of 'Self'," in

10192: 9348: 8933: 8423: 7679: 7610: 7574: 7132: 6759: 6466: 6446: 6048: 6017: 5529: 5285:. A "poor" household was one in which the same few slaves did everything without specialization. 4934: 4568: 4167:

into the early 20th century, and there is some evidence that children worked in certain kinds of

3891: 3534: 2798: 1784: 1518: 1468: 1396: 1169: 947: 891: 874: 20599: 19629: 12701:

6.420; Hezser, “The Social Status of Slaves,” p. 96 (Hezser is skeptical of Josephus's numbers).

9764: 9335:

Mosaic depicting a scene from a Roman comedy, with the slave in chains (Tunisia, 3rd century AD)

9277:

prompted legislation prohibiting the castration of a slave against his will "for lust or gain".

8455:(keeper of accounts) for a senator; he had been manumitted before he died at the age of 32. The 7367:

began as a protest by enslaved herdsmen against deprivation and mistreatment, localized on the "

7235:

at home, which required ritual silence, would be vitiated by the farting of his napping slaves.

6185:

faced a labour shortage. Large Roman landowners increasingly relied on Roman freemen, acting as

6176: 6016:

Slaves may even have been routinely preferred to paid free labor in areas of employment such as

5209:, the tariff for a slave was the same as for a horse or mule. A law of the censors exempted the 2862: 2376: 25315: 25305: 25255: 25235: 25049: 25024: 24989: 24871: 24596: 24243: 24005: 23536: 22575: 21433: 20189:, a theme of Latin love poetry; Martin Beckmann, "Stigmata and the Cupids of Piazza Armerina," 19876:

As characterized by Matthew Roller, "In the Intersignification of Monuments in Augustan Rome,"

19018: 17770:(De Gruyter, 2023), p. vi, and "Without Rights? Social Theories Meet Roman Law Texts," pp. 6–7. 17498:

Jane Rowlands, "Dissing the Egyptians: Legal, Ethnic, and Cultural Identities in Roman Egypt,"

14568:

Morris Silver, "Places for Self-Selling in Ulpian, Plautus and Horace: The Role of Vertumnus,"

13832:

Christian Laes, "Infants between Biological and Social Birth in Antiquity: A Phenomenon of the

10848:

66:1 (2016), pp. 254–257, discusses the implications of this peculiar form of wishful thinking.

8515: 8115:(d. ca. 325) still thought that runaway slaves should be whipped, chained, and even crucified. 7501:

was briefer; the cause, "to break the bonds of their own grievous oppression". But its leader,

7432: 7352: 7106:

signed their work with their name and the possessive form of their master's name; for example,

5672: 5480: 5028: 4802: 4168: 4100: 3514: 3326: 3175: 1857: 1826: 1326: 1067: 979: 827: 551: 517: 512: 23371: 22629:

Harris, “Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade,” p. 120, n. 33, citing Columella 1.8.19 on

19298:

Morton, "The Geography of Rebellion," p. 22ff., from the logistical perspective of "terrain";

16308:, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire, from the Julio-Claudians to Constantine," 13810:

10.4.7 and John Chrysostom, homily 21 on First Corinthians 9:1 (on adults maiming themselves).

11881:

40.12.40 (Hermogenian), 40.13. 1 (pr Ulpian), and 40.13.3 (Papinian); pp. 93, n.17; 96-97, 99.

10503:

The Roman Law of Slavery: The Condition of the Slave in Private Law from Augustus to Justinian

8288:

was the site of special ceremonies pertaining to manumission. The goddess was identified with

7644: 5540:

advises farm owners to dispose of old and sickly slaves just as they would worn-out oxen, and

4838:

and attested by epigraphical evidence in which slaves are listed among commodities subject to

4346:

whereby the parents surrendered the newborn during the first week of life, before it had been

4076: 3919:

could have a darker side, depending on what kind of "house" the child was born and reared in.

3406:

them, torturing them to confess a crime, imprisoning them, or sending them involuntarily to a

2995:" derives. Both manumission and emancipation would involve transferral of some or most of any 25285: 25215: 25039: 24791: 24591: 24586: 24383: 24290: 24215: 24178: 24163: 24138: 24118: 24020: 21576: 17322:

Being Greek Under Rome: Cultural Identity, the Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire

16987:

Martin, “Slavery and the Ancient Jewish Family,” p. 128, citing Matthew 24:45 and Mark 13:35.

16476:

Christian G. De Vito and Alex Lichtenstein, “Writing a Global History of Convict Labour,” in

16345:

Imperial Mines and Quarries in the Roman World: Organizational Aspects 27–BC AD 235

13641: 12622: 10232:

38:3 (1943), p. 161, citing Livy 22.23.6–8, 22.60.3–4, 22. 61.3, 7, and 34.50.3–7; Plutarch,

9641:

Exposed Children in Roman Declamation: Commodification, Luxury, and the Threat of Violence,"

9120: 9070: 8680:(c. 175 AD) is inscribed around the top with the names of four gladiators; on this side, the 8109: 6944: 6627:

Mentions in ancient literature of medical care for slaves are infrequent. The medical writer

6504: 6282:

Estimates for the proportion of slaves in the population of the Roman Empire therefore vary.

6202: 4780: 4424: 4409: 4331: 4096: 3538: 3286:, inscriptions indicate that former slaves could be elected to all offices below the rank of 3139: 2703:(ca. 80 BC) celebrating the marriage between Aurelius Hermia and Aurelia Philematium as 2567:

The Roman citizen who enjoyed liberty to the fullest extent was thus the property owner, the

2307: 1688: 1543: 1456: 1441: 1123: 1111: 857: 842: 627: 402: 324: 295: 21702:“Grave Relief of Silversmith, feat. Kenneth Lapatin” (audio file), Getty Museum Collection, 20340:," p. 154–155. More in evidence among the Greeks: Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions," p. 100. 19189:

68:1 (1973), pp. 25–35; R. T. Pritchard, "Land Tenure in Sicily in the First Century B.C.,"

15880:

Marice E. Rose, "The Construction of Mistress and Slave Relationships in Late Antique Art,"

14896:

Image, Craft, and the Classical World: Essays in Honour of Donald Bailey and Catherine Johns

13983:

35 (1988) 152–163; Keith R. Bradley, "Wet-nursing at Rome: A Study in Social Relations," in

13802:

Laes, "Child Slaves," pp. 269–270, citing mainly Roman comedy and the rhetorical tradition,

10199:(W. W. Norton, 2015), pp. 68–69, qualifying this statement as the view of "some historians." 8028: 7666:, who according to tradition was himself traded as a slave. The earliest written version of 4882: 4071:

contracts exist for free and slave children, with few differences in terms between the two.

2556:

was a defining aspect of Roman citizenship in the Republican era; free noncitizen residents

37:, Tunisia (2nd/3rd century AD): two large slaves carrying wine jars each wear an 25295: 25260: 24949: 24816: 24716: 24641: 24506: 24469: 23845: 23509: 23242: 23238: 22738:

Harris, “Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade,” p. 138, n. 90, citing Martial 9.59.1–6.

22532:

Kathy L. Gaca, "Controlling Female Slave Sexuality and Men's War-Driven Sexual Desire," in

22401:"Chapter 15 - Of the Liberty Proper to Man's Nature, and the Servitude Introduced by Sin," 21324: 17885:

1.26, as cited by Clarence A. Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves in Antiquity,"

16978:

Martin, “Slavery and the Ancient Jewish Family,” p. 128, citing Matthew 21:34 and 25:14–30.

15297:

that the inability of infants also to walk calls the rigor of this reasoning into question.

10297: 9681:

manumitted instead of himself so that any children they had would be born as free citizens.

9396: 9320: 9316: 9223:

However, most prostitutes were slaves or freedwomen, and paintings found in Roman brothels

8820: 8658: 8466:

In the East, especially during the first century BC, large numbers of “holy” slaves (Greek

8376: 8372: 8033: 7795: 7399: 7270:, when many slaves held by the Romans would have been soldiers captured from the armies of 5061:, a word of likely Greek origin that had connotations of "huckster"; in Greek more bluntly 4949: 4909:

fairs and markets in small towns, where slaves would've been among various goods exchanged;

4583:

by the number of free workers seeking wages and skilled slaves with an incentive to earn.

4491: 4484: 4305: 3523: 3438: 2723: 2564:

could not buy and sell this form of property without a special grant of commercial rights.

2268: 1885: 1831: 1730: 1693: 1621: 1565: 1434: 1391: 1205: 1135: 810: 590: 492: 376: 283: 130: 24939: 22433:

Roman Readings: Roman Responses to Greek Literature from Plautus to Statius and Quintilian

16382:

Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," pp. 127–128, 132, 137–138, 146.

15314:, pp. 43–44, citing Ulpian on the Edict of the Curule Aediles, book 2 (Digest.21.1.38.14). 13710:

87 (1997) 159–169; W. V. Harris, "Demography, Geography and the Sources of Roman Slaves,"

8503:

states that the chief priest of the Temple of Ma at Comana did not have the right to sell

5179:—a figure that may indicate some 250,000 sales. By comparison, the sales tax on slaves in 5168:

attempted to impose a tax on slave ownership, which was squelched by "bitter opposition."

5053:, "something that can be bought," especially as a substantive, a human being for sale) or 4400:, and the reality that parents might be driven by poverty or debt to sell their children. 4323:

Some parents may have arranged to hand over the neonate directly for payment as a sort of

4241:" might have been safe havens where slave-born and free children of all statuses mingled. 3309:

for the freedman Tiberius Claudius Chryseros and two women, probably his wife and daughter

8: 25225: 25074: 24876: 24746: 24696: 24015: 23612: 21681:

Valerie Hope, “Fighting for Identity: The Funerary Commemoration of Italian Gladiators,”

21042:

Richard P. Saller, "Symbols of Gender and Status Hierarchies in the Roman Household," in

20069:

Clarke, "Doing Violence to the Roman Idea of Liberty," pp. 219–220, citing Acts 22:23–29.

18289:

Valerie Hope, “Fighting for Identity: The Funerary Commemoration of Italian Gladiators,”

17002: 14876:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126, citing Strabo 11.493, 495–496

13078: 10356:

Marjorie C. Mackintosh, "Roman Influences on the Victory Reliefs of Shapur I of Persia,"

10282: 9715: 9654:

The stand has sometimes been described as revolving, based on a mention in the poetry of

9085: 9050: 8925: 8495: 8475: 8277: 8238:

reflected the wives' anxiety about the introduction of slave girls into the household as

7898:

in Greek and Latin sources, a practice most attested as a consequence of condemnation to

7692: 7638: 7613:

of having 30,000 fugitive slaves rounded up and returned for punishment to their owners.

7472: 7407: 7068: 6803: 6763: 6667: 5871:

could write a will and bequeath up to half his estate, and could also receive bequests.

5837: 4890: 4150: 4088: 3542: 3415: 3341: 2980:. The equivalent act for the releasing of a minor child from their father's legal power ( 2907: 2249: 2157: 2056:

as a euphemism for the relationship of a master to his slaves. The word for "master" was

1314: 1294: 1179: 1164: 1033: 1004: 994: 884: 832: 800: 597: 455: 423: 418: 371: 228: 21693:

74 (1984), pp. 147–156, which includes commemorative inscriptions by masters for slaves.

13718:

38 (2008), especially p. 267; Elio lo Cascio, "Thinking Slave and Free in Coordinates,"

12627:. Cambridge Introduction to Roman Civilization. Cambridge University Press. p. 55. 12093:

1.43, as cited by Pedro López Barja, Carla Masi Doria, and Ulrike Roth, introduction to

9343:

Bronze figurine of an actor wearing a comic mask and portraying a slave (3rd century AD)

8770:), which Pliny frames as the "republic" within which slaves hold a kind of citizenship ( 8653:

in his left. Despite these realistic details of his craft, Agatho is depicted wearing a

7601:. The harboring of fugitive slaves was against the law, and professional slave-catchers 6275:

that the slave population was ten million in a total imperial population of 50 million.

6232:

or higher; and those of humbler free status who were increasingly subjected to forms of

5589:

From the Middle Republic on, unmanageable slaves might be punished by confinement to an

25275: 24999: 24806: 24661: 24601: 24521: 24464: 24328: 23564: 23543: 23318: 23185: 23149: 23133: 23081: 22967: 22396: 21944: 21496: 21191: 21168:

Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion: Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual

21111: 20849: 20305:

Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions," p. 104, citing Martial, 2.29.9–10 and Libanius 25.3.

17838: 15246:

Johnston, Mary. Roman Life. Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1957, p. 158–177

15212:

As indicated by his attire: Hughes, "The Proclamation of Non-Defective Slaves," p. 245.

14210: 14062: 13603:

The age of the second child is less legible; Laes, "Child Slaves," pp. 250–252, citing

12738: 12197: 11235: 10820: 10344: 9723: 9469: 9401: 9262: 9132: 9046: 8528: 8128: 8071: 8059: 7481: 7419: 7257: 7076: 6989: 6887: 6616: 6609: 5456: 5401: 5293: 5165: 5103: 5090: 4412:

said they were forced to sell their children in order to pay the heavy taxes levied by

4234: 4057: 3780: 3639: 3193: 3170:(1895) of the atrium of the House of the Vettii, thought to have been owned by freedmen 3059: 2828: 2786: 2533: 2401: 2387: 2237: 2177:). In Ulpian's tripartite division of law, the "law of nations" was considered neither 2100: 2049: 1560: 1406: 1381: 1371: 1336: 1331: 1299: 1264: 1257: 1198: 1191: 1048: 867: 862: 852: 622: 475: 433: 428: 381: 349: 339: 276: 24914: 22793:

Ra'anan Abusch, "Circumcision and Castration under Roman Law in the Early Empire," in

19723: 15559:

Taco T. Terpsta, "The Palmyrene Temple in Rome and Palmyra's Trade with the West," in

12034:

Egbert Koops, "Masters and Freedmen: Junian Latins and the Struggle for Citizenship,"

9587:

A perimeter of banishment is found in an unusual case of AD 9, when the Germans under

7878: 6936:

may have marked someone as a slave when his name was also in common use for free men.

6546: 6093:(trainers or managers of gladiators) shared the disreputable status of their workers. 4941:, where the practice of slavery may not be typical of Italy or the empire as a whole. 4751:

is likely to have had "regular and heavy" slave trading, as is the prosperous city of

4427:, the first Christian emperor, tried to alleviate hunger as one condition that led to 3651:

are so called because commanders sell captives and through this make it usual to save

2048:, the "father" or head of household and more precisely the estate owner. According to 497: 443: 24909: 24761: 24516: 24476: 24454: 23662: 23304: 23213: 23192: 23153: 23141: 23125: 23093: 23085: 23048: 23029: 22993: 22971: 21948: 21716: 21703: 20943: 20233: 20193:

125:3 (2021) 461–469; the V had previously been interpreted as a manufacturer's mark.

18333: 17779:

Sandra R. Joshel, "Nurturing the Master's Child: Slavery and the Roman Child-Nurse,"

17596:(Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 42, and “Roman Slavery and Roman Law,” p. 481. 17389: 17365: 17293: 17244: 16891:

Willem Zwalye, "Valerius Patruinus' Case Contracting in the Name of the Emperor," in

15261: 14456: 14408: 13785: 13280: 12638: 12628: 12587:

Tim Cornell, 'The Recovery of Rome' in CAH2 7.2 F.W. Walbank et al. (eds.) Cambridge.

12402: 12392: 12189: 9740: 9105: 9097: 9093: 9092:, but while slaves were regarded as human beings with souls that needed to be saved, 8812: 8759: 8650: 7903: 7663: 7498: 7486: 7364: 7266:

The earliest slave uprisings occurred during, and in the immediate aftermath of, the

7261: 7253: 7205: 6636: 6540: 6496: 6002: 5637: 4896: 4682: 4475: 4396:

Roman law thus grappled with the tensions among the supposed sanctity of free birth,

4280: 4042: 3667:, "under the wreath." War booty, including conquered land, was customarily auctioned 3570: 3266:. But they could hold neighborhood and local offices which entitled them to wear the 3227:

of AD 4 allowed a patron to take his freedman to court for not carrying out his

3126: 3114: 2331: 2170: 2092: 2088: 1648: 1366: 1361: 1304: 1289: 1269: 1091: 1086: 1021: 984: 817: 783: 612: 465: 354: 233: 19316:

Aaron L. Beek, "The Pirate Connection: Roman Politics, Servile Wars, and the East,"

18271: 16645:

Peter J. Holliday, "The Sarcophagus of Titus Aelius Evangelus and Gaudenia Nicene,"

15494:

H. W. Pleket, "Urban Elites and Business in the Greek Part of the Roman Empire," in

14958:

Crawford, “Republican Denarii in Romania,” p. 121, citing Diodorus 5.26 and Cicero,

14732:

Aaron L. Beek, "The Pirate Connection: Roman Politics, Servile Wars, and the East,"

8499:

for religion as a source of social order, tended not to capitalize on them as such.

6573:

at the bottom to the sometimes wealthy and influential slaves of the imperial house

5699:

among the punishments that degraded the citizenship status of the lower classes—the

5626: 3205:). Freedmen and patrons had mutual obligations to each other within the traditional 2881:

Slaves within a wealthy household or country estate might be given a small monetary

2797:

and her husband. Roman women, including freedwomen, could own property and initiate

24974: 24934: 24866: 24801: 24726: 24721: 24493: 24416: 24363: 24158: 24153: 24042: 23901: 23850: 23810: 23780: 23775: 23770: 23760: 23682: 23629: 23622: 23607: 23602: 23526: 23454: 23117: 23073: 23021: 22959: 22868: 22504:

The Sleep of Reason: Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece and Rome

22461:

Jennifer A. Glancy, "Obstacles to Slaves' Participation in the Corinthian Church,"

21936: 21754: 21312: 19512: 18963: 18651: 18431: 17547:"Sicilia Nutrix Plebis Romanae": Rhetoric, Law, And Taxation In Cicero's "Verrines" 16195:

Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave," p. 111, citing the jurist Gaius interpreting the

15952: 15932: 15829:

Martin Schermaier, "Neither Fish nor Fowl: Some Grey Areas of Roman Slave Law," in

15568: 13803: 13779: 13646: 12181: 12097:, Edinburgh Studies in Ancient Slavery (Edinburgh University Press, 2023), pp. 7–8. 11079:

Martin Schermaier, "Neither Fish nor Fowl: Some Grey Areas of Roman Slave Law," in

10300:. See for instance Dubs, “An Ancient Military Contact between Romans and Chinese,” 10162:

Bradley, "The Early Development of Slavery at Rome," p. 1, especially n. 2, citing

9534:: "Rome has provided the paradigm of patriarchy in western thought," based on "the 9434:

A core period of Roman history producing the most abundant extant literary sources.

9112: 8601: 8576: 8438: 8344: 8144: 7807: 7799: 7652: 7443: 7329: 7267: 7003:

Among the mismatched appellations found in surviving documents are the Greek names

6948: 6628: 6580: 6490: 6454: 6207: 6192: 5951:

could travel and act independently on business. One common managerial role was the

5841: 5660: 5375:

storefronts complicates the distinction between household and general urban labor.

5328: 5197:, as they were all around the Empire. In AD 137, for example, the customs dues in 4851: 4713: 4677:

is an example of the volatility and disruptions of the slave trade. In the eastern

4297: 4238: 4213:

Statuette of a slave boy waiting with a lantern for his master (1st–2nd century AD)

4190: 3770: 3742: 3727: 3574: 3553:

of AD 66–70 alone resulted in the enslavement of 97,000 people. The future emperor

3511:

of the 1st and 2nd centuries still produced slaves “in more than trivial numbers.”

3497:

sold the entire population, numbering 53,000 people, to slave dealers on the spot.

3255: 3223: 3131: 3071: 2624: 2409: 2359: 2302: 2286: 2185:, the legal code particular to a people or nation. All human beings are born free ( 2155:

in which someone is subject to the dominion of another person contrary to nature" (

2096: 2001: 1843: 1416: 1411: 1401: 1376: 1341: 1309: 1279: 1152: 1140: 1118: 1096: 1043: 879: 847: 149: 20275:

Deborah Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions: Representing Slave Marks in Antiquity,"

19001:(1980), p. 111, as cited by Bradley, "Roman Slavery and Roman Law," p. 489, n. 35. 18332:“Grave Relief of a Silversmith,” Getty Museum Collection, object number 96.AA.40, 17334:

Walter Scheidel. 2005. 'Human Mobility in Roman Italy, II: The Slave Population',

16076:

Shopping in Ancient Rome: The Retail Trade in the Late Republic and the Principate

15105:"Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898), Catasta" 15081:

Hughes, "The Proclamation of Non-Defective Slaves," p. 258, citing Aulus Gellius,

14373:(University of Chicago Press, 2013), pp. 51–53, citing mainly the works of Cicero. 12501:

1.3, as cited by John Madden, "Slavery in the Roman Empire: Numbers and Origins,"

9667:

Since slaves could not enter into a marriage contract, "wife" usually refers to a

7624:

in the mid-4th century placed any Christian who encouraged slaves to escape under

7384: 6959: 3678:, "under the wreath" because in early times they would have been wreathed like a 3578: 2954: 25069: 24881: 24861: 24821: 24756: 24706: 24701: 24576: 24526: 24434: 24268: 24248: 24168: 23617: 23442: 22963: 22887:

The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 1, The Ancient Mediterranean World

22499: 22332: 22074: 21861: 21818:," pp. 231–232, citing as one exaple Digest 2823.4 (Paulus libro 17 quaestionum). 21425: 21099: 20724: 20582: 20123:

The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 1, The Ancient Mediterranean World

18278: 17753:, Freedom, Citizenship: Golden Triangle or Vicious Circle? An Act in Two Parts," 17607:

The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 1. The Ancient Mediterranean World

17287: 16803: 16254:

Ulrike Roth, "Thinking Tools: Agricultural Slavery between Evidence and Models,"

15959: 14580: 13774: 13617: 13026:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128, citing Strabo 14.664.

12140: 12051:, Freedom, Citizenship: Golden Triangle or Vicious Circle? An Act in Two Parts," 11939: 11894:, Freedom, Citizenship: Golden Triangle or Vicious Circle? An Act in Two Parts," 11688:, Freedom, Citizenship: Golden Triangle or Vicious Circle? An Act in Two Parts," 11414:, Freedom, Citizenship: Golden Triangle or Vicious Circle? An Act in Two Parts," 11359: 11304: 11196: 11178:

Ulrike Roth, "Thinking Tools: Agricultural Slavery between Evidence and Models,"

10340: 9378: 9116: 9100:

that refer in English translations to "servants" are in fact about slaves (Greek

8998: 8854:, in the words of Varro—under law was property loss to the owner. And yet in the 8836: 8673: 8231: 7621: 7439: 7198: 7080: 5740: 5728: 5724: 5180: 5119:

normalizes the trade in slaves as like any other prosperity-seeking marketplace.

4871: 4859: 4847: 4788: 4273: 4266: 4035: 3908:

of freedmen suggests that former slaves might take pride in their birth within a

3730:

as a young man. When the pirates realized his high value, they set his ransom at

3656: 3302: 3282: 2982: 2665:

granted slaves the right to complain against their masters in a court. And under

2633: 2516:(1st century BC) asserted that liberty “does not consist in having a just master 2391: 2323: 2112: 2032: 1752: 1638: 1633: 1386: 1356: 1351: 1074: 1038: 837: 755: 460: 206: 29: 22653:

Looking at Lovemaking: Constructions of Sexuality in Roman Art 100 B.C.–A.D. 250

20667:

39 (1908), pp. 61–65; Holt Parker, “Crucially Funny or Tranio on the Couch: The

18256: 16258:

92 (2007), pp. 3, 17, 36, citing Columella 12.1.5, 12.3.3, and 12.3.8 and Cato,

14971:

Walter Scheidel, "Quantifying the Sources of Slaves in the Early Roman Empire,"

14199:

Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child," pp. 197 (on the role of mothers), 201–204.

12544:

Walter Scheidel, "Quantifying the Sources of Slaves in the Early Roman Empire,"

11855:

As discussed by Wiedemann, "The Regularity of Manumission at Rome," pp. 162–175.

11786:

Walter Scheidel, "Quantifying the Sources of Slaves in the Early Roman Empire,"

9771:

were eaten, but some scholars have wondered whether Vedius may rather have kept

9168:

had some moderating influence, and upper-class slaveholders who exploited their

8218:

attest to the presence of slaves in Roman society from the earliest period. The

6787: 5659:. In an early example of condemnation to hard labor, enslaved captives from the 5421:: all aspects of food preparation and service employed both free and slave labor 4903:

small-scale transactions owner-to-owner in which a single slave might be traded;

4229:

had a legal status as slaves. A tradesman might foster an abandoned child as an

3561:

after executing those who were old or infirm. When his son and future successor

2504:

of Valerius Petronianus, with his slave holding writing tablets (4th century AD)

25124: 24766: 24501: 24449: 24421: 24368: 24353: 24333: 24148: 24123: 24080: 24070: 23896: 23870: 23800: 23785: 23750: 23710: 23471: 23025: 22613: 22424: 22163: 21025:

Angela N. Parker, "One Womanist's View of Racial Reconciliation in Galatians,"

19423: 19366: 19030:

Keith Bradley, "The Problem of Slavery in Classical Culture" (review article),

17851:

Gerard B. Lavery, "Training, Trade and Trickery: Three Lawgivers in Plutarch,"

17078: 15765:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," pp. 124, 138 n. 81, citing

15294: 13082: 13063: 13057:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 124, citing mentions in

12927:

Gabrielsen, “Piracy and the Slave Trade,” p. 392, citing Livy 34.50.5; Appian,

12697: 11934: 10208: 9824: 9595:. Mistrusting the loyalty of the army of the Rhine, which would have preferred 9562: 9453: 9285: 9258: 8906: 8568: 8460: 8315: 8293: 8223: 8169: 8017: 7790: 7542: 7538: 7490: 7337: 7282: 7228: 7131:

been given clothing that looked like that of free people who did similar work;

6977: 6859: 6517: 6500: 6186: 6131:, and prostitution was legal throughout the Roman Empire in all periods before 5928: 5886: 5852: 5828:

and other public buildings and were attached especially to the public treasury

5732: 5537: 5476: 5297: 4709:

slaves, who went on to lead the years-long slave rebellions of 135 and 104 BC.

4457: 4180: 4119: 3939:, and their brothel upbringing seems to have been regarded as a selling point. 3617: 3387: 3268: 3251: 2726:. The lack of legal personhood meant that slaves could not enter into forms of 2710: 2666: 2417: 2327: 2245: 2209: 2146: 1995: 1917: 1836: 1725: 617: 258: 216: 91: 87: 23077: 22502:, "The Incomplete Feminism of Musonius Rufus, Platonist, Stoic, and Roman" in 22400: 21940: 16862:: The Social Profile of a Servile Profession," p. 130, n. 24; Jesper Carlsen, 16735:

William V. Harris, "Roman Terracotta Lamps: The Organization of an Industry,"

14602:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126, citing Suetonius,

14409:"Roman Slavery: The Social, Cultural, Political, and Demographic Consequences" 12406: 10370:, tr. by Reuben Levy (1967) 284, on Shapur's use of Roman engineers and labor. 9730:

name may indicate that Julius Caesar himself granted his family's citizenship,

9677:

wished to retain the advantages of his position, he might arrange to have his

7894:

Fugitive slaves might be marked by letters tattooed on their forehead, called

7122:

Handmaid looking through a storage box, detail of a wall painting from Pompeii

6722:. During the reign of Augustus, the celebrated Publius Decimus Eros Merula of 5719:

in the municipalities; the quarrying of building stone and fine stone such as

2902:

in the form of property could include other slaves put at the disposal of the

2754:

was normally a cohabitation between two slaves within the same household, and

25345: 24656: 24626: 24541: 24075: 24052: 23865: 23720: 23705: 23652: 23459: 23145: 23129: 22823:(Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 288ff., especially p. 297 on manumission. 22431:: Public Attitudes and Penalties for Sexual Offences in Republican Rome,” in 21627: 20951: 20429:

Jennifer Trimble, "The Zoninus Collar and the Archaeology of Roman Slavery,"

20327:," p. 143, and more abundantly Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions," pp.105–107. 18319:

Brent D. Shaw, "The Great Transformation: Slavery and the Free Republic," in

16305: 16245:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Slave Trade," p. 120, citing Columella 1.8.4.

15397:

Brent D. Shaw, "The Great Transformation: Slavery and the Free Republic," in

13731:

Laes, "Child Slaves," pp. 262–263, citing as example the commemoration of an

13714:

89 (1999), 62–75; Christian Laes, "Child Slaves at Work in Roman Antiquity,"

13625: 12695:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 122, citing Josephus,

12642: 12193: 12151: 11499: 10888: 10834:. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 216–227. 10825: 10570: 10485: 10421:

57:4 (1940), pp. 371–372; W. B. Henning, “The Great Inscription of Šāpūr I,”

10293: 10163: 10018: 9669: 9151: 8921: 8831: 8827: 8677: 8181: 8037: 7856:

A slave who had been put in chains as punishment was labeled thereafter as a

7827: 7755: 7671: 7103: 7032: 6631:

has one title among his works that stands out as not self-evidently medical:

6604: 6458: 5980: 5864: 5776: 5736: 5414: 5276: 5145: 4678: 4643: 4572: 4428: 4376: 4343: 4324: 4104: 4084: 3796: 3784: 3708: 3670: 3660: 3585: 3494: 3380:

Although in general freed slaves could become citizens, those categorized as

3350: 3167: 3094: 3067: 3006: 2731: 2569: 2194: 2127: 2116: 2080:(1st century AD) asserts that this right dated back to the legendary time of 2044: 1989: 1909: 1774: 1698: 1145: 1128: 903: 733: 723: 507: 157: 76: 22759:

10.4.17 on the cruelty of castrating male slaves to prolong their appeal to

20013:

Watson, "Roman Slave Law and Romanist Ideology," citing the Greek historian

19369:

found at multiple sites in Sicily; Beek, "The Pirate Connection," pp. 31–32.

16418:

Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," pp. 140, 145–146.

16113:

Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," pp. 335-336, citing Seneca,

8977:

6. There is an obligation to improve the conditions under which slaves live.

8539:

in present-day Romania).The best preserved is the dedication of an altar to

7380: 4747:, the Phrygian writer of fables, was supposed to have been sold at Ephesus. 4591: 4237:

grew their community was by taking in abandoned and orphaned children, and "

3942:

Some scholars think that the majority of slaves in the Imperial period were

2839:

is what a father or master allows his child or slave to manage as his own.”

25134: 24994: 24439: 24388: 24343: 24338: 24190: 24000: 23886: 23830: 23825: 23597: 23481: 23415: 22872: 21404: 21400: 20509: 19452: 19206:

Keith R. Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions in Ancient Sicily,"

19197:

pushing out small farmers in favor of ranching operations employing slaves.

18984:

Keith R. Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions in Ancient Sicily,"

18513:

American Academy in Rome (University of Michigan Press, 2014), pp. 121–122.

17810: 17784: 17364:. Cambridge University Press, 2011, pp. 58–60, and footnote 150. 16632: 15981:

The Houses of Roman Italy, 100 B.C.-A.D. 250: Ritual, Space, and Decoration

13068: 12386: 11087:

is cited as extralegal or ad hoc marriage even though not matrimony by law.

10893:

Ancient Rome: From the Early Republic to the Assassination of Julius Caesar

10712: 9254: 9081: 9017: 8959: 8646: 8612: 8540: 8471: 8422:

were those who served Rome's traditional religious practices. The cult of

8324: 8227: 8180:

criminally fugitive if they ran away in despair and attempted suicide. The

8153: 8141:

to his throat, in the moment before he commits suicide to escape captivity

7930: 7907: 7774: 7765: 7714: 7617: 7476: 7341: 7333: 7314: 7299: 7221: 6988:

occur. But the distribution of slave names as recorded by inscriptions and

6651: 6182: 6148: 6069: 5976: 5919: 5911: 5860: 5856: 5845: 5825: 5808: 5798: 5716: 5573: 5446: 5418: 5408: 5247: 5141: 4912:

slave markets in major cities, where auctions were held on a regular basis.

4814:

Roman coin hoards dating from the 60s BC are found in unusual abundance in

4616: 4555: 4453: 3875: 3792: 3754: 3731: 3597: 3263: 3118: 3081: 3042: 2992: 2960: 2806: 2690: 2643: 2457: 2449: 2294: 2008: 1943: 1779: 1611: 1587: 1493: 1486: 1217: 745: 718: 681: 659: 546: 263: 243: 221: 211: 201: 196: 186: 122: 103: 95: 22079:

The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy

21432:(Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 227, citing 20020:

20.13 as "weak" evidence of censorial powers and likely not well informed.

19010:

Dan-el Padilla Peralta, "Slave Religiosity in the Roman Middle Republic,"

15129:"Statius, P. Papinius, Silvae, book 2, Glauctas Atedii melioris delicatus" 14785:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 127, citing Varro,

7406:

and minting coins. Slave families formed a community at the stronghold of

7227:

Resistance might occur on a daily basis at a low-grade, even comic level.

6762:

are those he wrote to one of his administrative slaves, the well-educated

6244:

subject to exploitation. Some see these laws as the beginning of medieval

6189:, instead of slaves to provide labour. The status of these tenant farmers 3923:

born to enslaved brothel workers were advertised as such in graffiti from

3611: 2968:

Slaves were released from their master's control through the legal act of

2455:

The legal process originally developed for reintegrating war captives was

1026: 24929: 24551: 24373: 24263: 23657: 23043:

Bowman, Alan K.; Garnsey, Peter; Rathbone, Dominic (1982). "Demography".

22642:

Harris, “Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade,” pp. 120, 135 (n. 36).

21753:, vol. 2 (Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 213–214, citing Digest ( 20580:

103:1 (2010), pp. 79–80, with possible iconographical resemblance to the

19894: 18840: 18831: 18007:

Clarence A. Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves in Antiquity,"

17988:

Gary B. Ferngren, "Roman Lay Attitudes towards Medical Experimentation,"

16197: 16061:(Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988), p. 144, 144, 178; Kathryn Hinds, 15919:

Clarence A. Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves in Antiquity,"

14488:

Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire," pp. 519 and 522–524.

14240: 12842: 11436: 9299: 9165: 9088:. Roman Christians preached that slaves were human beings and not things 9054: 8892: 8840: 8802: 8572: 8401: 8173: 8053: 7995: 7984: 7513:

The rebellion broke out on a relatively trivial scale, only seventy-four

7374: 7320: 7176: 7091: 6932:, are attested, but rather than being suffixed to the master's name, the 6844: 6817: 6808: 6794: 6743: 6655: 6615:

often cited for its humane considerations of the slave as a human being,

6524: 6462: 6450: 5343:

in administration, who were not subject to the whims of a single master.

5319: 5289: 5082: 4938: 4823: 4792: 4700: 4624: 4612: 4579: 4533:

Self-sales are in evidence mainly when challenged in court on grounds of

4285: 4203: 4164: 4080: 3846: 3831: 3820: 3735: 3482: 3468: 3337: 3214: 3151: 2973: 2442: 2413: 2274: 2178: 2151: 1616: 1604: 957: 760: 750: 708: 522: 22795:

The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite

21474:

Marietta Horster, "Living on Religion: Professionals and Personnel", in

16391:

Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," pp. 128, 138.

13004:

1:12. The reference to paying ransom to Romans may suggest war captives.

12385:

Schmeling, Gareth L; Arbiter, Petronius; Seneca, Lucius Annaeus (2020).

11585:

Kehoe, Dennis P. (2011). "Law and Social Function in the Roman Empire".

11161:

Pedro López Barja de Quiroga, "Freedmen Social Mobility in Roman Italy,

9331: 9249:, whatever the desired age, to prostitutes or slaves. The Imperial poet 8252:) was held August 13 in honor of Servius Tullius himself. Like the 7662:

A fugitive slave is the protagonist of a tale that became familiar from

7545:

special command of the consular forces, and the tide of the war turned.

7139:. Men wore a shorter tunic, while the tunics of women covered the legs. 6900: 3306: 2835:

is in the proper sense something which belongs to minors or slaves. For

2293:(217 BC), the treaty included terms for ransoming prisoners of war. The 2225:(265–201 BC) producing the most dramatic surge in the number of slaves. 25154: 25094: 25059: 24851: 24786: 24776: 24671: 24556: 24444: 24027: 23995: 23740: 23667: 23499: 23494: 22270: 21492: 21377:(Oxford University Press, 2002; First Fortress Press, 2006), p. 27 16409:

Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," pp. 139–140.

16373:

Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," pp. 124–125.

16126:

Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," p. 334, citing Cicero,

15370:

The Cambridge World History of Slavery: The Ancient Mediterranean World

15042:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," pp. 126, 138 n. 93.

14624:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," pp. 126, 138 n. 93.

14524:

The Cambridge World History of Slavery: The Ancient Mediterranean World

13871: 12201: 12169: 10392: 10290: 9596: 9213: 9197: 9124: 9032: 8865: 8536: 8385: 8309: 8257: 8253: 8112: 7849: 7839: 7822: 7733: 7554: 7447: 7388: 7151: 6976:

Slave names at times may reflect ethnic origin; in the early Republic,

6967: 6904:

Epitaph for a Narcissus, one of the most popular Greek names for slaves

6855:

construction with two Latin names and a strikingly non-Latin cognomen.

6438: 6198: 5935: 5772: 5654: 5591: 5523: 5252: 5093:

that their identical appearance was therefore all the more remarkable.

4768: 4740: 4690: 4674: 4651: 4632: 4628: 4620: 4466: 4300:, the “Milk Column” landmark about which little is known. The satirist 4176: 4160: 4068: 4064: 3775: 3589: 3519: 3507: 3361: 3275: 3016: 2588: 2547: 2222: 2202: 2181:, thought to exist in nature and govern animals as well as humans, nor 2027:

From Rome's earliest historical period, domestic slaves were part of a

1964: 1951: 1769: 1061: 765: 632: 23384: 23137: 23097: 21927:

Westermann, William Linn (1942). "Industrial Slavery in Roman Italy".

19918:

Likely alluded to in a similar incident at Trimalchio's dinner party,

19047:

Thomas E. J. Wiedemann, "The Regularity of Manumission at Rome,"

18080:

7812; on the size of his estate, Cornelia M. Roberts, "Roman Slaves,"

16454:

Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," p. 141–142.

16048:

Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire," pp. 525–526, 528.

14497:

Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire," pp. 514–515, 518.

12905:

Vincent Gabrielsen, "Piracy and the Slave-Trade," in A. Erskine (ed.)

12760:

Ulrike Roth, "The Gallic Ransom and the Sack of Rome: Livy 5.48.7-8,"

10844:

S. J. Lawrence, “Putting Torture (and Valerius Maximus) to the Test,”

10078:

Spartacus and the Slave War 73–71 BC: A Gladiator Rebels against Rome.

9694:

are often readily confused with one another in the historical sources.

9339: 9127:'s defense that both slave and free were inherently equal before God. 8944:

1. Slavery is natural, a normative view most notoriously expressed by

7732:, the immensely specialized household staff of the fictional freedman 7427:, a law concerning piracy and the slave trade associated with it. The 7313:

among herdsman, who were also to play a leading role in the first two

5889:, along with his wife, Ulpia Fortunata; Ulpius Telesphorus, of likely 5712:

might have to be transported great distances to serve their sentence.

5366:, most were engaged in trades and manufacturing. Occupations included 5235:(scribe or manuscript copyist) to the countryside to carry baskets of 25184: 25179: 25139: 25064: 25034: 25014: 24891: 24831: 24741: 24691: 24686: 24611: 24571: 24459: 24429: 24238: 24113: 23906: 23790: 23765: 23644: 22578:, "Public Honour and Private Shame: The Urban Texture of Pompeii" in 22151: 21357: 21091: 20665:

Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association

19617:

Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order

19539:

Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order

19179:

Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association

19108:

Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association

18608:

So argued by Bruun, “Greek or Latin? The owner's choice of names for

18059:, p. 114; Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," p. 344–345. 18009:

Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association

17887:

Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association

16491:

Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association

15921:

Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association

15629: 14178: 13205:

Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association

12976: 12527:

Alice Rio, "Self-Sale and Voluntary Entry into Unfreedom, 300-1100,"

12448: 12095:

Junian Latinity in the Roman Empire. Vol. 1: History, Law, Literature

10366: 10107:

Natural Law and Political Realism in the History of Political Thought

9772: 9177:

contributed to the perception of the household's respectability. The

9005: 8993: 8945: 8861: 8856: 8807: 8723: 8605: 8531:

were open to slaves and freedmen, and at some cult sites most or all

8391: 8368: 8281: 8269: 8235: 8161: 8132: 7954: 7941: 7916: 7862: 7803: 7728: 7675: 7667: 7514: 7505:, arguably the most famous slave from all antiquity and idealized by 7502: 7294: 7162:

is mocked "for dressing above her station" and wearing bronze rings.

6813: 6727: 6658:

was located, led to such homelessness and contagion that the emperor

6584: 6551: 6044: 6027: 5924: 5881: 5753: 5720: 5541: 5472: 5391: 5367: 5355: 5268: 5176: 5150: 5124: 5108: 4867: 4843: 4828: 4796: 4776: 4461: 4417: 4327: 4258: 4184: 3995:, about a quarter can be securely identified as slaves; the place of 3932: 3927:, sometimes with a price or the sexual service they provided. Of the 3758: 3558: 3554: 3427: 3407: 3382: 3375: 3356: 2831:, looking back from the early 7th century, offered this definition: “ 2661:

decreed that if a slave was abandoned by his master, he became free.

2559: 2525: 2421: 2319: 2213: 2165:(2nd century AD) also regarded slavery as an aspect of the 2131: 2015: 1009: 674: 536: 118: 72: 19965:

Africa, "Adam Smith," pp. 71 ("stock villain"), 75, and 77, note 16.

18958:

R. T. Pritchard, “Land Tenure in Sicily in the First Century B.C.,”

17768:

The Position of Roman Slaves: Social Realities and Legal Differences

17485:

Thomas Harrison, "Classical Greek Ethnography and the Slave Trade,"

17272:

Keith R. Bradley, "On the Roman Slave Supply and Slavebreeding," in

16530:

Trade and Taboo: Disreputable Professions in the Roman Mediterranean

15507:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Slave Trade," p. 129, citing Pliny,

12849:

21:3/4 (1927), p. 123, n. 1, citing the work of Köchling and Wilken.

12185: 10976:

The Position of Roman Slaves: Social Realities and Legal Differences

10614:

The Position of Roman Slaves: Social Realities and Legal Differences

7837:

In the Republican period, a large agricultural estate would have an

7736:

includes a pair of torturers who stand by with whips. The physician

7467: 7183:, so a rich attendee would bring a slave to wrangle their footwear. 6108:

Actors were moreover subversive because the theatre was a place for

5909:. Public and imperial slaves were among those most likely to have a 4498:

with a traditional story that varied in its particulars; broadly, a

3647:

to war captivity as an alternative to killing the defeated: "Slaves

3290:—a fact obscured by elite literature and ostensible legal barriers. 2906:-holder; in this sense, inscriptions not infrequently record that a 691: 25144: 25129: 25119: 25104: 25019: 25009: 24979: 24969: 24964: 24954: 24856: 24771: 24651: 24636: 24566: 24546: 24536: 24531: 24511: 24310: 23891: 23855: 23745: 23672: 23504: 23121: 22196:(Society of Biblical Literature, 2012), p. xxx, citing Philodemus, 21340: 21055: 21005: 20805:

may be only the crossbar that distinguishes a cross from the stake.

19825:

Jennifer A. Glancy, "Slaves and Slavery in the Matthean Parables,"

18042:

Ramsay MacMullen, "Social Ethic Models: Roman, Greek, 'Oriental',"

17692:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128, citing

17679:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128, citing

17529: 16427: 15323:

Hughes, "The Proclamation of Non-Defective Slaves," p. 255, citing

14633:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126, citing

13559: 13058: 12958:

Gabrielsen, “Piracy and the Slave Trade,” p. 393, citing Plutarch,

12736:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 122, citing

10472:

Stanly H. Rauh, “The Tradition of Suicide in Rome's Foreign Wars,”

10361: 10038:(University of London Institute of Classical Studies, 1987), p. 32. 9600: 9588: 9253:

describes a specialized market to meet this demand, located at the

9058: 8987: 8729: 8483: 8426:

was transferred to the keeping of public slaves in 312 BC when the

8289: 8219: 8000: 7926: 7742: 7696: 7625: 7526: 7285:; they were punished in the earliest securely attested instance of 7271: 7236: 7187: 7145: 6847:

Publius Curtilius Agatho (d. early 1st century AD), known from his

6829: 6739: 6659: 6599: 6486: 6442: 5831: 5503: 5452: 5172: 5156: 5075: 4989: 4863: 4784: 4772: 4748: 4717: 4667: 4603: 4206:

there is often little practical difference between free and slave.

3630: 3546: 3502: 3490: 3322: 3076: 2658: 2405: 2365: 2335: 2282: 2253: 2104: 1957: 1599: 1157: 1101: 1053: 713: 558: 413: 319: 42: 22755:

47; see also Bernstein, “Adoptees,” p. 339, n. 32, citing Seneca,

22570:: The Sexual Economy of Female Prostitution in the Roman Empire," 21524:: The Sexual Economy of Female Prostitution in the Roman Empire," 21082:

Fanny Dolansky, "Reconsidering the Matronalia and Women's Rites,"

20491:: The Sexual Economy of Female Prostitution in the Roman Empire," 19519:, vol. 2 (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 489, citing Plutarch. 17644:

Fanny Dolansky, "Reconsidering the Matronalia and Women's Rites,"

17155:: The Sexual Economy of Female Prostitution in the Roman Empire," 16400:

Millar, "Condemnation to Hard Labour in the Roman Empire," p. 139.

14572:

67:4 (2014), p. 580; on the Temple of Castor as the site, Seneca,

10616:, Dependency and Slavery Studies, vol. 6 (De Gruyter, 2023), p. 1. 10417:

M. Sprengling, “Shahpuhr I the Great on the Kaabah of Zoroaster,”

10268:

Jon Coulston, “Courage and Cowardice in the Roman Imperial Army,”

10140:

Bradley, "The Early Development of Slavery at Rome," p. 6, citing

7455:

incompetent Roman response enabled them to prolong the rebellion.

7398:, maintained communal cohesion and motivation on the model of the 6116:

was a slave who was manumitted because of his literary abilities.

5743:. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, convicts began to be sentenced to 5202: 5193:

on slaves imported to or exported from Italy were taken at harbor

4354:

over the infant to the new family from the beginning of its life.

3447: 25164: 25159: 25149: 25114: 25109: 25099: 25044: 25029: 24846: 24841: 24826: 24796: 24751: 24731: 24711: 24666: 24398: 24253: 24032: 23840: 23835: 23725: 22348:

Glancy, "Slaves and Slavery in the Matthean Parables," pp. 71–72.

21642:

103:3 (1982), pp. 233–246, pp. 238–239 on epitaphs in particular.

21504: 21500: 21087: 20706:

John Granger Cook, "Crucifixion as Spectacle in Roman Campania,"

19898: 19744: 19120: 19119:

Holt, "Crucially Funny," pp. 237–238, citing Livy 32.26.4–18 and

18302:

Christer Bruun, “Greek or Latin? The owner's choice of names for

15572: 15528:

Bosworth, “Vespasian and the Slave Trade,” p. 356, citing Pliny,

15072:

Hughes, "The Proclamation of Non-Defective Slaves," pp. 250, 253.

14371:

Arbitrary Rule: Slavery, Tyranny, and the Power of Life and Death

14000:

Laes, "Infants between Biological and Social Birth," pp. 364–383.

13936: 13636: 13544:

Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 247, and Bradley, "Child Labor," p. 326.

12664:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," pp. 118, 122.

11864:

Wiedemann, "The Regularity of Manumission at Rome," pp. 165, 175.

11735:

Thomas E. J. Wiedemann, "The Regularity of Manumission at Rome,"

10446:: The Impact of the Roman Model of Citizenship on Rabbinic Law,” 10256: 10251: 10170:(Cambridge 1978), pp. 99–100 on the criteria for "slave society." 9655: 9358: 9354: 9274: 9250: 9226: 9159: 9155: 9128: 8798: 8773: 8593: 8548: 8520: 8487: 8265: 8157: 8094: 8076: 7980: 7922: 7759: 7710: 7705: 7530: 7506: 7428: 7303: 7159: 7031:, "slave"). German slaves memorialized in the family tomb of the 6791:

Publius Curtilius Agatho, a freed craftsman who worked in silver

6536: 6245: 6155: 6142: 6113: 6073: 6059: 6021: 5761: 5558: 5549: 5484: 5438: 5432: 5427: 5206: 5198: 5194: 5164:

on an assessed value ten times the purchase price. In 40 BC, the

4953: 4855: 4835: 4819: 4756: 4752: 4736: 4732: 4706: 4659: 4647: 4608: 4539: 4509: 4309: 4301: 4146: 3965: 3924: 3787:, was kidnapped by pirates around AD 400 and taken as a slave to 3766: 3703: 3698: 3486: 3345: 3330: 3287: 3089: 2719: 2508:

Fundamentally, the slave in ancient Roman law was one who lacked

2473: 2339: 2081: 1582: 664: 344: 161: 110:

Even modest households might expect to have two or three slaves.

22981:

The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster

22146:

C. E. Manning, "Stoicism and Slavery in the Roman Empire,"

22120:

C. E. Manning, "Stoicism and Slavery in the Roman Empire,"

22109:

The Therapy of Desire: Theory and Practice in Hellenistic Ethics

21386:

K.R. Bradley, "On the Roman Slave Supply and Slavebreeding," in

21285:

The Function of Humour in Roman Verse Satire: Laughing and Lying

20823:

John Granger Cook, "Crucifixion as Spectacle," pp. 69–70, 80–82.

16692:

John Madden, "Slavery in the Roman Empire Numbers and Origins,"

15230:

Hughes, "The Proclamation of Non-Defective Slaves," pp. 249–250

14984:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," pp. 125–126.

14754:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," pp. 126–127.

13169:

John Madden "Slavery in the Roman Empire: Numbers and Origins,"

12794:

Alexander Thein, "Booty in the Sullan Civil War of 83-82 B.C.,"

11833:

Wiedemann, "The Regularity of Manumission at Rome," pp. 173–174.

11450:

Roman Inequality: Affluent Slaves, Businesswomen, Legal Fictions

11220:," pp. 49–59, 64, weighing utilitarian and humanitarian motives. 10000:: refugee narratives in Augustan versions of Roman prehistory," 9569:

marriage remained attached to her, along with profits generated.

8762:

said that he permitted his slaves to write up a “sort of will” (

7966: 7914:, and the most notable passage in Latin literature comes in the 4858:

for a slave; Cicero mentions a slave trader from Gaul in 83 BC.

3971:

Children brought into a household to be fostered without formal

3199:) in relation to his former master, who then became his patron ( 2404:

became the first emperor to be held captive after his defeat by

98:

quite early in Rome's history, some people sold themselves into

25174: 25054: 24984: 24924: 24919: 24886: 24646: 24631: 24581: 24561: 23983: 23860: 23755: 23163:

The Cambridge Ancient History: The High Empire A.D. 70–192

22508:

Fear of Slaves—Fear of Enslavement in the Ancient Mediterranean

21788:

Meyer, “Explaining the Epigraphic Habit,” p. 80, citing Pliny,

21132: 21073:

Saller, "Symbols of Gender and Status Hierarchies," p. 91.

19219:

Verbrugghe, "Sicily 210-70 B.C.," p. 540; on a certain type of

18836:

Slave Theater in the Roman Republic: Plautus and Popular Comedy

17705:

Bradley, "'The Regular Daily Traffic in Slaves'," pp. 133, 137.

16214:

William V. Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade,"

16139:

Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," p. 334, citing

16017:

Forbes, "The Education and Training of Slaves," p. 334, citing

15085:

4.2.1, noting reliefs that depict slaves wearing such a tablet.

13740: 13554: 13086: 12723:

Hezser, “The Social Status of Slaves,” p. 96, citing Josephus,

12710:

Hezser, “The Social Status of Slaves,” p. 96, citing Josephus,

12574:

William V. Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade,"

11773:

William V. Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade,"

11096:

Susan Treggiari, "Family Life among the Staff of the Volusii,"

10249:(Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 96, in connection with the 9270: 8872: 8751: 8662: 8500: 8479: 8336: 8285: 8239: 8093:

An inscription from the late 1st century BC documents a law at

8087: 7750: 7674:(2nd century AD). Androclus is serving in the household of the 7566: 7550: 7522: 7310: 7289:

among the Romans. In 198 BC, Carthaginian captives rebelled at

7278:

is the main but not always a clear source for these uprisings.

6940: 6755: 6723: 6705: 6684: 6128: 6101: 5890: 5519: 5442: 5190: 5128: 4961: 4761: 4694: 4686: 4596: 4554:

However, self-sale cases that made it to the level of imperial

4112: 3983:), "those who have been nurtured". Even if cared for lovingly, 3762: 3719: 3443: 3291: 3062:; all three were ratified by the state. The public ceremony of 2700: 2513: 2501: 2348: 2342:, where their fate is unknown. While thoughts of returning the 2162: 1284: 1106: 686: 669: 531: 366: 334: 51: 38: 34: 23045:

The Cambridge Ancient History XI: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192

21864:, "You Shall Not Kill: Hierarchies of Norms in Ancient Rome," 21638:

Ramsay MacMullen, “The Epigraphic Habit in the Roman Empire,”

21086:

104:2 (2011), pp. 197, 201–204 (and especially n. 40), citing

19338:

Beek, "The Pirate Connection," p. 100, citing Diodorus 36.3.2.

17289:

Rome at War: Farms, Families, and Death in the Middle Republic

16152:

Keith Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave: The Truth of Fiction,"

15410:

Shaw, "The Great Transformation," p. 190. For a local dealer,

14705:

Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," pp. 171, 175, 176.

13987:(Cornell University Press, 1986, 1992), p. 202; Beryl Rawson, 12535:

30:4 (1981), as deserving of more scholarly interest (p. 662).

12514:

Keith Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave: The Truth of Fiction,"

10819: 10659:: The Slave Chapter of Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices," 10063:

Keith R. Bradley, "The Early Development of Slavery at Rome,"

8108:

Although crucifixion under the Christian emperors abated, the

8032:

One of the earliest extant depictions (ca. AD 420–430) of the

7948:

scars left by whipping were also "read" as inscribing slaves.

6167:

such as gladiator matches and public theatrical performances.

6127:

Prostitutes in the city of Rome had to be registered with the

5955:, someone who ran a business that remained fully owned by the 5425:

In the city of Rome, working people and their slaves lived in

5004:; those who sold them therefore were not merchants or traders 4854:

says that in pre-conquest Gaul, wine merchants could trade an

3621:

onyx cameo depicting the elevated Augustus receiving a wreath

3529:

depicting a personification of the defeated province of Judaea

3450:, Turkey) depicting a Roman soldier leading captives in chains 2472:

An investigative procedure was put in place under the emperor

2326:. The Parthians captured 10,000 survivors after the defeat of 90:

was a major source of slaves. From the 2nd century BC through

24959: 24681: 24408: 23700: 22357:

Glancy, "Slaves and Slavery in the Matthean Parables," p. 82.

21908:

1.17.1, as cited by Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave," p. 110.

21137: 20600:

https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_1856-0623-5

19739: 18435: 15280:

for 12, applying to sales of slaves and cattle in the market.

14894:

Ralph Jackson, "Roman Bound Captives: Symbol of Slavery?" in

13553:

Bradley, "Child Labor," p. 326, citing the poetic example in

10153:

Bradley, "The Early Development of Slavery at Rome," pp. 7–8.

9711: 9708: 8880: 8532: 8446: 8197: 8041: 7887: 7883: 7737: 7594: 7518: 7395: 7368: 7356:

Bronze coin issued by the rebel slave leader Eunus Antiochus

7290: 7193: 7136: 6997: 6735: 6710: 6532: 6478: 6205:

issued legislation that greatly restricted the rights of the

6010: 5801:, where he held several governmental positions up to that of 5793: 5757: 5370:, engravers, shoemakers, bakers, and mule drivers. The Roman 5313: 5183:

had been 20 percent. The slave-sales tax was increased under

5000:, as human beings they were not to be considered merchandise 4815: 4744: 4728: 4724: 4655: 4534: 4444: 4413: 4386: 3593: 3562: 2579: 2520:, but in having none.” The common Latin word for "slave" was 541: 527: 502: 23231:

The Enslavement of War Captives by the Romans to 146 BC

21775:

MacMullen, "The Unromanized in Rome," p. 53, citing Horace,

20852:, "The Suicide of Decebalus on the Tropaeum of Adamklissi," 19396:

Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," pp. 449–550.

19240:

Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," pp. 441–442.

17575:

Maeve O'Brien, "Happier Transports to Be: Catullus' Poem 4:

17465:

Africa in Europe: Antiquity into the Age of Global Expansion

16445:

Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire," p. 520.

16284:

Miroslava Mirković, "The Later Roman Colonate and Freedom,"

16182:

Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave," p. 110, citing Columella,

16039:

Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire," p. 514.

15094:

Hughes, "The Proclamation of Non-Defective Slaves," pp. 245.

15055:("on slaves for sale") of the Edicts of the Curule Aediles ( 14919:

Jackson, "Roman Bound Captives: Symbols of Slavery?" p. 151.

14393:

Conquerors and Slaves: Sociological Studies in Roman History

10326:

3.5.6, from Jake Nabel, "Horace and the Tiridates Episode,"

6038: 5927:(1st century AD) says that personnel for the city of Rome's 5667:

and sent to work in a quarry after they rebelled in 198 BC.

5514: 4595:

The Roman Empire at its greatest extent during the reign of

4118:

In wealthy, socially active households of the Imperial era,

3726:

No traveler was safe; Julius Caesar himself was captured by

3522:

issued by Vespasian, one among a twenty-five-year series of

2552:

for transferring ownership. The exclusive right to trade in

25169: 24736: 24676: 24258: 23634: 22863:

Hopkins, Keith (1993). "Novel Evidence for Roman Slavery".

21840:

Wiedemann, "The Regularity of Manumission at Rome," p. 162.

21541:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128.

21508: 21488: 21408: 21154: 20963:

Bradley, "The Early Development of Roman Slavery," pp. 2–3.

19705:

Morris Silver, "Contractual Slavery in the Roman Economy,"

18625:

Hope, “Fighting for Identity,” p. 101, citing inscriptions

17911:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 127.

17434:"Estimated Distribution of Citizenship in the Roman Empire" 15863:

Peter Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire,"

15846:

Christian Laes, “Child Slaves at Work in Roman Antiquity,”

15221:

Hughes, "The Proclamation of Non-Defective Slaves," p. 246.

15186:

Morris Silver, "Contractual Slavery in the Roman Economy,"

14867:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126.

14858:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 128.

14849:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 127.

14807:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 127.

14798:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 127.

14615:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126.

14559:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126.

14550:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 126.

14475:

Peter Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire,"

14455:. Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté. pp. 15–25. 14343:

Morris Silver, "Contractual Slavery in the Roman Economy,"

14177:

20 and the prevalence of Greek names in the slave lists of

14026:

during the High Empire: Roman midwives and the decision of

13922:

Morris Silver, "Contractual Slavery in the Roman Economy,"

13399:

Christian Laes, "Child Slaves at Work in Roman Antiquity,"

13128:

Morris Silver, "Contractual Slavery in the Roman Economy,"

12971:

Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave," p. 112, citing Plutarch,

12751:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 122.

12673:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. 122.

12118:

Wiedemann, "The Regularity of Manumission at Rome," p. 163.

11942:; some scholars see it as a more straightforward procedure. 11873:

Morris Silver, "Contractual Slavery in the Roman Economy,"

11477:

Peter Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire,"

11427:

Morris Silver, "Contractual Slavery in the Roman Economy,"

10141: 9064: 8661:

curator Kenneth Lapatin has compared to going to work in a

8654: 8430:

families originally charged with its maintenance died out.

8137: 7593:

Fugitive slaves were considered criminals, whose crime was

7275: 6823: 6554:

for a 26-year-old slave named Florus, set up by his master

6162: 5821: 5184: 5081:

companion and socialized with the future emperor Augustus.

4767:

In the north Aegean, a large memorial to a slave trader in

4663: 4650:

may have been the second busiest. Trading also occurred at

3687: 3099: 2873: 2662: 2217: 2108: 408: 238: 22310:, p. 150, and especially notes 5–7 for further discussion. 21046:(Routledge, 1998; Taylor & Francis, 2005), p. 90. 20104:

Holt Parker, "Crucially Funny or Tranio on the Couch: The

19996:

Holt Parker, "Crucially Funny or Tranio on the Couch: The

19076:

Holt Parker, "Crucially Funny or Tranio on the Couch: The

15615:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Slave Trade," pp. 132–133.

15151:

Bradley, "'The Regular, Daily Traffic in Slaves'," p. 128.

14993:

Harris,“Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade,” p. 121.

14330: 14328: 12828:(Edinburgh University Press, 2013), citing Aulus Gellius, 12214:

Koops, "Masters and Freedmen," p. 110, especially note 32.

11587:

The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World

10488:, “Aliens, Ambassadors, and the Integrity of the Empire,” 10131:

Bradley, "The Early Development of Slavery at Rome," p. 7.

9353:

Slaves are depicted ubiquitously in the Roman comedies of

7870:

was barred from obtaining citizenship even if manumitted.

7810:

who has seized him acknowledges the error by backing off.

7806:

after having been bound and threatened with flogging, the

5820:

was a slave owned not by a private individual, but by the

4866:, the Arab peninsula, and what used to be referred to as " 4705:

likely received great numbers of Delian-traded Syrian and

3154:

in the 6th century gave bishops the power to free slaves.

2600:, the “free ones” in the household) and the slaves of the 2596:

had the right to sell, punish, or kill both his children (

2420:, southwest Iran, celebrate the victories of Shapur I and 2149:

described slavery as "the state that is recognized by the

23730: 21727:

Dale B. Martin, “Slavery and the Ancient Jewish Family,”

20121:

Michele George, "Slavery and Roman Material Culture," in

19606:), as cited by Silver, "Places for Self-Selling," p. 582. 18975:

George, “Slave Disguise,” p. 44, 51, n. 14 citing Seneca.

18838:(Cambridge University Press, 2017), pp. 116, 121, citing 17783:

12:1 (1986), p. 4, with reference to the classic work of

17714:

Bradley, "'The Regular Daily Traffic in Slaves'," p. 133.

17562:

L. Richardson Jr., "Catullus 4 and Catalepton 10 Again,"

14745:

Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," pp. 169, 175.

12252:(American Philological Society, 1953, 1991), p. 564. 10926:

Dale B. Martin, “Slavery and the Ancient Jewish Family,”

10383:: Genital attacks on Roman emperors and other primates,” 9306: 8547:, a treasurer probably in the administration of imperial 7565:

The last slave rebellion of the Republic was put down at

7309:

The last rebellion of this period broke out in 185 BC in

6294:

Estimated distribution of citizenship in the Roman Empire

6001:

for the slave to manage in effect created a company with

5836:. Most performed general, basic tasks as servants to the 5708:

Some provinces did not have mines, so those condemned as

5115:

was an everyday feature of classical Roman religion; the

3861:

There was a stronger social obligation to care for one's

3184:), including the right to vote. A slave who had acquired 2301:

ended up paying the ransom himself. After the disastrous

21575:

205 (2018), pp. 268–276. The other two are dedicated to

20996:

Bradley, "The Early Development of Roman Slavery," p. 3.

20563:

Kurt Weitzmann, introduction to “The Late Roman World,”

19922:

52.4, according to Barry Baldwin, "Careless Boys in the

19289:

Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," p. 447.

19150:

Holt, "Crucially Funny," p. 238, citing Livy 39.29.8–10.

17635:

Martin, “Slavery and the Ancient Jewish Family,” p. 113.

16561:. American Philosophical Society (reprint). p. 706. 16030:

Forbes, “Education and Training of Slaves,” pp. 331–332.

15541:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade," p. .

15260:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 96. 14763:

Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," pp. 175–176.

14668:

Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," pp. 170–171.

12565:(Oxford 1971), p. 707; Hopkins 1978, pp. 8–15. 9798:(Archaeopress 2020), p. 97, noting the decorated tunics 8478:, where 6,000 male and female slaves served, and of the 8379:

or Tutula came up with a plan to deceive the enemy: the

6197:

steadily eroded. Because the tax system implemented by

4611:. The major centers of the Imperial slave trade were in 3960:

Funerary monument (AD 101–125) for the 16-year-old

2285:

enslaved Roman war captives in large numbers during the

23256:

Bosworth, A. B. 2002. "Vespasian and the Slave Trade."

23209:

The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World

19572:

Bradley, "Roman Slavery and Roman Law," p. 488, citing

19405:

Anne Searcy, "The Recomposition of Aram Khachaturian's

19378:

Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," p. 442.

19347:

Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," p. 442.

19307:

Bradley, "Slave Kingdoms and Slave Rebellions," p. 441.

19141:

Holt, "Crucially Funny," p. 238, citing Livy 33.36.1–3.

17511:

Harrison, "Classical Greek Ethnography," citing Varro,

16866:(L'Erma di Bretschneider, 1995), p. 148, n. 492, cites 16288:

87:2 (1997), p. 42, noting that in other contexts, the

16169:

Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave," p. 110, citing Cato,

14423:

Slavery in classical Antiquity. Views and controversies

14325: 12468:. Cambridge University Press. vol. 1, p. 429. 12158:(University of Michigan, 1998, 2002), pp. 23, 209. 12100: 11165:

44:3 (1995), pp. 345–346 and n. 68, disputing Bradley,

10599:

Tim Cornell, “Rome: The History of an Anachronism,” in

9906:, and the Roman Conception of the Family," pp. 342–343. 9722:

in the first century BC; his cognomen is distinctively

9145:

Sexuality in ancient Rome § Master-slave relations

8367:(female slaves or "handmaids") during the war with the 7958:, those who held no citizen rights even if manumitted. 7902:. The tattooing of slaves had been expressly banned in 7890:

forehead tattoo chastising them as penal slaves of love

6429:

Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness § Ancient Rome

5636:

working a mill alongside chained horses, fragment of a

5566:

and have children. It was especially desirable for the

4478:

he was supposed to be exempt from corporal punishment.

3873:

were more likely to be allowed to cohabit as a couple (

3761:(within present-day Turkey) was a center of the trade. 3280:

of the provinces and later in towns with the status of

2735: 2120: 22591:

Alan Watson, "Roman Slave Law and Romanist Ideology,"

21390:(Frank Cass Publishers, 1987, 1999, 2003), p. 63. 19987:

Africa, "Adam Smith," p. 73, for the characterization.

19939:

Alan Watson, "Roman Slave Law and Romanist Ideology,"

18068:

George C. Boon, "Potters, Oculists and Eye-Troubles,"

17549:(Institute of Classical Studies, 2007), p. 31, citing 16956:

Alan Watson, "Roman Slave Law and Romanist Ideology,"

15786:, and the Gendered Semantics of the Roman Household," 15293:(Hambledon Press, 1991), p. 252, observing along with 13499:

Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 253, citing Columella 12.4.3.

12940:

Gabrielsen, “Piracy and the Slave Trade,” pp. 393–394.

12384: 12285:(Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 41–43, 68, 90 11980:

Daube, "Two Early Patterns of Manumission," pp. 61–62.

11519:, and the Gendered Semantics of the Roman Household," 10857:

Alan Watson, "Roman Slave Law and Romanist Ideology,"

10733:, and the Gendered Semantics of the Roman Household," 9877:, and the Gendered Semantics of the Roman Household," 7529:

and quickly dispatched the forces of three successive

7306:, after which the leaders were flogged and crucified. 7142:

In depictions of domestic scenes, tunics of handmaids

6267:

For Italy of the period from the mid-sixties to 30 BC

5255:(in present-day Tunisia) depicting two female slaves ( 4716:, from which it never recovered. Other cities such as 4507:), as distinguished from the slave or social outcast ( 3817:

named Martialis, who died just under the age of three

3394:"the worst kind of freedom." Slaves whose masters had 23042: 23018:

A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds

21588:

Egri et al., "A New Mithraic Community," pp. 269–270.

20673:

Transactions of the American Philological Association

20249:: Tattooing and Branding in Graeco-Roman Antiquity," 20110:

Transactions of the American Philological Association

20002:

Transactions of the American Philological Association

19082:

Transactions of the American Philological Association

18511:"Memoria Romanum": Memory in Rome and Rome in Memory, 18269:

Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology

17823:

Dolansky, "Reconsidering the Matronalia," pp.205–206.

17423:

Frier, "Demography", 789; Scheidel, "Demography", 39.

17243:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 298. 16236:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Slave Trade," p. 119.

15597:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Slave Trade," p. 129.

14734:

Transactions of the American Philological Association

14395:. Cambridge University Press, New York. Pgs. 4–5 14208:

Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child," p. 182, citing

13434:

Keith R. Bradley, "Child Labour in the Roman World,"

13279:. London: Bristol Classical Press. pp. 139–140. 13203:

S. L. Mohler, "Slave Education in the Roman Empire,"

12777:

Thomas Wiedemann, "The Fetiales: A Reconsideration,"

12304:

Transactions of the American Philological Association

11284:

Transactions of the American Philological Association

11098:

Transactions of the American Philological Association

10601:

City States in Classical Antiquity and Medieval Italy

10474:

Transactions of the American Philological Association

10419:

American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures

10015:

Transactions of the American Philological Association

10013:

Rex Stem, "The Exemplary Lessons of Livy's Romulus,"

9915:

Benedetto Fontana, "Tacitus on Empire and Republic,"

8192: 6677:

Publius Pupius Mentor, a freedman and medical doctor

6527:

records her home as having been in Northern Italy; a

3791:, where he continued work that eventually led to his 2707:, fellow slaves in the same household who were freed 2491: 23009:

The Roman Cult of Mithras: The God and His Mysteries

21151:

The Cult of Silvanus: A Study in Roman Folk Religion

20744:

Cook, "Crucifixion as Spectacle in Roman Campania,"

20684:

Holt, “Crucially Funny,” p. 237, citing Livy 22.33.2

20095:

Bradley, "Roman Slavery and Roman Law," pp. 492–493.

20047:

Bradley, "Roman Slavery and Roman Law," pp. 491–492.

17902:(Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 17, 93, 238. 17808:

103:2 (Dec.–Jan. 2007/2008), p. 175, citing Cicero,

17605:

Harris, "Towards a Study of the Roman Slave Trade,"

16819:

Treggiari, ""Jobs in the Household of Livia," p. 50.

16553: 16551: 15812: 15810: 15808: 15806: 15804: 15802: 15800: 15575:

community of either slaves or slave traders in Rome.

15372:, vol. 1 (Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 300. 14526:, vol. 1 (Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 302. 13662:

T. A. Rickard, "The Mining of the Romans in Spain,"

10906:

Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law in Ancient Rome

10017:

137:2 (2007), p. 451, citing Livy 1.8.5–6; see also

9538:

with his unlimited legal powers over members of his

8835:

taken as individual existence, is not significant,"

7336:, the first two of which originated in Rome's first 5947:

A slave whose master gave him “free administration”

4771:

suggests that this might have been a location where

3999:

as slaves in the household seems similar to that of

3663:

by executing their senate but selling the survivors

3344:, one of the biggest and most magnificent houses in 1539:

Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery

22821:

Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome

22655:(University of California Press, 2001), pp. 99–101. 22536:(University of Wisconsin Press, 2021), pp. 42, 50, 22521:

Slavery in the Late Roman Mediterranean, AD 275–425

21751:

Death and Renewal: Society Studies in Roman History

20878:Keith Bradley, ‘On Captives under the Principate,” 19765:Keith Bradley, "On Captives under the Principate," 19724:

https://www.bellasartes.gob.ar/coleccion/obra/5498/

18723:Thomas Wiedemann and Jane Gardner, introduction to 17017:

Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome

16849:

Treggiari, "Jobs in the Household of Livia," p. 50.

16748:David Johnston, "Law and Commercial Life of Rome," 16004: 16002: 15893:Susan Treggiari, “Jobs in the Household of Livia,” 14723:

Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," p. 175.

14696:

Huzar, "Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos," p. 170.

14047:Laes, "Infants Between," p. 376, citing K. Harper, 12996:(Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2013), p. 246, citing 12557:Keith Bradley, "On Captives under the Principate," 12464:Jane F. Gardner. 2011. "Slavery and Roman Law", in 11565:Jane F. Gardner, “The Adoption of Roman Freedmen,” 11494:: Paradoxes of Slaves with Property," p. 115, and " 9813:

The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire

9623:" above) but “politics was more important than the 9303:, a law that allowed him to seek property damages. 8972:

5. Slaves are human beings worthy of humane regard.

7882:Mosaic (early 4th century) depicting two fishermen 7471:The Third Servile War has lent itself to countless 7325:, and 7,000 were condemned to death; some escaped. 6535:; a ten-year-old girl named Abaskantis, taken from 5201:for teenage slaves was 2 to 3 percent of value. At 5023:Funerary monument of Gaius Aiacius, a slave-trader 3325:. Their influence grew to such an extent under the 2138:and the status of freedmen, who are referred to as 23184: 22905:New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. (99–169). 22885:Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge, introduction to 21717:https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/104034 21704:https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/104034 21287:(Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 298–300 21248:(Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 221,222. 21246:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome 20921:Bradley, Slavery and Society, pp. 111–112, citing 20882:58:3/4 (2004), p. 314, citing Cassius Dio 77.14.2. 18334:https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/104034 17800:Victoria Emma Pagán, “Teaching Torture in Seneca, 17055:Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions," pp. 76, 82–83. 16323:Livy: Books XXXI-XXXIV with an English Translation 16286:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 16089:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome 15833:(De Gruyter, 2023), p. 242, citing Digest (Ulpian 15818:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome 15628:52:1 (2002), pp. 350-357, arguing on the basis of 15571:, that this dedication should be connected to the 14269:Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child," pp. 187–188. 14190:Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child," pp. 172–178. 14106:Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child," pp. 188–191. 12358: 11907:David Daube, "Two Early Patterns of Manumission," 11344:Antti Arjava, "Paternal Power in Late Antiquity," 10674:Patriarchy, Property and Death in the Roman Family 9620: 9532:Patriarchy, Property and Death in the Roman Family 8339:calls their freedom of speech "December liberty" ( 7998:in Africa identifies the fugitive wearing it as a 7866:who were technically free but held no rights, the 7489:, has been perennially restaged since 1956 by the 7413: 6703:Medicine was held in higher regard in Greece as a 5893:freedman lineage and a relative of the wife or a 4846:to exchange slaves for the necessary commodity of 4548: 4202:household for labor, among workers who were still 3295: 3105:Freedom might also be granted informally, such as 3102:ruled that the state had no interest in doing so. 3092:, which might include transferring ownership of a 2976:"), meaning literally a "releasing from the hand" 2068:was the word for his control over the slaves. The 23020:. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 488–503. 22335:, "Slaves and Slavery in the Matthean Parables," 21329:The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic 21110:, ed.P. Scholliers (Oxford 2001), pp. 23–33, and 20380:Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions," pp. 96–97, 99/ 19738:, p. 107, citing Aulus Gellius 5.14, who credits 19271:Morton, "The Geography of Rebellion," pp. 29, 35. 18902:Joshel, Slavery in the Roman World, pp. 133, 135. 18130:Westermann, Slave Systems, p. 114, citing Galen, 17125:Amy Richlin, "Sexuality in the Roman Empire," in 17073:D. Selden, "How the Ethiopian Changed His Skin," 16750:Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 16548: 16321:William Heinemann, notes to Livy 32.26.17–18, in 15797: 15624:A. B. Bosworth, “Vespasian and the Slave Trade,” 15436:A. B. Bosworth, “Vespasian and the Slave Trade,” 14816:A. B. Bosworth, "Vespasian and the Slave Trade," 14646:Eleanor G. Huzar, "Egyptian Relations in Delos," 14227:during the High Empire," pp. 227–228, citing the 13622:Homilies on the Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans 12949:Gabrielsen, “Piracy and the Slave Trade,” p. 393. 12918:Gabrielsen, “Piracy and the Slave Trade,” p. 393. 12826:New Frontiers: Law and Society in the Roman World 12807:Roth, "The Gallic Ransom," p. 463, citing Varro, 12260: 12258: 8451: 8168:and escape the master's control or abuse. One of 7347: 7317:. The Apulian shepherds were accused of banditry 5479:that produce chefs and professional servers when 4320:and all infants of the household, free or slave. 2933: 2734:as a matter of law because he could not exercise 2615:Although slaves were recognized as human beings ( 2573:who had a legal right to control the estate. The 2512:, liberty defined as “the absence of servitude." 25343: 22523:(Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 294–295. 21166:H.S. Versnel, "Saturnus and the Saturnalia," in 20869:(Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 44, 111. 19262:Morton, "The Geography of Rebellion," pp. 28–29. 18160:Boudon-Millot, “Greek and Roman Patients,” p. 9. 17362:Slavery in the Late Roman World, AD 275–425 16347:(Oxford University Press, 2010), sect. 3.3. 15999: 10796: 10794: 10792: 10790: 9751:, a young man depicted with grace and softness ( 9154:, though the use of prostitutes was prohibited. 9024:, an accident that might befall a person, not a 8101:, generally taken as another term for the cross 7988: 7631: 7011:for a Jewish woman whose child was named Jacob, 6583:were mostly written by or for slaveholders, and 5362:Of slaves in the city of Rome not attached to a 5311:In the Imperial era, a large elite household (a 3040:might also buy the freedom of a fellow slave, a 2672:As the Roman Empire was becoming Christianized, 2583:, the "house" of his extended family, as master 2232: 1654:13th Amendment to the United States Constitution 121:in 71 BC; slave uprisings grew rare in the 23047:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 827–54. 22056:Bradley, "The Problem of Slavery," pp. 276–277. 21445:Leonhard Schumacher, "On the Status of Private 19596:Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 19550:Naerebout and Singor, "De Oudheid", p. 296 19208:Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 18986:Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 18735: 18733: 18310:(University of Toronto Press, 2013), pp. 21–22. 18228:Bradley, "Roman Slavery and Roman Law," p. 484. 17388:. Duckworth with the Classical Press of Wales. 16864:"Vilici" and Roman Estate Managers until AD 284 16778:Leonhard Schumacher, "On the Status of Private 16630:VI 2354 on the designation of a public slave's 16532:(University of Michigan Press, 2016), pp.70–71. 15498:(University of California Press, 1983), p. 139. 14385: 13436:Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 11808:Leonhard Schumacher, "On the Status of Private 11624:Bradley, "Roman Slavery and Roman Law," p. 485. 11278:Thomas A. J. McGinn, "Concubinage and the 10878:(Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979), p. 81. 10122:(Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 85. 10065:Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 9497:Other words used to refer to the slave include 9004:One of the major Roman-era Stoic philosophers, 8617:"Eros the cook, slave of Posidippus, lies here" 8417: 7886:at left wearing servile clothing, with a V for 7462: 7201:quarry, is evidence of organized patchworking. 6603:being that a "good" master would provide care. 5995:The owner who set aside money or property as a 5942: 5618:Remains of a mill and bakery complex in Pompeii 5340: 5227: 4899:outlines four market venues for slave trading: 3414:or condemning them to fight with gladiators or 2767: 23212:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 38–86. 22395: 21683:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 21459:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 21029:, 34:2 (2018), p. 36, citing Jennifer Glancy, 20971: 20969: 20814:Cook, "Envisioning Crucifixion," pp. 266, 270. 20598:, The British Museum, museum no. 1856,0623.5, 20358:Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions," pp. 95, 98. 19974:Africa, "Adam Smith," pp. 73, citing Seneca, 19722:," Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires, inv. 5498, 19430:(University of California Press, 1974), p. 20. 19414:originally conceived by the composer (p. 365). 19251:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 19229:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 18291:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 17755:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 17727:, vol. 2: Carnuntum (Hollitzer, 2023), p. 735. 17500:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 17241:Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History 17028:Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions," pp. 66–67. 17006:on some restrictions outside the city of Rome. 16792:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 16325:(Harvard University Press, 1935), pp. 236–237. 16256:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 15368:Walter Scheidel, "The Roman Slave Supply," in 15242: 15240: 14522:Walter Scheidel, "The Roman Slave Supply," in 13935:Silver, "Contractual Slavery,” p. 108, citing 13720:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 13048:Madden, "Slavery in the Roman Empire," p. 121. 12684:The Talmud Yerushalmi and Graeco-Roman Culture 12255: 12053:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 11896:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 11822:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 11690:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 11416:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 11180:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 10661:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 10569:Specified as “a horse or a mule or a ship” by 10181:The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity 9985:Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 9619:restoration of their citizenship status (see " 9138: 7493:(here in 2013) to suit the prevailing ideology 4960:From the mid-1st century BC, the edict of the 4755:in Phrygia. Strabo (1st century AD) describes 4723:Major sources of slaves from the East include 3987:often had an ambiguous legal status. The term 3466:) or on a family farm or agricultural estate ( 3426:to all free inhabitants of the empire made by 75:and had no rights of legal personhood. Unlike 23400: 22797:(Brandeis University Press, 2003), pp. 77–78. 22690:Parker, "Free Women and Male Slaves," p. 283. 20791:Cook, "Envisioning Crucifixion," pp. 265–266. 18336:. See more on Publius Curtilius Agatho under 18321:The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic 17736:Eftychia Bathrellou and Kostas Vlassopoulos, 17263:Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child," p. 191. 17234: 17232: 15983:(University of California Press, 1991), p. 2. 15820:(Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 323. 15399:The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic 14450: 14278:Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child," p. 179. 14142:Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child," p. 181. 14133:Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child," p. 181. 14115:Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child," p. 181. 13970:Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child," p. 183. 13961:Vuolanto, "Selling a Freeborn Child," p. 199. 13616:Bradley, "Child Labour," pp. 250–251, citing 12892:Bradley, "On Captives," pp. 298–300, 313–314 11468:: Paradoxes of Slaves with Property," p. 109. 10787: 10360:6 (1973), pp. 183–184, citing Persian author 10183:(American Philosophical Society 1955), p. 60. 10109:(Peter Lang, 2005), vol. 1, p. 127. 8780: 8187: 7102:. The enslaved potters who made the earliest 6916:, “boy.” Male slaves were often addressed as 5918:Because public slaves primarily assisted the 5782: 5727:; the mining of metals and minerals (such as 4874:would have consumed most supply to the east. 4350:as part of the birth family, and transferred 4261:finds the twins Romulus and Remus nursing at 2604:. This power of life and death, expressed as 1903:Terminology and dates as used in this article 1865: 1743:List of slavery-related memorials and museums 22534:Slavery and Sexuality in Classical Antiquity 22181:Social Justice and the Legitimacy of Slavery 22015:Ideas of Slavery from Aristotle to Augustine 21766:MacMullen, "The Unromanized in Rome," p. 53. 18730: 18207:Treggiari, "The Freedmen of Cicero," p. 200. 17900:Ideas of Slavery from Aristotle to Augustine 17454:(Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 15. 17315: 17313: 16296:, "not into slavery but into the workhouse." 16271:Roth, "Thinking Tools," p. 49, citing Cato, 16008:MacMullen, "The Unromanized in Rome," p. 51. 15970:MacMullen, "The Unromanized in Rome," p. 49. 15550:Pleket, "Urban Elites and Business," p. 139. 14305:Rio, “Self-sale,” p. 664, citing Justinian, 14247:(Chatto & Windus, 1971), pp. 56–57. 13985:The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives 13590:Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 247, citing Varro, 10052:Rome of the XII Tables: Persons and Property 8918:Ideas of Slavery from Aristotle to Augustine 8449:who rose to the position after serving as a 8371:in the late 4th century BC. Weakened by the 8354: 8292:, the personification of liberty, and was a 8226:held June 11 in connection with the goddess 8135:surrounded by Roman cavalry and holding his 6972:that depicted a youth of "remarkable beauty" 6862:or was common as a Roman praenomen, such as 6639:indicates that slaves did receive care from 6240:who held legally defined privilege, and the 5346: 4795:would have been traded in the cities of the 4308:taken up from the dregs to the bosom of the 3462:, born to a slave woman within a household ( 3262:in the city of Rome, nor could they achieve 2964:, a felt cap that was a symbol of liberation 2060:as the one who controlled the domain of the 1659:Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom 23279:Slavery in the Late Roman World, AD 275-425 23272:Slavery and the Roman Literary Imagination. 23182: 22170:(Oxford University Press, 2016), pp. 60–61. 22111:(Princeton University Press, 1994), p. 505. 22090:Susan Treggiari, "The Freedmen of Cicero," 21740:Hope, “Fighting for Identity," pp. 101–102. 21274:(Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 90 20966: 20530:Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions," p. 101: 20521:Trimble, "The Zoninus Collar," pp. 460–461. 20460:Trimble, "The Zoninus Collar," pp. 457–458. 19718:María Isabel Baldasarre, "Comentario sobre 19688:Susan Treggiari, "The Freedmen of Cicero," 19459:(Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 221. 19356:Beek, "The Pirate Connection," pp. 104–106. 19034:92:3 (1997), pp. 278–279, citing Plutarch, 18487:Susan Treggiari, "The Freedmen of Cicero," 18323:(Cambridge University Press, 2014), p. 196. 18033:1.42.151)—that status not being senatorial. 17832:Susan Treggiari, "The Freedmen of Cicero," 17609:(Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 122. 17000:(Princeton UP 1997), pp. 72–73, citing the 16078:(Oxford Universwity Press, 2012), p. 136ff. 15756:Scheidel, "The Roman Slave Supply," p. 302. 15606:Scheidel, "The Roman Slave Supply," p. 301. 15485:Scheidel, "The Roman Slave Supply," p. 301. 15476:Scheidel, "The Roman Slave Supply," p. 301. 15467:Scheidel, "The Roman Slave Supply," p. 300. 15449:Scheidel, "The Roman Slave Supply," p. 300. 15427:Scheidel, "The Roman Slave Supply," p. 300. 15416:Maritime Traders in the Ancient Greek World 15401:(Cambridge University Press, 2014), p. 189. 15237: 15160:Scheidel, "The Roman Slave Supply," p. 302. 15033:Scheidel, "The Roman Slave Supply," p. 302. 15002:Scheidel, "The Roman Slave Supply," p. 302. 13486:Bradley, "Child Labour," citing Petronius, 12323:," p. 231, citing Digest 1.14.3 (Ulpian 38 12223:Koops, "Masters and Freedmen," pp. 110–111. 11452:(Oxford University Press, 2023), pp. 51–52. 10676:(Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 255. 10459:Malka and Paz, “Rabbinic Law,” pp. 154–155 9835:, and the Roman Conception of the Family," 7802:asserts his rights as a Roman citizen to a 7098:and replies “The tabellarius from Marcus” 4743:, for which Ephesus was a center of trade. 4371:over the child, who entered the possession 3813:Funerary bust (AD 100–115) commemorating a 3643:offers an etymology that connects the word 3603: 3403: 2263:In early Rome, the Twelve Tables permitted 2197:to be spared violence and enslavement. The 2123:that the Romans associated with his reign. 23407: 23393: 23323:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 23114:Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies 23011:. Translated by Richard Gordon. Routledge. 22148:Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 22122:Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 22081:(Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. xx. 22065:Bradley, "The Problem of Slavery," p. 277. 21926: 21573:Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 20659:William A. Oldfather, “Livy i, 26 and the 20420:Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions," p. 101. 20398:Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions," p. 104. 20314:Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions," p. 106. 19528:Seager, "The Rise of Pompey," pp. 222–233. 19481:Seager, "The Rise of Pompey," pp. 221–222. 17386:Foreigners at Rome: Citizens and Strangers 17285: 17229: 17116:Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions," p. 81. 17107:Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions," p. 82. 17046:Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions," p. 73. 17037:Edwards, "Unspeakable Professions," p. 66. 15418:(Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 22. 14403: 14401: 14049:Slavery in the Late Roman World AD 275–425 13305:Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 13232:Mohler, "Slave Education," p. 272, citing 11589:. Oxford University Press. pp. 147–8. 11352:5.25.5 in connection with the survival of 10423:Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 10088: 10086: 10054:(Princeton University Press, 1975), p. 86. 9714:who held the first high priesthood in the 9505:(referring to the slave's role within the 8850:: the murder of a slave—a "speaking tool" 7588: 6802:As a freedman, Cicero's slave Tiro became 6499:among the Romans included the belief that 6277:None of these figures is capable of proof. 4920:("purchased ones"), as distinguished from 2722:—no ancestral or paternal lineage, and no 2334:in 53 BC, and marched them 1,500 miles to 1872: 1858: 23173: 22897: 22895: 22853:(Indiana University Press, 1991), p. 119. 20389:Kamen, "A Corpus of Inscriptions," p. 95. 19679:Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave," p. 124. 19428:The Last Generation of the Roman Republic 19387:Beek, "The Pirate Connection," pp. 32–34. 19365:Athenion's name is inscribed on several 18088:of Merula from Barbara Kellum, review of 18011:86 (1955), pp. 343–344; also Westermann, 17657:Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave," p. 117. 17476:Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave," p. 111. 17310: 15588:(Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 95 15458:Shaw, "The Great Transformation," p. 190. 15024:Scheidel, "Real Slave Prices," pp. 16–17. 14534: 14532: 14507:Adsidua et cottidiana comparatio servorum 13645:p. 447.21–p. 449.10a) and the version of 13245: 13220: 13157: 12909:(Blackwell, 2003, 2005) pp. 389–404. 12373: 12361:The Freedman in Roman Art and Art History 12310:, and providing inscriptions pp. 201–205. 12232: 12064: 12001: 11989: 11951: 11375:: Paradoxes of Slaves with Property," in 10444:Ab hostibus captus et a latronibus captus 10408:Coulston, “Courage and Cowardice,” p. 26. 10358:California Studies in Classical Antiquity 10313:Coulston, “Courage and Cowardice,” p. 27. 9323:on slaves celebrated for their learning. 8843:. "It is important only instrumentally." 8562: 7975:keeping open the possibility of resale. 7873: 7215: 6039:Gladiators, entertainers, and prostitutes 5595:, a work barracks for those subjected to 4197:could mean either "boy" or "male slave" ( 3629:amid divinities; below, soldiers erect a 3109:, in a letter stating this intention, or 2536:word meaning something "taken in hand," 23205: 23015: 22947: 22435:(Walter de Gruyter, 2011), pp. 118, 128. 21219: 21179: 19619:(Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 42. 18765:, p. 4; George, “Slave Disguise,” p. 44. 18727:, p. 4; George, “Slave Disguise,” p. 43. 18308:Roman Slavery and Roman Material Culture 18216: 18195: 17450:Bruce W. Frier and Thomas A. J. McGinn, 17319: 15255: 14356:Rio, “Self-sale,” p. 680, n. 18, citing 14060:Laes, "Infants Between," p. 375, citing 13991:(Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 104. 13194:(Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 256. 12820:In contrast to those wearing a cap (the 11667:: Slaveholders as Freedom Fighters," in 10908:(Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 309. 10387:33:1 (2014), pp. 64–65, citing Orosius, 9881:94:2 1999), pp. 182–184, 192 (citing on 9366:about what punishments may befall them. 9338: 9330: 9207: 9065:Early Christian attitudes toward slavery 8784: 8667: 8611: 8514: 8390: 8384:significant slave population before the 8196: 8122: 8027: 7965: 7877: 7821: 7643: 7466: 7351: 7164: 7117: 7035:in Rome mostly have Latin names such as 6958: 6899: 6786: 6672: 6545: 6147:were more likely to be slaves than were 6095: 5880: 5786: 5771:Contrary to modern popular imagery, the 5703:who had not held office at the level of 5513: 5400: 5350: 5246: 5069:, no major character is a slave-trader. 5018: 4943: 4881: 4801: 4590: 4348:ritually accepted and legally registered 4252: 4208: 3955: 3808: 3714: 3610: 3513: 3437: 3433: 3301: 3161: 2953: 2861: 2694: 2495: 2252:of Romans following their defeat by the 2236: 1664:Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf 1529:Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery 1509:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90 28: 23414: 23298: 23281:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. 23267:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. 23227: 23206:Scheidel, Walter (2007). "Demography". 22987: 22929: 22914: 22862: 22555:Slavery in the Late Roman Mediterranean 21886:Rüpke, "You Shall Not Kill," pp. 59–61. 21877:Rüpke, "You Shall Not Kill," pp. 60–62. 21044:Women and Slaves in Greco-Roman Culture 21027:Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 20975: 20710:54:1 (2012), p. 90, citing Livy 1.26.6. 20277:Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 19829:119:1 (2000), p. 67, citing Petronius, 19541:(Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 24. 18761:Wiedemann and Gardner, introduction to 18671:2.77: “Quis tu?” “A Marco tabellarius.” 17862: 17379: 17377: 17347: 16600:, pp. 183–184, citing Tit. Ulp. 20.16; 16216:Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 16091:(Oxford University, 2010), pp. 298–299. 16087:J. Mira Seo, "Cooks and Cookbooks," in 14828:34–38 on Acmoninan prosperity; Appian, 14653:Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 14398: 13274: 13145: 12608: 12596: 12576:Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 12561:58:3/4 (2004), p 299; P. A. Brunt 12428:Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 12167: 12106: 11775:Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 11599: 11532:Leslie Shumka, "Inscribing Agency? The 11379:, p. 111, and on broader opportunities 11054: 10215:(Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 37. 10083: 9011: 6596:, might appear to others as excessive. 6550:A bilingual Latin-Greek tombstone from 6531:woman was traded between two Romans in 5967:, a general term for manager or agent; 5599:; Columella says every farm needs one. 4662:. Slaves were imported from across the 4571:generated great wealth; in the view of 3879:) and rear their own children. A child 3028:Slaves of the emperor's household (the 45:on a necklace, with one in a loincloth 14: 25344: 23160: 23092: 23061: 23006: 22978: 22903:Roman Laughter: The Comedy of Plautus. 22892: 22620:(Yale University Press, 1992), p. 103. 21614: 21559: 21315:is the only one to record the holiday. 21299: 21207: 20478:Trimble, "The Zoninus Collar," p. 459. 20469:Trimble, "The Zoninus Collar," p. 460. 20451:Trimble, "The Zoninus Collar," p. 448. 20411:pp. 29–30, for the word "humiliating". 20082:: Penal Tattooing in Late Antiquity," 19329:Beek, "The Pirate Connection," p. 100. 19223:functioning as a ranch, K. D. White, " 18366:and Slave Naming in Republican Rome," 17723:Rudolf Franz Ertl and Helmut Leitner, 17408: 17238: 17129:(John Wiley & Sons, 2009), p. 350. 16828:Schumacher, "On the Status of Private 16360:: Penal Tattooing in Late Antiquity," 15714: 14538: 14529: 14435: 14420: 14258:Social Conflicts in the Roman Republic 14245:Social Conflicts in the Roman Republic 14075:Silver, "Contractual Slavery," p. 108. 13952:Silver, "Contractual Slavery," p. 109. 13850: 13473:Bradley, "Child Labour," pp. 321, 325 13464:Bradley, "Child Labour," pp. 319, 322. 12620: 12466:The Cambridge World History of Slavery 12336:Koops, "Masters and Freedmen," p. 110. 12156:The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic 11333: 11269:23.2.28 (Marcian) and 23.2.9 (Ulpian). 11167:Slaves and Masters in the Roman Empire 10974:: Social Fate or Legal Privilege?" in 10932:The Jews in Imperial Roman Legislation 10817: 10811: 10213:The Constitution of the Roman Republic 10021:, "The Wife and Children of Romulus," 9852:and Slave Naming in Republican Rome," 9307:In Latin and Imperial Greek literature 7777:were a countervailing moral authority 5029:Römisch-Germanisches Museum in Cologne 4839: 3238:, though later writers used the terms 2819:Because they were themselves property 2684: 23388: 23335:Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. 23288:Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. 23274:Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. 22772:Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 245, citing 22094:16.2 (1969), p. 195, citing Cicero's 21991:Bradley, "Animalizing the Slave," p. 21685:73 (2000), p. 108, citing G. Zimmer, 21244:Hans-Friedrich Mueller, "Saturn", in 20029:Watson, "Roman Slave Law," pp. 55–56. 19517:The Praetorship in the Roman Republic 19503:Seager, "The Rise of Pompey," p. 222. 19185:from Polla and the First Slave War," 18706:Michele George, “Slave Disguise,” in 18151:(Koninklijke Brill, 2014), pp. 7, 10. 17995:Lex Cornelia de sicariis et veneficis 17971:, pp. 107 and 114, citing Suetonius, 16969:Silver, "Contractual Slavery," p. 90. 14034:74:2 (2017), pp. 227–228, citing the 14011:Children and Childhood in Roman Italy 13989:Children and Childhood in Roman Italy 13900:Laes, "Child Slaves at Work," p. 241 13891:Laes, "Child Slaves at Work," p. 267. 13773:Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 268, citing 13379:Children and Childhood in Roman Italy 13357:Children and Childhood in Roman Italy 13344:Children and Childhood in Roman Italy 13318:Children and Childhood in Roman Italy 13192:Children and Childhood in Roman Italy 11584: 11195:," pp. 35–36, 41, citing as examples 10917:Watson, "Roman Slave Law," pp. 64–65. 10070: 8470:) served in temples such as those of 6666:While Roman law had no provision for 6422: 6139:. Prostitutes who worked in brothels 4877: 4115:by using a deliberately blunt razor. 3234:As a social class, freed slaves were 3013:occurred: technically, it was a sale 2850:points to the addition of livestock ( 2842:The practice of allowing the slave a 1551:Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention 1228:Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea 23161:Harris, W. V. (2000). "Trade". 23098:"Child-Exposure in the Roman Empire" 22849:, p. 314; see also Jane F. Gardner, 22224:Philodemus, "On Property Management" 22211:Philodemus, "On Property Management" 22194:Philodemus, "On Property Management" 21731:(Brown Judaic Studies 2020), p. 114. 20153:Papers of the British School at Rome 19409:at the Bolshoi Theater, 1958–1968," 17411:Slaves and Freedmen in Imperial Rome 17374: 17140:Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law 16808:Papers of the British School at Rome 16806:, "Jobs in the Household of Livia," 16559:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law 16310:Papers of the British School at Rome 15895:Papers of the British School at Rome 15865:Journal of Interdisciplinary History 15563:(Archaeopress, 2016), p. 44, citing 14477:Journal of Interdisciplinary History 14022:Ido Israelowich, "The extent of the 13607:3.2, TC 6 (a girl) and TC 7 (a boy). 13173:3 (1996), p. 115, citing Columella, 12907:A Companion to the Hellenistic World 12862:1.336, as cited by Steven J. Green, 12781:36:2 (1986), p. 483, citing Caesar, 12655:Bradley, "On Captives," pp. 298–318. 12441:Papers of the British School at Rome 12270:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law 12250:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law 12015:Encyclopedia Dictionary of Roman Law 11965:Encyclopedia Dictionary of Roman Law 11922:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law 11720:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law 11648:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law 11479:Journal of Interdisciplinary History 11043:Papers of the British School at Rome 10993:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law 10806:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law 10702:Saskia T. Roselaar, "The Concept of 10691:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law 10629:25:3 (2004), p. 383, citing Cicero, 10526:50:4 (2001), p. 498, citing Cicero, 10399:5.5–6; Agathias, Histories 4.23.2–7. 8437:was a public slave who assisted the 8395:Attendant with ax at a sacrifice, a 7402:, even restyling himself by name as 7133:Diocletian's edict on price controls 6654:, where a temple to the healing god 6177:Colonus (person) § Adscripticii 5213:from paying harbor tax at Sicily on 5134: 5041:The Latin word for slave-trader was 4935:Diocletian's edict on price controls 4850:became proverbial among the Greeks. 4561: 4217: 4009:often became trusted members of the 3424:universal grant of Roman citizenship 3364:is a caricature of such a freedman. 3333:limited their participation by law. 2289:. Following the Roman defeat at the 1748:Slave marriages in the United States 1347:Human trafficking in the Middle East 23340:Slaves and Slavery in Ancient Rome. 22776:9.2.27.8 and 39.4.16.7; Suetonius, 22604:Laes, "Child Slaves," pp. 253, 255. 21917:Rüpke, "You Shall Not Kill," p. 62. 21895:Rüpke, "You Shall Not Kill," p. 62. 21153:(Brill, 1992), p. 109, citing 20565:Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 19692:16.2 (1969), p. 196, citing Cicero 18999:Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology 17990:Bulletin of the History of Medicine 17789:Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology 17766:Martin Schermaier, introduction to 17383: 15867:34:4 (2004),p. 519, citing Cicero, 15169: 14513:87:2 (Dec. 1991–Jan. 1992), p. 126. 14438:Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology 13684:Laes, "Child Slaves," pp. 239, 241. 12359:Hackworth Petersen, Lauren (2006). 12349:87:2 (Dec. 1991–Jan. 1992), p. 131. 11348:88 (1998), p. 164, citing Isidore, 10612:Martin Schermaier, introduction to 9856:59:2 (2009), p. 515, citing Pliny, 9407:Slavery in the Eastern Roman Empire 9031:The Epicurean poet and philosopher 8981: 7611:his official record of achievements 7450:, and along with the slave general 7438:Their leader, whose slave name was 7077:the Sicilian slave revolt in 104 BC 6912:, perhaps to be taken as a form of 5934:Municipal slaves were owned by the 5679:("those condemned to the mine", or 5242: 5154:or more, calculated at a rate of 3 4952:depicts the market in the forum at 4889:, a nineteenth-century painting by 2728:marriage recognized under Roman law 2269:law in the late 4th century BC 1082:Human trafficking in Southeast Asia 24: 23299:Garrido, Jacobo Rodríguez (2023). 23250: 20727:(pp. 65–66), who thought that the 20112:119 (1989), p. 238; Livy 32.26.18. 19181:103 (1972), pp. 535-559, and "The 18725:Representing the Body of the Slave 18708:Representing the Body of the Slave 18583: 18478:Cheesman, “Names in -por,” p. 524. 18469:Cheesman, “Names in -por,” p. 517. 18460:Cheesman, “Names in -por,” p. 512. 18337: 16294:non in servitium sed in ergastulum 16065:(Marshall Cavendish, 2010) ,p. 90. 15850:38 (2008), p. 240, citing Paulus, 13675:Laes, "Child Slaves," pp. 235–237. 13535:Laes, "Child Slaves," pp. 264–266. 13526:Laes, "Child Slaves," pp. 255–256. 13517:Laes, "Child Slaves," pp. 254–255. 13416:Laes, "Child Slaves," pp. 241–242. 13390:Laes, "Child Slaves," pp. 264–265. 13299:Jane Bellemore and Beryl Rawson, " 12283:The Neighborhoods of Augustan Rome 11723: 11569:(1989), p. 250, n. 31, citing the 11536:Commemorations from Roman Italy," 10034:J. N. Bremmer and N. M. Horsfall, 9035:(1st century BC) wrote a treatise 8193:Slaves in classical Roman religion 7560: 7206:Sicilian slave rebellion of 135 BC 6848: 6749: 6510: 5863:, liberty would be granted by the 5824:. Public slaves at Rome worked in 5683:) lost their freedom as citizens ( 4764:, though direct evidence is thin. 4586: 4248: 3905: 3386:held no rights even if freed. The 3070:that had to be performed before a 2492:The slave in Roman law and society 2480:restoration of their citizenship. 2173:held in common among all peoples ( 1736:last survivors of American slavery 25: 25368: 23346: 21461:suppl. 109 (2010), p. 32, citing 21261:, Book 2, poems 3 and 7 20151:Ulrike Roth, “Men Without Hope,” 19630:Resisting Slavery in Ancient Rome 19014:36:2 (2017), p. 355, citing Cato 18962:18:5 (1969), pp. 349–350, citing 17872:New York: Routledge, 1997. (467). 17286:Rosenstein, Nathan (2005-12-15). 16156:90 (2000), p. 110, citing Varro, 16063:Everyday Life in the Roman Empire 15190:25 (2011), p. 102, citing Pliny, 14820:52:1 (2002), pp. 354–355, citing 14084:Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 267–268. 12439:Ulrike Roth, "Men Without Hope," 11932:as a fictitious trial concerning 10328:Rheinisches Museum für Philologie 9811:Described by Mikhail Rostovtzev, 9802:of the two free men being served. 9319:and a biographical collection by 8733:or less often as a freeborn man, 8637:on the Roman religious calendar. 8579:(c. 217–222) were former slaves. 8090:as a corrupt governor of Sicily. 7440:Salvius, adopted the name Tryphon 6820:, the name of the family or clan 5502:, and Tychicus, whom the emperor 5066: 4916:Slaves traded on the market were 4381: 3935:at Pompeii, 71% are connected to 3454:"Slaves are either born or made" 2908:slave "belonged to" another slave 2264: 2072:held the power of life and death 697:Field slaves in the United States 564:Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate 23295:Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell. 23293:Ancient Greek and Roman Slavery. 22923: 22908: 22879: 22856: 22839: 22826: 22813: 22800: 22787: 22766: 22741: 22732: 22719: 22706: 22693: 22684: 22671: 22658: 22645: 22636: 22623: 22618:Bisexuality in the Ancient World 22607: 22598: 22585: 22560: 22547: 22526: 22513: 22493: 22480: 22468: 22455: 22438: 22418: 22389: 22377: 22360: 22351: 22342: 22326: 22313: 22300: 22287: 22263: 22251: 22240: 22229: 22226:, p. xxxix and xl, citing 23.22. 22216: 22203: 22186: 22173: 22157: 22150:II.36.3 (1972), p. 1522, citing 22140: 22127: 22114: 22101: 22084: 22068: 22059: 22050: 22037: 22024: 22007: 21994: 21985: 21968: 21955: 21920: 21911: 21898: 21889: 21880: 21871: 21855: 21843: 21834: 21821: 21808: 21795: 21782: 21769: 21760: 21743: 21734: 21721: 21709: 21696: 21675: 21658: 21645: 21632: 21620: 21608: 21591: 21582: 21565: 21553: 21544: 21535: 21514: 21481: 21468: 21439: 21419: 21393: 21380: 21367: 21350: 21334: 21318: 21305: 21293: 21277: 21264: 21251: 21238: 21225: 21213: 21201: 21185: 21173: 21170:(Brill, 1993, 1994), p. 147 21160: 21143: 21121: 21076: 21067: 21049: 21036: 21019: 20999: 20990: 20981: 20957: 20928: 20915: 20898: 20885: 20872: 20859: 20843: 20826: 20817: 20808: 20794: 20785: 20772: 20751: 20738: 20713: 20700: 20687: 20678: 20653: 20640: 20631: 20622: 20613: 20604: 20589: 20570: 20557: 20524: 20515: 20502: 20495:89 (1999), p. 43, n. 21, citing 20481: 20472: 20463: 20454: 20445: 20436: 20423: 20414: 20401: 20392: 20383: 20374: 20361: 20352: 20343: 20330: 20317: 20308: 20299: 20282: 20269: 20256: 20239: 20222: 20209: 20196: 20180: 20177:Roth, “Men Without Hope,” p. 76. 20171: 20158: 20145: 20128: 20115: 20098: 20089: 20072: 20063: 20050: 20041: 20032: 20023: 20007: 19990: 19981: 19968: 19959: 19956:Africa, "Adam Smith," pp. 70–71. 19950: 19933: 19912: 19883: 19870: 19853: 19836: 19819: 19798: 19785: 19772: 19759: 19728: 19712: 19699: 19682: 19673: 19660: 19647: 19634: 19622: 19609: 19588: 19579: 19566: 19553: 19544: 19531: 19522: 19506: 19497: 19484: 19475: 19462: 19446: 19433: 19417: 19399: 19390: 19381: 19372: 19359: 19350: 19341: 19332: 19323: 19310: 19301: 19292: 19283: 19274: 19265: 19256: 19243: 19234: 19213: 19200: 19170: 19153: 19144: 19135: 19132:Holt, "Crucially Funny," p. 238. 19126: 19113: 19096: 19093:Holt, "Crucially Funny," p. 237. 19087: 19070: 19067:6.2.10229 (starting at line 80). 19041: 19024: 19004: 18991: 18978: 18969: 18952: 18939: 18922: 18905: 18896: 18883: 18870: 18857: 18847: 18825: 18812: 18799: 18786: 18783:George, “Slave Disguise,” p. 38. 18777: 18774:George, “Slave Disguise,” p. 43. 18768: 18755: 18742: 18717: 18700: 18687: 18674: 18657: 18640: 18619: 18602: 18589: 18572: 18559: 18542: 18529: 18516: 18503: 18494: 18481: 18472: 18463: 18454: 18441: 18416: 18403: 18386: 18373: 18356: 18343: 18326: 18313: 18296: 18283: 18261: 18246: 18231: 18222: 18210: 18201: 18189: 18176: 18163: 18154: 18141: 18124: 18099: 18062: 18049: 18036: 18022: 18001: 17982: 17961: 17944: 17927: 17914: 17905: 17892: 17875: 17845: 17826: 17817: 17794: 17773: 17760: 17743: 17730: 17717: 17708: 17699: 17686: 17673: 17660: 17651: 17638: 17629: 17612: 17599: 17586: 17569: 17556: 17535: 17518: 17505: 17492: 17479: 17470: 17457: 17444: 17426: 17417: 17402: 17353: 17341: 17328: 17292:. Univ of North Carolina Press. 17279: 17266: 17257: 17213: 17192: 17175: 17162: 17145: 17132: 17119: 17110: 17101: 17088: 17067: 17058: 17049: 17040: 17031: 17022: 17009: 16990: 16981: 16972: 16963: 16950: 16937: 16924: 16911: 16898: 16885: 16852: 16843: 16822: 16813: 16797: 16772: 16755: 16742: 16729: 16716: 16703: 16686: 16673: 16652: 16647:The J. Paul Getty Museum Journal 16639: 16620: 16607: 16590: 16577: 16564: 16535: 16522: 16509: 16496: 16489:Lionel Casson, "Galley Slaves," 16483: 16470: 16457: 16448: 16439: 16421: 16412: 16403: 16394: 16385: 16376: 16367: 16350: 16337: 16328: 16315: 16299: 16278: 16265: 16248: 16239: 16230: 16221: 16208: 16189: 16176: 16163: 16146: 16133: 16120: 16107: 16094: 16081: 16068: 16051: 16042: 16033: 16024: 16011: 15986: 15973: 15964: 15946: 15935:, "The Unromanized in Rome," in 15926: 15913: 15900: 15887: 15874: 15857: 15840: 15823: 15790:94:2 (1999), p. 187, citing the 15772: 15759: 15750: 15737: 15720: 15708: 15695: 15682: 15669: 15652: 15639: 15618: 15609: 15600: 15591: 15578: 15553: 15544: 15535: 15522: 15501: 15488: 15479: 15470: 15461: 15452: 15443: 15430: 15421: 15404: 15391: 15375: 15362: 15338: 15317: 15300: 15283: 15249: 15224: 15215: 15206: 15197: 15180: 15163: 15154: 15145: 15121: 15097: 15088: 15075: 15066: 15045: 15036: 15027: 15018: 15005: 14996: 14987: 14978: 14965: 14952: 14939: 14922: 14913: 14901: 14888: 14879: 14870: 14861: 14852: 14843: 14836:434 F 1 (28.5–6); and Plutarch, 14810: 14801: 14792: 14779: 14766: 14757: 14748: 14739: 14726: 14717: 14708: 14699: 14690: 14680: 14671: 14662: 14640: 14627: 14618: 14609: 14596: 14587: 14562: 14553: 14544: 14516: 14500: 14491: 14482: 14469: 14444: 14429: 14414: 14376: 14363: 14350: 14337: 14316: 14299: 14290: 14281: 14272: 14263: 14250: 14234: 14223:Israelowich, "The extent of the 14217: 14202: 14193: 14184: 14163: 14154: 14145: 14136: 14127: 14118: 14109: 14100: 14087: 14078: 14069: 14054: 14041: 14016: 14003: 13994: 13973: 13964: 13955: 13946: 13929: 13916: 13907: 13894: 13885: 13856: 13843: 13826: 13813: 13796: 13767: 13750: 13725: 13700: 13687: 13678: 13669: 13656: 13610: 13597: 13584: 13575: 13566: 13547: 13538: 13529: 13520: 13511: 13502: 13493: 13480: 13467: 13458: 13445: 13428: 13419: 13410: 13393: 13384: 13371: 13362: 13349: 13336: 13323: 13310: 13293: 13277:The Invention of Modern Slavery? 13268: 13251: 13239: 13226: 13214: 13197: 13184: 13163: 13151: 13139: 13122: 13109: 13096: 13051: 13042: 13029: 13020: 13007: 12986: 12965: 12952: 12943: 12934: 12921: 12912: 12899: 12886: 12869: 12852: 12835: 12814: 12801: 12788: 12771: 12754: 12745: 12730: 12717: 12704: 12689: 12676: 12667: 12658: 12649: 12614: 12602: 12590: 12581: 12568: 12551: 12538: 12521: 12508: 12492: 12471: 12458: 12443:79 (2011), p. 90, citing Gaius, 12433: 12413: 12378: 12367: 12352: 12339: 12330: 12313: 12296: 12275: 12238: 12226: 12217: 12208: 12170:"The Adoption of Roman Freedmen" 12161: 12145: 12134: 12121: 12112: 12083: 12080:, Freedom, Citizenship," p. 107. 12070: 12058: 12041: 12028: 12007: 11995: 11983: 11974: 11957: 11945: 11914: 11901: 11884: 11867: 11858: 11849: 11846:, Freedom, Citizenship," p. 105. 11836: 11827: 11802: 11793: 11780: 11767: 11742: 11729: 11708: 11695: 11678: 11657: 11640: 11627: 11618: 11605: 11593: 11578: 11559: 11543: 11526: 11505: 11484: 11471: 11455: 11442: 11421: 11404: 11386: 11365: 11354: 11338: 11327: 11310: 11289: 11272: 11265:110 (2020), p. 131, citing 10876:Sociology and Psychology: Essays 10397:On the Deaths of the Persecutors 9758: 9733: 9697: 9684: 9661: 9648: 9630: 9581: 9572: 8582: 8510: 8409: 8359:Slave women were honored at the 7525:. They entrenched themselves at 7286: 6558:, in recognition of his merits ( 6493:and desired as a status symbol. 6233: 5625: 5611: 5221: 5014: 4357: 3537:were traded, as a result of the 3395: 3321:, a former slave of the emperor 2741:. However, slaves born into the 2375: 2358: 2135: 1934:, 2nd century BC–2nd century AD 574:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 569:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate 398:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 168: 64: 23342:New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. 23176:The Freedman in the Roman World 22941: 21978:, pp. 116 (citing here too the 21929:The Journal of Economic History 21478:(Blackwell, 2007), pp. 332–334. 20693:Oldfather, “Livy i, 26 and the 20431:American Journal of Archaeology 20191:American Journal of Archaeology 19742:as an eyewitness attending the 18710:(Routledge, 2002, 2013), p. 42 17870:The Historians of Ancient Rome. 17855:67:6 (1974), p. 377; Plutarch, 17127:A Companion to the Roman Empire 17098:(Blackwell, 2006), p. 124. 17096:A Sourcebook on the Roman Games 14898:(Montagnac, 2005), pp. 143–156. 12306:147:1 (2017), pp. 180, 198–199 11898:suppl. 109 (2010), pp. 106–107. 11877:25 (2011), p. 79, n. 5, citing 11255: 11242: 11223: 11210: 11185: 11172: 11155: 11142: 11129: 11116: 11103: 11090: 11073: 11060: 11048: 11031: 11010: 10981: 10964: 10950: 10937: 10920: 10911: 10898: 10881: 10868: 10861:37:1 (1983), pp. 58-59, citing 10851: 10838: 10770: 10757: 10740: 10719: 10696: 10679: 10666: 10657:MANCIPIVM RVSTICVM SIVE VRBANVM 10649: 10636: 10619: 10606: 10593: 10580: 10563: 10550: 10533: 10508: 10505:(Cambridge, 1908), pp. 305–307. 10495: 10479: 10466: 10453: 10428: 10411: 10402: 10373: 10350: 10316: 10307: 10285:2.82; Florus 2.20.4; Plutarch, 10275: 10262: 10239: 10218: 10202: 10197:SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome 10186: 10173: 10156: 10147: 10134: 10125: 10112: 10099: 10057: 10041: 10028: 10007: 9990: 9977: 9965: 9952: 9939: 9922: 9909: 9892: 9863: 9739:Pliny the Elder describes the " 9550: 9524: 9491: 9475: 9326: 8635:ritual observances for the dead 8131:shows the defeated Dacian king 8040:that also shows the suicide of 7899: 7684: 7598: 7414:Second Servile War (104–100 BC) 6433:Roman slavery was not based on 6296:(middle of the 1st century AD) 5715:Convict labor played a role in 5395: 5331:. The living conditions of the 5148:on slaves that had cost 10,000 4438: 4245:them more pitiable as beggars. 3769:pirates in 31 BC following the 3655:and not kill them." One of the 3581:for the same price as a horse. 3475: 3456:(servi aut nascuntur aut fiunt) 3250:were not entitled to hold the " 3142:promulgated edicts authorizing 3052: 2991:, from which the English word " 2718:In Roman law, the slave had no 2577:exercised his power within the 2121:religious festivals and temples 1924:Early Republic 509–280s/260s BC 1524:Committee of Experts on Slavery 1075:East, Southeast, and South Asia 114: 99: 22992:. Cambridge University Press. 22851:Women in Roman Law and Society 22463:Journal of Biblical Literature 22450:Journal of Biblical Literature 22337:Journal of Biblical Literature 22321:Journal of Biblical Literature 22200:9.32; 10.15–21; 23.4–5, 20–22. 21729:The Jewish Family in Antiquity 21272:Figuring Genre in Roman Satire 20610:Strauss, pp. 190–194, 204 20168:, especially pp. 88–90, 92–93. 19827:Journal of Biblical Literature 19808:, pp. 76–77, citing Plutarch, 17620:The Jewish Family in Antiquity 17452:A Casebook on Roman Family Law 17222:9.40.8 and 15.9.1; Symmachus, 17187:Scriptores Historiae Augustae, 15291:Legal Origins and Legal Change 14451:Montoya Rubio, Bernat (2015). 14322:Rio, “Self-sale,” pp. 663–664. 14313:1.5.5.1, 1.5.21, and 28.3.6.5. 14051:(Cambridge 2011), pp. 404–409. 13261:and Prostitution at Pompeii," 11692:suppl. 109 (2010), pp. 99–105. 11553:(Taylor & Frances, 2008), 11551:Women in Roman Law and Society 11299:(Taylor & Francis, 1986), 11297:Women in Roman Law and Society 10978:(De Gruyter, 2023), pp. 25–26. 10928:The Jewish Family in Antiquity 10778:Patriarchy, Property and Death 10754:48:2 (1999), pp. 203–204, 208. 10385:Politics and the Life Sciences 10339:34:1 (1987), pp.60–61, citing 10120:International Law in Antiquity 9842: 9818: 9805: 9788: 9463: 9446: 9437: 9428: 9419: 8897:, and the need for kindliness 8789:Statuette of a slave from the 8523:by the Imperial slave Atimetus 8023: 7720: 7700:fantasy of mercy and freedom. 7348:First Servile War (135–132 BC) 6866:, or diminutives of the name ( 6258:Demography of the Roman Empire 5509: 4996:Although slaves were property 4091:and other secretarial skills, 4028: 2949: 2258:(Cantonal Museum of Fine Arts) 1895:Periodization of Roman History 1223:Slave raiding in Easter Island 13: 1: 23183:Santosuosso, Antonio (2001). 23178:. Cambridge University Press. 22983:. Princeton University Press. 22574:89 (1999), p. 45, and citing 22370:, p. 151, citing Lactantius, 21640:American Journal of Philology 21476:A Companion to Roman Religion 21375:Slavery in Early Christianity 21031:Slavery in Early Christianity 20125:(Cambridge UP, 2011), p. 395. 19878:American Journal of Philology 19457:The Cambridge Ancient History 18796:(Cambridge UP, 2010), p. 133. 18094:American Journal of Philology 17564:American Journal of Philology 17324:. Cambridge University Press. 14832:77.334; Memnon of Heracleia, 14160:Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 267. 14151:Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 267. 14124:Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 267. 13866:104:3 (2009), citing Seneca, 13693:Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 268 13581:Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 246. 13572:Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 248. 13508:Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 257. 13425:Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 245. 13368:Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 271. 12363:. Cambridge University Press. 11824:suppl. 109 (2010), pp. 36–38. 11799:Laes, "Child Slaves," p. 243. 11572:senatusconsultum Macedonianum 10991:, pp. 77 (n. 3), 79; Berger, 10442:, Orit Malka and Yakir Paz, “ 10438:, p. 81; and specifically on 10302:American Journal of Philology 10289:41.1. in the 1940s, American 9782: 9705:Gaius Julius Vercondaridubnus 9621:Enslavement of Roman citizens 9501:(human being of any gender), 8463:to have been a public slave. 8303: 7989:"Enslavement of war captives" 7929:mentions a slave growing out 7632:The fugitive in Roman culture 7247: 6692: 6622: 6251: 6137:she was not to be prostituted 5997: 5818:servus publicus populi Romani 5756:, the Imperial gold mines in 5687:), forfeited their property ( 5664: 5602: 5596: 5518:Agricultural workers using a 5281: 5251:Mosaic from a Roman villa at 4956:, where trade included slaves 4809:(Portable Antiquities Scheme) 4549:enslavement of Roman citizens 4524: 4494:illuminated the abolition of 3828:By the common law of nations 3741:Within the Jewish community, 3399: 3213:that had been spelled out as 2997: 2730:, and a male slave was not a 2242:Romans Passing under the Yoke 2233:Enslavement of Roman citizens 25357:Social class in ancient Rome 23979:Frontiers and fortifications 23377:Resources in other libraries 23228:Wickham, Jason Paul (2014). 23102:The Journal of Roman Studies 22964:10.1080/07350198.2012.683991 22580:Urban Society in Roman Italy 21626:Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. 21331:(London, 1908), p. 176. 20836:, p. 28, citing Lactantius, 20628:Losch, p. 56, n. 1 20058:History of Political Thought 20038:Africa, "Adam Smith," p. 71. 19865:Script. Hist. Aug., Commodus 19193:18:5 (1969), pp. 545–556 on 19051:35:1 (1985), p. 165, citing 18569:, p. 96 and especially n. 2. 17836:16.2 (1969), p. 195, citing 17239:Mackay, Christopher (2004). 17077:32:2 (2013), p. 329, citing 16696:3 (1996), citing Frontinus, 16598:The Position of Roman Slaves 15831:The Position of Roman Slaves 15496:Trade in the Ancient Economy 15312:The Position of Roman Slaves 13438:12:2 (1985), p. 324, citing 12764:71:3 (2018), p. 463, citing 12391:. Harvard University Press. 11669:The Position of Roman Slaves 11397:1955, 261. D S P stands for 11203:, book 1), and Seneca, 11182:suppl. 92 (2007), pp. 25–26. 11081:The Position of Roman Slaves 10627:History of Political Thought 10080:(Osprey 2009) p. 17–18. 9917:History of Political Thought 9815:(Tannen, 1900), p. 288. 9720:Sanctuary of the Three Gauls 8828:Roman concept of the virtues 8494:in the Roman era engaged in 7961: 7463:Third Servile War (73–71 BC) 6053:Prostitution in ancient Rome 5943:Business managers and agents 5475:decries the extravagance of 5405:An ancient Roman restaurant 3367: 2386:depicting the Roman emperor 1514:Temporary Slavery Commission 1175:Slavery in the Mongol Empire 7: 24038:Decorations and punishments 23270:Fitzgerald, William. 2000. 23265:Slavery and Society at Rome 22990:Slavery and Society at Rome 22889:(Cambridge UP, 2011), p. 3. 22568:Quae Corpore Quaestum Facit 21687:Römische Berufdarstellungen 21628:"Slavery and Christianity." 21522:Quae Corpore Quaestum Facit 20908:, p. 111, citing Plutarch, 20867:Slavery and Society at Rome 20489:Quae Corpore Quaestum Facit 19943:37:1 (1983), p. 56, citing 19769:58:3/4 (2004), pp. 298-318. 18109:, p. 74, citing Suetonius, 18092:by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, 17594:Slavery and Society at Rome 17153:Quae Corpore Quaestum Facit 16465:Imperial Mines and Quarries 16074:Claire Holleran, Holleran, 15941:Changes in the Roman Empire 15908:Slavery and Society at Rome 14949:65:3/4 (2011), pp. 389-394. 14659:103:1/2 (2001) pp. 219-240. 13074:Life of Apollonius of Tyana 12877:Comedy and the Rise of Rome 12866:(Brill, 2004), pp. 159–160. 12864:Ovid, Fasti 1: A Commentary 12621:Joshel, Sandra Rae (2010). 12038:(Brill, 2014), pp. 111–112. 10818:Ingram, John Kells (1911). 10588:Comedy and the Rise of Rome 10575:Comedy and the Rise of Rome 10247:Comedy and the Rise of Rome 9996:Parshia Lee-Stecum, "Roman 9385: 9139:Sexual ethics and attitudes 8791:Bursa Archaeological Museum 8713: 8012:("so I don't run away") or 7817: 7113: 7071:” if they were manumitted. 6770: 6539:, was sold to a buyer from 6211:and tied them to the land. 6181:By the 3rd century AD, the 5691:) to the state, and became 5675:and quarries or the mills. 4921: 4342:may actually have become a 4315: 4225: 3819:(Digital image courtesy of 3633:and ready captives for sale 3157: 2812: 2776: 2038:All those belonging to the 1974:Crisis of the Third Century 1927:Middle Republic 280s–146 BC 1534:Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery 579:Volga Bulgarian slave trade 10: 25373: 24945:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 23520:historiography of the fall 23174:Mouritsen, Henrik (2011). 23167:Cambridge University Press 23110:Cambridge University Press 23065:European Review of History 23026:10.1002/9781444390766.ch29 22979:Barton, Carlin A. (1993). 22934:. Bristol Classical Press. 22452:134:1 (2015), pp. 215-229. 22213:, p. xxxii, citing 23.4–5. 21803:Policing the Roman Empire, 20782:50:3 (2008), pp. 268, 274. 20733:supplicium de more maiorum 20695:Supplicium de More Maiorum 20671:and Jokes about Torture,” 20661:Supplicium de More Maiorum 20578:Harvard Theological Review 20409:Policing the Roman Empire, 20164:Roth, “Men Without Hope,” 20108:and Jokes about Torture," 20000:and Jokes about Torture," 19897:54.23.1–5; and indirectly 19104:Supplicium de More Maiorum 19080:and Jokes about Torture," 18794:Slavery in the Roman World 18750:Roman Clothing and Fashion 18667:,” p. 518, citing Cicero, 18370:59:2 (2009), pp. 516, 523. 18362:Clive Cheesman, "Names in 18090:Rome's Cultural Revolution 17757:suppl. 109 (2010), p. 105. 17276:(Frank Cass, 2000), p. 53. 16617:, p. 319, especially n. 4. 16480:(De Gruyter, 2016), p. 58. 15662:, p. 71, citing Plutarch, 15586:Slavery in the Roman World 14657:Revue des Études Anciennes 14173:, p. 61, citing Plutarch, 13119:, p. 25, especially n. 26. 12624:Slavery in the Roman World 12447:1.13 and pointing also to 12055:suppl. 109 (2010), p. 107. 11523:94:2 (1999), pp. 187, 197. 11320:," pp. 77–78, citing 10094:The Idea of Natural Rights 10036:Roman Myth and Mythography 9848:Clive Cheesman, "Names in 9593:Battle of Teutoburg Forest 9591:captured Romans after the 9346: 9166:Traditional Roman morality 9142: 9068: 8781:Slavery and Roman morality 8642: 8586: 8424:Hercules at the Ara Maxima 8405:(from Carthage, 50-150 AD) 8307: 8188:Slavery and Roman religion 8118: 8051: 7910:frequently mentions slave 7853:under absentee ownership. 7517:from a training school in 7251: 7158:in one of the comedies of 6928:, sometimes contracted to 6696: 6426: 6255: 6174: 6170: 6042: 5783:Public and imperial slaves 5760:, or Imperial quarries in 5259:) attending their mistress 4442: 4375:of a master. A law of the 3964:Lutatia Lupata, playing a 3844:) or agricultural estate ( 3373: 3173: 2760:recorded along with births 2688: 2651: 2078:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2052:, the early Romans coined 1913:753–509 BC (semilegendary) 1883: 1719:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 1556:Anti-Slavery International 1321:North Africa and West Asia 140: 25326:External wars and battles 25193: 25087: 24900: 24492: 24485: 24407: 24319: 24224: 24099: 24051: 23929: 23879: 23818: 23809: 23691: 23643: 23563: 23480: 23450: 23441: 23423: 23372:Resources in your library 23078:10.1080/13507480902916837 22917:Plautus and Roman Slavery 22915:Stewart, Roberta (2012). 22751:, p. 308, citing Seneca, 21941:10.1017/S0022050700052542 21108:Food, Drink, and Identity 20834:Policing the Roman Empire 20761:, p. 75, citing Tacitus, 20292:for "thief"; Gustafson, " 20204:Policing the Roman Empire 19930:44:4 (1985), pp. 847-848. 19780:Policing the Roman Empire 19668:Policing the Roman Empire 19655:Policing the Roman Empire 19642:Policing the Roman Empire 19615:Christopher J. Furhmann, 19561:Policing the Roman Empire 19537:Christopher J. Furhmann, 18272:vol. 3, p. 1182 18029:status they are suited" ( 18015:, p. 114, using the word 17738:Greek and Roman Slaveries 17528:, p. 29, note 29, citing 17019:(Oxford UP 1998) p. 65ff. 16794:suppl. 109 (2010), p. 31. 15730:, p. 95, citing Tacitus, 14934:Periplous Maris Erythraei 14436:Finley, Moses I. (1980). 14421:Finley, Moses I. (1960). 14382:Rio, “Self-sale,” p. 665. 14334:Rio, “Self-sale,” p. 664. 14296:Rio, "Self-Sale," p. 662. 13840:63:3 (2014), pp. 364–383. 13722:suppl. 109 (2010), p. 28. 13303:: The Italian Evidence," 13265:73:1 (2023), pp. 250–256. 13257:Sarah Levin-Richardson, " 13132:25 (2011), p. 75, citing 13117:Policing the Roman Empire 12529:Journal of Social History 12477:Herbert W. Benario, "The 12289:, 97, 159–161, 165, 170, 12168:Gardner, Jane F. (1989). 12019:manumissio sub condicione 11671:, p. 211, citing Ulpian, 11431:25 (2011), p. 93, citing 11418:suppl. 109 (2010), p. 92. 11233:53:2 (2004) 200-208; see 10895:(Routledge, 2005), p. 297 10737:94:2 (1999), pp. 186–187. 10492:26:3 (2008), pp. 503–505. 9987:suppl. 120 (2013), p. 4. 9392:Slavery in ancient Greece 9057:owing to the eruption of 8911:enlightened self-interest 8355:The Festival of Handmaids 8245:Another slaves' holiday ( 7936:In inscriptions from the 7204:One of the causes of the 6633:On the Purchase of Slaves 6485:could be quite specific; 5570:to have a quasi marriage 5347:Urban crafts and services 4948:A wall painting from the 3949: 3802: 3485:, after his siege of the 3396:treated them as criminals 2648:servus non habet personam 2528:, a slave as chattel was 2390:(sometimes identified as 2074:(vitae necisque potestas) 1890:Slavery in ancient Greece 1820:Emancipation Proclamation 1487:Opposition and resistance 1245:Sex trafficking in Europe 1233:Blackbirding in Polynesia 796:Trans-Saharan slave trade 117:ended with the defeat of 23007:Clauss, Manfred (2001). 22572:Journal of Roman Studies 22124:II.36.3 (1972), p. 1523. 21691:Journal of Roman Studies 21653:Journal of Roman Studies 21601:(Routledge 2022), p. 40 21526:Journal of Roman Studies 21487:Also temples of a local 20840:5.19.14 (= CSEL 19.460). 20493:Journal of Roman Studies 20251:Journal of Roman Studies 20138:, p. 76, citing Cicero, 19846:, p. 105, citing Galen, 19707:Ancient History Bulletin 19455:, "The Rise of Pompey," 18915:citing Columella 1.8.9 18072:14 (1983), p. 6, citing 17954:, p. 107, citing Pliny, 17937:, p. 107, citing Pliny, 17336:Journal of Roman Studies 17320:Goldhill, Simon (2006). 17200:The Roman Law of Slavery 17157:Journal of Roman Studies 16919:The Roman Law of Slavery 16737:Journal of Roman Studies 16681:The Roman Law of Slavery 16615:The Roman Law of Slavery 16585:The Roman Law of Slavery 16572:The Roman Law of Slavery 16543:The Roman Law of Slavery 16517:The Roman Law of Slavery 16504:The Roman Law of Slavery 16478:Global Histories of Work 16154:Journal of Roman Studies 16117:47.6, and Juvenal 5.121. 15256:Johnston, David (2022). 15188:Ancient History Bulletin 15063:36 (2006), pp. 239, 249. 14973:Journal of Roman Studies 14411:, accessed 17 March 2021 14345:Ancient History Bulletin 13924:Ancient History Bulletin 13712:Journal of Roman Studies 13708:Journal of Roman Studies 13664:Journal of Roman Studies 13130:Ancient History Bulletin 12546:Journal of Roman Studies 12516:Journal of Roman Studies 11909:Journal of Roman Studies 11875:Ancient History Bulletin 11788:Journal of Roman Studies 11429:Ancient History Bulletin 11346:Journal of Roman Studies 11286:121 (1991), p. 346. 11263:Journal of Roman Studies 10989:The Roman Law of Slavery 10706:in the Roman Republic," 10663:suppl. 109 (2010), p. 5. 10603:(Ann Arbor, 1991) p. 65. 9726:, and his praenomen and 9486:The Roman Law of Slavery 9412: 9075:Christianity and slavery 8589:Roman funerary practices 8414:Among the public slaves 8264:or slave mistress. Both 8008:("hold me") with either 7583:Lucius Pedanius Secundus 7473:cultural interpretations 7302:to quell an uprising in 7094:is asked “Who are you?” 6782: 6738:, who came to Rome from 6699:Medicine in ancient Rome 4993:proved to be defective. 4691:success against Carthage 3896:; six are identified as 3823:'s Open Content Program) 2654:, no goods of his own." 2394:) submitting to Shapur I 2344:Roman military standards 2291:Battle of Lake Trasimene 2281:The Carthaginian leader 2097:Myths of Rome's founding 1595:Compensated emancipation 806:Indian Ocean slave trade 84:Roman military expansion 25352:Slavery in ancient Rome 25321:Roman–Iranian relations 23796:Optimates and populares 23358:Slavery in ancient Rome 23303:(in French). Besançon. 22988:Bradley, Keith (1994). 21347:33, as well as Silvius. 21033:(Fortress 2006), p. 23. 20637:Philippians 2:5–8. 20567:35:2 (1977), pp. 70–71. 20540:veris me d(omino) m(eo) 19909:42:1 (1995), pp. 71–72. 18552:, p. 96, citing Varro, 17740:(Wiley, 2022), pp. 4–5. 16960:37:1 (1983), pp. 56-57. 16312:52 (1984), pp. 143–144. 15923:86 (1955), pp. 332–333. 15382:Oxford Latin Dictionary 15345:Oxford Latin Dictionary 14840:17.1, 24.1, 30.3, 35.1. 14575:De Constantia Sapientis 13823:33 (2003), pp. 199–202. 13455:33 (2003), pp. 192–193. 13275:McKeown, Niall (2007). 13148:, pp. 33–34, 48–49 13077:8.7.12; Strabo 11.496; 12548:87 (1997), pp. 156–169. 12483:Constitutio Antoniniana 12244:Adolf Berger, entry on 11790:87 (1997), p. 162. 11777:36 (1980), p. 120. 11663:Jakob Fortunat Stagl, " 11401:, "from his own money". 10831:Encyclopædia Britannica 10748:Vitae Necisque Potestas 10448:Jewish Quarterly Review 10179:William L. Westermann, 9960:Vitae Necisque Potestas 9947:Vitae Necisque Potestas 9930:Vitae Necisque Potestas 9558:vitae necisque potestas 9349:Theatre of ancient Rome 9242:Roman phallocentric sex 9042:On Property Management, 7933:to cover his stigmata. 7693:condemned to the beasts 7589:Fugitive slave-catching 7575:Catilinarian conspiracy 6407:Other Eastern Provinces 6393:North African Provinces 6365:Other Western Provinces 6049:Theatre of ancient Rome 5481:schools for agriculture 5459:comprising a head chef 5037:13.8348; 30–40 BC) 4635:were also significant. 4569:agricultural production 4306:supposititious children 4139:Performing arts troupes 4109:construction techniques 3422:were excluded from the 3327:Julio-Claudian emperors 2606:vitae necisque potestas 2297:declined to do so, and 2103:that, according to the 1938:Late Republic 146–44 BC 1519:1926 Slavery Convention 1275:Germany in World War II 892:North and South America 414:Contract of manumission 60:Slavery in ancient Rome 25331:Civil wars and revolts 24597:Sextus Pompeius Festus 24244:Conflict of the Orders 23603:Legislative assemblies 23301:Emperadores y esclavos 23286:Conquerors and Slaves. 23284:Hopkins, Keith. 1978. 23263:Bradley, Keith. 1994. 22576:Andrew Wallace-Hadrill 22490:104:3 (2009), 338–339. 22198:On Property Management 21577:Mithraic torch-bearers 21436:, p. 354 L2 = p. 58 M. 21430:Religion of the Romans 21414:Religion of the Romans 20769:, Avidius Cassius 4.6. 20735:were one and the same. 20719:Oldfather, pp. 65–71, 20619:Fields, pp. 79–81 20060:35:2 (2014), pp. 212, 19177:Cicero and Diodorus," 18430:is also the name of a 18396:,” pp. 511, 519, 521, 17409:Harper, James (1972). 16895:(Brill, 2003), p. 160. 16649:21 (1993), pp. 94, 96. 16433:Historia Ecclesiastica 16059:The Ancient Roman City 15937:Diasporas in Antiquity 15837:, book 18) 7.1.15.1–2. 15816:"Slavery in Rome," in 15347:(1985 printing), s.v. 15053:de mancipiis vendundis 14440:. Chatto & Windus. 13329:Bellemore and Rawon, " 12768:(Florentinus) 1.5.4.2. 11928:, p. 577. The view of 11377:The Position of Slaves 11199:, Digest 42.5.38 pr. ( 10934:(Wayne State UP 1987). 10490:Law and History Review 10425:9;4 (1939), pp. 898ff. 9517:was less common), and 9344: 9336: 9297:might do so under the 9216: 9047:charred rolls of texts 8793: 8689: 8626: 8563:Early Christian church 8524: 8406: 8212: 8211:6.147, 2nd century AD) 8149: 8049: 7971: 7891: 7874:Tattooing and branding 7830: 7794:understanding: in the 7668:Androclus and the lion 7659: 7494: 7442:, perhaps in honor of 7360: 7216:Resistance and control 7171: 7123: 6973: 6905: 6799: 6689: 6565: 6280: 6214:As a result, from the 6105: 5949:(libera administratio) 5898: 5813: 5526: 5465:(vicarius supra cocos) 5422: 5359: 5335:—slaves attached to a 5260: 5038: 4957: 4893: 4811: 4602:What the Roman jurist 4599: 4456:contract in the early 4269: 4214: 3968: 3825: 3634: 3530: 3451: 3310: 3176:Ancient Roman freedmen 3171: 3144:manumissio in ecclesia 2965: 2878: 2803:not mentally competent 2715: 2505: 2260: 2024: 2002:Early Byzantine Empire 1998:AD 313–mid 7th century 1000:British Virgin Islands 552:Circassian slave trade 518:Safavid imperial harem 513:Ottoman Imperial Harem 56: 25040:Simplicius of Cilicia 24792:Quintus Curtius Rufus 24021:Siege in Ancient Rome 23630:Executive magistrates 22919:. Malden, MA: Oxford. 22819:Thomas A. J. McGinn, 22808:Quae Corpore Quaestum 22727:Quae Corpore Quaestum 22714:Quae Corpore Quaestum 22701:Quae Corpore Quaestum 22679:Looking at Lovemaking 22465:117:3 (1998), p. 483. 22372:Institutiones divinae 22135:The Therapy of Desire 21664:David Noy, review of 20433:120:3 (2016), p. 461. 19880:134:1 (2013), p. 126. 19598:15:3 (1988), p. 489; 19411:Journal of Musicology 19320:146:1 (2016), p. 100. 19167:means "the Sicilian". 18379:Cheesman, “Names in - 18096:132:2 (2011), p. 334. 17683:8 (1899) 524 no. 311. 17648:104:2 (2011), p. 206. 17183:Quae Corpore Quaestum 17159:89 (1999), pp. 49–50. 16343:Alfred Michael Hirt, 15276:for 6 months and the 15133:www.perseus.tufts.edu 15109:www.perseus.tufts.edu 14736:146:1 (2016), p. 105. 14347:25 (2011), pp. 75–76. 14030:as a case in point," 13880:Declamationes Minores 13760:(Hendrickson, 2011), 13735:and apprentice by an 13651:Bibliotheca historica 13630:On the Erythraean Sea 13307:, 83 (1990), pp. 4–5. 12023:manumissio testamento 11911:36 (1946), pp. 58–59. 11540:70:1/2 (2016), p. 89. 10476:145:2 (2015), p. 400. 10335:of Pompeius Trogus,” 10333:Historiae Philippicae 10168:Conquerors and Slaves 9645:104:3 (2009), p. 335. 9342: 9334: 9289:originally attached. 9283:ne serva prostituatur 9211: 9143:Further information: 9121:Christian apologetics 9071:The Bible and slavery 8889:, traditional morals 8852:(instrumentum vocale) 8788: 8708:, slaves born into a 8671: 8615: 8587:Further information: 8518: 8394: 8200: 8126: 8075:and beaten to death. 8031: 7969: 7881: 7825: 7651:(1902) by the French 7647: 7569:in southern Italy by 7470: 7355: 7168: 7121: 7100:(a Marco tabellarius) 6962: 6903: 6790: 6718:freedmen or enslaved 6697:Further information: 6676: 6549: 6379:Greece and Asia Minor 6265: 6175:Further information: 6099: 5884: 5790: 5517: 5487:rails about a carver 5404: 5396:contractual self-sale 5354: 5341:publicly owned slaves 5250: 5089:having persuaded the 5022: 4947: 4885: 4805: 4783:. Slaves coming from 4781:Black Sea slave trade 4779:was a market for the 4673:The rise and fall of 4594: 4482:was abolished by the 4476:citizen under the law 4362:The ancient right of 4256: 4212: 3959: 3812: 3715:Piracy and kidnapping 3614: 3565:captured the city of 3517: 3441: 3434:Causes of enslavement 3408:gladiatorial school ( 3404:tattooing or branding 3390:called the status of 3305: 3294:even holds that if a 3165: 3086:manumissio testamento 3066:("by the rod") was a 2957: 2865: 2698: 2499: 2308:Second Macedonian War 2240: 2210:conclusion of the war 2161:1.3.2, 161 AD). 2115:, the semi-legendary 1897: 1239:Europe and North Asia 1199:Australia and Oceania 899:Pre-Columbian America 471:Slave raid of Suðuroy 403:Slavery in al-Andalus 325:Black Sea slave trade 254:21st-century jihadism 32: 25050:Stephanus Byzantinus 24955:Eusebius of Caesaria 24817:Sidonius Apollinaris 24507:Ammianus Marcellinus 23846:Tribune of the plebs 23331:Watson, Alan. 1987. 23277:Harper, Kyle. 2011. 23243:Liverpool University 23187:Storming the Heavens 22873:10.1093/past/138.1.3 22339:119:1 (2000), p. 70. 22323:111:1 (1992), p. 37. 22021:92:3 (1997), p. 277. 21965:," pp. 44–46, 64–65. 21672:60:2 (2010), p. 535. 21562:, pp. 33, 37–39 21507:at Zela (modern-day 21373:Jennifer A. Glancy, 21325:William Warde Fowler 20856:1 (1971), pp. 75-78. 20266:," pp. 139–140, 147. 20232:, p. 53, citing the 20078:W. Mark Gustafson, " 19889:By Pliny the Elder, 19253:57:1 (2014), pp. 26. 19210:10:3 (1983), p. 443. 18988:10:3 (1983), p. 435. 18752:(Amberley 201), n.p. 18663:Cheesman, “Names in 18646:Cheesman, “Names in 18582:,” p. 518. See also 18578:Cheesman, “Names in 18522:Cheesman, “Names in 18491:16.2 (1969), p. 196. 18447:Cheesman, “Names in 18422:Cheesman, “Names in 18409:Cheesman, “Names in 18392:Cheesman, “Names in 18254:Chronological Tables 18134:1 (Kühn) and Pliny, 18046:64:4 (2015), p. 491. 17979:of Justinian 40.8.2. 17566:93:1 (1972), p. 217. 17015:Thomas A.J. McGinn, 16557:Adolf Berger. 1991. 16356:W. Mark Gustafson, " 15778:Richard P. Saller, " 15278:actio quanto minoris 15258:Roman Law in Context 14479:34:4 (2004), p. 515. 13791:metaphorical Gehenna 13747:2.7.347, and p. 272. 13248:, p. 100 n. 155 13207:, 71 (1940), p. 272 13181:1.17.5, 7 and 2.126. 13091:De mercede conductis 12798:65:4 (2016), p. 462. 12686:(Mohr, 2002), p. 96. 11739:35:1 (1985), p. 163. 11703:Roman Law in Context 11511:Richard P. Saller, " 11481:34:4 (2004), p. 527. 11303:, citing the jurist 11252:47:2 (1993), p. 127. 11003:), p. 473, and 10970:Thomas Finkenauer, " 10746:Raymond Westbrook, " 10725:Richard P. Saller, " 10547:38:3 (1943), p. 161. 10304:62:3 (1941) 322-330. 9936:48:2 (1999), p. 208. 9928:Raymond Westbrook, " 9869:Richard P. Saller, " 9839:38:4 (1984), p. 343. 9563:marriage contracted 9460:in the Roman Empire. 9397:Slavery in antiquity 9321:Hermippos of Berytus 9317:Caecilius of Calacte 9247:male sexual partners 9012:Epicurean philosophy 8821:Atlantic slave trade 8684:Secundus fights the 8143:(from the plates of 8058:Crucifixion was the 8034:crucifixion of Jesus 7796:Acts of the Apostles 7431:assigned to Sicily, 7328:The Greek historian 7079:restyled himself as 5931:alone numbered 700. 5805:of the grain supply 5731:, which was used in 5494:In the Roman world, 5308:as a matter of law. 4950:House of Julia Felix 4775:slaves were traded. 4485:Lex Poetelia Papiria 4169:ancient Roman mining 4105:ornamental gardening 4043:functional childhood 3005:is indicated by the 2724:collateral relatives 2534:grammatically neuter 2322:or later within the 2140:cives Romani liberti 2042:were subject to the 1886:Slavery in antiquity 1694:Indentured servitude 1622:Underground Railroad 1422:United Arab Emirates 811:Zanzibar slave trade 778:By country or region 591:Atlantic slave trade 493:Ma malakat aymanukum 377:Venetian slave trade 131:Atlantic slave trade 106:and across borders. 49:and the other in an 25226:Distinguished women 24877:Velleius Paterculus 24717:Nicolaus Damascenus 24697:Marcellus Empiricus 24086:Republican currency 23338:Yavetz, Zvi. 1988. 23291:Hunt, Peter. 2018. 23258:Classical Quarterly 22749:The Sleep of Reason 22631:feminae fecundiores 22595:37:1 (1983), p. 56. 22566:Rebecca Flemming, " 22488:Classical Philology 22019:Classical Philology 21868:39:1 (1992), p. 62. 21520:Rebecca Flemming, " 21014:Quaestiones Romanae 20936:Slavery and Society 20906:Slavery and Society 20893:Slavery and Society 20854:Revue Archéologique 20838:Divine Institutions 20748:54:1 (2012), p. 91. 20675:119 (1989), p. 239. 20487:Rebecca Flemming, " 20294:Inscripta in Fronte 20217:Inscripta in Fronte 20086:16:1 (1997), p. 79. 20084:Classical Antiquity 20080:Inscripta in Fronte 20004:119 (1989), p. 237. 19754:De natura animalium 19736:Slavery and Society 19696:13.77.3 and 5.9–11. 19576:29.5.1.27 (Ulpian). 19492:The Last Generation 19470:The Last Generation 19441:The Last Generation 19187:Classical Philology 19084:119 (1989), p. 237. 19049:Classical Quarterly 19032:Classical Philology 19012:Classical Antiquity 18997:M. I. Finley, 18368:Classical Quarterly 18132:Therapeutikē technē 17502:120 (2013), p. 235. 17489:38:1 (2019), p. 39. 17487:Classical Antiquity 17384:Noy, David (2000). 17151:Rebecca Flemming, " 17075:Classical Antiquity 17003:Tabula Heracleensis 16921:, pp. 162, 274–275. 16713:74:2 (2017), p. 80. 16670:35:1 (1981), p. 50. 16604:VI.2354 and X.4687. 16364:16:1 (1997), p. 81. 16362:Classical Antiquity 16358:Inscripta in Fronte 16057:John E. Stambaugh, 15882:Woman's Art Journal 15788:Classical Philology 15626:Classical Quarterly 15438:Classical Quarterly 15414:: C. M. Reed, 15295:W. W. Buckland 14908:Michael H. Crawford 14818:Classical Quarterly 13864:Classical Philology 13263:Classical Quarterly 13223:, p. 138 n. 90 13079:Xenophon of Ephesus 12847:Classical Quarterly 12779:Classical Quarterly 11938:was promulgated by 11930:manumissio vindicta 11926:manumissio vindicta 11760:35:1 (1981) p.50ff 11737:Classical Quarterly 11722:, p. 451. See also 11521:Classical Philology 11100:105 (1975), p. 396. 11028:35:1 (1981), p. 59. 10887:Matthew Dillon and 10865:48.1.1.23 (Ulpian). 10846:Classical Quarterly 10735:Classical Philology 10672:Richard P. Saller, 10545:Classical Philology 10283:Velleius Paterculus 10272:20:1 (2013), p. 26. 10230:Classical Philology 10118:David J. Bederman, 10023:Classical Quarterly 9919:14:1 (1993), p. 28. 9879:Classical Philology 9854:Classical Quarterly 9800:(tunicae manicatae) 9643:Classical Philology 9482:W. W. Buckland 9458:religious pluralism 9361:. In Roman comedy, 9051:Villa of the Papyri 8926:Classical antiquity 8714:funerary bust above 8496:sacred prostitution 8373:Gallic sack of Rome 8216:Religious practices 8110:Christian apologist 7938:Temple of Asclepius 7826:Slave shackle from 7664:the fables of Aesop 6804:Marcus Tullius Tiro 6668:medical malpractice 6297: 6269:it has been assumed 5838:College of Pontiffs 5677:Damnati in metallum 5067:comedies of Plautus 4891:Charles W. Bartlett 4842:. The readiness of 4464:, it was a form of 3557:enslaved 30,000 in 3551:Great Jewish Revolt 3342:House of the Vettii 3064:manumissio vindicta 3053:contractual slavery 2925:The legal dodge of 2781:in expanding their 2685:Marriage and family 1785:Slave Route Project 911:Americas indigenous 801:Red Sea slave trade 791:Contemporary Africa 654:Topics and practice 424:Crimean slave trade 419:Bukhara slave trade 372:Genoese slave trade 249:Contemporary Africa 229:Forced prostitution 100:contractual slavery 25000:Phlegon of Tralles 24807:Seneca the Younger 24281:Naming conventions 24011:Personal equipment 23544:Later Roman Empire 23191:. Westview Press. 22865:Past & Present 22500:Martha C. Nussbaum 22397:Augustine of Hippo 22333:Jennifer A. Glancy 22098:(46 BC), 5.33 ff. 22096:Paradoxa Stoicorum 22075:Martha C. Nussbaum 21980:Cena Trimalchionis 21617:, pp. 40, 143 21530:Gender and History 20950:), and 21.1.43.4 ( 20938:, p. 112., citing 20850:Michael P. Speidel 20767:Script. Hist. Aug. 20729:supplicium servile 20279:55 (2010), p. 101. 20253:77 (1987), p. 155. 19159:Diodorus Siculus, 18792:Sandra R. Joshel, 18684:, p. 92 and n. 34. 18650:,” p. 516, citing 18353:37 (1978) 817–850. 18293:73 (2000), p. 101. 18277:2006-12-07 at the 17889:86 (1955), p. 338. 17583:13 (2006), pp. 71. 17438:byustudies.byu.edu 17220:Codex Theodosianus 16739:70 (1980), p. 140. 16658:Susan Treggiari, " 16218:36 (1980), p. 118. 15958:2009-02-03 at the 15953:Roman Civilization 15884:29:2 (2008), p. 41 15584:Sandra R. Joshel, 15274:actio redhibitoria 14975:87 (1997), p. 159. 14229:Codex Theodosianus 14211:Codex Theodosianus 14097:33 (2003), p. 181. 14063:Codex Theodosianus 14036:Codex Theodosianus 13926:25 (2011), p. 108. 13666:18 (1928), p. 140. 13177:1.8.19 and Varro, 13136:(Marcian) 1.5.5.1. 13015:Captivus Redumptus 12845:, "Magic Spears," 12742:1.474 ed. Dindorf. 12739:Chronicon Paschale 12611:, pp. 180–184 12599:, pp. 210–217 12578:36 (1980), p. 121. 12518:90 (2000), p. 112. 12430:55 (2010), p. 104. 12420:Pessima … libertas 11992:, pp. 180–182 11748:Susan Treggiari, " 11236:Lex Iulia et Papia 11037:Susan Treggiari, " 11016:Susan Treggiari, " 10541:Captivus Redemptus 10343:in the epitome of 10226:Captivus Redemptus 10067:12:1 (1985), p. 4. 9470:Isidore of Seville 9402:History of slavery 9345: 9337: 9217: 8794: 8690: 8627: 8529:Mithraic mysteries 8525: 8490:. The notion that 8476:Comana, Cappadocia 8407: 8213: 8150: 8084:servile supplicium 8060:capital punishment 8050: 7972: 7892: 7831: 7680:province of Africa 7660: 7495: 7420:Second Servile War 7361: 7258:Second Servile War 7172: 7124: 6974: 6906: 6800: 6769:Tiro was either a 6690: 6566: 6497:Ethnic stereotypes 6423:Race and ethnicity 6293: 6216:3rd century onward 6133:Christian hegemony 6106: 5899: 5814: 5739:), and perhaps in 5527: 5477:culinary workshops 5423: 5390:apprenticing as a 5360: 5261: 5228:imperial or public 5131:as a luxury good. 5107:in the company of 5039: 4958: 4922:home-reared slaves 4894: 4878:Auctions and sales 4812: 4681:, policing by the 4600: 4462:Roman legal system 4270: 4215: 3979:(plural; feminine 3969: 3826: 3781:Augustine of Hippo 3680:sacrificial victim 3635: 3543:Hellenistic Jewish 3535:province of Judaea 3531: 3452: 3315:(familia Caesaris) 3311: 3172: 2966: 2879: 2870:Musée des Jacobins 2829:Isidore of Seville 2716: 2506: 2439:and from banditry 2384:(lower left above) 2272:capture under the 2261: 2117:sixth king of Rome 1968:1st–2nd century AD 1561:Blockade of Africa 868:Somali slave trade 784:Sub-Saharan Africa 476:Turkish Abductions 434:Khivan slave trade 429:Khazar slave trade 382:Balkan slave trade 340:Prague slave trade 57: 33:Roman mosaic from 25339: 25338: 25301:Pontifices maximi 25083: 25082: 24940:Diogenes Laërtius 24762:Pliny the Younger 24517:Asconius Pedianus 24477:Romance languages 24349:Civil engineering 24091:Imperial currency 23964:Political control 23925: 23924: 23559: 23558: 23353:Library resources 23310:978-2-84867-961-7 23219:978-0-521-78053-7 23198:978-0-8133-3523-0 23054:978-0-521-26335-1 23035:978-1-4051-8767-1 22258:1Corinthians 7:21 22107:Martha Nussbaum, 22092:Greece & Rome 21655:80 (1990), p. 75. 21532:9 (1997) 480–503. 21388:Classical Slavery 21270:Catherine Keane, 21149:Peter F. Dorcey, 21130:, in his note to 20780:Novum Testamentum 20746:Novum Testamentum 20708:Novum Testamentum 20155:79 (2011), p. 73. 20018:Roman Antiquities 19907:Greece & Rome 19709:25 (2011), p. 76. 19690:Greece & Rome 19670:, p. 28, note 28. 19231:14 (1967), p. 76. 19110:39 (1908), p. 62 19053:Codex Justinianus 18748:Alexandra Croom, 18489:Greece & Rome 18082:Classical Outlook 17834:Greece & Rome 17806:Classical Journal 17395:978-0-7156-2952-9 17370:978-0-521-19861-5 17299:978-0-8078-6410-4 17274:Classical Slavery 17185:," p. 53, citing 16998:Roman Sexualities 16810:43 (1975), p. 49. 16752:43 (1997), p. 59. 16493:97 (1966), p. 35. 16128:Letter to Atticus 15511:7.56; Suetonius, 15267:978-1-108-70016-0 14648:Classical Journal 14511:Classical Journal 14462:978-2-84867-510-7 14260:, pp. 56–57. 14032:Museum Helveticum 13981:Greece & Rome 13624:31, on 16.1, and 13286:978-0-7156-3185-0 12505:3 (1996), p. 113. 12398:978-0-674-99737-0 12347:Classical Journal 12264:Berger, entry on 11714:Berger, entry on 11675:4 (Digest 1.1.4). 11448:Edward E. Cohen, 11371:Richard Gamauf, " 11295:Jane F. Gardner, 11057:, pp. 50–51. 11045:49 (1981), p. 59. 10800:Berger, entry on 10780:, citing Cicero, 10685:Berger, entry on 10367:The Epic of Kings 10337:Greece & Rome 9825:Richard P. Saller 9794:Aliza Steinberg, 9775:for this purpose. 9747:statue type as a 9658:(1st century AD). 9513:(a female slave; 9267:Stoic indignation 9106:Gospel of Matthew 9098:parables of Jesus 9094:Jesus of Nazareth 9049:preserved at the 8704:specifically for 8571:(term c. 92–99), 8361:Ancillarum Feriae 8341:libertas Decembri 7904:Hellenistic Egypt 7499:Third Servile War 7487:Aram Khachaturian 7425:Lex de Plagiariis 7400:Hellenistic kings 7379:of Damophilos in 7365:First Servile War 7262:Third Servile War 7254:First Servile War 7128:(vestis servilis) 7023:, “God's slave” ( 6849:funerary monument 6843:For example, the 6797:Roman Collection) 6760:collected letters 6637:Pliny the Younger 6541:Alexandria, Egypt 6420: 6419: 6273:on the hypothesis 6003:limited liability 5661:war with Hannibal 5522:on a relief from 5467:, and assistants 5273:nursery attendant 5135:Taxes and tariffs 4897:William V. Harris 4824:campaigns in Gaul 4683:Ptolemaic Kingdom 4562:The slave economy 4281:Romulus and Remus 4218:Child abandonment 4151:artistic gymnasts 3598:African provinces 3571:Bar Kokhba revolt 3549:reports that the 3541:(AD 66–135). The 3539:Jewish–Roman wars 3260:state priesthoods 3246:interchangeably. 3207:patronage network 3192:("freed person", 3127:lex Fufia Caninia 3117:created "Junian 2634:crimen maiestatis 2382:Detail of relief 2332:Battle of Carrhae 2171:international law 2093:Roman citizenship 2089:Greek city-states 1984:beginning AD 313 1905: 1882: 1881: 1832:Freedmen's Bureau 1649:Third Servile War 1644:International law 1211:Human trafficking 973:Human trafficking 648:Thirteen colonies 466:Sack of Baltimore 234:Human trafficking 16:(Redirected from 25364: 25291:Magistri equitum 25206:Cities and towns 25199: 25125:Constantinopolis 24935:Diodorus Siculus 24867:Valerius Maximus 24802:Seneca the Elder 24722:Nonius Marcellus 24490: 24489: 24043:Hippika gymnasia 24006:Infantry tactics 23912:Consular tribune 23902:Magister equitum 23851:Military tribune 23816: 23815: 23776:Pontifex maximus 23771:Princeps senatus 23761:Magister militum 23527:Byzantine Empire 23448: 23447: 23409: 23402: 23395: 23386: 23385: 23333:Roman Slave Law. 23328: 23322: 23314: 23246: 23236: 23223: 23202: 23190: 23179: 23170: 23165:. Vol. 11. 23157: 23089: 23058: 23039: 23012: 23003: 22984: 22975: 22936: 22935: 22930:Terence (2002). 22927: 22921: 22920: 22912: 22906: 22899: 22890: 22883: 22877: 22876: 22860: 22854: 22843: 22837: 22830: 22824: 22817: 22811: 22804: 22798: 22791: 22785: 22770: 22764: 22745: 22739: 22736: 22730: 22723: 22717: 22710: 22704: 22697: 22691: 22688: 22682: 22675: 22669: 22662: 22656: 22651:John R. Clarke, 22649: 22643: 22640: 22634: 22627: 22621: 22611: 22605: 22602: 22596: 22589: 22583: 22564: 22558: 22551: 22545: 22530: 22524: 22517: 22511: 22497: 22491: 22484: 22478: 22472: 22466: 22459: 22453: 22442: 22436: 22422: 22416: 22415: 22413: 22411: 22393: 22387: 22381: 22375: 22364: 22358: 22355: 22349: 22346: 22340: 22330: 22324: 22317: 22311: 22304: 22298: 22291: 22285: 22284: 22282: 22281: 22267: 22261: 22255: 22249: 22244: 22238: 22233: 22227: 22220: 22214: 22207: 22201: 22190: 22184: 22177: 22171: 22161: 22155: 22144: 22138: 22131: 22125: 22118: 22112: 22105: 22099: 22088: 22082: 22072: 22066: 22063: 22057: 22054: 22048: 22045:Ideas of Slavery 22041: 22035: 22032:Ideas of Slavery 22028: 22022: 22011: 22005: 21998: 21992: 21989: 21983: 21972: 21966: 21959: 21953: 21952: 21924: 21918: 21915: 21909: 21902: 21896: 21893: 21887: 21884: 21878: 21875: 21869: 21859: 21853: 21847: 21841: 21838: 21832: 21825: 21819: 21816:Favor libertatis 21812: 21806: 21799: 21793: 21786: 21780: 21773: 21767: 21764: 21758: 21747: 21741: 21738: 21732: 21725: 21719: 21713: 21707: 21700: 21694: 21679: 21673: 21670:Classical Review 21662: 21656: 21649: 21643: 21636: 21630: 21624: 21618: 21612: 21606: 21595: 21589: 21586: 21580: 21569: 21563: 21557: 21551: 21548: 21542: 21539: 21533: 21518: 21512: 21497:Men of Pharnaces 21485: 21479: 21472: 21466: 21443: 21437: 21423: 21417: 21397: 21391: 21384: 21378: 21371: 21365: 21354: 21348: 21345:Life of Camillus 21338: 21332: 21322: 21316: 21313:Polemius Silvius 21311:The calendar of 21309: 21303: 21297: 21291: 21281: 21275: 21268: 21262: 21255: 21249: 21242: 21236: 21229: 21223: 21217: 21211: 21205: 21199: 21189: 21183: 21177: 21171: 21164: 21158: 21147: 21141: 21125: 21119: 21080: 21074: 21071: 21065: 21053: 21047: 21040: 21034: 21023: 21017: 21003: 20997: 20994: 20988: 20985: 20979: 20973: 20964: 20961: 20955: 20932: 20926: 20919: 20913: 20902: 20896: 20889: 20883: 20876: 20870: 20863: 20857: 20847: 20841: 20830: 20824: 20821: 20815: 20812: 20806: 20798: 20792: 20789: 20783: 20776: 20770: 20755: 20749: 20742: 20736: 20717: 20711: 20704: 20698: 20691: 20685: 20682: 20676: 20657: 20651: 20644: 20638: 20635: 20629: 20626: 20620: 20617: 20611: 20608: 20602: 20593: 20587: 20574: 20568: 20561: 20555: 20528: 20522: 20519: 20513: 20506: 20500: 20485: 20479: 20476: 20470: 20467: 20461: 20458: 20452: 20449: 20443: 20440: 20434: 20427: 20421: 20418: 20412: 20405: 20399: 20396: 20390: 20387: 20381: 20378: 20372: 20365: 20359: 20356: 20350: 20347: 20341: 20334: 20328: 20321: 20315: 20312: 20306: 20303: 20297: 20286: 20280: 20273: 20267: 20260: 20254: 20243: 20237: 20226: 20220: 20213: 20207: 20200: 20194: 20187:Servitium amoris 20184: 20178: 20175: 20169: 20162: 20156: 20149: 20143: 20132: 20126: 20119: 20113: 20102: 20096: 20093: 20087: 20076: 20070: 20067: 20061: 20054: 20048: 20045: 20039: 20036: 20030: 20027: 20021: 20011: 20005: 19994: 19988: 19985: 19979: 19972: 19966: 19963: 19957: 19954: 19948: 19937: 19931: 19916: 19910: 19887: 19881: 19874: 19868: 19857: 19851: 19840: 19834: 19823: 19817: 19812:21.3, and Cato, 19802: 19796: 19789: 19783: 19776: 19770: 19763: 19757: 19752:2.19.1; Aelian, 19732: 19726: 19716: 19710: 19703: 19697: 19686: 19680: 19677: 19671: 19664: 19658: 19651: 19645: 19638: 19632: 19626: 19620: 19613: 19607: 19592: 19586: 19583: 19577: 19570: 19564: 19557: 19551: 19548: 19542: 19535: 19529: 19526: 19520: 19513:T. Corey Brennan 19510: 19504: 19501: 19495: 19488: 19482: 19479: 19473: 19466: 19460: 19450: 19444: 19437: 19431: 19421: 19415: 19403: 19397: 19394: 19388: 19385: 19379: 19376: 19370: 19363: 19357: 19354: 19348: 19345: 19339: 19336: 19330: 19327: 19321: 19314: 19308: 19305: 19299: 19296: 19290: 19287: 19281: 19278: 19272: 19269: 19263: 19260: 19254: 19247: 19241: 19238: 19232: 19217: 19211: 19204: 19198: 19174: 19168: 19157: 19151: 19148: 19142: 19139: 19133: 19130: 19124: 19117: 19111: 19100: 19094: 19091: 19085: 19074: 19068: 19045: 19039: 19028: 19022: 19008: 19002: 18995: 18989: 18982: 18976: 18973: 18967: 18964:Diodorus Siculus 18956: 18950: 18943: 18937: 18926: 18920: 18909: 18903: 18900: 18894: 18887: 18881: 18874: 18868: 18861: 18855: 18851: 18845: 18829: 18823: 18816: 18810: 18803: 18797: 18790: 18784: 18781: 18775: 18772: 18766: 18759: 18753: 18746: 18740: 18737: 18728: 18721: 18715: 18704: 18698: 18691: 18685: 18678: 18672: 18661: 18655: 18652:Diodorus Siculus 18644: 18638: 18623: 18617: 18606: 18600: 18593: 18587: 18576: 18570: 18563: 18557: 18554:De lingua latina 18546: 18540: 18533: 18527: 18520: 18514: 18507: 18501: 18498: 18492: 18485: 18479: 18476: 18470: 18467: 18461: 18458: 18452: 18445: 18439: 18432:Menippean satire 18420: 18414: 18413:,” pp. 521, 527. 18407: 18401: 18390: 18384: 18377: 18371: 18360: 18354: 18347: 18341: 18330: 18324: 18317: 18311: 18300: 18294: 18287: 18281: 18265: 18259: 18250: 18244: 18235: 18229: 18226: 18220: 18214: 18208: 18205: 18199: 18193: 18187: 18180: 18174: 18167: 18161: 18158: 18152: 18145: 18139: 18128: 18122: 18117:10.388; Cicero, 18103: 18097: 18066: 18060: 18053: 18047: 18040: 18034: 18026: 18020: 18005: 17999: 17986: 17980: 17965: 17959: 17948: 17942: 17931: 17925: 17918: 17912: 17909: 17903: 17896: 17890: 17879: 17873: 17868:Mellor, Ronald. 17866: 17860: 17849: 17843: 17830: 17824: 17821: 17815: 17798: 17792: 17777: 17771: 17764: 17758: 17747: 17741: 17734: 17728: 17721: 17715: 17712: 17706: 17703: 17697: 17690: 17684: 17677: 17671: 17664: 17658: 17655: 17649: 17642: 17636: 17633: 17627: 17616: 17610: 17603: 17597: 17590: 17584: 17581:Classics Ireland 17573: 17567: 17560: 17554: 17539: 17533: 17522: 17516: 17513:De Lingua Latina 17509: 17503: 17496: 17490: 17483: 17477: 17474: 17468: 17463:Stefan Goodwin, 17461: 17455: 17448: 17442: 17441: 17430: 17424: 17421: 17415: 17414: 17406: 17400: 17399: 17381: 17372: 17357: 17351: 17345: 17339: 17332: 17326: 17325: 17317: 17308: 17307: 17283: 17277: 17270: 17264: 17261: 17255: 17254: 17236: 17227: 17217: 17211: 17204:Codex Iustiniani 17202:, p. 38, citing 17196: 17190: 17179: 17173: 17166: 17160: 17149: 17143: 17136: 17130: 17123: 17117: 17114: 17108: 17105: 17099: 17094:Alison Futrell, 17092: 17086: 17071: 17065: 17062: 17056: 17053: 17047: 17044: 17038: 17035: 17029: 17026: 17020: 17013: 17007: 16994: 16988: 16985: 16979: 16976: 16970: 16967: 16961: 16954: 16948: 16941: 16935: 16928: 16922: 16915: 16909: 16902: 16896: 16889: 16883: 16856: 16850: 16847: 16841: 16826: 16820: 16817: 16811: 16801: 16795: 16776: 16770: 16765:, on the son as 16759: 16753: 16746: 16740: 16733: 16727: 16720: 16714: 16707: 16701: 16694:Classics Ireland 16690: 16684: 16677: 16671: 16656: 16650: 16643: 16637: 16624: 16618: 16611: 16605: 16594: 16588: 16581: 16575: 16568: 16562: 16555: 16546: 16539: 16533: 16526: 16520: 16513: 16507: 16500: 16494: 16487: 16481: 16474: 16468: 16461: 16455: 16452: 16446: 16443: 16437: 16425: 16419: 16416: 16410: 16407: 16401: 16398: 16392: 16389: 16383: 16380: 16374: 16371: 16365: 16354: 16348: 16341: 16335: 16332: 16326: 16319: 16313: 16303: 16297: 16282: 16276: 16269: 16263: 16252: 16246: 16243: 16237: 16234: 16228: 16225: 16219: 16212: 16206: 16193: 16187: 16180: 16174: 16167: 16161: 16150: 16144: 16137: 16131: 16124: 16118: 16111: 16105: 16098: 16092: 16085: 16079: 16072: 16066: 16055: 16049: 16046: 16040: 16037: 16031: 16028: 16022: 16015: 16009: 16006: 15997: 15990: 15984: 15979:John R. Clarke, 15977: 15971: 15968: 15962: 15950: 15944: 15933:Ramsay MacMullen 15930: 15924: 15917: 15911: 15904: 15898: 15897:43 (1975) p. 55. 15891: 15885: 15878: 15872: 15861: 15855: 15844: 15838: 15827: 15821: 15814: 15795: 15776: 15770: 15763: 15757: 15754: 15748: 15741: 15735: 15724: 15718: 15712: 15706: 15699: 15693: 15686: 15680: 15673: 15667: 15656: 15650: 15643: 15637: 15622: 15616: 15613: 15607: 15604: 15598: 15595: 15589: 15582: 15576: 15557: 15551: 15548: 15542: 15539: 15533: 15526: 15520: 15505: 15499: 15492: 15486: 15483: 15477: 15474: 15468: 15465: 15459: 15456: 15450: 15447: 15441: 15440:52:1 (2002), p. 15434: 15428: 15425: 15419: 15412:andrapodokapelos 15408: 15402: 15395: 15389: 15379: 15373: 15366: 15360: 15359:, pp. 2025–2026. 15342: 15336: 15321: 15315: 15304: 15298: 15287: 15281: 15271: 15253: 15247: 15244: 15235: 15228: 15222: 15219: 15213: 15210: 15204: 15201: 15195: 15184: 15178: 15177: 15170:Gellius, Aulus. 15167: 15161: 15158: 15152: 15149: 15143: 15142: 15140: 15139: 15125: 15119: 15118: 15116: 15115: 15101: 15095: 15092: 15086: 15079: 15073: 15070: 15064: 15049: 15043: 15040: 15034: 15031: 15025: 15022: 15016: 15015:35 (2005), p. 8. 15009: 15003: 15000: 14994: 14991: 14985: 14982: 14976: 14969: 14963: 14956: 14950: 14943: 14937: 14926: 14920: 14917: 14911: 14905: 14899: 14892: 14886: 14883: 14877: 14874: 14868: 14865: 14859: 14856: 14850: 14847: 14841: 14830:Mithridatic Wars 14814: 14808: 14805: 14799: 14796: 14790: 14787:De lingua Latina 14783: 14777: 14770: 14764: 14761: 14755: 14752: 14746: 14743: 14737: 14730: 14724: 14721: 14715: 14712: 14706: 14703: 14697: 14694: 14688: 14684: 14678: 14675: 14669: 14666: 14660: 14644: 14638: 14631: 14625: 14622: 14616: 14613: 14607: 14600: 14594: 14591: 14585: 14566: 14560: 14557: 14551: 14548: 14542: 14536: 14527: 14520: 14514: 14504: 14498: 14495: 14489: 14486: 14480: 14473: 14467: 14466: 14448: 14442: 14441: 14433: 14427: 14426: 14418: 14412: 14405: 14396: 14391:Hopkins, Keith. 14389: 14383: 14380: 14374: 14367: 14361: 14354: 14348: 14341: 14335: 14332: 14323: 14320: 14314: 14303: 14297: 14294: 14288: 14285: 14279: 14276: 14270: 14267: 14261: 14254: 14248: 14238: 14232: 14221: 14215: 14206: 14200: 14197: 14191: 14188: 14182: 14167: 14161: 14158: 14152: 14149: 14143: 14140: 14134: 14131: 14125: 14122: 14116: 14113: 14107: 14104: 14098: 14091: 14085: 14082: 14076: 14073: 14067: 14058: 14052: 14045: 14039: 14020: 14014: 14007: 14001: 13998: 13992: 13977: 13971: 13968: 13962: 13959: 13953: 13950: 13944: 13933: 13927: 13920: 13914: 13911: 13905: 13898: 13892: 13889: 13883: 13878:7.1.14, 9.2.89; 13860: 13854: 13847: 13841: 13830: 13824: 13817: 13811: 13804:Seneca the Elder 13800: 13794: 13780:Adversus Judaeos 13771: 13765: 13754: 13748: 13729: 13723: 13704: 13698: 13691: 13685: 13682: 13676: 13673: 13667: 13660: 13654: 13647:Diodorus Siculus 13614: 13608: 13601: 13595: 13588: 13582: 13579: 13573: 13570: 13564: 13551: 13545: 13542: 13536: 13533: 13527: 13524: 13518: 13515: 13509: 13506: 13500: 13497: 13491: 13484: 13478: 13471: 13465: 13462: 13456: 13449: 13443: 13432: 13426: 13423: 13417: 13414: 13408: 13397: 13391: 13388: 13382: 13375: 13369: 13366: 13360: 13353: 13347: 13340: 13334: 13327: 13321: 13314: 13308: 13297: 13291: 13290: 13272: 13266: 13255: 13249: 13246:Mouritsen (2011) 13243: 13237: 13230: 13224: 13221:Mouritsen (2011) 13218: 13212: 13201: 13195: 13188: 13182: 13171:Classics Ireland 13167: 13161: 13158:Mouritsen (2011) 13155: 13149: 13143: 13137: 13126: 13120: 13113: 13107: 13100: 13094: 13055: 13049: 13046: 13040: 13033: 13027: 13024: 13018: 13011: 13005: 12990: 12984: 12969: 12963: 12956: 12950: 12947: 12941: 12938: 12932: 12925: 12919: 12916: 12910: 12903: 12897: 12890: 12884: 12873: 12867: 12856: 12850: 12839: 12833: 12818: 12812: 12805: 12799: 12792: 12786: 12775: 12769: 12758: 12752: 12749: 12743: 12734: 12728: 12727:3.7.31, 303–304. 12721: 12715: 12708: 12702: 12693: 12687: 12680: 12674: 12671: 12665: 12662: 12656: 12653: 12647: 12646: 12618: 12612: 12606: 12600: 12594: 12588: 12585: 12579: 12572: 12566: 12563:Italian Manpower 12555: 12549: 12542: 12536: 12525: 12519: 12512: 12506: 12503:Classics Ireland 12496: 12490: 12475: 12469: 12462: 12456: 12437: 12431: 12417: 12411: 12410: 12382: 12376: 12374:Mouritsen (2011) 12371: 12365: 12364: 12356: 12350: 12343: 12337: 12334: 12328: 12321:Favor libertatis 12317: 12311: 12300: 12294: 12287:(toga praetexta) 12279: 12273: 12262: 12253: 12242: 12236: 12233:Mouritsen (2011) 12230: 12224: 12221: 12215: 12212: 12206: 12205: 12165: 12159: 12149: 12143: 12138: 12132: 12125: 12119: 12116: 12110: 12104: 12098: 12087: 12081: 12074: 12068: 12065:Mouritsen (2011) 12062: 12056: 12045: 12039: 12032: 12026: 12011: 12005: 12002:Mouritsen (2011) 11999: 11993: 11990:Mouritsen (2011) 11987: 11981: 11978: 11972: 11969:manumissio censu 11961: 11955: 11952:Mouritsen (2011) 11949: 11943: 11918: 11912: 11905: 11899: 11888: 11882: 11871: 11865: 11862: 11856: 11853: 11847: 11840: 11834: 11831: 11825: 11806: 11800: 11797: 11791: 11784: 11778: 11771: 11765: 11746: 11740: 11733: 11727: 11712: 11706: 11699: 11693: 11682: 11676: 11665:Favor libertatis 11661: 11655: 11644: 11638: 11631: 11625: 11622: 11616: 11609: 11603: 11597: 11591: 11590: 11582: 11576: 11563: 11557: 11547: 11541: 11534:Mundus Muliebris 11530: 11524: 11509: 11503: 11488: 11482: 11475: 11469: 11459: 11453: 11446: 11440: 11425: 11419: 11408: 11402: 11390: 11384: 11369: 11363: 11342: 11336: 11331: 11325: 11314: 11308: 11293: 11287: 11276: 11270: 11259: 11253: 11246: 11240: 11227: 11221: 11214: 11208: 11189: 11183: 11176: 11170: 11159: 11153: 11146: 11140: 11133: 11127: 11120: 11114: 11107: 11101: 11094: 11088: 11077: 11071: 11064: 11058: 11052: 11046: 11035: 11029: 11014: 11008: 11001:filius legitimus 10985: 10979: 10968: 10962: 10954: 10948: 10941: 10935: 10924: 10918: 10915: 10909: 10902: 10896: 10885: 10879: 10872: 10866: 10855: 10849: 10842: 10836: 10835: 10823: 10815: 10809: 10798: 10785: 10774: 10768: 10761: 10755: 10744: 10738: 10723: 10717: 10700: 10694: 10683: 10677: 10670: 10664: 10653: 10647: 10640: 10634: 10623: 10617: 10610: 10604: 10597: 10591: 10584: 10578: 10567: 10561: 10554: 10548: 10537: 10531: 10512: 10506: 10501:W. W. Buckland, 10499: 10493: 10483: 10477: 10470: 10464: 10457: 10451: 10432: 10426: 10415: 10409: 10406: 10400: 10381:Suffodit inguina 10377: 10371: 10354: 10348: 10320: 10314: 10311: 10305: 10279: 10273: 10266: 10260: 10243: 10237: 10222: 10216: 10206: 10200: 10190: 10184: 10177: 10171: 10160: 10154: 10151: 10145: 10138: 10132: 10129: 10123: 10116: 10110: 10103: 10097: 10090: 10081: 10074: 10068: 10061: 10055: 10045: 10039: 10032: 10026: 10011: 10005: 9994: 9988: 9981: 9975: 9969: 9963: 9956: 9950: 9943: 9937: 9926: 9920: 9913: 9907: 9896: 9890: 9867: 9861: 9846: 9840: 9822: 9816: 9809: 9803: 9792: 9776: 9762: 9756: 9749:molliter iuvenis 9737: 9731: 9701: 9695: 9688: 9682: 9665: 9659: 9652: 9646: 9634: 9628: 9585: 9579: 9576: 9570: 9554: 9548: 9528: 9522: 9495: 9489: 9479: 9473: 9467: 9461: 9450: 9444: 9441: 9435: 9432: 9426: 9423: 9240:The dynamics of 9113:Gregory of Nyssa 8982:Stoic philosophy 8839:has observed of 8764:quasi testamenta 8602:Ramsay MacMullen 8598:care of the dead 8577:Pope Callixtus I 8533:votive offerings 8349:social hierarchy 8294:tutelary goddess 8236:scapegoat ritual 8145:Conrad Cichorius 7748:In his treatise 7709:("Captives") of 7656:Jean-Léon Gérôme 7653:academic painter 7639:emperor's statue 7444:Diodotus Tryphon 7358:(British Museum) 7330:Diodorus Siculus 7268:Second Punic War 7108:Cerdo M. Perenni 7055:; two are named 7015:for a Gaul, and 6924:. Names such as 6893:), and possibly 6681:Civico Lapidario 6629:Rufus of Ephesus 6581:Literary sources 6575:(servi caesaris) 6298: 6292: 5907:familia Caesaris 5903:familia Caesaris 5794:vicus Augustanus 5766:familia Caesaris 5629: 5615: 5243:Household slaves 5117:Genius venalicii 5099:Genius venalicii 4924:born within the 4887:Captives in Rome 4852:Diodorus Siculus 4714:Mithridatic Wars 4640:Temple of Castor 4492:Roman historians 4488:in 326 BC. 4410:province of Asia 4298:Columna Lactaria 4235:early Christians 4191:Osteoarchaeology 4163:mining employed 3840:of a household ( 3771:Battle of Actium 3728:Cilician pirates 3709:Arretine pottery 3657:myths of Romulus 3607:in Roman culture 3360:, the character 3224:Lex Aelia Sentia 3166:Illustration by 3068:fictitious trial 3034:familia Caesaris 3030:familia Caesaris 2978:(de manu missio) 2894:of the monetary 2889:. Growth of the 2625:legal personhood 2410:Battle of Edessa 2379: 2362: 2303:Battle of Cannae 2287:Second Punic War 2248:, imagining the 2169:, the customary 2132:Roman legal code 1981:Christianization 1901: 1874: 1867: 1860: 1844:Emancipation Day 1672: 1639:Slave Trade Acts 330:Byzantine Empire 172: 145: 144: 115:slave rebellions 21: 25372: 25371: 25367: 25366: 25365: 25363: 25362: 25361: 25342: 25341: 25340: 25335: 25197: 25195: 25189: 25079: 24915:Aëtius of Amida 24896: 24882:Verrius Flaccus 24862:Valerius Antias 24822:Silius Italicus 24757:Pliny the Elder 24702:Marcus Aurelius 24577:Cornelius Nepos 24527:Aurelius Victor 24481: 24403: 24315: 24249:Secessio plebis 24220: 24095: 24047: 23921: 23875: 23805: 23687: 23639: 23555: 23476: 23437: 23419: 23413: 23383: 23382: 23381: 23361: 23360: 23356: 23349: 23316: 23315: 23311: 23253: 23251:Further reading 23234: 23220: 23199: 23055: 23036: 23000: 22951:Rhetoric Review 22944: 22939: 22928: 22924: 22913: 22909: 22900: 22893: 22884: 22880: 22861: 22857: 22844: 22840: 22831: 22827: 22818: 22814: 22805: 22801: 22792: 22788: 22782:Natural History 22771: 22767: 22746: 22742: 22737: 22733: 22724: 22720: 22711: 22707: 22698: 22694: 22689: 22685: 22676: 22672: 22663: 22659: 22650: 22646: 22641: 22637: 22628: 22624: 22612: 22608: 22603: 22599: 22590: 22586: 22565: 22561: 22552: 22548: 22531: 22527: 22518: 22514: 22498: 22494: 22485: 22481: 22473: 22469: 22460: 22456: 22443: 22439: 22423: 22419: 22409: 22407: 22394: 22390: 22382: 22378: 22365: 22361: 22356: 22352: 22347: 22343: 22331: 22327: 22318: 22314: 22305: 22301: 22295:Slavery Systems 22292: 22288: 22279: 22277: 22269: 22268: 22264: 22256: 22252: 22245: 22241: 22236:Ephesians 6:5–9 22234: 22230: 22221: 22217: 22208: 22204: 22191: 22187: 22178: 22174: 22162: 22158: 22145: 22141: 22137:, pp. 331, 513. 22132: 22128: 22119: 22115: 22106: 22102: 22089: 22085: 22073: 22069: 22064: 22060: 22055: 22051: 22042: 22038: 22029: 22025: 22013:Peter Garnsey, 22012: 22008: 21999: 21995: 21990: 21986: 21973: 21969: 21963:Filii naturales 21960: 21956: 21925: 21921: 21916: 21912: 21903: 21899: 21894: 21890: 21885: 21881: 21876: 21872: 21860: 21856: 21848: 21844: 21839: 21835: 21826: 21822: 21813: 21809: 21800: 21796: 21787: 21783: 21774: 21770: 21765: 21761: 21749:Keith Hopkins, 21748: 21744: 21739: 21735: 21726: 21722: 21714: 21710: 21701: 21697: 21680: 21676: 21663: 21659: 21650: 21646: 21637: 21633: 21625: 21621: 21613: 21609: 21596: 21592: 21587: 21583: 21570: 21566: 21558: 21554: 21549: 21545: 21540: 21536: 21519: 21515: 21486: 21482: 21473: 21469: 21444: 21440: 21424: 21420: 21399:These were the 21398: 21394: 21385: 21381: 21372: 21368: 21355: 21351: 21339: 21335: 21323: 21319: 21310: 21306: 21298: 21294: 21282: 21278: 21269: 21265: 21256: 21252: 21243: 21239: 21230: 21226: 21220:Dolansky (2010) 21218: 21214: 21206: 21202: 21190: 21186: 21180:Dolansky (2010) 21178: 21174: 21165: 21161: 21148: 21144: 21126: 21122: 21084:Classical World 21081: 21077: 21072: 21068: 21060:Roman Questions 21054: 21050: 21041: 21037: 21024: 21020: 21004: 21000: 20995: 20991: 20986: 20982: 20974: 20967: 20962: 20958: 20933: 20929: 20920: 20916: 20903: 20899: 20890: 20886: 20877: 20873: 20864: 20860: 20848: 20844: 20831: 20827: 20822: 20818: 20813: 20809: 20799: 20795: 20790: 20786: 20777: 20773: 20756: 20752: 20743: 20739: 20718: 20714: 20705: 20701: 20692: 20688: 20683: 20679: 20669:Servus Callidus 20658: 20654: 20645: 20641: 20636: 20632: 20627: 20623: 20618: 20614: 20609: 20605: 20594: 20590: 20583:Ficus Ruminalis 20575: 20571: 20562: 20558: 20529: 20525: 20520: 20516: 20507: 20503: 20486: 20482: 20477: 20473: 20468: 20464: 20459: 20455: 20450: 20446: 20441: 20437: 20428: 20424: 20419: 20415: 20406: 20402: 20397: 20393: 20388: 20384: 20379: 20375: 20366: 20362: 20357: 20353: 20348: 20344: 20335: 20331: 20322: 20318: 20313: 20309: 20304: 20300: 20287: 20283: 20274: 20270: 20261: 20257: 20244: 20240: 20227: 20223: 20214: 20210: 20201: 20197: 20185: 20181: 20176: 20172: 20163: 20159: 20150: 20146: 20133: 20129: 20120: 20116: 20106:Servus Callidus 20103: 20099: 20094: 20090: 20077: 20073: 20068: 20064: 20055: 20051: 20046: 20042: 20037: 20033: 20028: 20024: 20012: 20008: 19998:Servus Callidus 19995: 19991: 19986: 19982: 19973: 19969: 19964: 19960: 19955: 19951: 19938: 19934: 19917: 19913: 19891:Natural History 19888: 19884: 19875: 19871: 19858: 19854: 19848:De animi morbis 19841: 19837: 19824: 19820: 19803: 19799: 19790: 19786: 19777: 19773: 19764: 19760: 19733: 19729: 19717: 19713: 19704: 19700: 19687: 19683: 19678: 19674: 19665: 19661: 19652: 19648: 19639: 19635: 19628:Bradley, Keith 19627: 19623: 19614: 19610: 19593: 19589: 19584: 19580: 19571: 19567: 19558: 19554: 19549: 19545: 19536: 19532: 19527: 19523: 19511: 19507: 19502: 19498: 19489: 19485: 19480: 19476: 19467: 19463: 19451: 19447: 19438: 19434: 19422: 19418: 19404: 19400: 19395: 19391: 19386: 19382: 19377: 19373: 19364: 19360: 19355: 19351: 19346: 19342: 19337: 19333: 19328: 19324: 19315: 19311: 19306: 19302: 19297: 19293: 19288: 19284: 19279: 19275: 19270: 19266: 19261: 19257: 19248: 19244: 19239: 19235: 19218: 19214: 19205: 19201: 19175: 19171: 19158: 19154: 19149: 19145: 19140: 19136: 19131: 19127: 19118: 19114: 19101: 19097: 19092: 19088: 19078:Servus Callidus 19075: 19071: 19046: 19042: 19029: 19025: 19009: 19005: 18996: 18992: 18983: 18979: 18974: 18970: 18957: 18953: 18944: 18940: 18932:, citing Cato, 18927: 18923: 18913:Roman Clothing, 18910: 18906: 18901: 18897: 18888: 18884: 18875: 18871: 18862: 18858: 18852: 18848: 18830: 18826: 18817: 18813: 18804: 18800: 18791: 18787: 18782: 18778: 18773: 18769: 18760: 18756: 18747: 18743: 18738: 18731: 18722: 18718: 18705: 18701: 18692: 18688: 18679: 18675: 18662: 18658: 18645: 18641: 18624: 18620: 18607: 18603: 18594: 18590: 18584:“Temple slaves” 18577: 18573: 18564: 18560: 18547: 18543: 18534: 18530: 18521: 18517: 18508: 18504: 18499: 18495: 18486: 18482: 18477: 18473: 18468: 18464: 18459: 18455: 18446: 18442: 18421: 18417: 18408: 18404: 18391: 18387: 18378: 18374: 18361: 18357: 18348: 18344: 18338:“Commemoration” 18331: 18327: 18318: 18314: 18301: 18297: 18288: 18284: 18279:Wayback Machine 18267:William Smith, 18266: 18262: 18251: 18247: 18236: 18232: 18227: 18223: 18217:Bankston (2012) 18215: 18211: 18206: 18202: 18196:Bankston (2012) 18194: 18190: 18181: 18177: 18168: 18164: 18159: 18155: 18146: 18142: 18136:Natural History 18129: 18125: 18104: 18100: 18067: 18063: 18054: 18050: 18041: 18037: 18027: 18023: 18006: 18002: 17987: 17983: 17966: 17962: 17949: 17945: 17932: 17928: 17919: 17915: 17910: 17906: 17898:Peter Garnsey, 17897: 17893: 17881:Aulus Gellius, 17880: 17876: 17867: 17863: 17853:Classical World 17850: 17846: 17831: 17827: 17822: 17818: 17799: 17795: 17778: 17774: 17765: 17761: 17748: 17744: 17735: 17731: 17722: 17718: 17713: 17709: 17704: 17700: 17691: 17687: 17678: 17674: 17665: 17661: 17656: 17652: 17646:Classical World 17643: 17639: 17634: 17630: 17617: 17613: 17604: 17600: 17591: 17587: 17574: 17570: 17561: 17557: 17540: 17536: 17523: 17519: 17510: 17506: 17497: 17493: 17484: 17480: 17475: 17471: 17462: 17458: 17449: 17445: 17432: 17431: 17427: 17422: 17418: 17407: 17403: 17396: 17382: 17375: 17358: 17354: 17346: 17342: 17333: 17329: 17318: 17311: 17300: 17284: 17280: 17271: 17267: 17262: 17258: 17251: 17237: 17230: 17218: 17214: 17197: 17193: 17189:"Hadrian" 18.8. 17180: 17176: 17167: 17163: 17150: 17146: 17142:, pp. 293, 316. 17137: 17133: 17124: 17120: 17115: 17111: 17106: 17102: 17093: 17089: 17072: 17068: 17063: 17059: 17054: 17050: 17045: 17041: 17036: 17032: 17027: 17023: 17014: 17010: 16995: 16991: 16986: 16982: 16977: 16973: 16968: 16964: 16955: 16951: 16942: 16938: 16929: 16925: 16916: 16912: 16903: 16899: 16890: 16886: 16857: 16853: 16848: 16844: 16827: 16823: 16818: 16814: 16804:Susan Treggiari 16802: 16798: 16777: 16773: 16760: 16756: 16747: 16743: 16734: 16730: 16721: 16717: 16708: 16704: 16691: 16687: 16678: 16674: 16657: 16653: 16644: 16640: 16625: 16621: 16612: 16608: 16595: 16591: 16582: 16578: 16569: 16565: 16556: 16549: 16540: 16536: 16527: 16523: 16514: 16510: 16501: 16497: 16488: 16484: 16475: 16471: 16462: 16458: 16453: 16449: 16444: 16440: 16426: 16422: 16417: 16413: 16408: 16404: 16399: 16395: 16390: 16386: 16381: 16377: 16372: 16368: 16355: 16351: 16342: 16338: 16333: 16329: 16320: 16316: 16304: 16300: 16283: 16279: 16270: 16266: 16253: 16249: 16244: 16240: 16235: 16231: 16226: 16222: 16213: 16209: 16194: 16190: 16181: 16177: 16168: 16164: 16151: 16147: 16138: 16134: 16125: 16121: 16112: 16108: 16099: 16095: 16086: 16082: 16073: 16069: 16056: 16052: 16047: 16043: 16038: 16034: 16029: 16025: 16016: 16012: 16007: 16000: 15991: 15987: 15978: 15974: 15969: 15965: 15960:Wayback Machine 15951: 15947: 15931: 15927: 15918: 15914: 15905: 15901: 15892: 15888: 15879: 15875: 15862: 15858: 15848:Ancient Society 15845: 15841: 15828: 15824: 15815: 15798: 15777: 15773: 15764: 15760: 15755: 15751: 15742: 15738: 15725: 15721: 15713: 15709: 15700: 15696: 15687: 15683: 15674: 15670: 15657: 15653: 15644: 15640: 15623: 15619: 15614: 15610: 15605: 15601: 15596: 15592: 15583: 15579: 15558: 15554: 15549: 15545: 15540: 15536: 15530:Natural History 15527: 15523: 15515:69; Macrobius, 15509:Natural History 15506: 15502: 15493: 15489: 15484: 15480: 15475: 15471: 15466: 15462: 15457: 15453: 15448: 15444: 15435: 15431: 15426: 15422: 15409: 15405: 15396: 15392: 15380: 15376: 15367: 15363: 15343: 15339: 15322: 15318: 15308:Filii naturales 15305: 15301: 15288: 15284: 15268: 15254: 15250: 15245: 15238: 15229: 15225: 15220: 15216: 15211: 15207: 15202: 15198: 15192:Natural History 15185: 15181: 15168: 15164: 15159: 15155: 15150: 15146: 15137: 15135: 15127: 15126: 15122: 15113: 15111: 15103: 15102: 15098: 15093: 15089: 15080: 15076: 15071: 15067: 15061:Ancient Society 15050: 15046: 15041: 15037: 15032: 15028: 15023: 15019: 15013:Ancient Society 15010: 15006: 15001: 14997: 14992: 14988: 14983: 14979: 14970: 14966: 14957: 14953: 14944: 14940: 14927: 14923: 14918: 14914: 14906: 14902: 14893: 14889: 14884: 14880: 14875: 14871: 14866: 14862: 14857: 14853: 14848: 14844: 14824:6.260; Cicero, 14815: 14811: 14806: 14802: 14797: 14793: 14784: 14780: 14771: 14767: 14762: 14758: 14753: 14749: 14744: 14740: 14731: 14727: 14722: 14718: 14713: 14709: 14704: 14700: 14695: 14691: 14685: 14681: 14676: 14672: 14667: 14663: 14645: 14641: 14632: 14628: 14623: 14619: 14614: 14610: 14601: 14597: 14592: 14588: 14578:13.4; Plautus, 14567: 14563: 14558: 14554: 14549: 14545: 14537: 14530: 14521: 14517: 14505: 14501: 14496: 14492: 14487: 14483: 14474: 14470: 14463: 14449: 14445: 14434: 14430: 14419: 14415: 14407:Moya K. Mason, 14406: 14399: 14390: 14386: 14381: 14377: 14368: 14364: 14355: 14351: 14342: 14338: 14333: 14326: 14321: 14317: 14309:1.3.4, 1.16.1; 14304: 14300: 14295: 14291: 14286: 14282: 14277: 14273: 14268: 14264: 14255: 14251: 14239: 14235: 14225:patria potestas 14222: 14218: 14207: 14203: 14198: 14194: 14189: 14185: 14168: 14164: 14159: 14155: 14150: 14146: 14141: 14137: 14132: 14128: 14123: 14119: 14114: 14110: 14105: 14101: 14095:Ancient Society 14092: 14088: 14083: 14079: 14074: 14070: 14059: 14055: 14046: 14042: 14024:patria potestas 14021: 14017: 14008: 14004: 13999: 13995: 13978: 13974: 13969: 13965: 13960: 13956: 13951: 13947: 13934: 13930: 13921: 13917: 13912: 13908: 13899: 13895: 13890: 13886: 13861: 13857: 13848: 13844: 13831: 13827: 13821:Ancient Society 13818: 13814: 13801: 13797: 13775:John Chrysostom 13772: 13768: 13755: 13751: 13730: 13726: 13716:Ancient Society 13705: 13701: 13692: 13688: 13683: 13679: 13674: 13670: 13661: 13657: 13618:John Chrysostom 13615: 13611: 13602: 13598: 13589: 13585: 13580: 13576: 13571: 13567: 13552: 13548: 13543: 13539: 13534: 13530: 13525: 13521: 13516: 13512: 13507: 13503: 13498: 13494: 13485: 13481: 13472: 13468: 13463: 13459: 13453:Ancient Society 13450: 13446: 13433: 13429: 13424: 13420: 13415: 13411: 13401:Ancient Society 13398: 13394: 13389: 13385: 13376: 13372: 13367: 13363: 13354: 13350: 13341: 13337: 13328: 13324: 13315: 13311: 13298: 13294: 13287: 13273: 13269: 13256: 13252: 13244: 13240: 13231: 13227: 13219: 13215: 13202: 13198: 13189: 13185: 13168: 13164: 13156: 13152: 13144: 13140: 13127: 13123: 13114: 13110: 13101: 13097: 13056: 13052: 13047: 13043: 13034: 13030: 13025: 13021: 13012: 13008: 12991: 12987: 12970: 12966: 12957: 12953: 12948: 12944: 12939: 12935: 12929:Hannibalic Wars 12926: 12922: 12917: 12913: 12904: 12900: 12891: 12887: 12874: 12870: 12857: 12853: 12843:A. D. Nock 12840: 12836: 12819: 12815: 12806: 12802: 12793: 12789: 12783:Bellum Gallicum 12776: 12772: 12759: 12755: 12750: 12746: 12735: 12731: 12722: 12718: 12714:3.10.10, 539ff. 12709: 12705: 12694: 12690: 12681: 12677: 12672: 12668: 12663: 12659: 12654: 12650: 12635: 12619: 12615: 12607: 12603: 12595: 12591: 12586: 12582: 12573: 12569: 12556: 12552: 12543: 12539: 12526: 12522: 12513: 12509: 12497: 12493: 12476: 12472: 12463: 12459: 12438: 12434: 12418: 12414: 12399: 12383: 12379: 12372: 12368: 12357: 12353: 12344: 12340: 12335: 12331: 12318: 12314: 12301: 12297: 12280: 12276: 12263: 12256: 12243: 12239: 12231: 12227: 12222: 12218: 12213: 12209: 12186:10.2307/1088460 12166: 12162: 12150: 12146: 12139: 12135: 12126: 12122: 12117: 12113: 12105: 12101: 12088: 12084: 12075: 12071: 12067:, p. 85–86 12063: 12059: 12046: 12042: 12033: 12029: 12012: 12008: 12000: 11996: 11988: 11984: 11979: 11975: 11962: 11958: 11950: 11946: 11919: 11915: 11906: 11902: 11889: 11885: 11872: 11868: 11863: 11859: 11854: 11850: 11841: 11837: 11832: 11828: 11807: 11803: 11798: 11794: 11785: 11781: 11772: 11768: 11747: 11743: 11734: 11730: 11724:"Parental sale" 11713: 11709: 11700: 11696: 11683: 11679: 11662: 11658: 11645: 11641: 11632: 11628: 11623: 11619: 11610: 11606: 11598: 11594: 11583: 11579: 11564: 11560: 11548: 11544: 11531: 11527: 11510: 11506: 11489: 11485: 11476: 11472: 11460: 11456: 11447: 11443: 11426: 11422: 11409: 11405: 11391: 11387: 11370: 11366: 11343: 11339: 11332: 11328: 11315: 11311: 11294: 11290: 11277: 11273: 11260: 11256: 11247: 11243: 11228: 11224: 11218:Filii naturales 11215: 11211: 11193:Filii naturales 11190: 11186: 11177: 11173: 11160: 11156: 11150:Filii naturales 11147: 11143: 11134: 11130: 11121: 11117: 11108: 11104: 11095: 11091: 11078: 11074: 11065: 11061: 11053: 11049: 11036: 11032: 11015: 11011: 10986: 10982: 10972:Filii naturales 10969: 10965: 10955: 10951: 10942: 10938: 10925: 10921: 10916: 10912: 10904:Thomas McGinn, 10903: 10899: 10886: 10882: 10873: 10869: 10856: 10852: 10843: 10839: 10821:"Slavery" 10816: 10812: 10799: 10788: 10775: 10771: 10762: 10758: 10745: 10741: 10724: 10720: 10701: 10697: 10684: 10680: 10671: 10667: 10655:Benet Salway, " 10654: 10650: 10641: 10637: 10624: 10620: 10611: 10607: 10598: 10594: 10585: 10581: 10568: 10564: 10555: 10551: 10538: 10534: 10513: 10509: 10500: 10496: 10484: 10480: 10471: 10467: 10458: 10454: 10433: 10429: 10416: 10412: 10407: 10403: 10379:Laura Betzig, “ 10378: 10374: 10355: 10351: 10341:Pompeius Trogus 10321: 10317: 10312: 10308: 10298:as far as China 10280: 10276: 10267: 10263: 10245:Matthew Leigh, 10244: 10240: 10223: 10219: 10207: 10203: 10191: 10187: 10178: 10174: 10161: 10157: 10152: 10148: 10139: 10135: 10130: 10126: 10117: 10113: 10104: 10100: 10092:Brian Tierney, 10091: 10084: 10075: 10071: 10062: 10058: 10046: 10042: 10033: 10029: 10012: 10008: 9995: 9991: 9982: 9978: 9970: 9966: 9957: 9953: 9949:," pp. 203–204. 9944: 9940: 9927: 9923: 9914: 9910: 9897: 9893: 9868: 9864: 9858:Natural History 9847: 9843: 9823: 9819: 9810: 9806: 9793: 9789: 9785: 9780: 9779: 9763: 9759: 9753:Natural History 9738: 9734: 9702: 9698: 9689: 9685: 9666: 9662: 9653: 9649: 9638:Roman adoptions 9635: 9631: 9586: 9582: 9577: 9573: 9555: 9551: 9529: 9525: 9496: 9492: 9480: 9476: 9468: 9464: 9451: 9447: 9442: 9438: 9433: 9429: 9424: 9420: 9415: 9388: 9351: 9329: 9309: 9147: 9141: 9133:Saint Augustine 9117:John Chrysostom 9077: 9067: 9014: 8999:Martha Nussbaum 8984: 8848:instrumentality 8783: 8674:Colchester Vase 8591: 8585: 8575:(158–167), and 8565: 8513: 8412: 8357: 8312: 8306: 8240:sexual usurpers 8232:Servius Tullius 8195: 8190: 8129:Trajan's Column 8121: 8056: 8046:(British Museum 8026: 7964: 7876: 7820: 7779:(regimen morum) 7723: 7676:Roman proconsul 7670:is narrated by 7634: 7622:Synod of Gangra 7591: 7563: 7561:Later uprisings 7465: 7416: 7350: 7264: 7252:Main articles: 7250: 7218: 7199:Mons Claudianus 7116: 6785: 6752: 6750:Cicero and Tiro 6701: 6695: 6625: 6513: 6511:Quality of life 6489:were touted as 6431: 6425: 6317: 6312: 6310: 6305: 6295: 6260: 6254: 6179: 6173: 6055: 6043:Main articles: 6041: 5979:permitted only 5945: 5876:servus publicus 5869:servus publicus 5785: 5775:did not employ 5645: 5644: 5643: 5642: 5641: 5630: 5621: 5620: 5619: 5616: 5605: 5534:familia rustica 5512: 5349: 5245: 5224: 5181:Ptolemaic Egypt 5137: 5017: 4969:particular cap 4880: 4872:Parthian Empire 4860:Walter Scheidel 4589: 4587:The slave trade 4564: 4527: 4447: 4441: 4398:patria potestas 4364:patria potestas 4360: 4310:goddess Fortuna 4274:infant exposure 4267:sacred fig tree 4251: 4249:Infant exposure 4220: 4179:from a mine in 4036:early childhood 4031: 3954: 3915:But birth as a 3807: 3717: 3609: 3478: 3436: 3378: 3372: 3264:senatorial rank 3178: 3160: 2952: 2817: 2768:imperial slaves 2764:(contubernalis) 2693: 2687: 2623:), they lacked 2494: 2399: 2398: 2397: 2396: 2395: 2392:Philip the Arab 2380: 2371: 2370: 2369: 2363: 2324:Sasanian Empire 2299:their commander 2235: 2130:, the earliest 2113:Servius Tullius 2101:place of refuge 2087:In contrast to 2025: 2023: 1896: 1892: 1878: 1849: 1848: 1753:Slave narrative 1704:Fugitive slaves 1684: 1676: 1675: 1666: 1634:Slave rebellion 1489: 1479: 1478: 1437: 1427: 1426: 1249:United Kingdom 1185:Yankee princess 779: 771: 770: 498:Avret Pazarları 444:Avret Pazarları 313:Medieval Europe 279: 269: 268: 207:Forced marriage 182: 143: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 25370: 25360: 25359: 25354: 25337: 25336: 25334: 25333: 25328: 25323: 25318: 25313: 25308: 25303: 25298: 25293: 25288: 25283: 25278: 25273: 25268: 25263: 25258: 25253: 25248: 25243: 25238: 25233: 25228: 25223: 25218: 25213: 25208: 25202: 25200: 25191: 25190: 25188: 25187: 25182: 25177: 25172: 25167: 25162: 25157: 25152: 25147: 25142: 25137: 25132: 25127: 25122: 25117: 25112: 25107: 25102: 25097: 25091: 25089: 25085: 25084: 25081: 25080: 25078: 25077: 25072: 25067: 25062: 25057: 25052: 25047: 25042: 25037: 25032: 25027: 25022: 25017: 25012: 25007: 25002: 24997: 24992: 24987: 24982: 24977: 24972: 24967: 24962: 24957: 24952: 24947: 24942: 24937: 24932: 24927: 24922: 24917: 24912: 24906: 24904: 24898: 24897: 24895: 24894: 24889: 24884: 24879: 24874: 24869: 24864: 24859: 24854: 24849: 24844: 24839: 24834: 24829: 24824: 24819: 24814: 24809: 24804: 24799: 24794: 24789: 24784: 24779: 24774: 24769: 24767:Pomponius Mela 24764: 24759: 24754: 24749: 24744: 24739: 24734: 24729: 24724: 24719: 24714: 24709: 24704: 24699: 24694: 24689: 24684: 24679: 24674: 24669: 24664: 24659: 24654: 24649: 24644: 24639: 24634: 24629: 24624: 24619: 24614: 24609: 24604: 24599: 24594: 24589: 24584: 24579: 24574: 24569: 24564: 24559: 24554: 24549: 24544: 24539: 24534: 24529: 24524: 24519: 24514: 24509: 24504: 24502:Aelius Donatus 24498: 24496: 24487: 24483: 24482: 24480: 24479: 24474: 24473: 24472: 24470:Ecclesiastical 24467: 24462: 24457: 24452: 24447: 24442: 24437: 24432: 24424: 24419: 24413: 24411: 24405: 24404: 24402: 24401: 24396: 24391: 24386: 24381: 24376: 24371: 24366: 24361: 24356: 24351: 24346: 24341: 24336: 24331: 24325: 24323: 24317: 24316: 24314: 24313: 24308: 24303: 24298: 24293: 24288: 24283: 24278: 24273: 24272: 24271: 24261: 24256: 24251: 24246: 24241: 24236: 24230: 24228: 24222: 24221: 24219: 24218: 24213: 24211:Toys and games 24208: 24203: 24198: 24193: 24188: 24183: 24182: 24181: 24171: 24166: 24161: 24156: 24151: 24146: 24141: 24136: 24131: 24126: 24121: 24116: 24111: 24105: 24103: 24097: 24096: 24094: 24093: 24088: 24083: 24078: 24073: 24068: 24063: 24057: 24055: 24049: 24048: 24046: 24045: 24040: 24035: 24030: 24025: 24024: 24023: 24018: 24013: 24008: 24003: 23993: 23988: 23987: 23986: 23976: 23971: 23966: 23961: 23956: 23951: 23946: 23941: 23935: 23933: 23927: 23926: 23923: 23922: 23920: 23919: 23914: 23909: 23904: 23899: 23894: 23889: 23883: 23881: 23877: 23876: 23874: 23873: 23868: 23863: 23858: 23853: 23848: 23843: 23838: 23833: 23828: 23822: 23820: 23813: 23807: 23806: 23804: 23803: 23798: 23793: 23788: 23783: 23778: 23773: 23768: 23763: 23758: 23753: 23751:Vigintisexviri 23748: 23743: 23738: 23733: 23728: 23723: 23718: 23713: 23711:Cursus honorum 23708: 23703: 23697: 23695: 23689: 23688: 23686: 23685: 23680: 23675: 23670: 23665: 23660: 23655: 23649: 23647: 23641: 23640: 23638: 23637: 23632: 23627: 23626: 23625: 23620: 23615: 23610: 23600: 23595: 23590: 23585: 23580: 23575: 23569: 23567: 23561: 23560: 23557: 23556: 23554: 23553: 23552: 23551: 23541: 23540: 23539: 23534: 23524: 23523: 23522: 23517: 23510:Western Empire 23507: 23502: 23497: 23492: 23486: 23484: 23478: 23477: 23475: 23474: 23469: 23468: 23467: 23457: 23451: 23445: 23439: 23438: 23436: 23435: 23430: 23424: 23421: 23420: 23412: 23411: 23404: 23397: 23389: 23380: 23379: 23374: 23369: 23363: 23362: 23351: 23350: 23348: 23347:External links 23345: 23344: 23343: 23336: 23329: 23309: 23296: 23289: 23282: 23275: 23268: 23261: 23252: 23249: 23248: 23247: 23225: 23218: 23203: 23197: 23180: 23171: 23158: 23122:10.2307/300867 23090: 23072:(3): 331–346. 23059: 23053: 23040: 23034: 23013: 23004: 22998: 22985: 22976: 22958:(3): 203–218. 22943: 22940: 22938: 22937: 22922: 22907: 22901:Segal, Erich. 22891: 22878: 22855: 22838: 22825: 22812: 22799: 22786: 22765: 22740: 22731: 22718: 22705: 22692: 22683: 22670: 22668:, pp. 203–204. 22657: 22644: 22635: 22622: 22614:Eva Cantarella 22606: 22597: 22584: 22582:(1995), 39–62. 22559: 22557:, pp. 294–295. 22546: 22525: 22512: 22492: 22479: 22467: 22454: 22437: 22425:Elaine Fantham 22417: 22388: 22376: 22359: 22350: 22341: 22325: 22312: 22299: 22286: 22262: 22250: 22247:Colossians 4:1 22239: 22228: 22215: 22202: 22192:Voula Tsouna, 22185: 22172: 22164:Ilaria Ramelli 22156: 22139: 22126: 22113: 22100: 22083: 22067: 22058: 22049: 22036: 22023: 22006: 21993: 21984: 21967: 21954: 21919: 21910: 21897: 21888: 21879: 21870: 21854: 21842: 21833: 21820: 21807: 21794: 21781: 21768: 21759: 21742: 21733: 21720: 21708: 21695: 21674: 21668:by V.M. Hope, 21657: 21644: 21631: 21619: 21607: 21590: 21581: 21564: 21552: 21543: 21534: 21513: 21480: 21467: 21438: 21418: 21392: 21379: 21366: 21349: 21333: 21317: 21304: 21292: 21276: 21263: 21250: 21237: 21224: 21212: 21200: 21184: 21172: 21159: 21142: 21136:8.564, citing 21120: 21075: 21066: 21048: 21035: 21018: 20998: 20989: 20980: 20976:Bradley (1994) 20965: 20956: 20946:), 21.1.17.6 ( 20927: 20914: 20910:Cato the Elder 20897: 20884: 20871: 20858: 20842: 20825: 20816: 20807: 20793: 20784: 20771: 20750: 20737: 20712: 20699: 20686: 20677: 20652: 20639: 20630: 20621: 20612: 20603: 20588: 20569: 20556: 20544:Zonino accipis 20523: 20514: 20501: 20480: 20471: 20462: 20453: 20444: 20435: 20422: 20413: 20400: 20391: 20382: 20373: 20360: 20351: 20342: 20329: 20316: 20307: 20298: 20281: 20268: 20255: 20245:C. P. Jones, " 20238: 20221: 20208: 20195: 20179: 20170: 20157: 20144: 20127: 20114: 20097: 20088: 20071: 20062: 20049: 20040: 20031: 20022: 20006: 19989: 19980: 19967: 19958: 19949: 19932: 19911: 19882: 19869: 19852: 19850:4 (Kühn 5:17). 19835: 19818: 19814:On agriculture 19810:Cato the Elder 19797: 19784: 19771: 19758: 19727: 19711: 19698: 19681: 19672: 19659: 19646: 19633: 19621: 19608: 19587: 19578: 19565: 19552: 19543: 19530: 19521: 19505: 19496: 19483: 19474: 19461: 19445: 19432: 19424:Erich S. Gruen 19416: 19398: 19389: 19380: 19371: 19358: 19349: 19340: 19331: 19322: 19309: 19300: 19291: 19282: 19273: 19264: 19255: 19242: 19233: 19212: 19199: 19169: 19161:The Civil Wars 19152: 19143: 19134: 19125: 19112: 19095: 19086: 19069: 19059:199, 7.12.2 = 19040: 19023: 19003: 18990: 18977: 18968: 18951: 18947:Roman Clothing 18938: 18934:On agriculture 18930:Roman Clothing 18921: 18904: 18895: 18891:Roman Clothing 18882: 18878:Roman Clothing 18869: 18865:Roman Clothing 18856: 18846: 18824: 18820:Roman Clothing 18811: 18807:Roman Clothing 18798: 18785: 18776: 18767: 18754: 18741: 18729: 18716: 18699: 18686: 18673: 18656: 18639: 18618: 18601: 18588: 18571: 18558: 18541: 18528: 18515: 18502: 18493: 18480: 18471: 18462: 18453: 18440: 18415: 18402: 18385: 18372: 18355: 18342: 18325: 18312: 18295: 18282: 18260: 18245: 18230: 18221: 18209: 18200: 18188: 18175: 18162: 18153: 18140: 18123: 18098: 18061: 18048: 18035: 18021: 18000: 17981: 17960: 17943: 17926: 17913: 17904: 17891: 17874: 17861: 17844: 17825: 17816: 17793: 17772: 17759: 17749:Ulrike Roth, " 17742: 17729: 17716: 17707: 17698: 17685: 17672: 17659: 17650: 17637: 17628: 17611: 17598: 17585: 17577:Phaselus Ille, 17568: 17555: 17534: 17517: 17504: 17491: 17478: 17469: 17456: 17443: 17425: 17416: 17413:. Am J Philol. 17401: 17394: 17373: 17352: 17348:Wickham (2014) 17340: 17327: 17309: 17298: 17278: 17265: 17256: 17250:978-0521809184 17249: 17228: 17212: 17191: 17174: 17161: 17144: 17131: 17118: 17109: 17100: 17087: 17066: 17057: 17048: 17039: 17030: 17021: 17008: 16989: 16980: 16971: 16962: 16949: 16936: 16923: 16910: 16897: 16884: 16880:dispensatrices 16851: 16842: 16821: 16812: 16796: 16771: 16754: 16741: 16728: 16715: 16702: 16685: 16672: 16651: 16638: 16619: 16606: 16589: 16576: 16574:, pp. 320–321. 16563: 16547: 16534: 16521: 16508: 16506:, pp. 318–319. 16495: 16482: 16469: 16467:, sect. 4.2.1. 16456: 16447: 16438: 16420: 16411: 16402: 16393: 16384: 16375: 16366: 16349: 16336: 16327: 16314: 16298: 16277: 16273:De agricultura 16264: 16260:De agricultura 16247: 16238: 16229: 16220: 16207: 16188: 16175: 16171:De agricultura 16162: 16145: 16132: 16119: 16106: 16093: 16080: 16067: 16050: 16041: 16032: 16023: 16010: 15998: 15985: 15972: 15963: 15945: 15925: 15912: 15899: 15886: 15873: 15856: 15839: 15822: 15796: 15784:Mater Familias 15780:Pater Familias 15771: 15758: 15749: 15736: 15719: 15707: 15694: 15681: 15668: 15664:Cato the Elder 15651: 15638: 15617: 15608: 15599: 15590: 15577: 15552: 15543: 15534: 15521: 15513:Divus Augustus 15500: 15487: 15478: 15469: 15460: 15451: 15442: 15429: 15420: 15403: 15390: 15374: 15361: 15337: 15333:ad Quaestiones 15316: 15299: 15282: 15266: 15248: 15236: 15223: 15214: 15205: 15196: 15179: 15162: 15153: 15144: 15120: 15096: 15087: 15074: 15065: 15044: 15035: 15026: 15017: 15004: 14995: 14986: 14977: 14964: 14951: 14938: 14921: 14912: 14900: 14887: 14878: 14869: 14860: 14851: 14842: 14809: 14800: 14791: 14778: 14774:Slave Systems, 14765: 14756: 14747: 14738: 14725: 14716: 14707: 14698: 14689: 14679: 14670: 14661: 14639: 14626: 14617: 14608: 14595: 14586: 14561: 14552: 14543: 14528: 14515: 14499: 14490: 14481: 14468: 14461: 14443: 14428: 14413: 14397: 14384: 14375: 14369:Mary Nyquist, 14362: 14349: 14336: 14324: 14315: 14298: 14289: 14280: 14271: 14262: 14249: 14233: 14216: 14201: 14192: 14183: 14162: 14153: 14144: 14135: 14126: 14117: 14108: 14099: 14086: 14077: 14068: 14053: 14040: 14015: 14013:, pp. 101–102. 14002: 13993: 13972: 13963: 13954: 13945: 13928: 13915: 13906: 13893: 13884: 13882:278, 338, 376. 13855: 13842: 13825: 13812: 13795: 13766: 13749: 13724: 13699: 13686: 13677: 13668: 13655: 13609: 13596: 13583: 13574: 13565: 13546: 13537: 13528: 13519: 13510: 13501: 13492: 13479: 13466: 13457: 13444: 13427: 13418: 13409: 13392: 13383: 13370: 13361: 13348: 13335: 13322: 13320:, pp. 251–252. 13309: 13292: 13285: 13267: 13250: 13238: 13225: 13213: 13196: 13190:Beryl Rawson, 13183: 13162: 13150: 13146:Bradley (1994) 13138: 13121: 13108: 13102:St. Augustine 13095: 13083:Dio Chrysostom 13050: 13041: 13028: 13019: 13006: 12985: 12964: 12951: 12942: 12933: 12920: 12911: 12898: 12885: 12868: 12851: 12834: 12813: 12800: 12787: 12770: 12753: 12744: 12729: 12716: 12703: 12698:The Jewish War 12688: 12675: 12666: 12657: 12648: 12633: 12613: 12609:Wickham (2014) 12601: 12597:Wickham (2014) 12589: 12580: 12567: 12550: 12537: 12520: 12507: 12491: 12470: 12457: 12453:Divus Augustus 12432: 12412: 12397: 12377: 12366: 12351: 12338: 12329: 12312: 12295: 12274: 12272:, p. 564. 12254: 12237: 12225: 12216: 12207: 12180:(3): 236–257. 12160: 12144: 12133: 12131:, pp. 154–155. 12120: 12111: 12109:, p. 156. 12107:Bradley (1994) 12099: 12082: 12069: 12057: 12047:Ulrike Roth, " 12040: 12027: 12006: 11994: 11982: 11973: 11956: 11944: 11935:rei vindicatio 11913: 11900: 11890:Ulrike Roth, " 11883: 11866: 11857: 11848: 11835: 11826: 11801: 11792: 11779: 11766: 11741: 11728: 11707: 11694: 11684:Ulrike Roth, " 11677: 11656: 11639: 11626: 11617: 11604: 11602:, pp. 2–3 11600:Bradley (1994) 11592: 11577: 11575:(Digest 16.6). 11558: 11549:Jane Gardner, 11542: 11525: 11517:Mater Familias 11513:Pater Familias 11504: 11483: 11470: 11462:De sua pecunia 11454: 11441: 11420: 11410:Ulrike Roth, " 11403: 11399:de sua pecunia 11385: 11364: 11360:Visigothic law 11337: 11326: 11309: 11288: 11271: 11254: 11241: 11222: 11209: 11184: 11171: 11154: 11152:," pp. 47, 64. 11141: 11128: 11126:," pp. 45, 50. 11115: 11102: 11089: 11072: 11059: 11055:Bradley (1994) 11047: 11030: 11009: 11007:, p. 714. 10980: 10963: 10949: 10936: 10919: 10910: 10897: 10880: 10867: 10850: 10837: 10826:Chisholm, Hugh 10810: 10786: 10769: 10765:Pater Familias 10756: 10739: 10731:Mater Familias 10727:Pater Familias 10718: 10695: 10678: 10665: 10648: 10635: 10618: 10605: 10592: 10579: 10562: 10558:Clades Variana 10549: 10532: 10516:Clades Variana 10514:Vasile Lica, " 10507: 10494: 10478: 10465: 10452: 10427: 10410: 10401: 10389:Contra Paganos 10372: 10349: 10315: 10306: 10274: 10270:War in History 10261: 10238: 10217: 10209:Andrew Lintott 10201: 10185: 10172: 10155: 10146: 10133: 10124: 10111: 10098: 10082: 10069: 10056: 10040: 10027: 10006: 9989: 9976: 9964: 9951: 9938: 9921: 9908: 9891: 9875:Mater Familias 9871:Pater Familias 9862: 9841: 9817: 9804: 9786: 9784: 9781: 9778: 9777: 9757: 9732: 9696: 9683: 9660: 9647: 9629: 9605:Clades Variana 9580: 9571: 9549: 9523: 9490: 9474: 9462: 9454:Edict of Milan 9445: 9436: 9427: 9417: 9416: 9414: 9411: 9410: 9409: 9404: 9399: 9394: 9387: 9384: 9347:Main article: 9328: 9325: 9308: 9305: 9259:Campus Martius 9140: 9137: 9066: 9063: 9013: 9010: 8983: 8980: 8979: 8978: 8974: 8973: 8969: 8968: 8964: 8963: 8955: 8954: 8950: 8949: 8907:utilitarianism 8841:Roman morality 8782: 8779: 8584: 8581: 8569:Pope Clement I 8564: 8561: 8519:Dedication to 8512: 8509: 8461:late antiquity 8411: 8408: 8356: 8353: 8316:Roman festival 8308:Main article: 8305: 8302: 8298:dea libertorum 8276:The temple of 8222:was a women's 8205:named Hedone ( 8194: 8191: 8189: 8186: 8127:A relief from 8120: 8117: 8052:Main article: 8025: 8022: 7970:Zoninus collar 7963: 7960: 7875: 7872: 7868:servus vinctus 7858:servus vinctus 7819: 7816: 7791:counterfeiting 7722: 7719: 7633: 7630: 7590: 7587: 7571:Gaius Octavius 7562: 7559: 7543:Marcus Crassus 7539:Cisalpine Gaul 7497:The so-called 7485:, composed by 7464: 7461: 7433:Licinius Nerva 7415: 7412: 7349: 7346: 7283:Campus Martius 7249: 7246: 7217: 7214: 7115: 7112: 7007:for a German, 6980:names such as 6816:, first name; 6784: 6781: 6751: 6748: 6734:The physician 6694: 6691: 6624: 6621: 6612:Moral Epistles 6571:(servi poenae) 6518:Cato the Elder 6512: 6509: 6501:Asiatic Greeks 6491:litter-bearers 6424: 6421: 6418: 6417: 6414: 6411: 6408: 6404: 6403: 6400: 6397: 6394: 6390: 6389: 6386: 6383: 6380: 6376: 6375: 6372: 6369: 6366: 6362: 6361: 6358: 6355: 6352: 6351:Spain and Gaul 6348: 6347: 6344: 6341: 6338: 6334: 6333: 6330: 6327: 6324: 6320: 6319: 6314: 6307: 6302: 6253: 6250: 6187:tenant farmers 6172: 6169: 6040: 6037: 5944: 5941: 5936:municipalities 5887:Antoninus Pius 5784: 5781: 5733:Roman concrete 5651:or work farms 5631: 5624: 5623: 5622: 5617: 5610: 5609: 5608: 5607: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5511: 5508: 5461:(archimagirus) 5348: 5345: 5333:familia urbana 5317:in town, or a 5298:apprenticeship 5267:), launderer, 5244: 5241: 5223: 5220: 5136: 5133: 5016: 5013: 5010:(venalicarii). 4914: 4913: 4910: 4907: 4904: 4879: 4876: 4588: 4585: 4563: 4560: 4526: 4523: 4458:Roman Republic 4443:Main article: 4440: 4437: 4359: 4356: 4336:sanguinolentus 4250: 4247: 4239:house churches 4219: 4216: 4181:Alburnus Maior 4099:and the arts, 4081:coppersmithing 4069:Apprenticeship 4030: 4027: 3953: 3948: 3933:epigraphically 3806: 3801: 3732:twenty talents 3716: 3713: 3618:Gemma Augustea 3608: 3602: 3477: 3474: 3435: 3432: 3398:—placing them 3374:Main article: 3371: 3366: 3296:fugitive slave 3269:toga praetexta 3174:Main article: 3159: 3156: 3009:through which 2951: 2948: 2816: 2811: 2711:British Museum 2689:Main article: 2686: 2683: 2674:Constantine II 2667:Antoninus Pius 2493: 2490: 2418:Naqsh-e Rostam 2381: 2374: 2373: 2372: 2364: 2357: 2356: 2355: 2354: 2353: 2328:Marcus Crassus 2256:around 107 BC 2246:Charles Gleyre 2234: 2231: 2022: 2021: 2020: 2019: 2012: 1999: 1996:Late antiquity 1994: 1993: 1977: 1976: 1971: 1970: 1969: 1961: 1940: 1939: 1929: 1928: 1925: 1914: 1906: 1898: 1894: 1893: 1880: 1879: 1877: 1876: 1869: 1862: 1854: 1851: 1850: 1847: 1846: 1841: 1840: 1839: 1834: 1829: 1824: 1823: 1822: 1812: 1807: 1802: 1797: 1792: 1782: 1777: 1772: 1767: 1766: 1765: 1760: 1750: 1745: 1740: 1739: 1738: 1733: 1726:List of slaves 1723: 1722: 1721: 1716: 1711: 1701: 1696: 1691: 1685: 1682: 1681: 1678: 1677: 1674: 1673: 1661: 1656: 1651: 1646: 1641: 1636: 1631: 1630: 1629: 1619: 1614: 1609: 1608: 1607: 1597: 1592: 1591: 1590: 1585: 1575: 1574: 1573: 1568: 1558: 1553: 1548: 1547: 1546: 1541: 1536: 1531: 1526: 1521: 1516: 1511: 1506: 1501: 1490: 1485: 1484: 1481: 1480: 1477: 1476: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1460: 1459: 1454: 1444: 1438: 1433: 1432: 1429: 1428: 1425: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1364: 1359: 1354: 1349: 1344: 1339: 1334: 1329: 1323: 1322: 1318: 1317: 1312: 1307: 1302: 1297: 1292: 1287: 1282: 1277: 1272: 1270:Dutch Republic 1267: 1262: 1261: 1260: 1255: 1247: 1241: 1240: 1236: 1235: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1214: 1213: 1202: 1201: 1195: 1194: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1177: 1172: 1167: 1162: 1161: 1160: 1150: 1149: 1148: 1138: 1133: 1132: 1131: 1126: 1116: 1115: 1114: 1109: 1104: 1094: 1089: 1084: 1078: 1077: 1071: 1070: 1065: 1058: 1057: 1056: 1051: 1041: 1036: 1031: 1030: 1029: 1019: 1014: 1013: 1012: 1007: 1002: 997: 987: 982: 977: 976: 975: 970: 965: 960: 955: 950: 945: 940: 935: 930: 920: 919: 918: 908: 907: 906: 895: 894: 888: 887: 882: 877: 872: 871: 870: 860: 855: 850: 845: 840: 835: 830: 825: 820: 815: 814: 813: 803: 798: 793: 787: 786: 780: 777: 776: 773: 772: 769: 768: 763: 758: 753: 748: 742: 741: 737: 736: 731: 729:Child soldiers 726: 721: 716: 711: 706: 705: 704: 694: 689: 684: 679: 678: 677: 672: 667: 656: 655: 651: 650: 645: 640: 638:Spanish Empire 635: 630: 625: 620: 618:Middle Passage 615: 610: 605: 600: 594: 593: 587: 586: 581: 576: 571: 566: 561: 556: 555: 554: 549: 544: 539: 534: 525: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 495: 490: 480: 479: 478: 473: 468: 463: 458: 448: 447: 446: 439:Ottoman Empire 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 411: 406: 400: 394: 393: 387: 386: 385: 384: 374: 369: 364: 363: 362: 357: 352: 342: 337: 332: 327: 322: 316: 315: 309: 308: 303: 298: 293: 287: 286: 280: 275: 274: 271: 270: 267: 266: 261: 259:Sexual slavery 256: 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 225: 224: 219: 217:Child marriage 214: 204: 199: 194: 192:Child soldiers 189: 183: 178: 177: 174: 173: 165: 164: 154: 153: 142: 139: 135:legal statuses 92:late antiquity 88:Republican era 77:Roman citizens 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 25369: 25358: 25355: 25353: 25350: 25349: 25347: 25332: 25329: 25327: 25324: 25322: 25319: 25317: 25314: 25312: 25309: 25307: 25304: 25302: 25299: 25297: 25294: 25292: 25289: 25287: 25284: 25282: 25279: 25277: 25274: 25272: 25269: 25267: 25264: 25262: 25259: 25257: 25254: 25252: 25249: 25247: 25244: 25242: 25239: 25237: 25234: 25232: 25229: 25227: 25224: 25222: 25219: 25217: 25214: 25212: 25209: 25207: 25204: 25203: 25201: 25192: 25186: 25183: 25181: 25178: 25176: 25173: 25171: 25168: 25166: 25163: 25161: 25158: 25156: 25153: 25151: 25148: 25146: 25143: 25141: 25138: 25136: 25133: 25131: 25128: 25126: 25123: 25121: 25118: 25116: 25113: 25111: 25108: 25106: 25103: 25101: 25098: 25096: 25093: 25092: 25090: 25086: 25076: 25073: 25071: 25068: 25066: 25063: 25061: 25058: 25056: 25053: 25051: 25048: 25046: 25043: 25041: 25038: 25036: 25033: 25031: 25028: 25026: 25023: 25021: 25018: 25016: 25013: 25011: 25008: 25006: 25003: 25001: 24998: 24996: 24993: 24991: 24988: 24986: 24983: 24981: 24978: 24976: 24973: 24971: 24968: 24966: 24963: 24961: 24958: 24956: 24953: 24951: 24948: 24946: 24943: 24941: 24938: 24936: 24933: 24931: 24928: 24926: 24923: 24921: 24918: 24916: 24913: 24911: 24908: 24907: 24905: 24903: 24899: 24893: 24890: 24888: 24885: 24883: 24880: 24878: 24875: 24873: 24870: 24868: 24865: 24863: 24860: 24858: 24855: 24853: 24850: 24848: 24845: 24843: 24840: 24838: 24835: 24833: 24830: 24828: 24825: 24823: 24820: 24818: 24815: 24813: 24810: 24808: 24805: 24803: 24800: 24798: 24795: 24793: 24790: 24788: 24785: 24783: 24780: 24778: 24775: 24773: 24770: 24768: 24765: 24763: 24760: 24758: 24755: 24753: 24750: 24748: 24745: 24743: 24740: 24738: 24735: 24733: 24730: 24728: 24725: 24723: 24720: 24718: 24715: 24713: 24710: 24708: 24705: 24703: 24700: 24698: 24695: 24693: 24690: 24688: 24685: 24683: 24680: 24678: 24675: 24673: 24670: 24668: 24665: 24663: 24660: 24658: 24657:Julius Paulus 24655: 24653: 24650: 24648: 24645: 24643: 24640: 24638: 24635: 24633: 24630: 24628: 24625: 24623: 24620: 24618: 24615: 24613: 24610: 24608: 24605: 24603: 24600: 24598: 24595: 24593: 24592:Fabius Pictor 24590: 24588: 24585: 24583: 24580: 24578: 24575: 24573: 24570: 24568: 24565: 24563: 24560: 24558: 24555: 24553: 24550: 24548: 24545: 24543: 24540: 24538: 24535: 24533: 24530: 24528: 24525: 24523: 24520: 24518: 24515: 24513: 24510: 24508: 24505: 24503: 24500: 24499: 24497: 24495: 24491: 24488: 24484: 24478: 24475: 24471: 24468: 24466: 24463: 24461: 24458: 24456: 24453: 24451: 24448: 24446: 24443: 24441: 24438: 24436: 24433: 24431: 24428: 24427: 24425: 24423: 24420: 24418: 24415: 24414: 24412: 24410: 24406: 24400: 24397: 24395: 24392: 24390: 24387: 24385: 24382: 24380: 24377: 24375: 24372: 24370: 24367: 24365: 24362: 24360: 24357: 24355: 24352: 24350: 24347: 24345: 24342: 24340: 24337: 24335: 24332: 24330: 24329:Amphitheatres 24327: 24326: 24324: 24322: 24318: 24312: 24309: 24307: 24304: 24302: 24299: 24297: 24294: 24292: 24289: 24287: 24284: 24282: 24279: 24277: 24274: 24270: 24267: 24266: 24265: 24262: 24260: 24257: 24255: 24252: 24250: 24247: 24245: 24242: 24240: 24237: 24235: 24232: 24231: 24229: 24227: 24223: 24217: 24214: 24212: 24209: 24207: 24204: 24202: 24199: 24197: 24194: 24192: 24189: 24187: 24184: 24180: 24177: 24176: 24175: 24172: 24170: 24167: 24165: 24162: 24160: 24157: 24155: 24152: 24150: 24147: 24145: 24142: 24140: 24137: 24135: 24132: 24130: 24127: 24125: 24122: 24120: 24117: 24115: 24112: 24110: 24107: 24106: 24104: 24102: 24098: 24092: 24089: 24087: 24084: 24082: 24079: 24077: 24074: 24072: 24069: 24067: 24066:Deforestation 24064: 24062: 24059: 24058: 24056: 24054: 24050: 24044: 24041: 24039: 24036: 24034: 24031: 24029: 24026: 24022: 24019: 24017: 24016:Siege engines 24014: 24012: 24009: 24007: 24004: 24002: 23999: 23998: 23997: 23994: 23992: 23989: 23985: 23982: 23981: 23980: 23977: 23975: 23972: 23970: 23967: 23965: 23962: 23960: 23957: 23955: 23952: 23950: 23949:Establishment 23947: 23945: 23942: 23940: 23937: 23936: 23934: 23932: 23928: 23918: 23915: 23913: 23910: 23908: 23905: 23903: 23900: 23898: 23895: 23893: 23890: 23888: 23885: 23884: 23882: 23880:Extraordinary 23878: 23872: 23869: 23867: 23866:Promagistrate 23864: 23862: 23859: 23857: 23854: 23852: 23849: 23847: 23844: 23842: 23839: 23837: 23834: 23832: 23829: 23827: 23824: 23823: 23821: 23817: 23814: 23812: 23808: 23802: 23799: 23797: 23794: 23792: 23789: 23787: 23784: 23782: 23779: 23777: 23774: 23772: 23769: 23767: 23764: 23762: 23759: 23757: 23754: 23752: 23749: 23747: 23744: 23742: 23739: 23737: 23734: 23732: 23729: 23727: 23724: 23722: 23719: 23717: 23714: 23712: 23709: 23707: 23704: 23702: 23699: 23698: 23696: 23694: 23690: 23684: 23681: 23679: 23676: 23674: 23671: 23669: 23666: 23664: 23661: 23659: 23656: 23654: 23653:Twelve Tables 23651: 23650: 23648: 23646: 23642: 23636: 23633: 23631: 23628: 23624: 23621: 23619: 23616: 23614: 23611: 23609: 23606: 23605: 23604: 23601: 23599: 23596: 23594: 23591: 23589: 23586: 23584: 23581: 23579: 23576: 23574: 23571: 23570: 23568: 23566: 23562: 23550: 23547: 23546: 23545: 23542: 23538: 23535: 23533: 23530: 23529: 23528: 23525: 23521: 23518: 23516: 23513: 23512: 23511: 23508: 23506: 23503: 23501: 23498: 23496: 23493: 23491: 23488: 23487: 23485: 23483: 23479: 23473: 23470: 23466: 23463: 23462: 23461: 23458: 23456: 23453: 23452: 23449: 23446: 23444: 23440: 23434: 23431: 23429: 23426: 23425: 23422: 23417: 23410: 23405: 23403: 23398: 23396: 23391: 23390: 23387: 23378: 23375: 23373: 23370: 23368: 23365: 23364: 23359: 23354: 23341: 23337: 23334: 23330: 23326: 23320: 23312: 23306: 23302: 23297: 23294: 23290: 23287: 23283: 23280: 23276: 23273: 23269: 23266: 23262: 23259: 23255: 23254: 23244: 23240: 23233: 23232: 23226: 23221: 23215: 23211: 23210: 23204: 23200: 23194: 23189: 23188: 23181: 23177: 23172: 23168: 23164: 23159: 23155: 23151: 23147: 23143: 23139: 23135: 23131: 23127: 23123: 23119: 23115: 23111: 23107: 23103: 23099: 23095: 23094:Harris, W. V. 23091: 23087: 23083: 23079: 23075: 23071: 23067: 23066: 23060: 23056: 23050: 23046: 23041: 23037: 23031: 23027: 23023: 23019: 23014: 23010: 23005: 23001: 22999:9780521378871 22995: 22991: 22986: 22982: 22977: 22973: 22969: 22965: 22961: 22957: 22953: 22952: 22946: 22945: 22933: 22926: 22918: 22911: 22904: 22898: 22896: 22888: 22882: 22874: 22870: 22867:(138): 6, 8. 22866: 22859: 22852: 22848: 22842: 22835: 22829: 22822: 22816: 22809: 22803: 22796: 22790: 22783: 22779: 22775: 22769: 22762: 22758: 22754: 22750: 22744: 22735: 22729:," pp. 60–61. 22728: 22722: 22715: 22709: 22702: 22696: 22687: 22680: 22674: 22667: 22661: 22654: 22648: 22639: 22632: 22626: 22619: 22615: 22610: 22601: 22594: 22588: 22581: 22577: 22573: 22569: 22563: 22556: 22550: 22543: 22539: 22535: 22529: 22522: 22519:Kyle Harper, 22516: 22509: 22505: 22501: 22496: 22489: 22483: 22477: 22471: 22464: 22458: 22451: 22447: 22441: 22434: 22430: 22426: 22421: 22406: 22404: 22398: 22392: 22386: 22380: 22373: 22369: 22368:Slave Systems 22363: 22354: 22345: 22338: 22334: 22329: 22322: 22316: 22309: 22308:Slave Systems 22303: 22296: 22290: 22276: 22272: 22266: 22259: 22254: 22248: 22243: 22237: 22232: 22225: 22219: 22212: 22206: 22199: 22195: 22189: 22182: 22176: 22169: 22165: 22160: 22153: 22149: 22143: 22136: 22130: 22123: 22117: 22110: 22104: 22097: 22093: 22087: 22080: 22076: 22071: 22062: 22053: 22046: 22040: 22033: 22027: 22020: 22016: 22010: 22003: 22002:Slave Systems 21997: 21988: 21981: 21977: 21976:Slave Systems 21971: 21964: 21961:Finkenauer, " 21958: 21950: 21946: 21942: 21938: 21934: 21930: 21923: 21914: 21907: 21906:De re rustica 21901: 21892: 21883: 21874: 21867: 21863: 21858: 21852: 21846: 21837: 21830: 21829:Junian Latins 21824: 21817: 21811: 21805:p. 27, n. 27. 21804: 21798: 21791: 21785: 21778: 21772: 21763: 21756: 21752: 21746: 21737: 21730: 21724: 21718: 21712: 21705: 21699: 21692: 21688: 21684: 21678: 21671: 21667: 21661: 21654: 21648: 21641: 21635: 21629: 21623: 21616: 21615:Clauss (2001) 21611: 21604: 21600: 21597:Andrew Fear, 21594: 21585: 21578: 21574: 21568: 21561: 21560:Clauss (2001) 21556: 21547: 21538: 21531: 21527: 21523: 21517: 21510: 21506: 21502: 21498: 21494: 21491:in Morimene, 21490: 21484: 21477: 21471: 21464: 21460: 21456: 21452: 21451:Dispensatores 21448: 21442: 21435: 21431: 21427: 21422: 21415: 21411: 21410: 21406: 21402: 21396: 21389: 21383: 21376: 21370: 21363: 21359: 21353: 21346: 21342: 21337: 21330: 21326: 21321: 21314: 21308: 21301: 21300:Barton (1993) 21296: 21290: 21286: 21283:Maria Plaza, 21280: 21273: 21267: 21260: 21254: 21247: 21241: 21234: 21228: 21222:, p. 484 21221: 21216: 21210:, p. 498 21209: 21208:Barton (1993) 21204: 21197: 21193: 21188: 21182:, p. 492 21181: 21176: 21169: 21163: 21156: 21152: 21146: 21139: 21135: 21134: 21129: 21124: 21117: 21113: 21109: 21105: 21101: 21100:Ioannes Lydus 21097: 21093: 21089: 21085: 21079: 21070: 21064: 21061: 21057: 21052: 21045: 21039: 21032: 21028: 21022: 21015: 21011: 21007: 21002: 20993: 20984: 20977: 20972: 20970: 20960: 20953: 20949: 20945: 20941: 20937: 20931: 20924: 20918: 20911: 20907: 20901: 20894: 20888: 20881: 20875: 20868: 20862: 20855: 20851: 20846: 20839: 20835: 20829: 20820: 20811: 20804: 20797: 20788: 20781: 20775: 20768: 20764: 20760: 20759:Slave Systems 20754: 20747: 20741: 20734: 20730: 20726: 20722: 20716: 20709: 20703: 20696: 20690: 20681: 20674: 20670: 20666: 20662: 20656: 20649: 20648:Slave Systems 20643: 20634: 20625: 20616: 20607: 20601: 20597: 20592: 20585: 20584: 20579: 20573: 20566: 20560: 20553: 20549: 20545: 20541: 20537: 20533: 20532:Fugi, tene me 20527: 20518: 20511: 20505: 20498: 20494: 20490: 20484: 20475: 20466: 20457: 20448: 20439: 20432: 20426: 20417: 20410: 20404: 20395: 20386: 20377: 20370: 20364: 20355: 20346: 20339: 20333: 20326: 20320: 20311: 20302: 20295: 20291: 20285: 20278: 20272: 20265: 20259: 20252: 20248: 20242: 20235: 20234:Lille Papyrus 20231: 20230:Slave Systems 20225: 20218: 20212: 20205: 20199: 20192: 20188: 20183: 20174: 20167: 20161: 20154: 20148: 20141: 20137: 20136:Slave Systems 20131: 20124: 20118: 20111: 20107: 20101: 20092: 20085: 20081: 20075: 20066: 20059: 20053: 20044: 20035: 20026: 20019: 20016: 20010: 20003: 19999: 19993: 19984: 19977: 19971: 19962: 19953: 19946: 19942: 19936: 19929: 19925: 19921: 19915: 19908: 19904: 19900: 19896: 19892: 19886: 19879: 19873: 19866: 19862: 19861:Slave Systems 19856: 19849: 19845: 19844:Slave Systems 19839: 19832: 19828: 19822: 19815: 19811: 19807: 19806:Slave Systems 19801: 19794: 19793:Slave Systems 19788: 19781: 19775: 19768: 19762: 19755: 19751: 19750:De beneficiis 19747: 19746: 19741: 19737: 19731: 19725: 19721: 19715: 19708: 19702: 19695: 19694:Ad familiares 19691: 19685: 19676: 19669: 19663: 19656: 19650: 19643: 19637: 19631: 19625: 19618: 19612: 19605: 19601: 19597: 19591: 19582: 19575: 19569: 19562: 19556: 19547: 19540: 19534: 19525: 19518: 19514: 19509: 19500: 19493: 19487: 19478: 19471: 19465: 19458: 19454: 19449: 19442: 19436: 19429: 19425: 19420: 19412: 19408: 19402: 19393: 19384: 19375: 19368: 19367:sling bullets 19362: 19353: 19344: 19335: 19326: 19319: 19313: 19304: 19295: 19286: 19277: 19268: 19259: 19252: 19246: 19237: 19230: 19226: 19222: 19216: 19209: 19203: 19196: 19192: 19188: 19184: 19180: 19173: 19166: 19162: 19156: 19147: 19138: 19129: 19122: 19116: 19109: 19105: 19099: 19090: 19083: 19079: 19073: 19066: 19062: 19058: 19054: 19050: 19044: 19037: 19033: 19027: 19020: 19017: 19013: 19007: 19000: 18994: 18987: 18981: 18972: 18965: 18961: 18955: 18948: 18942: 18935: 18931: 18925: 18918: 18914: 18908: 18899: 18892: 18886: 18879: 18873: 18866: 18860: 18850: 18843: 18842: 18837: 18833: 18828: 18821: 18815: 18808: 18802: 18795: 18789: 18780: 18771: 18764: 18758: 18751: 18745: 18736: 18734: 18726: 18720: 18713: 18709: 18703: 18696: 18695:Slave Systems 18690: 18683: 18682:Slave Systems 18677: 18670: 18666: 18660: 18653: 18649: 18643: 18636: 18632: 18628: 18622: 18615: 18611: 18605: 18598: 18597:Slave Systems 18592: 18585: 18581: 18575: 18568: 18567:Slave Systems 18562: 18555: 18551: 18550:Slave Systems 18545: 18538: 18537:Slave Systems 18532: 18525: 18519: 18512: 18506: 18497: 18490: 18484: 18475: 18466: 18457: 18450: 18444: 18437: 18433: 18429: 18425: 18419: 18412: 18406: 18399: 18395: 18389: 18382: 18376: 18369: 18365: 18359: 18352: 18346: 18339: 18335: 18329: 18322: 18316: 18309: 18306:in Rome,” in 18305: 18299: 18292: 18286: 18280: 18276: 18273: 18270: 18264: 18258: 18255: 18249: 18243: 18240: 18239:Ad familiares 18234: 18225: 18219:, p. 215 18218: 18213: 18204: 18198:, p. 209 18197: 18192: 18185: 18184:Ad familiares 18179: 18172: 18171:Ad familiares 18166: 18157: 18150: 18144: 18137: 18133: 18127: 18120: 18116: 18112: 18108: 18107:Slave Systems 18102: 18095: 18091: 18087: 18083: 18079: 18075: 18071: 18065: 18058: 18057:Slave Systems 18052: 18045: 18039: 18032: 18025: 18018: 18014: 18013:Slave Systems 18010: 18004: 17997: 17996: 17991: 17985: 17978: 17974: 17970: 17969:Slave Systems 17964: 17957: 17953: 17952:Slave Systems 17947: 17940: 17936: 17935:Slave Systems 17930: 17924:, pp. 99–100. 17923: 17922:Slave Systems 17917: 17908: 17901: 17895: 17888: 17884: 17878: 17871: 17865: 17858: 17854: 17848: 17841: 17840: 17835: 17829: 17820: 17813: 17812: 17807: 17803: 17802:Controversiae 17797: 17790: 17786: 17782: 17776: 17769: 17763: 17756: 17752: 17746: 17739: 17733: 17726: 17720: 17711: 17702: 17695: 17689: 17682: 17676: 17669: 17668:Slave Systems 17663: 17654: 17647: 17641: 17632: 17625: 17621: 17615: 17608: 17602: 17595: 17589: 17582: 17578: 17572: 17565: 17559: 17552: 17548: 17544: 17538: 17531: 17527: 17526:Slave Systems 17521: 17514: 17508: 17501: 17495: 17488: 17482: 17473: 17466: 17460: 17453: 17447: 17439: 17435: 17429: 17420: 17412: 17405: 17397: 17391: 17387: 17380: 17378: 17371: 17367: 17363: 17356: 17349: 17344: 17337: 17331: 17323: 17316: 17314: 17306: 17301: 17295: 17291: 17290: 17282: 17275: 17269: 17260: 17252: 17246: 17242: 17235: 17233: 17225: 17221: 17216: 17209: 17208:Institutiones 17205: 17201: 17195: 17188: 17184: 17178: 17171: 17170:Slave Systems 17165: 17158: 17154: 17148: 17141: 17135: 17128: 17122: 17113: 17104: 17097: 17091: 17084: 17080: 17076: 17070: 17061: 17052: 17043: 17034: 17025: 17018: 17012: 17005: 17004: 16999: 16993: 16984: 16975: 16966: 16959: 16953: 16946: 16945:Slave Systems 16940: 16933: 16932:Slave Systems 16927: 16920: 16914: 16907: 16906:Slave Systems 16901: 16894: 16888: 16881: 16878:3857) on two 16877: 16873: 16869: 16865: 16861: 16855: 16846: 16840:,” pp. 36–38. 16839: 16835: 16834:Dispensatores 16831: 16825: 16816: 16809: 16805: 16800: 16793: 16789: 16785: 16784:Dispensatores 16781: 16775: 16768: 16764: 16758: 16751: 16745: 16738: 16732: 16725: 16724:Slave Systems 16719: 16712: 16706: 16699: 16698:De aquaeductu 16695: 16689: 16682: 16676: 16669: 16665: 16661: 16660:Contubernales 16655: 16648: 16642: 16635: 16634: 16629: 16623: 16616: 16610: 16603: 16599: 16593: 16586: 16580: 16573: 16567: 16560: 16554: 16552: 16544: 16538: 16531: 16525: 16518: 16512: 16505: 16499: 16492: 16486: 16479: 16473: 16466: 16460: 16451: 16442: 16435: 16434: 16429: 16424: 16415: 16406: 16397: 16388: 16379: 16370: 16363: 16359: 16353: 16346: 16340: 16331: 16324: 16318: 16311: 16307: 16306:Fergus Millar 16302: 16295: 16291: 16287: 16281: 16274: 16268: 16261: 16257: 16251: 16242: 16233: 16224: 16217: 16211: 16204: 16200: 16199: 16192: 16185: 16184:De re rustica 16179: 16172: 16166: 16159: 16158:De re rustica 16155: 16149: 16142: 16136: 16129: 16123: 16116: 16115:Moral Epistle 16110: 16103: 16097: 16090: 16084: 16077: 16071: 16064: 16060: 16054: 16045: 16036: 16027: 16020: 16014: 16005: 16003: 15995: 15994:Slave Systems 15989: 15982: 15976: 15967: 15961: 15957: 15954: 15949: 15942: 15938: 15934: 15929: 15922: 15916: 15909: 15903: 15896: 15890: 15883: 15877: 15871:21.1.150–151. 15870: 15866: 15860: 15853: 15849: 15843: 15836: 15832: 15826: 15819: 15813: 15811: 15809: 15807: 15805: 15803: 15801: 15793: 15789: 15785: 15781: 15775: 15768: 15762: 15753: 15746: 15745:Slave Systems 15740: 15733: 15729: 15728:Slave Systems 15723: 15717:, p. 722 15716: 15715:Harris (2000) 15711: 15704: 15703:Slave Systems 15698: 15691: 15690:Slave Systems 15685: 15678: 15677:Slave Systems 15672: 15665: 15661: 15660:Slave Systems 15655: 15648: 15647:Slave Systems 15642: 15635: 15631: 15627: 15621: 15612: 15603: 15594: 15587: 15581: 15574: 15570: 15566: 15562: 15556: 15547: 15538: 15531: 15525: 15518: 15514: 15510: 15504: 15497: 15491: 15482: 15473: 15464: 15455: 15446: 15439: 15433: 15424: 15417: 15413: 15407: 15400: 15394: 15387: 15383: 15378: 15371: 15365: 15358: 15354: 15350: 15346: 15341: 15334: 15330: 15326: 15320: 15313: 15309: 15306:Finkenauer, " 15303: 15296: 15292: 15289:Alan Watson, 15286: 15279: 15275: 15269: 15263: 15259: 15252: 15243: 15241: 15233: 15227: 15218: 15209: 15200: 15193: 15189: 15183: 15175: 15174: 15166: 15157: 15148: 15134: 15130: 15124: 15110: 15106: 15100: 15091: 15084: 15078: 15069: 15062: 15058: 15054: 15048: 15039: 15030: 15021: 15014: 15008: 14999: 14990: 14981: 14974: 14968: 14961: 14955: 14948: 14942: 14935: 14931: 14925: 14916: 14909: 14904: 14897: 14891: 14882: 14873: 14864: 14855: 14846: 14839: 14835: 14831: 14827: 14823: 14819: 14813: 14804: 14795: 14788: 14782: 14775: 14769: 14760: 14751: 14742: 14735: 14729: 14720: 14711: 14702: 14693: 14683: 14674: 14665: 14658: 14654: 14649: 14643: 14636: 14630: 14621: 14612: 14605: 14599: 14590: 14583: 14582: 14577: 14576: 14571: 14565: 14556: 14547: 14541:, p. 721 14540: 14539:Harris (2000) 14535: 14533: 14525: 14519: 14512: 14508: 14503: 14494: 14485: 14478: 14472: 14464: 14458: 14454: 14447: 14439: 14432: 14424: 14417: 14410: 14404: 14402: 14394: 14388: 14379: 14372: 14366: 14359: 14353: 14346: 14340: 14331: 14329: 14319: 14312: 14308: 14302: 14293: 14284: 14275: 14266: 14259: 14253: 14246: 14242: 14237: 14230: 14226: 14220: 14213: 14212: 14205: 14196: 14187: 14180: 14176: 14172: 14171:Slave Systems 14166: 14157: 14148: 14139: 14130: 14121: 14112: 14103: 14096: 14090: 14081: 14072: 14065: 14064: 14057: 14050: 14044: 14037: 14033: 14029: 14025: 14019: 14012: 14006: 13997: 13990: 13986: 13982: 13976: 13967: 13958: 13949: 13942: 13938: 13932: 13925: 13919: 13910: 13903: 13897: 13888: 13881: 13877: 13876:Institutiones 13873: 13869: 13868:Controversiae 13865: 13859: 13852: 13846: 13839: 13835: 13829: 13822: 13816: 13809: 13808:Controversiae 13805: 13799: 13792: 13788: 13787: 13782: 13781: 13776: 13770: 13763: 13759: 13753: 13746: 13742: 13738: 13737:anaglyptarius 13734: 13728: 13721: 13717: 13713: 13709: 13703: 13696: 13690: 13681: 13672: 13665: 13659: 13652: 13648: 13644: 13643: 13638: 13635: 13632:(frg. 23–29) 13631: 13627: 13626:Agatharchides 13623: 13619: 13613: 13606: 13600: 13593: 13592:De re rustica 13587: 13578: 13569: 13562: 13561: 13556: 13550: 13541: 13532: 13523: 13514: 13505: 13496: 13489: 13483: 13476: 13470: 13461: 13454: 13448: 13441: 13437: 13431: 13422: 13413: 13406: 13402: 13396: 13387: 13380: 13374: 13365: 13358: 13352: 13345: 13339: 13332: 13326: 13319: 13313: 13306: 13302: 13296: 13288: 13282: 13278: 13271: 13264: 13260: 13254: 13247: 13242: 13235: 13229: 13222: 13217: 13210: 13206: 13200: 13193: 13187: 13180: 13179:De re rustica 13176: 13175:De re rustica 13172: 13166: 13160:, p. 100 13159: 13154: 13147: 13142: 13135: 13131: 13125: 13118: 13112: 13105: 13099: 13092: 13088: 13084: 13080: 13076: 13075: 13070: 13066: 13065: 13064:Metamorphoses 13060: 13054: 13045: 13038: 13032: 13023: 13016: 13010: 13003: 13002:t. Mo’ed Qat. 12999: 12995: 12989: 12982: 12981:Julius Caesar 12978: 12974: 12968: 12961: 12955: 12946: 12937: 12930: 12924: 12915: 12908: 12902: 12895: 12889: 12882: 12878: 12872: 12865: 12861: 12855: 12848: 12844: 12838: 12831: 12827: 12823: 12817: 12810: 12809:De re rustica 12804: 12797: 12791: 12784: 12780: 12774: 12767: 12763: 12757: 12748: 12741: 12740: 12733: 12726: 12720: 12713: 12707: 12700: 12699: 12692: 12685: 12679: 12670: 12661: 12652: 12644: 12640: 12636: 12634:9780521535014 12630: 12626: 12625: 12617: 12610: 12605: 12598: 12593: 12584: 12577: 12571: 12564: 12560: 12554: 12547: 12541: 12534: 12530: 12524: 12517: 12511: 12504: 12500: 12499:Institutiones 12495: 12488: 12484: 12480: 12474: 12467: 12461: 12454: 12450: 12446: 12442: 12436: 12429: 12425: 12424:Institutiones 12421: 12416: 12408: 12404: 12400: 12394: 12390: 12389: 12381: 12375: 12370: 12362: 12355: 12348: 12342: 12333: 12326: 12322: 12316: 12309: 12305: 12299: 12292: 12288: 12284: 12278: 12271: 12267: 12261: 12259: 12251: 12247: 12241: 12234: 12229: 12220: 12211: 12203: 12199: 12195: 12191: 12187: 12183: 12179: 12175: 12171: 12164: 12157: 12153: 12152:Fergus Millar 12148: 12142: 12137: 12130: 12129:Slave Systems 12124: 12115: 12108: 12103: 12096: 12092: 12091:Institutiones 12086: 12079: 12073: 12066: 12061: 12054: 12050: 12044: 12037: 12031: 12024: 12020: 12016: 12010: 12004:, p. 157 12003: 11998: 11991: 11986: 11977: 11970: 11966: 11960: 11953: 11948: 11941: 11937: 11936: 11931: 11927: 11923: 11917: 11910: 11904: 11897: 11893: 11887: 11880: 11876: 11870: 11861: 11852: 11845: 11839: 11830: 11823: 11819: 11815: 11814:Dispensatores 11811: 11805: 11796: 11789: 11783: 11776: 11770: 11763: 11759: 11755: 11751: 11750:Contubernales 11745: 11738: 11732: 11725: 11721: 11717: 11711: 11704: 11698: 11691: 11687: 11681: 11674: 11673:Institutiones 11670: 11666: 11660: 11653: 11649: 11643: 11636: 11635:Slave Systems 11630: 11621: 11614: 11613:Slave Systems 11608: 11601: 11596: 11588: 11581: 11574: 11573: 11568: 11562: 11556: 11552: 11546: 11539: 11535: 11529: 11522: 11518: 11514: 11508: 11501: 11500:genitive case 11497: 11493: 11487: 11480: 11474: 11467: 11463: 11458: 11451: 11445: 11438: 11434: 11430: 11424: 11417: 11413: 11407: 11400: 11396: 11395: 11389: 11382: 11378: 11374: 11368: 11361: 11357: 11356: 11351: 11347: 11341: 11335: 11334:Gamauf (2009) 11330: 11323: 11319: 11313: 11306: 11302: 11298: 11292: 11285: 11282:on Adultery, 11281: 11275: 11268: 11264: 11258: 11251: 11245: 11238: 11237: 11232: 11226: 11219: 11216:Finkenauer, " 11213: 11206: 11205:Controversiae 11202: 11198: 11194: 11191:Finkenauer, " 11188: 11181: 11175: 11168: 11164: 11158: 11151: 11148:Finkenauer, " 11145: 11139:," pp. 50–52. 11138: 11137:Contubernales 11132: 11125: 11124:Contubernales 11119: 11112: 11111:Contubernales 11106: 11099: 11093: 11086: 11082: 11076: 11069: 11068:Contubernales 11063: 11056: 11051: 11044: 11040: 11034: 11027: 11023: 11019: 11018:Contubernales 11013: 11006: 11002: 10998: 10997:filius iustus 10994: 10990: 10984: 10977: 10973: 10967: 10960: 10959: 10953: 10946: 10945:Slave Systems 10940: 10933: 10929: 10923: 10914: 10907: 10901: 10894: 10890: 10889:Lynda Garland 10884: 10877: 10871: 10864: 10860: 10854: 10847: 10841: 10833: 10832: 10827: 10822: 10814: 10807: 10803: 10797: 10795: 10793: 10791: 10783: 10782:De re publica 10779: 10773: 10766: 10760: 10753: 10749: 10743: 10736: 10732: 10728: 10722: 10715: 10714: 10709: 10705: 10699: 10692: 10688: 10682: 10675: 10669: 10662: 10658: 10652: 10645: 10644:Slave Systems 10639: 10632: 10631:De re publica 10628: 10622: 10615: 10609: 10602: 10596: 10589: 10583: 10576: 10572: 10571:Aelius Gallus 10566: 10559: 10553: 10546: 10542: 10539:Ernst Levy, “ 10536: 10529: 10525: 10521: 10517: 10511: 10504: 10498: 10491: 10487: 10486:Clifford Ando 10482: 10475: 10469: 10462: 10456: 10449: 10445: 10441: 10437: 10436:Slave Systems 10431: 10424: 10420: 10414: 10405: 10398: 10394: 10390: 10386: 10382: 10376: 10369: 10368: 10363: 10359: 10353: 10346: 10342: 10338: 10334: 10329: 10325: 10319: 10310: 10303: 10299: 10295: 10294:Homer H. Dubs 10292: 10288: 10284: 10278: 10271: 10265: 10258: 10254: 10253: 10248: 10242: 10235: 10231: 10227: 10224:Ernst Levy, “ 10221: 10214: 10210: 10205: 10198: 10194: 10189: 10182: 10176: 10169: 10165: 10164:Keith Hopkins 10159: 10150: 10143: 10137: 10128: 10121: 10115: 10108: 10105:R. W. Dyson, 10102: 10095: 10089: 10087: 10079: 10076:Fields, Nic. 10073: 10066: 10060: 10053: 10049: 10044: 10037: 10031: 10024: 10020: 10019:T. P. Wiseman 10016: 10010: 10003: 9999: 9993: 9986: 9980: 9974: 9968: 9961: 9955: 9948: 9942: 9935: 9931: 9925: 9918: 9912: 9905: 9901: 9895: 9888: 9884: 9883:paterfamilias 9880: 9876: 9872: 9866: 9859: 9855: 9851: 9845: 9838: 9834: 9830: 9826: 9821: 9814: 9808: 9801: 9797: 9791: 9787: 9774: 9770: 9766: 9761: 9754: 9750: 9746: 9742: 9736: 9729: 9725: 9721: 9717: 9716:imperial cult 9713: 9710: 9706: 9703:For example, 9700: 9693: 9687: 9680: 9679:contubernalis 9676: 9672: 9671: 9670:contubernalis 9664: 9657: 9651: 9644: 9639: 9633: 9626: 9622: 9618: 9614: 9610: 9606: 9602: 9598: 9594: 9590: 9584: 9575: 9567: 9566: 9559: 9553: 9545: 9541: 9537: 9536:paterfamilias 9533: 9527: 9520: 9516: 9512: 9508: 9504: 9500: 9494: 9487: 9483: 9478: 9471: 9466: 9459: 9455: 9449: 9440: 9431: 9422: 9418: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9393: 9390: 9389: 9383: 9381: 9380: 9374: 9371: 9367: 9364: 9360: 9356: 9350: 9341: 9333: 9324: 9322: 9318: 9313: 9304: 9302: 9301: 9296: 9290: 9287: 9284: 9278: 9276: 9272: 9268: 9264: 9260: 9256: 9255:Julian Saepta 9252: 9248: 9243: 9238: 9235: 9230: 9228: 9221: 9215: 9210: 9206: 9202: 9199: 9195: 9190: 9188: 9184: 9180: 9179:materfamilias 9176: 9171: 9167: 9163: 9161: 9157: 9153: 9152:New Testament 9146: 9136: 9134: 9130: 9126: 9122: 9118: 9114: 9109: 9107: 9103: 9099: 9095: 9091: 9087: 9083: 9076: 9072: 9062: 9060: 9056: 9052: 9048: 9043: 9038: 9034: 9029: 9027: 9023: 9019: 9009: 9007: 9002: 9000: 8996: 8995: 8989: 8976: 8975: 8971: 8970: 8966: 8965: 8961: 8957: 8956: 8952: 8951: 8947: 8943: 8942: 8941: 8939: 8935: 8931: 8927: 8923: 8922:Peter Garnsey 8919: 8914: 8912: 8908: 8904: 8900: 8896: 8894: 8893:mores maiorum 8888: 8884: 8882: 8876: 8874: 8867: 8863: 8859: 8858: 8853: 8849: 8844: 8842: 8838: 8833: 8832:Twelve Tables 8829: 8824: 8822: 8816: 8814: 8810: 8809: 8804: 8800: 8792: 8787: 8778: 8776: 8775: 8769: 8765: 8761: 8755: 8753: 8749: 8748: 8742: 8740: 8736: 8732: 8731: 8726: 8725: 8719: 8715: 8711: 8707: 8703: 8699: 8696:for a slave; 8695: 8687: 8683: 8679: 8678:Roman Britain 8675: 8670: 8666: 8664: 8660: 8656: 8652: 8648: 8644: 8638: 8636: 8632: 8624: 8623: 8618: 8614: 8610: 8607: 8603: 8599: 8595: 8590: 8583:Commemoration 8580: 8578: 8574: 8570: 8560: 8556: 8554: 8550: 8546: 8542: 8538: 8534: 8530: 8522: 8517: 8511:Mithraic cult 8508: 8506: 8502: 8497: 8493: 8489: 8485: 8481: 8477: 8473: 8469: 8464: 8462: 8458: 8454: 8453: 8448: 8444: 8440: 8436: 8431: 8429: 8425: 8421: 8419: 8418:servi publici 8410:Temple slaves 8404: 8403: 8398: 8393: 8389: 8387: 8382: 8378: 8374: 8370: 8366: 8362: 8352: 8350: 8346: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8329: 8327: 8326: 8321: 8317: 8311: 8301: 8299: 8296:of freedmen ( 8295: 8291: 8287: 8283: 8279: 8274: 8271: 8267: 8263: 8259: 8255: 8251: 8250: 8243: 8241: 8237: 8233: 8229: 8225: 8221: 8217: 8210: 8209: 8204: 8199: 8185: 8183: 8182:jurist Paulus 8177: 8175: 8171: 8165: 8163: 8159: 8155: 8148: 8146: 8140: 8139: 8134: 8130: 8125: 8116: 8114: 8111: 8106: 8104: 8100: 8096: 8091: 8089: 8085: 8080: 8078: 8077:Curse tablets 8074: 8073: 8068: 8067: 8066:arbor infelix 8061: 8055: 8047: 8043: 8039: 8038:ivory carving 8035: 8030: 8021: 8019: 8015: 8011: 8007: 8003: 8002: 7997: 7992: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7976: 7968: 7959: 7957: 7956: 7949: 7945: 7943: 7939: 7934: 7932: 7928: 7924: 7919: 7918: 7913: 7909: 7905: 7901: 7897: 7889: 7885: 7880: 7871: 7869: 7865: 7864: 7859: 7854: 7852: 7851: 7846: 7842: 7841: 7835: 7829: 7828:Roman Britain 7824: 7815: 7811: 7809: 7805: 7801: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7784: 7783:paterfamilias 7780: 7776: 7770: 7768: 7767: 7761: 7757: 7756:Vedius Pollio 7753: 7752: 7746: 7744: 7739: 7735: 7731: 7730: 7718: 7716: 7712: 7708: 7707: 7701: 7698: 7694: 7689: 7687: 7686: 7681: 7677: 7673: 7672:Aulus Gellius 7669: 7665: 7657: 7654: 7650: 7646: 7642: 7640: 7629: 7627: 7623: 7619: 7616:Although the 7614: 7612: 7606: 7604: 7603:(fugitivarii) 7600: 7596: 7586: 7584: 7578: 7576: 7572: 7568: 7558: 7556: 7552: 7546: 7544: 7540: 7534: 7532: 7528: 7524: 7520: 7516: 7511: 7508: 7504: 7500: 7492: 7488: 7484: 7483: 7478: 7474: 7469: 7460: 7456: 7453: 7449: 7445: 7441: 7436: 7434: 7430: 7426: 7421: 7411: 7409: 7405: 7401: 7397: 7392: 7390: 7386: 7382: 7378: 7376: 7370: 7366: 7359: 7354: 7345: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7331: 7326: 7324: 7322: 7316: 7312: 7307: 7305: 7301: 7296: 7292: 7288: 7284: 7279: 7277: 7273: 7269: 7263: 7259: 7255: 7245: 7241: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7225: 7223: 7213: 7209: 7207: 7202: 7200: 7196: 7195: 7189: 7184: 7182: 7178: 7167: 7163: 7161: 7157: 7153: 7149: 7147: 7140: 7138: 7134: 7129: 7120: 7111: 7109: 7105: 7104:Arretine ware 7101: 7097: 7093: 7089: 7084: 7082: 7078: 7072: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7058: 7054: 7050: 7046: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7030: 7026: 7022: 7018: 7014: 7010: 7006: 7001: 6999: 6995: 6991: 6987: 6983: 6979: 6971: 6969: 6961: 6957: 6955: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6937: 6935: 6931: 6927: 6923: 6919: 6915: 6911: 6902: 6898: 6896: 6892: 6889: 6885: 6881: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6861: 6856: 6854: 6850: 6846: 6841: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6825: 6819: 6815: 6811: 6810: 6805: 6798: 6796: 6789: 6780: 6778: 6777: 6773: 6767: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6747: 6745: 6741: 6737: 6732: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6715: 6712: 6708: 6707: 6700: 6688: 6686: 6682: 6675: 6671: 6669: 6664: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6648: 6644: 6642: 6638: 6634: 6630: 6620: 6618: 6614: 6613: 6606: 6605:Aulus Gellius 6601: 6597: 6595: 6591: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6576: 6572: 6563: 6562: 6557: 6553: 6548: 6544: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6526: 6521: 6519: 6508: 6506: 6502: 6498: 6494: 6492: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6470: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6430: 6415: 6412: 6409: 6406: 6405: 6401: 6398: 6395: 6392: 6391: 6387: 6384: 6381: 6378: 6377: 6373: 6370: 6367: 6364: 6363: 6359: 6356: 6353: 6350: 6349: 6345: 6342: 6339: 6336: 6335: 6331: 6328: 6325: 6322: 6321: 6315: 6308: 6303: 6300: 6299: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6264: 6259: 6249: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6226: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6210: 6209: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6194: 6188: 6184: 6178: 6168: 6166: 6164: 6157: 6152: 6150: 6149:streetwalkers 6146: 6144: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6125: 6123: 6117: 6115: 6111: 6103: 6098: 6094: 6092: 6088: 6083: 6080:Those deemed 6078: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6062: 6061: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6036: 6034: 6030: 6029: 6023: 6019: 6014: 6012: 6006: 6004: 6000: 5999: 5993: 5991: 5986: 5985:Dispensatores 5982: 5981:direct agency 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5950: 5940: 5937: 5932: 5930: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5914: 5913: 5908: 5904: 5896: 5892: 5888: 5883: 5879: 5877: 5872: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5849: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5833: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5812: 5810: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5795: 5789: 5780: 5778: 5777:galley slaves 5774: 5769: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5749: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5713: 5711: 5706: 5702: 5696: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5668: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5656: 5650: 5639: 5635: 5628: 5614: 5600: 5598: 5594: 5593: 5587: 5586:as his wife. 5585: 5581: 5577: 5575: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5560: 5553: 5551: 5546: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5525: 5521: 5516: 5507: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5492: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5457:kitchen staff 5454: 5450: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5434: 5430: 5429: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5410: 5403: 5399: 5397: 5393: 5387: 5385: 5383: 5376: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5357: 5353: 5344: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5321: 5316: 5315: 5309: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5286: 5284: 5283: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5258: 5254: 5249: 5240: 5238: 5234: 5229: 5222:Types of work 5219: 5216: 5212: 5211:paterfamilias 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5169: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5158: 5153: 5152: 5147: 5146:sumptuary tax 5143: 5132: 5130: 5126: 5120: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5105: 5100: 5094: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5079: 5077: 5070: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5036: 5035: 5030: 5026: 5021: 5015:Slave-traders 5012: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4994: 4991: 4986: 4984: 4980: 4974: 4972: 4967: 4963: 4955: 4951: 4946: 4942: 4940: 4936: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4911: 4908: 4905: 4902: 4901: 4900: 4898: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4875: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4832: 4830: 4825: 4821: 4818:(present-day 4817: 4810: 4804: 4800: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4765: 4763: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4721: 4719: 4715: 4710: 4708: 4704: 4702: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4679:Mediterranean 4676: 4671: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4644:Forum Romanum 4641: 4636: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4605: 4598: 4593: 4584: 4581: 4576: 4574: 4573:Keith Hopkins 4570: 4559: 4557: 4552: 4550: 4544: 4542: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4522: 4519: 4514: 4512: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4487: 4486: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4468: 4463: 4460:. Within the 4459: 4455: 4451: 4446: 4436: 4434: 4433:paterfamilias 4430: 4429:child-selling 4426: 4421: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4406: 4403: 4399: 4394: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4383: 4378: 4377:Twelve Tables 4374: 4370: 4365: 4358:Parental sale 4355: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4344:legal fiction 4341: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4326: 4325:ex post facto 4321: 4319: 4317: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4293: 4289: 4287: 4282: 4278: 4275: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4255: 4246: 4242: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4227: 4211: 4207: 4205: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4134: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4116: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4085:mirror-making 4082: 4078: 4072: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4061: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4044: 4040: 4037: 4026: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3967: 3963: 3958: 3952: 3947: 3945: 3940: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3913: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3900:. The use of 3899: 3895: 3893: 3887: 3882: 3878: 3877: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3859: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3848: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3833: 3824: 3822: 3816: 3811: 3805: 3800: 3798: 3797:Saint Patrick 3794: 3790: 3786: 3785:Roman Britain 3782: 3778: 3777: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3751: 3749: 3744: 3739: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3724: 3721: 3712: 3710: 3706: 3705: 3700: 3695: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3672: 3666: 3662: 3661:Gallic Veneti 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3641: 3632: 3628: 3626: 3620: 3619: 3613: 3606: 3601: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3582: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3528: 3526: 3521: 3518:Reverse of a 3516: 3512: 3510: 3509: 3504: 3498: 3496: 3495:Julius Caesar 3492: 3488: 3484: 3473: 3471: 3470: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3449: 3446:(present-day 3445: 3440: 3431: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3411: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3384: 3377: 3370: 3365: 3363: 3359: 3358: 3353: 3352: 3351:nouveau riche 3347: 3343: 3339: 3334: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3284: 3279: 3277: 3271: 3270: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3232: 3230: 3226: 3225: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3203: 3198: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3177: 3169: 3168:Luigi Bazzani 3164: 3155: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3140:Constantine I 3136: 3133: 3129: 3128: 3124:In 2 BC, the 3122: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3107:per epistulam 3103: 3101: 3097: 3096: 3095:contubernalis 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3078: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3056: 3054: 3048: 3045: 3044: 3043:contubernalis 3039: 3035: 3031: 3026: 3024: 3020: 3018: 3012: 3008: 3007:legal fiction 3004: 3003:paterfamilias 3000: 2999: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2984: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2963: 2962: 2956: 2947: 2945: 2939: 2937: 2935: 2928: 2923: 2921: 2917: 2916:paterfamilias 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2877: 2875: 2871: 2864: 2860: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2840: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2815: 2810: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2790: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2778: 2771: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2744: 2740: 2739: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2714: 2712: 2706: 2702: 2697: 2692: 2682: 2679: 2675: 2670: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2655: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2635: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2613: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2594:paterfamilias 2590: 2586: 2582: 2581: 2576: 2575:paterfamilias 2572: 2571: 2570:paterfamilias 2565: 2563: 2561: 2555: 2551: 2549: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2503: 2498: 2489: 2486: 2481: 2479: 2475: 2470: 2468: 2467:servi hostium 2464: 2460: 2459: 2453: 2451: 2446: 2444: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2425: 2423: 2422:his successor 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2378: 2367: 2361: 2352: 2350: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2316: 2313: 2309: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2279: 2277: 2276: 2270: 2266: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2230: 2226: 2224: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2206: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2159: 2158:Institutiones 2154: 2153: 2148: 2143: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2128:Twelve Tables 2124: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2085: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2070:paterfamilias 2067: 2064:(household); 2063: 2059: 2055: 2054:paterfamilias 2051: 2047: 2046: 2045:paterfamilias 2041: 2036: 2034: 2030: 2017: 2013: 2010: 2006: 2005: 2003: 2000: 1997: 1991: 1990:Constantine I 1987: 1986: 1985: 1983: 1982: 1975: 1972: 1967: 1966: 1962: 1959: 1956: 1955: 1954:27 BC–AD 284 1953: 1950: 1949: 1948: 1947:27 BC–AD 313 1946: 1945: 1937: 1936: 1935: 1933: 1926: 1923: 1922: 1920: 1919: 1915: 1912: 1911: 1907: 1904: 1900: 1899: 1891: 1887: 1875: 1870: 1868: 1863: 1861: 1856: 1855: 1853: 1852: 1845: 1842: 1838: 1835: 1833: 1830: 1828: 1825: 1821: 1818: 1817: 1816: 1813: 1811: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1801: 1798: 1796: 1793: 1791: 1788: 1787: 1786: 1783: 1781: 1778: 1776: 1775:Slave catcher 1773: 1771: 1768: 1764: 1761: 1759: 1756: 1755: 1754: 1751: 1749: 1746: 1744: 1741: 1737: 1734: 1732: 1729: 1728: 1727: 1724: 1720: 1717: 1715: 1712: 1710: 1707: 1706: 1705: 1702: 1700: 1699:Forced labour 1697: 1695: 1692: 1690: 1687: 1686: 1680: 1679: 1670: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1655: 1652: 1650: 1647: 1645: 1642: 1640: 1637: 1635: 1632: 1628: 1625: 1624: 1623: 1620: 1618: 1615: 1613: 1610: 1606: 1603: 1602: 1601: 1598: 1596: 1593: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1580: 1579: 1576: 1572: 1569: 1567: 1564: 1563: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1549: 1545: 1544:Abolitionists 1542: 1540: 1537: 1535: 1532: 1530: 1527: 1525: 1522: 1520: 1517: 1515: 1512: 1510: 1507: 1505: 1502: 1500: 1497: 1496: 1495: 1492: 1491: 1488: 1483: 1482: 1475: 1472: 1470: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1458: 1455: 1453: 1450: 1449: 1448: 1445: 1443: 1440: 1439: 1436: 1431: 1430: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1415: 1413: 1410: 1408: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1373: 1370: 1368: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1353: 1350: 1348: 1345: 1343: 1340: 1338: 1335: 1333: 1330: 1328: 1325: 1324: 1320: 1319: 1316: 1313: 1311: 1308: 1306: 1303: 1301: 1298: 1296: 1293: 1291: 1288: 1286: 1283: 1281: 1278: 1276: 1273: 1271: 1268: 1266: 1263: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1250: 1248: 1246: 1243: 1242: 1238: 1237: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1216: 1212: 1209: 1208: 1207: 1204: 1203: 1200: 1197: 1196: 1193: 1190: 1186: 1183: 1182: 1181: 1178: 1176: 1173: 1171: 1168: 1166: 1163: 1159: 1156: 1155: 1154: 1151: 1147: 1146:comfort women 1144: 1143: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1130: 1129:Chukri System 1127: 1125: 1122: 1121: 1120: 1117: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1103: 1100: 1099: 1098: 1095: 1093: 1090: 1088: 1085: 1083: 1080: 1079: 1076: 1073: 1072: 1069: 1066: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1052: 1050: 1047: 1046: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1037: 1035: 1032: 1028: 1025: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1018: 1017:Latin America 1015: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1001: 998: 996: 993: 992: 991: 988: 986: 983: 981: 978: 974: 971: 969: 968:interregional 966: 964: 961: 959: 956: 954: 953:prison labour 951: 949: 946: 944: 941: 939: 936: 934: 931: 929: 926: 925: 924: 923:United States 921: 917: 914: 913: 912: 909: 905: 902: 901: 900: 897: 896: 893: 890: 889: 886: 883: 881: 878: 876: 873: 869: 866: 865: 864: 861: 859: 856: 854: 851: 849: 846: 844: 841: 839: 836: 834: 831: 829: 826: 824: 821: 819: 816: 812: 809: 808: 807: 804: 802: 799: 797: 794: 792: 789: 788: 785: 782: 781: 775: 774: 767: 764: 762: 759: 757: 754: 752: 749: 747: 744: 743: 739: 738: 735: 734:White slavery 732: 730: 727: 725: 724:Slave raiding 722: 720: 717: 715: 712: 710: 707: 703: 700: 699: 698: 695: 693: 692:Corvée labour 690: 688: 685: 683: 680: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 662: 661: 658: 657: 653: 652: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 624: 621: 619: 616: 614: 611: 609: 606: 604: 601: 599: 596: 595: 592: 589: 588: 585: 582: 580: 577: 575: 572: 570: 567: 565: 562: 560: 557: 553: 550: 548: 545: 543: 540: 538: 535: 533: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 508:Abbasid harem 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 485: 484: 481: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 462: 459: 457: 454: 453: 452: 451:Barbary Coast 449: 445: 442: 441: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 404: 401: 399: 396: 395: 392: 389: 388: 383: 380: 379: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 347: 346: 343: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 326: 323: 321: 318: 317: 314: 311: 310: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 288: 285: 282: 281: 278: 273: 272: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 209: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 184: 181: 176: 175: 171: 167: 166: 163: 159: 158:Forced labour 156: 155: 151: 147: 146: 138: 136: 132: 126: 124: 120: 116: 111: 107: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 80: 78: 74: 68: 66: 61: 54: 53: 48: 44: 40: 36: 31: 27: 19: 25271:Institutions 25135:Leptis Magna 25088:Major cities 24995:Philostratus 24782:Quadrigarius 24602:Rufus Festus 24465:Contemporary 24305: 24186:Romanization 24109:Architecture 23716:Collegiality 23565:Constitution 23416:Ancient Rome 23367:Online books 23357: 23339: 23332: 23300: 23292: 23285: 23278: 23271: 23264: 23257: 23230: 23208: 23186: 23175: 23162: 23105: 23101: 23069: 23063: 23044: 23017: 23008: 22989: 22980: 22955: 22949: 22942:Bibliography 22931: 22925: 22916: 22910: 22902: 22886: 22881: 22864: 22858: 22850: 22847:Prostitution 22846: 22841: 22833: 22832:Cantarella, 22828: 22820: 22815: 22807: 22802: 22794: 22789: 22781: 22780:7.1; Pliny, 22777: 22773: 22768: 22757:Controversia 22756: 22752: 22748: 22743: 22734: 22726: 22721: 22713: 22708: 22700: 22695: 22686: 22678: 22673: 22665: 22660: 22652: 22647: 22638: 22630: 22625: 22617: 22609: 22600: 22592: 22587: 22579: 22571: 22567: 22562: 22554: 22549: 22541: 22537: 22533: 22528: 22520: 22515: 22507: 22503: 22495: 22487: 22482: 22470: 22462: 22457: 22449: 22445: 22440: 22432: 22428: 22420: 22408:. Retrieved 22402: 22391: 22379: 22371: 22367: 22366:Westermann, 22362: 22353: 22344: 22336: 22328: 22320: 22315: 22307: 22302: 22294: 22289: 22278:. Retrieved 22275:biblehub.com 22274: 22265: 22253: 22242: 22231: 22223: 22218: 22210: 22205: 22197: 22193: 22188: 22180: 22175: 22167: 22159: 22147: 22142: 22134: 22129: 22121: 22116: 22108: 22103: 22095: 22091: 22086: 22078: 22070: 22061: 22052: 22044: 22039: 22031: 22026: 22018: 22014: 22009: 22001: 22000:Westermann, 21996: 21987: 21979: 21975: 21974:Westermann, 21970: 21962: 21957: 21932: 21928: 21922: 21913: 21905: 21900: 21891: 21882: 21873: 21865: 21857: 21845: 21836: 21828: 21823: 21815: 21810: 21802: 21797: 21789: 21784: 21776: 21771: 21762: 21750: 21745: 21736: 21728: 21723: 21711: 21698: 21690: 21686: 21682: 21677: 21669: 21665: 21660: 21652: 21647: 21639: 21634: 21622: 21610: 21602: 21598: 21593: 21584: 21572: 21567: 21555: 21546: 21537: 21529: 21525: 21521: 21516: 21483: 21475: 21470: 21462: 21458: 21454: 21450: 21446: 21441: 21429: 21421: 21413: 21407: 21395: 21387: 21382: 21374: 21369: 21361: 21352: 21344: 21336: 21328: 21320: 21307: 21295: 21288: 21284: 21279: 21271: 21266: 21258: 21253: 21245: 21240: 21232: 21227: 21215: 21203: 21195: 21187: 21175: 21167: 21162: 21150: 21145: 21131: 21123: 21115: 21107: 21103: 21095: 21083: 21078: 21069: 21059: 21051: 21043: 21038: 21030: 21026: 21021: 21013: 21009: 21001: 20992: 20983: 20978:, p. 18 20959: 20939: 20935: 20930: 20922: 20917: 20909: 20905: 20900: 20892: 20887: 20879: 20874: 20866: 20861: 20853: 20845: 20837: 20833: 20828: 20819: 20810: 20802: 20796: 20787: 20779: 20774: 20766: 20762: 20758: 20757:Westermann, 20753: 20745: 20740: 20732: 20728: 20723:the view of 20720: 20715: 20707: 20702: 20694: 20689: 20680: 20672: 20668: 20664: 20660: 20655: 20647: 20646:Westermann, 20642: 20633: 20624: 20615: 20606: 20591: 20581: 20577: 20572: 20564: 20559: 20551: 20547: 20543: 20539: 20535: 20531: 20526: 20517: 20504: 20496: 20492: 20488: 20483: 20474: 20465: 20456: 20447: 20438: 20430: 20425: 20416: 20408: 20403: 20394: 20385: 20376: 20368: 20363: 20354: 20345: 20337: 20332: 20324: 20319: 20310: 20301: 20293: 20289: 20284: 20276: 20271: 20263: 20258: 20250: 20246: 20241: 20229: 20224: 20216: 20215:Gustafson, " 20211: 20203: 20198: 20190: 20186: 20182: 20173: 20165: 20160: 20152: 20147: 20139: 20135: 20134:Westermann, 20130: 20122: 20117: 20109: 20105: 20100: 20091: 20083: 20079: 20074: 20065: 20057: 20052: 20043: 20034: 20025: 20017: 20009: 20001: 19997: 19992: 19983: 19976:De Clementia 19975: 19970: 19961: 19952: 19944: 19940: 19935: 19927: 19923: 19919: 19914: 19906: 19902: 19890: 19885: 19877: 19872: 19864: 19860: 19859:Westermann, 19855: 19847: 19843: 19842:Westermann, 19838: 19830: 19826: 19821: 19813: 19809: 19805: 19804:Westermann, 19800: 19792: 19791:Westermann, 19787: 19779: 19774: 19766: 19761: 19753: 19749: 19743: 19735: 19730: 19719: 19714: 19706: 19701: 19693: 19689: 19684: 19675: 19667: 19662: 19654: 19649: 19641: 19636: 19624: 19616: 19611: 19599: 19595: 19590: 19581: 19573: 19568: 19560: 19555: 19546: 19538: 19533: 19524: 19516: 19508: 19499: 19491: 19486: 19477: 19469: 19464: 19456: 19453:Robin Seager 19448: 19440: 19435: 19427: 19419: 19410: 19406: 19401: 19392: 19383: 19374: 19361: 19352: 19343: 19334: 19325: 19317: 19312: 19303: 19294: 19285: 19276: 19267: 19258: 19250: 19245: 19236: 19228: 19224: 19220: 19215: 19207: 19202: 19194: 19190: 19186: 19182: 19178: 19172: 19164: 19160: 19155: 19146: 19137: 19128: 19115: 19107: 19103: 19098: 19089: 19081: 19077: 19072: 19064: 19060: 19056: 19052: 19048: 19043: 19035: 19031: 19026: 19015: 19011: 19006: 18998: 18993: 18985: 18980: 18971: 18959: 18954: 18946: 18941: 18933: 18929: 18924: 18916: 18912: 18907: 18898: 18890: 18885: 18880:, pp. 68–69. 18877: 18872: 18864: 18859: 18849: 18839: 18835: 18827: 18819: 18814: 18806: 18801: 18793: 18788: 18779: 18770: 18763:Representing 18762: 18757: 18749: 18744: 18724: 18719: 18711: 18707: 18702: 18694: 18693:Westermann, 18689: 18681: 18676: 18668: 18664: 18659: 18647: 18642: 18634: 18630: 18626: 18621: 18613: 18609: 18604: 18596: 18595:Westermann, 18591: 18579: 18574: 18566: 18565:Westermann, 18561: 18553: 18549: 18548:Westermann, 18544: 18536: 18535:Westermann, 18531: 18523: 18518: 18510: 18505: 18496: 18488: 18483: 18474: 18465: 18456: 18448: 18443: 18427: 18423: 18418: 18410: 18405: 18397: 18393: 18388: 18380: 18375: 18367: 18363: 18358: 18350: 18345: 18328: 18320: 18315: 18307: 18303: 18298: 18290: 18285: 18268: 18263: 18253: 18248: 18238: 18233: 18224: 18212: 18203: 18191: 18183: 18178: 18170: 18165: 18156: 18148: 18143: 18135: 18131: 18126: 18119:Pro Cluentio 18118: 18114: 18110: 18106: 18105:Westermann, 18101: 18093: 18089: 18085: 18081: 18077: 18073: 18069: 18064: 18056: 18055:Westermann, 18051: 18043: 18038: 18030: 18024: 18016: 18012: 18008: 18003: 17993: 17989: 17984: 17976: 17972: 17968: 17967:Westermann, 17963: 17955: 17951: 17950:Westermann, 17946: 17938: 17934: 17933:Westermann, 17929: 17921: 17920:Westermann, 17916: 17907: 17899: 17894: 17886: 17883:Attic Nights 17882: 17877: 17869: 17864: 17857:Life of Cato 17856: 17852: 17847: 17837: 17833: 17828: 17819: 17811:Pro Cluentio 17809: 17805: 17801: 17796: 17788: 17785:Moses Finley 17780: 17775: 17767: 17762: 17754: 17750: 17745: 17737: 17732: 17724: 17719: 17710: 17701: 17693: 17688: 17680: 17675: 17667: 17666:Westermann, 17662: 17653: 17645: 17640: 17631: 17619: 17614: 17606: 17601: 17593: 17588: 17580: 17576: 17571: 17563: 17558: 17550: 17546: 17542: 17537: 17525: 17524:Westermann, 17520: 17512: 17507: 17499: 17494: 17486: 17481: 17472: 17464: 17459: 17451: 17446: 17437: 17428: 17419: 17410: 17404: 17385: 17361: 17355: 17343: 17335: 17330: 17321: 17303: 17288: 17281: 17273: 17268: 17259: 17240: 17223: 17219: 17215: 17207: 17206:1.4.14, 33; 17203: 17199: 17194: 17186: 17182: 17177: 17169: 17168:Westermann, 17164: 17156: 17152: 17147: 17139: 17134: 17126: 17121: 17112: 17103: 17095: 17090: 17083:Vita Terenti 17082: 17074: 17069: 17060: 17051: 17042: 17033: 17024: 17016: 17011: 17001: 16997: 16992: 16983: 16974: 16965: 16957: 16952: 16944: 16943:Westermann, 16939: 16931: 16930:Westermann, 16926: 16918: 16913: 16905: 16904:Westermann, 16900: 16892: 16887: 16879: 16875: 16871: 16870:IX 2558 and 16867: 16863: 16859: 16854: 16845: 16837: 16833: 16829: 16824: 16815: 16807: 16799: 16791: 16787: 16783: 16779: 16774: 16766: 16762: 16757: 16749: 16744: 16736: 16731: 16723: 16722:Westermann, 16718: 16710: 16705: 16697: 16693: 16688: 16680: 16675: 16667: 16663: 16659: 16654: 16646: 16641: 16636:as his heir. 16631: 16627: 16622: 16614: 16609: 16601: 16597: 16592: 16584: 16579: 16571: 16566: 16558: 16542: 16537: 16529: 16528:Sarah Bond, 16524: 16516: 16511: 16503: 16498: 16490: 16485: 16477: 16472: 16464: 16459: 16450: 16441: 16431: 16423: 16414: 16405: 16396: 16387: 16378: 16369: 16361: 16357: 16352: 16344: 16339: 16330: 16322: 16317: 16309: 16301: 16293: 16289: 16285: 16280: 16272: 16267: 16259: 16255: 16250: 16241: 16232: 16223: 16215: 16210: 16202: 16196: 16191: 16183: 16178: 16170: 16165: 16157: 16153: 16148: 16140: 16135: 16127: 16122: 16114: 16109: 16101: 16096: 16088: 16083: 16075: 16070: 16062: 16058: 16053: 16044: 16035: 16026: 16018: 16013: 15993: 15992:Westermann, 15988: 15980: 15975: 15966: 15948: 15940: 15936: 15928: 15920: 15915: 15907: 15902: 15894: 15889: 15881: 15876: 15868: 15864: 15859: 15851: 15847: 15842: 15834: 15830: 15825: 15817: 15791: 15787: 15783: 15779: 15774: 15766: 15761: 15752: 15744: 15743:Westermann, 15739: 15731: 15727: 15726:Westermann, 15722: 15710: 15702: 15701:Westermann, 15697: 15689: 15688:Westermann, 15684: 15676: 15675:Westermann, 15671: 15663: 15659: 15658:Westermann, 15654: 15646: 15645:Westermann, 15641: 15633: 15625: 15620: 15611: 15602: 15593: 15585: 15580: 15564: 15560: 15555: 15546: 15537: 15529: 15524: 15516: 15512: 15508: 15503: 15495: 15490: 15481: 15472: 15463: 15454: 15445: 15437: 15432: 15423: 15415: 15411: 15406: 15398: 15393: 15385: 15381: 15377: 15369: 15364: 15356: 15352: 15349:venalicarius 15348: 15344: 15340: 15332: 15331:L 16.207 (3 15328: 15319: 15311: 15307: 15302: 15290: 15285: 15277: 15273: 15257: 15251: 15231: 15226: 15217: 15208: 15199: 15191: 15187: 15182: 15173:Attic Nights 15172: 15165: 15156: 15147: 15136:. Retrieved 15132: 15123: 15112:. Retrieved 15108: 15099: 15090: 15083:Attic Nights 15082: 15077: 15068: 15060: 15056: 15052: 15047: 15038: 15029: 15020: 15012: 15007: 14998: 14989: 14980: 14972: 14967: 14960:Pro Quinctio 14959: 14954: 14946: 14941: 14933: 14929: 14924: 14915: 14903: 14895: 14890: 14881: 14872: 14863: 14854: 14845: 14837: 14833: 14829: 14825: 14821: 14817: 14812: 14803: 14794: 14786: 14781: 14773: 14772:Westermann, 14768: 14759: 14750: 14741: 14733: 14728: 14719: 14710: 14701: 14692: 14682: 14673: 14664: 14656: 14652: 14647: 14642: 14634: 14629: 14620: 14611: 14603: 14598: 14589: 14579: 14573: 14569: 14564: 14555: 14546: 14523: 14518: 14510: 14506: 14502: 14493: 14484: 14476: 14471: 14452: 14446: 14437: 14431: 14425:. Cambridge. 14422: 14416: 14392: 14387: 14378: 14370: 14365: 14357: 14352: 14344: 14339: 14318: 14310: 14306: 14301: 14292: 14283: 14274: 14265: 14257: 14252: 14244: 14236: 14228: 14224: 14219: 14209: 14204: 14195: 14186: 14174: 14170: 14169:Westermann, 14165: 14156: 14147: 14138: 14129: 14120: 14111: 14102: 14094: 14089: 14080: 14071: 14061: 14056: 14048: 14043: 14035: 14031: 14027: 14023: 14018: 14010: 14005: 13996: 13988: 13984: 13980: 13975: 13966: 13957: 13948: 13940: 13931: 13923: 13918: 13909: 13901: 13896: 13887: 13879: 13875: 13867: 13863: 13858: 13853:, p. 9) 13845: 13837: 13834:longue durée 13833: 13828: 13820: 13815: 13807: 13798: 13784: 13778: 13769: 13757: 13752: 13744: 13736: 13732: 13727: 13719: 13715: 13711: 13707: 13702: 13694: 13689: 13680: 13671: 13663: 13658: 13650: 13640: 13633: 13629: 13621: 13612: 13604: 13599: 13591: 13586: 13577: 13568: 13558: 13549: 13540: 13531: 13522: 13513: 13504: 13495: 13487: 13482: 13474: 13469: 13460: 13452: 13447: 13439: 13435: 13430: 13421: 13412: 13404: 13400: 13395: 13386: 13378: 13373: 13364: 13356: 13351: 13343: 13338: 13330: 13325: 13317: 13312: 13304: 13300: 13295: 13276: 13270: 13262: 13258: 13253: 13241: 13233: 13228: 13216: 13208: 13204: 13199: 13191: 13186: 13178: 13174: 13170: 13165: 13153: 13141: 13133: 13129: 13124: 13116: 13111: 13103: 13098: 13090: 13072: 13069:Philostratus 13062: 13053: 13044: 13036: 13031: 13022: 13014: 13009: 13001: 12997: 12993: 12988: 12980: 12975:1.4–2.4 and 12972: 12967: 12959: 12954: 12945: 12936: 12928: 12923: 12914: 12906: 12901: 12893: 12888: 12880: 12876: 12871: 12863: 12859: 12854: 12846: 12841:M. Cary and 12837: 12830:Attic Nights 12829: 12825: 12821: 12816: 12808: 12803: 12795: 12790: 12782: 12778: 12773: 12765: 12761: 12756: 12747: 12737: 12732: 12724: 12719: 12711: 12706: 12696: 12691: 12683: 12678: 12669: 12660: 12651: 12623: 12616: 12604: 12592: 12583: 12575: 12570: 12562: 12558: 12553: 12545: 12540: 12532: 12528: 12523: 12515: 12510: 12502: 12498: 12494: 12486: 12482: 12478: 12473: 12465: 12460: 12452: 12444: 12440: 12435: 12427: 12423: 12419: 12415: 12387: 12380: 12369: 12360: 12354: 12346: 12341: 12332: 12324: 12320: 12315: 12307: 12303: 12298: 12290: 12286: 12282: 12281:Brent Lott, 12277: 12269: 12265: 12249: 12245: 12240: 12235:, p. 36 12228: 12219: 12210: 12177: 12173: 12163: 12155: 12147: 12136: 12128: 12127:Westermann, 12123: 12114: 12102: 12094: 12090: 12085: 12077: 12072: 12060: 12052: 12048: 12043: 12035: 12030: 12022: 12018: 12014: 12009: 11997: 11985: 11976: 11968: 11964: 11959: 11954:, p. 11 11947: 11933: 11929: 11925: 11921: 11916: 11908: 11903: 11895: 11891: 11886: 11878: 11874: 11869: 11860: 11851: 11843: 11838: 11829: 11821: 11817: 11813: 11809: 11804: 11795: 11787: 11782: 11774: 11769: 11761: 11757: 11753: 11749: 11744: 11736: 11731: 11719: 11715: 11710: 11702: 11697: 11689: 11685: 11680: 11672: 11668: 11664: 11659: 11651: 11647: 11642: 11634: 11633:Westermann, 11629: 11620: 11612: 11611:Westermann, 11607: 11595: 11586: 11580: 11570: 11567:Phoenix 43:3 11566: 11561: 11550: 11545: 11537: 11533: 11528: 11520: 11516: 11512: 11507: 11495: 11491: 11486: 11478: 11473: 11465: 11461: 11457: 11449: 11444: 11432: 11428: 11423: 11415: 11411: 11406: 11398: 11392: 11388: 11380: 11376: 11372: 11367: 11353: 11349: 11345: 11340: 11329: 11321: 11317: 11316:Treggiari, " 11312: 11296: 11291: 11283: 11279: 11274: 11266: 11262: 11257: 11249: 11244: 11234: 11230: 11225: 11217: 11212: 11204: 11200: 11192: 11187: 11179: 11174: 11169:, chapter 2. 11166: 11162: 11157: 11149: 11144: 11136: 11135:Treggiari, " 11131: 11123: 11122:Treggiari, " 11118: 11110: 11109:Treggiari, " 11105: 11097: 11092: 11085:contubernium 11084: 11080: 11075: 11067: 11066:Treggiari, " 11062: 11050: 11042: 11038: 11033: 11025: 11021: 11017: 11012: 11004: 11000: 10996: 10992: 10988: 10983: 10975: 10971: 10966: 10956: 10952: 10944: 10943:Westermann, 10939: 10931: 10927: 10922: 10913: 10905: 10900: 10892: 10883: 10875: 10870: 10862: 10858: 10853: 10845: 10840: 10829: 10813: 10805: 10801: 10781: 10777: 10772: 10764: 10759: 10751: 10747: 10742: 10734: 10730: 10726: 10721: 10713:ager Romanus 10711: 10707: 10703: 10698: 10690: 10686: 10681: 10673: 10668: 10660: 10656: 10651: 10643: 10642:Westermann, 10638: 10630: 10626: 10621: 10613: 10608: 10600: 10595: 10590:, pp. 60–62. 10587: 10582: 10574: 10565: 10557: 10552: 10544: 10540: 10535: 10527: 10523: 10520:Postliminium 10519: 10515: 10510: 10502: 10497: 10489: 10481: 10473: 10468: 10460: 10455: 10447: 10443: 10439: 10435: 10434:Westermann, 10430: 10422: 10418: 10413: 10404: 10396: 10388: 10384: 10380: 10375: 10365: 10357: 10352: 10336: 10332: 10327: 10323: 10318: 10309: 10301: 10286: 10277: 10269: 10264: 10250: 10246: 10241: 10233: 10229: 10225: 10220: 10212: 10204: 10196: 10188: 10180: 10175: 10167: 10158: 10149: 10136: 10127: 10119: 10114: 10106: 10101: 10093: 10077: 10072: 10064: 10059: 10051: 10043: 10035: 10030: 10022: 10014: 10009: 10001: 9997: 9992: 9984: 9979: 9967: 9959: 9958:Westbrook, " 9954: 9946: 9945:Westbrook, " 9941: 9933: 9929: 9924: 9916: 9911: 9903: 9899: 9894: 9889:47.14), 196. 9886: 9882: 9878: 9874: 9870: 9865: 9857: 9853: 9849: 9844: 9836: 9832: 9828: 9820: 9812: 9807: 9799: 9795: 9790: 9768: 9760: 9752: 9748: 9745:(diadumenos) 9744: 9735: 9727: 9699: 9691: 9686: 9678: 9674: 9668: 9663: 9650: 9642: 9632: 9624: 9617:postliminium 9616: 9612: 9609:Postliminium 9608: 9604: 9599:as emperor, 9583: 9574: 9564: 9557: 9552: 9543: 9539: 9535: 9531: 9526: 9518: 9514: 9510: 9506: 9502: 9498: 9493: 9485: 9477: 9465: 9448: 9439: 9430: 9421: 9377: 9375: 9372: 9368: 9362: 9352: 9327:Roman comedy 9314: 9310: 9298: 9294: 9291: 9282: 9279: 9239: 9233: 9224: 9222: 9218: 9203: 9191: 9186: 9182: 9178: 9174: 9169: 9164: 9148: 9110: 9101: 9089: 9082:Apostle Paul 9078: 9041: 9036: 9030: 9025: 9021: 9015: 9003: 8992: 8985: 8960:abolitionist 8917: 8916:In his book 8915: 8909:or at best " 8902: 8899:(benignitas) 8898: 8890: 8887:(reverentia) 8886: 8878: 8870: 8855: 8851: 8845: 8825: 8817: 8806: 8795: 8771: 8767: 8763: 8756: 8745: 8743: 8738: 8734: 8728: 8722: 8717: 8709: 8705: 8701: 8697: 8693: 8691: 8685: 8681: 8659:Getty Museum 8639: 8630: 8628: 8620: 8616: 8604:called the “ 8592: 8566: 8557: 8552: 8544: 8541:Sol Invictus 8526: 8504: 8491: 8480:Great Mother 8467: 8465: 8456: 8450: 8442: 8434: 8432: 8415: 8413: 8400: 8396: 8380: 8364: 8360: 8358: 8340: 8330: 8323: 8313: 8297: 8275: 8261: 8246: 8244: 8228:Mater Matuta 8214: 8206: 8202: 8178: 8166: 8154:mass suicide 8151: 8142: 8136: 8107: 8102: 8098: 8092: 8083: 8081: 8070: 8064: 8057: 8045: 8013: 8009: 8005: 7999: 7993: 7983:symbol or a 7977: 7973: 7953: 7950: 7946: 7935: 7915: 7911: 7908:Attic comedy 7895: 7893: 7867: 7861: 7857: 7855: 7848: 7844: 7838: 7836: 7832: 7812: 7788: 7782: 7778: 7771: 7766:De Clementia 7764: 7749: 7747: 7727: 7724: 7704: 7702: 7690: 7683: 7661: 7648: 7635: 7618:Apostle Paul 7615: 7607: 7602: 7599:Servile Wars 7592: 7579: 7564: 7547: 7535: 7512: 7496: 7480: 7457: 7437: 7424: 7417: 7394:The leader, 7393: 7372: 7362: 7357: 7334:Servile Wars 7327: 7318: 7315:Servile Wars 7308: 7280: 7265: 7242: 7226: 7222:Moses Finley 7219: 7210: 7203: 7191: 7185: 7180: 7177:public baths 7173: 7170:overindulged 7155: 7143: 7141: 7127: 7125: 7107: 7099: 7095: 7087: 7085: 7073: 7064: 7060: 7056: 7052: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7036: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7016: 7012: 7008: 7004: 7002: 6993: 6985: 6981: 6975: 6965: 6953: 6938: 6933: 6929: 6925: 6921: 6917: 6913: 6909: 6907: 6894: 6890: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6857: 6852: 6842: 6833: 6821: 6807: 6801: 6792: 6775: 6771: 6768: 6753: 6733: 6719: 6716: 6704: 6702: 6678: 6665: 6652:Tiber Island 6649: 6645: 6640: 6632: 6626: 6611: 6598: 6594:(anagnostes) 6593: 6590:saeva domina 6589: 6585:inscriptions 6579: 6574: 6570: 6567: 6559: 6555: 6522: 6514: 6495: 6482: 6474: 6471: 6447:North Africa 6432: 6288: 6284: 6281: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6266: 6261: 6241: 6237: 6224: 6220: 6213: 6206: 6190: 6183:Roman Empire 6180: 6160: 6153: 6140: 6126: 6121: 6118: 6107: 6090: 6089:(pimps) and 6086: 6081: 6079: 6065: 6058: 6056: 6032: 6026: 6015: 6007: 5996: 5994: 5990:dispensatrix 5989: 5984: 5977:contract law 5972: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5952: 5948: 5946: 5933: 5917: 5912:contubernium 5910: 5906: 5902: 5900: 5894: 5875: 5873: 5868: 5861:Imperial era 5850: 5846:public works 5829: 5822:Roman people 5817: 5815: 5806: 5792: 5770: 5765: 5750: 5744: 5717:public works 5714: 5709: 5700: 5697: 5693:servi poenae 5692: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5669: 5652: 5648: 5646: 5633: 5590: 5588: 5583: 5579: 5574:contubernium 5571: 5567: 5563: 5557: 5554: 5547: 5533: 5528: 5493: 5488: 5468: 5464: 5463:, sous chef 5460: 5441:, cauponae, 5436: 5426: 5424: 5419:Ostia Antica 5409:thermopolium 5406: 5388: 5379: 5377: 5371: 5363: 5361: 5336: 5332: 5324: 5318: 5312: 5310: 5305: 5301: 5287: 5280: 5264: 5262: 5256: 5232: 5225: 5214: 5210: 5189: 5170: 5161: 5155: 5149: 5138: 5121: 5116: 5112: 5102: 5098: 5095: 5086: 5073: 5071: 5063:somatemporos 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5047:venalicarius 5046: 5042: 5040: 5032: 5024: 5009: 5008:but sellers 5006:(mercatores) 5005: 5001: 4997: 4995: 4987: 4982: 4978: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4959: 4929: 4925: 4917: 4915: 4895: 4886: 4833: 4829:Roman London 4813: 4808: 4766: 4722: 4711: 4698: 4672: 4637: 4617:north Aegean 4601: 4577: 4565: 4553: 4545: 4538: 4532: 4528: 4517: 4515: 4508: 4504: 4499: 4495: 4490: 4483: 4479: 4471: 4465: 4454:debt bondage 4449: 4448: 4439:Debt slavery 4432: 4422: 4407: 4401: 4397: 4395: 4390: 4380: 4372: 4368: 4363: 4361: 4351: 4339: 4335: 4322: 4313: 4294: 4290: 4276: 4271: 4263:the she-wolf 4243: 4230: 4224: 4221: 4198: 4194: 4189: 4172: 4159: 4155: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4123: 4120:prepubescent 4117: 4073: 4059: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4038: 4032: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4005: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3970: 3961: 3950: 3943: 3941: 3937:prostitution 3928: 3920: 3916: 3914: 3909: 3901: 3897: 3889: 3885: 3880: 3876:contubernium 3874: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3860: 3855: 3851: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3829: 3827: 3818: 3814: 3803: 3793:canonization 3774: 3752: 3747: 3740: 3725: 3718: 3711:, and gems. 3702: 3696: 3694:, "enemy"). 3691: 3683: 3675: 3668: 3664: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3638: 3636: 3622: 3616: 3604: 3583: 3532: 3525:Iudaea capta 3524: 3506: 3499: 3479: 3476:War captives 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3453: 3442:Relief from 3419: 3409: 3391: 3388:jurist Gaius 3381: 3379: 3368: 3355: 3349: 3335: 3314: 3312: 3307:Cinerary urn 3281: 3273: 3267: 3256:magistracies 3252:career track 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3233: 3228: 3222: 3218: 3215:stipulations 3210: 3200: 3196: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3179: 3147: 3143: 3137: 3125: 3123: 3111:inter amicos 3110: 3106: 3104: 3093: 3085: 3075: 3063: 3057: 3049: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3027: 3022: 3014: 3010: 3002: 2996: 2993:emancipation 2988: 2981: 2977: 2969: 2967: 2959: 2950:Manumission 2943: 2940: 2931: 2926: 2924: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2880: 2867: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2841: 2836: 2832: 2824: 2820: 2818: 2813: 2791: 2782: 2774: 2772: 2763: 2755: 2752:contubernium 2751: 2748:contubernium 2747: 2742: 2737: 2736:patriarchal 2717: 2708: 2704: 2691:Contubernium 2678:circumcising 2671: 2656: 2647: 2644:Marcel Mauss 2639: 2632: 2628: 2620: 2616: 2614: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2584: 2578: 2574: 2568: 2566: 2557: 2553: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2529: 2521: 2517: 2509: 2507: 2500:Sarcophagus 2485:postliminium 2484: 2482: 2478:postliminium 2477: 2471: 2466: 2462: 2458:postliminium 2456: 2454: 2450:rabbinic law 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2426: 2400: 2383: 2317: 2295:Roman senate 2280: 2273: 2265:debt slavery 2262: 2257: 2241: 2227: 2207: 2198: 2190: 2186: 2174: 2166: 2156: 2150: 2147:jurist Gaius 2144: 2139: 2125: 2105:Augustan-era 2086: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2043: 2039: 2037: 2028: 2026: 1979: 1978: 1963: 1958:Augustan era 1942: 1941: 1931: 1930: 1916: 1908: 1902: 1780:Slave patrol 1612:Freedom suit 1588:Sierra Leone 1578:Colonization 1494:Abolitionism 1474:Baháʼí Faith 1447:Christianity 1397:Saudi Arabia 1253:Penal Labour 1218:Blackbirding 1124:Debt bondage 1112:penal system 938:Contemporary 928:Field slaves 916:U.S. Natives 875:South Africa 746:Galley slave 719:Slave market 709:House slaves 682:Blackbirding 660:Conscription 584:21st century 547:Umm al-walad 391:Muslim world 360:Emancipation 305: 264:Wage slavery 244:Penal labour 222:Wife selling 212:Bride buying 197:Conscription 187:Child Labour 180:Contemporary 127: 123:Imperial era 113:A period of 112: 108: 104:Roman Empire 96:debt slavery 81: 69: 59: 58: 50: 46: 41:against the 26: 18:Roman slaves 25266:Geographers 24950:Dioscorides 24930:Cassius Dio 24552:Cassiodorus 24455:Renaissance 24061:Agriculture 24033:Auxiliaries 23974:Engineering 23811:Magistrates 23663:Citizenship 23658:Mos maiorum 23593:Late Empire 23260:52:350–357. 22834:Bisexuality 22806:Flemming, " 22725:Flemming, " 22712:Flemming, " 22699:Flemming, " 22410:11 February 22403:City of God 21982:71.1), 157. 21757:) 47.22.3.2 21666:Roman Death 21198: 47.14 21104:De mensibus 20942:21.1.17.4 ( 20228:Westerman, 19895:Cassius Dio 19644:, pp. 31ff. 19221:latifundium 18841:Truculentus 18832:Amy Richlin 18680:Westermann, 18637:(1908) 222. 18426:,” p. 524. 18138:29.1.4 (9). 18031:De officiis 17975:25 and the 17624:Transjordan 17181:Flemming, " 16874:IX 4644 (= 16860:Dispensator 16198:Lex Aquilia 15869:De officiis 15634:Vespasianus 14936:13, 31, 36. 14028:non tollere 13851:Harris 1994 13653:3.12.1–14.5 13642:Bibliotheca 13403:38 (2008), 11716:emancipatio 11496:Dispensator 11464:: Gamauf, " 11437:Florentinus 11355:emancipatio 10687:res mancipi 10528:De officiis 10048:Alan Watson 9765:Fishkeeping 9675:dispensator 9556:The phrase 9300:Lex Aquilia 9198:cup-bearers 9194:Alan Watson 9055:Herculaneum 8901:to prevent 8803:Therapeutae 8573:Pope Pius I 8505:hierodouloi 8492:hierodouloi 8468:hierodouloi 8452:dispensator 8402:victimarius 8320:free speech 8249:dies festus 8174:Moguntiacum 8152:Reports of 8054:Crucifixion 8024:Crucifixion 7996:Bulla Regia 7721:Punishments 7408:Tauromenium 7375:latifundium 7321:latrocinium 7287:crucifixion 7092:Mark Antony 6853:tria nomina 6845:silversmith 6834:tria nomina 6818:gentilicium 6809:tria nomina 6795:Getty Villa 6744:omentectomy 6711:city-states 6656:Aesculapius 6610:one of the 6525:Roman Spain 6505:Dale Martin 6318:(per cent) 6313:(per cent) 6306:(per cent) 6248:in Europe. 6238:honestiores 6221:honestiores 6203:Constantine 6110:free speech 5973:dispensator 5895:conlibertus 5842:magistrates 5638:sarcophagus 5634:(far right) 5530:Farm slaves 5510:Agriculture 5489:(cultellus) 5447:thermopolia 5329:equestrians 5290:Roman Egypt 5083:Mark Antony 4939:Roman Egypt 4793:Paphlagonia 4580:Peter Temin 4425:Constantine 4373:(mancipium) 4332:Constantine 4286:infanticide 4277:(expositio) 4177:wax tablets 4165:child labor 4124:(impuberes) 4077:nail-making 4029:Child labor 3832:ius gentium 3736:crucifixion 3690:relates to 3487:walled town 3483:Gallic Wars 3430:in AD 212. 3416:wild beasts 3338:Paphlagonia 3188:was thus a 3132:another law 3011:emancipatio 2989:emancipatio 2974:manumission 2756:contubernia 2619:, singular 2554:res mancipi 2542:res mancipi 2443:latrocinium 2414:Zoroastrian 2275:ius gentium 2250:subjugation 2199:ius gentium 2191:ius gentium 2179:natural law 2167:ius gentium 2152:ius gentium 2136:manumission 1960:27 BC–AD 14 1795:court cases 1667: [ 1617:Slave Power 1605:Manumission 1452:Catholicism 1327:Afghanistan 1068:Puerto Rico 980:The Bahamas 958:Slave codes 761:Shanghaiing 751:Impressment 643:Slave Coast 523:Qajar harem 483:Concubinage 456:slave trade 86:during the 65:manumission 25346:Categories 25155:Mediolanum 25095:Alexandria 25060:Themistius 25025:Porphyrius 24852:Tertullian 24787:Quintilian 24777:Propertius 24672:Lactantius 24622:Fulgentius 24557:Censorinus 24379:Sanitation 24364:Metallurgy 24321:Technology 24286:Demography 24234:Patricians 24201:Spectacles 24159:Literature 24154:Hairstyles 23991:Technology 23741:Praefectus 23693:Government 23683:Litigation 23668:Auctoritas 23613:Centuriate 23500:Principate 23495:Pax Romana 23455:Foundation 22747:Nussbaum, 22280:2016-02-17 22154:1.455–458. 22133:Nussbaum, 21935:(2): 161. 21862:Jörg Rüpke 21801:Fuhrmann, 21493:Cappadocia 21426:Jörg Rüpke 21362:Saturnalia 21289:et passim. 21157:, 22.1.18. 21096:Saturnalia 20832:Fuhrmann, 20536:cum revocu 20371:," p. 151. 20202:Fuhrmann, 20140:Pro Sestio 19863:, p. 105, 19778:Fuhrmann, 19748:; Seneca, 19666:Fuhrmann, 19653:Furhmann, 19640:Fuhrmann, 19559:Furhmann, 19225:Latifundia 19195:latifundia 18893:, pp. 8–9. 18669:Philippics 18526:,” p. 517. 18451:,” p. 528. 18383:,” p. 516. 17839:Ad Atticum 17198:Buckland, 16917:Buckland, 16679:Buckland, 16613:Buckland, 16583:Buckland, 16570:Buckland, 16541:Buckland, 16515:Buckland, 16502:Buckland, 16290:ergastulum 15835:ad Sabinum 15794:50.16.203. 15517:Saturnalia 15388:, p. 1073. 15353:venalicius 15138:2023-07-16 15114:2023-07-16 14932:28.3; and 14826:Pro Flacco 14307:Institutes 14241:P.A. Brunt 13943:6.592–609. 13872:Quintilian 13442:17.1.26.8. 13115:Fuhrmann, 13035:Plutarch, 13017:,” p. 173. 12725:Jewish War 12712:Jewish War 12485:," p. 196 12445:Institutes 12422:: Gaius, 12407:1141413691 12266:libertinus 11701:Johnston, 11652:manumissio 11439:) 15.1.39. 11324:24.2.11.2. 11318:Concubinae 11201:Sententiae 11039:Concubinae 10987:Buckland, 10961:VI, 09499. 10767:," p. 197. 10704:Commercium 10560:,” p. 498. 10393:Lactantius 10291:sinologist 10193:Mary Beard 10002:Hermathena 9962:," p. 205. 9783:References 9773:moray eels 9769:(muraenae) 9597:Germanicus 9488:, p. 437). 9265:expressed 9214:Trastevere 9125:Lactantius 9123:, such as 9069:See also: 9061:in AD 79. 9033:Philodemus 9026:coniunctum 9018:Epicureans 8885:, respect 8877:, decency 8866:Trimalchio 8837:Jörg Rüpke 8739:(amatores) 8606:epigraphic 8537:Alba Iulia 8386:Punic Wars 8343:). In two 8310:Saturnalia 8304:Saturnalia 8258:Matronalia 8254:Saturnalia 8113:Lactantius 7985:palm frond 7900:hard labor 7850:latifundia 7840:ergastulum 7834:settings. 7734:Trimalchio 7555:Appian Way 7515:gladiators 7477:Soviet-era 7448:Morgantina 7389:Punic Wars 7385:Agrigentum 7248:Rebellions 7152:Sidi Ghrib 7096:(Quis tu?) 7021:Theodoulos 7017:Aphrodisia 6968:diadumenos 6954:anagnostes 6693:Physicians 6623:Healthcare 6564:1973, 421) 6556:ob meritis 6487:Bithynians 6427:See also: 6309:Noncitizen 6256:See also: 6252:Demography 6242:humiliores 6225:humiliores 6199:Diocletian 5920:senatorial 5803:procurator 5773:Roman navy 5741:salt works 5701:humiliores 5649:(pistrina) 5603:Hard labor 5592:ergastulum 5564:(conserva) 5524:Roman Gaul 5496:architects 5302:(ornatrix) 5253:Sidi Ghrib 5160:per 1,000 5076:societates 5043:venalicius 4769:Amphipolis 4741:Cappadocia 4701:latifundia 4652:Brundisium 4633:Alexandria 4629:Mauretania 4621:Asia Minor 4525:Self-sales 4467:mancipatio 4435:had held. 4369:(potestas) 4304:writes of 4265:under the 4185:gold mines 4161:Modern-era 4133:paedagogia 4093:accounting 4065:metalsmith 4046:(pueritia) 4039:(infantia) 3776:Pax Romana 3701:wrote the 3676:sub corona 3665:sub corona 3631:war trophy 3590:Mauretania 3545:historian 3520:sestertius 3508:Pax Romana 3392:dediticius 3362:Trimalchio 3244:libertinus 3072:magistrate 3017:mancipatio 2970:manumissio 2922:from her. 2705:conliberti 2589:patriarchy 2548:mancipatio 2429:(potestas) 2312:Flamininus 2244:(1858) by 2223:Punic Wars 2203:legal code 2201:was not a 2145:The Roman 2107:historian 2009:Theodosius 1992:AD 306–337 1965:Pax Romana 1952:Principate 1921:509–27 BC 1918:Republican 1884:See also: 1810:J.Q. Adams 1800:Washington 1770:Slave name 1714:convention 1689:Common law 1062:Encomienda 858:Seychelles 843:Mauritania 766:Slave ship 633:Panyarring 628:New France 277:Historical 25311:Quaestors 25241:Empresses 25231:Dynasties 25221:Dictators 25196:and other 25185:Volubilis 25180:Vindobona 25140:Londinium 25065:Theodoret 25035:Procopius 25015:Polyaenus 24990:Pausanias 24892:Vitruvius 24837:Symmachus 24832:Suetonius 24742:Petronius 24727:Obsequens 24692:Macrobius 24687:Lucretius 24612:Frontinus 24587:Eutropius 24572:Columella 24522:Augustine 24512:Appuleius 24460:Neo-Latin 24435:Classical 24426:Versions 24334:Aqueducts 24276:Patronage 24196:Sexuality 24169:Mythology 24144:Education 24134:Cosmetics 23959:Campaigns 23954:Structure 23907:Decemviri 23766:Imperator 23465:overthrow 23319:cite book 23241:thesis). 23154:161878092 23146:997453470 23130:0075-4358 23116:: 2, 18. 23086:145609520 22972:145385697 22836:, p. 103. 22810:," p. 53. 22761:pederasts 22716:," p. 45. 22703:," p. 41. 22538:et passim 22306:Western, 22297:, p. 150. 22179:Ramelli, 22152:Lucretius 22047:, p. 238. 22043:Garnsey, 22034:, p. 238. 22030:Garnsey, 21949:154607039 21831:, p. 106. 21603:et passim 21579:(p. 272). 21503:; and of 21495:; of the 21412:; Rüpke, 21358:Macrobius 21196:Epistulae 21092:Macrobius 20934:Bradley, 20904:Bradley, 20895:, p. 122. 20891:Bradley, 20865:Bradley, 20803:patibulum 20763:Historiae 20554:15.7194). 20407:Fuhrmann, 20296:," p. 93. 20236:29:27–36. 20219:," p. 79. 20015:Dionysius 19947:3.40.1–3. 19924:Satyricon 19920:Satyricon 19831:Satyricon 19734:Bradley, 19720:Androcles 19604:Africanus 19602:47.2.61 ( 19407:Spartacus 19055:3.36.5 = 18712:et passim 18629:1.63 and 18398:et passim 18076:11.5400, 18070:Britannia 17958:5.19.1–4. 17696:3 no. 89. 17592:Bradley, 17551:Ad Verrem 17532:10.14–20. 16858:Gamauf, " 16763:et passim 16683:, p. 319. 16633:concubina 16587:, p. 320. 16545:, p. 320. 16519:, p. 320. 15906:Bradley, 15630:Suetonius 15573:Palmyrene 15325:Africanus 15232:et passim 14687:actions." 14604:De gramm. 14570:Mnemosyne 14360:48.19.14. 14179:Minturnae 13902:et passim 13743:tooler), 13695:et passim 13488:Satyricon 13475:et passim 13381:, p. 253. 13359:, p. 253. 13346:, p. 255. 13209:et passim 13081:1.13–14; 12977:Suetonius 12894:et passim 12881:et passim 12762:Mnemosyne 12643:1755-6058 12487:et passim 12479:Dediticii 12449:Suetonius 12388:Satyricon 12308:et passim 12291:et passim 12194:0031-8299 12025:, p. 576. 11971:, p. 576. 11762:et passim 11654:, p. 476. 11502:in Latin. 11490:Gamauf, " 11280:Lex Iulia 11113:," p. 61. 11070:," p. 43. 10947:, p. 150. 10763:Saller, " 10693:, p. 678. 10461:et passim 10391:7.22..4; 9898:Saller, " 9743:-bearer" 9227:lupanaria 9086:salvation 9006:Epictetus 8994:clementia 8962:movement. 8946:Aristotle 8940:thought: 8938:Christian 8932:, Roman, 8862:Petronius 8857:Satyricon 8808:humanitas 8724:retiarius 8686:retiarius 8625:VI, 6246) 8600:and what 8553:portorium 8428:patrician 8369:Fidenates 8282:Terracina 8270:Macrobius 8247:servorum 8162:Caracalla 8133:Decebalus 8099:patibulum 8018:gold coin 8014:quia fugi 8010:ne fugiam 7962:Collaring 7955:dediticii 7942:Epidaurus 7917:Satyricon 7863:dediticii 7845:ergastula 7804:centurion 7729:Satyricon 7649:Androcles 7503:Spartacus 7482:Spartacus 7404:Antiochus 7295:Praeneste 7027:, "god"; 6945:Narcissus 6884:Salvillus 6880:Salvianus 6872:Marcellus 6814:praenomen 6728:sesterces 6552:Carnuntum 6459:Britannia 6311:residents 6143:lupanaria 6045:Gladiator 6028:oikonomoi 5957:principal 5929:aqueducts 5925:Frontinus 5859:; in the 5754:Lusitania 5721:alabaster 5710:metallici 5681:metallici 5655:ergastula 5542:Columella 5473:Columella 5413:near the 5392:goldsmith 5296:preserve 5269:wet nurse 5233:librarius 5205:in Roman 5177:sesterces 5171:In AD 7, 5166:triumvirs 5144:placed a 5125:Vespasian 5109:Dea Syria 5057:, plural 4971:(pilleus) 4966:(titulus) 4868:the Sudan 4844:Thracians 4797:Propontis 4777:Byzantium 4516:Although 4418:proconsul 4340:expositio 4328:surrogacy 4259:Faustulus 4173:Impuberes 4128:capsarius 4122:children 4089:shorthand 4058:juristic 3931:attested 3892:paedagogi 3854:, plural 3759:Pamphylia 3748:(caritas) 3653:(servare) 3555:Vespasian 3428:Caracalla 3420:Dediticii 3400:in chains 3383:dediticii 3376:Dediticii 3369:Dediticii 3357:Satyricon 3354:. In the 3319:Narcissus 3276:municipia 3248:Libertini 3236:libertini 3152:Justinian 3074:who held 2807:concubine 2699:Funerary 2585:(dominus) 2560:peregrini 2530:mancipium 2526:Roman law 2524:, but in 2518:(dominus) 2320:Parthians 2212:with the 2195:by custom 2183:civil law 2095:as well. 2016:Justinian 2014:Reign of 2007:Reign of 1988:Reign of 1932:Classical 1805:Jefferson 1457:Mormonism 1392:Palestine 1206:Australia 1136:Indonesia 1027:Lei Áurea 1010:Code Noir 990:Caribbean 963:Treatment 702:Treatment 675:Devshirme 537:Odalisque 355:In Russia 296:Babylonia 284:Antiquity 119:Spartacus 73:Roman law 25316:Tribunes 25306:Praetors 25256:Generals 25236:Emperors 25145:Lugdunum 25130:Eboracum 25120:Carthage 25105:Aquileia 25020:Polybius 25010:Plutarch 24980:Libanius 24970:Josephus 24965:Herodian 24857:Tibullus 24772:Priscian 24747:Phaedrus 24707:Manilius 24652:Jordanes 24637:Hydatius 24567:Claudian 24547:Catullus 24537:Boëthius 24532:Ausonius 24450:Medieval 24422:Alphabet 24394:Theatres 24369:Numerals 24354:Concrete 24344:Circuses 24311:Bagaudae 24301:Adoption 24296:Marriage 24269:Assembly 24174:Religion 24149:Folklore 24129:Clothing 24124:Calendar 24081:Currency 24071:Commerce 23969:Strategy 23931:Military 23917:Triumvir 23897:Dictator 23892:Interrex 23871:Governor 23856:Quaestor 23819:Ordinary 23801:Province 23791:Tetrarch 23781:Augustus 23746:Vicarius 23736:Officium 23673:Imperium 23623:Plebeian 23583:Republic 23505:Dominate 23472:Republic 23433:Timeline 23096:(1994). 22845:McGinn, 22778:Domitian 22753:Epistula 22681:, p. 93. 22677:Clarke, 22664:Harper, 22553:Harper, 22222:Tsouna, 22209:Tsouna, 22183:, p. 61. 22004:, p. 76. 21814:Stagl, " 21416:, p. 26. 21403:and the 21341:Plutarch 21302:, passim 21257:Horace, 21231:Horace, 21098:1.12.7; 21056:Plutarch 21006:Plutarch 20944:Vivianus 20925:13.7070. 20731:and the 20650:, p. 75. 20367:Jones, " 20336:Jones, " 20323:Jones, " 20288:Such as 20262:Jones, " 20206:, p. 29. 19795:, p. 75. 19782:, p. 26. 19657:, p. 24. 19563:, p. 24. 19494:, p. 21. 19472:, p. 20. 19443:, p. 20. 19191:Historia 19063:10; and 18966:34.2.34. 18960:Historia 18844:270–275. 18822:, p. 39. 18809:, p. 56. 18697:, p. 96. 18599:, p. 96. 18539:, p. 96. 18428:Marcipor 18275:Archived 18252:Jerome, 18237:Cicero, 18182:Cicero. 18169:Cicero. 18111:Augustus 18044:Historia 17973:Claudius 17859:4.4–5.1. 17814:175–177. 17751:Peculium 17681:Eph. Ep. 17670:, p. 76. 17543:Verrines 17530:Catullus 17172:, p. 76. 17138:McGinn, 16947:, p. 82. 16934:, p. 82. 16908:, p. 82. 16767:institor 16726:, p. 83. 16700:116–117. 16428:Eusebius 16205:9.2.2.2. 16102:officina 15996:, p. 73. 15956:Archived 15910:, p. 57. 15747:, p. 95. 15734:13.31.2. 15705:, p. 95. 15692:, p. 95. 15679:, p. 71. 15649:, p. 71. 15569:Coarelli 15176:. 6.4.1. 15051:Section 14930:Agricola 14838:Lucullus 14637:10.8222. 14581:Curculio 14231:11.15.1. 14175:Lucullus 14038:11.15.1. 14009:Rawson, 13838:Historia 13563:8.37–40. 13560:Eclogues 13377:Rawson, 13355:Rawson, 13342:Rawson, 13333:," p. 7. 13316:Rawson, 13059:Apuleius 12879:, p. 22 12822:pilleati 12796:Historia 12319:Stagl, " 12246:libertus 12078:Peculium 12049:Peculium 12013:Berger, 11963:Berger, 11920:Berger, 11892:Peculium 11844:Peculium 11686:Peculium 11646:Berger, 11637:, p. 83. 11615:, p. 83. 11492:Peculium 11466:Peculium 11412:Peculium 11373:Peculium 11350:Origines 11231:Historia 11163:Historia 10808:, p. 704 10776:Saller, 10752:Historia 10646:, p. 58. 10577:, p. 60. 10524:Historia 10440:potestas 10362:Firdausi 10345:Justinus 10322:Horace, 9998:refugium 9934:Historia 9887:Epistula 9885:Seneca, 9613:Historia 9601:Tiberius 9589:Arminius 9544:potestas 9530:Saller, 9386:See also 9286:covenant 9187:ancillae 9059:Vesuvius 9037:On Anger 8747:collegia 8730:murmillo 8682:murmillo 8594:Epitaphs 8545:arcarius 8484:Pessinus 8381:ancillae 8377:Philotis 8365:ancillae 8333:Augustan 8290:Libertas 8224:festival 8220:Matralia 8036:, on an 8001:meretrix 7927:Libanius 7912:stigmata 7896:stigmata 7843:(plural 7818:Chaining 7743:Commodus 7741:emperor 7697:Caligula 7678:for the 7626:anathema 7531:praetors 7527:Vesuvius 7452:Athenion 7338:province 7272:Hannibal 7237:Plutarch 7233:auspices 7188:pteruges 7181:(soleas) 7146:ancillae 7114:Clothing 7053:Strenuus 7033:Statilii 7013:Argoutis 7009:Paramone 6926:Marcipor 6895:Salvitto 6891:Salvilla 6888:feminine 6860:Italians 6830:cognomen 6740:Pergamum 6660:Claudius 6600:Plutarch 6473:origin ( 6443:Hispania 6304:Citizens 6230:decurion 6091:lanistae 5998:peculium 5961:institor 5953:institor 5891:Trajanic 5853:Republic 5832:aerarium 5745:pistrina 5725:porphyry 5705:decurion 5685:libertas 5632:A slave 5597:chaining 5504:Domitian 5453:carryout 5439:tabernae 5382:collegia 5306:ornatrix 5282:peculium 5257:ancillae 5173:Augustus 5091:triumvir 5059:mangones 5002:(merces) 4990:warranty 4979:(praeco) 4930:Empticii 4918:empticii 4864:Caucasus 4785:Bithynia 4773:Thracian 4749:Pergamum 4718:Mytilene 4707:Cilician 4668:Aquileia 4604:Papinian 4540:ingenuus 4505:libertas 4402:Potestas 4391:potestas 4352:potestas 4147:acrobats 4054:pueritia 4050:infantia 3973:adoption 3906:epitaphs 3767:Illyrian 3746:charity 3686:, which 3559:Tarichea 3547:Josephus 3503:Augustus 3491:Aduatuci 3323:Claudius 3240:libertus 3211:(operae) 3202:patronus 3194:feminine 3190:libertus 3186:libertas 3182:libertas 3158:Freedmen 3077:imperium 3038:peculium 3023:potestas 2998:peculium 2983:potestas 2944:peculium 2934:institor 2927:peculium 2912:potestas 2904:peculium 2900:peculium 2896:peculium 2891:peculium 2887:peculium 2883:peculium 2856:peculium 2848:peculium 2844:peculium 2837:peculium 2833:peculium 2825:peculium 2814:Peculium 2738:potestas 2659:Claudius 2652:cognomen 2629:persona) 2510:libertas 2483:Because 2437:(bellum) 2433:potestas 2416:site of 2406:Shapur I 2402:Valerian 2388:Valerian 2366:Shapur I 2336:Margiana 2283:Hannibal 2254:Helvetii 2216:city of 2214:Etruscan 2066:dominium 2004:330–636 1944:Imperial 1837:Iron bit 1827:40 acres 1790:breeding 1600:Freedman 1435:Religion 1295:Portugal 1180:Thailand 1170:Maldives 1165:Malaysia 1158:Kwalliso 1102:Booi Aha 1054:Restavek 1034:Colombia 1005:Trinidad 995:Barbados 885:Zanzibar 833:Ethiopia 714:Saqaliba 608:Database 559:Saqaliba 320:Ancillae 150:a series 148:Part of 43:evil eye 25286:Legions 25246:Fiction 25216:Consuls 25211:Climate 25165:Ravenna 25160:Pompeii 25150:Lutetia 25115:Bononia 25110:Berytus 25100:Antioch 25075:Zosimus 25070:Zonaras 25045:Sozomen 25030:Priscus 25005:Photius 24847:Terence 24842:Tacitus 24827:Statius 24812:Servius 24797:Sallust 24752:Plautus 24732:Orosius 24712:Martial 24667:Juvenal 24642:Hyginus 24627:Gellius 24486:Writers 24417:History 24399:Thermae 24389:Temples 24339:Bridges 24306:Slavery 24254:Equites 24226:Society 24206:Theatre 24179:Deities 24139:Cuisine 24119:Bathing 24101:Culture 24076:Finance 24053:Economy 23944:Borders 23939:History 23841:Tribune 23836:Praetor 23726:Legatus 23721:Emperor 23608:Curiate 23578:Kingdom 23573:History 23549:History 23532:decline 23490:History 23460:Kingdom 23443:History 23428:Outline 22666:Slavery 22593:Phoenix 22446:Porneia 22429:Stuprum 21904:Varro, 21790:Epistle 21755:Marcian 21599:Mithras 21505:Anaitis 21501:Cabeira 21465:6.7445. 21447:Actores 21405:Pinaria 21401:Potitia 21364:1.11.36 21259:Satires 21233:Satires 21128:Servius 21116:Epistle 21088:Solinus 21010:Moralia 20948:Caelius 20880:Phoenix 20725:Mommsen 20548:solidum 19978:1.18.2. 19941:Phoenix 19928:Latomus 19903:Annales 19899:Tacitus 19767:Phoenix 19745:venatio 19490:Gruen, 19468:Gruen, 19439:Gruen, 19183:Elogium 19165:Siculus 19123:9.16.6. 19121:Zonaras 19038:511d–e. 19036:Moralia 18945:Croom, 18928:Croom, 18911:Croom, 18889:Croom, 18876:Croom, 18867:, p. 8. 18863:Croom, 18854:guests. 18818:Croom, 18805:Croom, 18654:36.4.4. 18633:2.41 = 18351:Latomus 18086:floruit 17956:Epistle 17939:Epistle 17842:1.12.4. 17224:Relatio 17079:Donatus 16958:Phoenix 16830:Actores 16780:Actores 16668:Phoenix 16160:1.17.1. 15943:(1990). 15854:2.18.1. 15769:8.4508. 15732:Annales 15519:2.4.28. 15384:, s.v. 15357:venalis 14947:Phoenix 14256:Brunt, 14066:5.10.1. 13937:Juvenal 13783:7.10 ( 13733:alumnus 13637:Photius 13236:6.1052. 13085:15.25; 13013:Levy, “ 12998:m. Git. 12875:Leigh, 12811:2.10.4. 12559:Phoenix 12533:History 12481:of the 12325:ad Sab. 12202:1088460 12174:Phoenix 12089:Gaius, 12076:Roth, " 12017:, s.v. 11967:, s.v. 11940:Mommsen 11924:, s.v. 11842:Roth, " 11810:Actores 11758:Phoenix 11650:, s.v. 11538:Phoenix 11250:Phoenix 11026:Phoenix 11005:spurius 10995:, s.v. 10859:Phoenix 10828:(ed.). 10708:Phoenix 10633:2.43.5. 10586:Leigh, 10556:Lica, " 10257:Plautus 10252:Captivi 10144:5.22.1. 9900:Familia 9837:Phoenix 9829:Familia 9718:at the 9707:was an 9656:Statius 9565:in manu 9547:family. 9540:familia 9511:ancilla 9507:familia 9503:famulus 9359:Terence 9355:Plautus 9295:familia 9275:Hadrian 9271:Eunuchs 9257:in the 9251:Martial 9234:lupanar 9170:familia 9160:Martial 9156:Salvian 9129:Salvian 9022:eventum 8903:duritia 8799:Essenes 8774:civitas 8710:familia 8657:—which 8643:“Names” 8549:customs 8521:Mithras 8488:Galatia 8445:of the 8443:calator 8439:flamens 8435:calator 8345:satires 8325:pilleus 8278:Feronia 8266:Solinus 8203:ancilla 8158:suicide 8119:Suicide 8095:Puteoli 8006:tene me 7981:chi-rho 7923:Martial 7808:tribune 7798:, when 7781:if the 7775:censors 7760:lamprey 7711:Plautus 7706:Captivi 7685:medicus 7507:Marxist 7491:Bolshoi 7479:ballet 7429:praetor 7304:Etruria 7160:Plautus 7156:ancilla 7081:Tryphon 7049:Urbanus 7045:Clemens 6982:Paccius 6876:Salvius 6776:alumnus 6537:Galatia 6463:Balkans 6455:Germany 6301:Region 6246:serfdom 6234:control 6171:Serfdom 6156:Hadrian 6129:aediles 6122:infamia 6114:Terence 6087:Lenones 6082:infames 6074:praetor 6066:infamia 6060:infamia 6033:familia 6022:Gospels 6018:banking 5969:vilicus 5865:emperor 5826:temples 5762:Phrygia 5737:sulphur 5665:chained 5584:vilicus 5568:vilicus 5559:vilicus 5550:Gospels 5506:owned. 5485:Juvenal 5443:popinae 5433:brazier 5428:insulae 5368:fullers 5356:Fullers 5277:jewelry 5265:ancilla 5207:Numidia 5199:Palmyra 5195:customs 5191:Tariffs 5157:denarii 5129:eunuchs 5051:venalis 5027:at the 5025:(mango) 4983:familia 4962:aediles 4954:Pompeii 4926:familia 4870:"; the 4856:amphora 4840:tariffs 4836:Tacitus 4820:Romania 4757:Apameia 4753:Acmonia 4737:Galatia 4733:Phrygia 4660:Pompeii 4648:Puteoli 4642:at the 4609:Ephesus 4510:infamis 4302:Juvenal 4231:alumnus 4143:gymnici 4113:barbers 4015:alumnus 4011:familia 3981:alumnae 3966:pandura 3925:Pompeii 3910:familia 3904:in the 3838:familia 3789:Ireland 3704:Captivi 3699:Plautus 3649:(servi) 3605:Captivi 3586:Britain 3489:of the 3346:Pompeii 3331:Hadrian 3288:praetor 3283:colonia 3197:liberta 3150:142 of 3148:Novella 3090:bequest 2920:peculia 2914:of the 2799:divorce 2783:familia 2743:familia 2720:kinship 2646:, but " 2640:Persona 2627:(Latin 2617:homines 2602:familia 2474:Hadrian 2463:(limen) 2408:at the 2340:Bactria 2330:at the 2310:, when 2082:Romulus 2058:dominus 2040:familia 2029:familia 2018:527–565 2011:379–395 1815:Lincoln 1683:Related 1583:Liberia 1469:Judaism 1407:Tunisia 1382:Morocco 1372:Lebanon 1337:Bahrain 1332:Algeria 1300:Romania 1265:Denmark 1258:Slavery 1192:Vietnam 863:Somalia 853:Nigeria 828:Comoros 756:Pirates 665:Ghilman 598:Bristol 488:history 461:pirates 350:History 239:Peonage 162:slavery 141:Origins 25296:Nomina 25281:Legacy 25261:Gentes 25198:topics 25194:Lists 25175:Smyrna 25055:Strabo 24985:Lucian 24975:Julian 24925:Arrian 24920:Appian 24910:Aelian 24887:Vergil 24662:Justin 24647:Jerome 24632:Horace 24617:Fronto 24607:Florus 24582:Ennius 24562:Cicero 24542:Caesar 24440:Vulgar 24264:Tribes 24191:Romans 24001:Legion 23984:castra 23861:Aedile 23831:Censor 23826:Consul 23786:Caesar 23756:Lictor 23678:Status 23618:Tribal 23598:Senate 23588:Empire 23482:Empire 23418:topics 23355:about 23307: 23216: 23195: 23152: 23144: 23138:300867 23136: 23128: 23084: 23051: 23032: 22996: 22970: 22932:Andria 22784:7.129. 22774:Digest 21947: 21777:Satire 21455:Vilici 21434:Festus 21409:gentes 21192:Seneca 21133:Aeneid 21118:47.14. 21112:Seneca 21090:1.35; 21012:267D ( 20952:Paulus 20940:Digest 20765:4.11; 20721:contra 20596:Casket 20510:consul 20369:Stigma 20338:Stigma 20325:Stigma 20264:Stigma 20247:Stigma 20166:passim 19945:De ira 19893:9.77; 19600:Digest 19574:Digest 19021:268 L. 19019:Festus 18949:, n.p. 18610:vernae 18340:below. 18304:vernae 18017:technē 17977:Digest 17941:8.24.5 17804:2.5,” 17545:," in 17392: 17368: 17296: 17247: 17210:1.8.2. 16838:Vilici 16788:Vilici 16711:Gallia 16463:Hirt, 16275:143.1. 16262:143.3. 16203:Digest 16186:1.6.8. 16143:7733a. 16130:14.3.1 15792:Digest 15355:, and 15329:Digest 15310:," in 15264: 15194:35.58. 15057:Digest 14459: 14358:Digest 14311:Digest 13941:Satire 13741:relief 13555:Vergil 13490:94.14. 13440:Digest 13405:passim 13331:Alumni 13301:Alumni 13283: 13259:Vernae 13134:Digest 13104:Letter 13087:Lucian 13037:Pompey 12973:Caesar 12960:Caesar 12858:Ovid, 12766:Digest 12641: 12631: 12405: 12395: 12200: 12192: 11879:Digest 11818:Vilici 11705:, p 39 11433:Digest 11381:passim 11322:Digest 11305:Paulus 11267:Digest 11207:9.3.3. 11197:Paulus 10863:Digest 10802:servus 10287:Antony 10236:7.4–5. 10234:Fabius 9860:33.26. 9755:34.55. 9741:fillet 9724:Celtic 9709:Aeduan 9521:(boy). 9379:Andria 9263:Seneca 9183:domina 9102:douloi 8936:, and 8934:Jewish 8873:pietas 8772:quasi 8752:Horace 8716:); or 8706:vernae 8688:Marius 8663:tuxedo 8651:graver 8501:Strabo 8447:augurs 8337:Horace 8286:Latium 8262:domina 8103:(crux) 8088:Verres 7884:Cupids 7751:De Ira 7715:comedy 7567:Thurii 7551:Pompey 7523:Crixus 7475:; the 7342:Sicily 7311:Apulia 7300:legion 7260:, and 7088:noster 7065:vernae 7061:Pothus 7057:Nothus 7051:, and 7041:Castus 7029:doulos 7005:Hermes 6990:papyri 6947:, and 6941:Hermes 6930:Marpor 6868:Marcio 6864:Marcus 6838:patron 6828:; and 6756:Cicero 6754:Among 6724:Assisi 6720:medici 6706:technē 6685:Umbria 6641:medici 6617:Seneca 6529:Cretan 6467:Greece 6465:, and 6461:, the 6316:Slaves 6208:coloni 6193:coloni 6102:Louvre 6070:censor 6051:, and 5959:. The 5857:senate 5809:annona 5735:, and 5640:relief 5580:vilica 5578:. The 5520:reaper 5500:Balbus 5469:(coci) 5451:. But 5294:papyri 5142:censor 5104:genius 5049:(from 4791:, and 4789:Pontus 4762:Judaea 4739:, and 4695:Strabo 4687:Rhodes 4658:, and 4623:, and 4615:, the 4597:Trajan 4556:appeal 4452:was a 4316:alumni 4226:alumni 4204:minors 4107:, and 4101:baking 4060:Digest 4023:vernae 4019:alumni 4007:Alumni 4001:vernae 3997:alumni 3993:alumni 3989:alumni 3985:alumni 3977:alumni 3962:alumna 3951:Alumni 3944:vernae 3929:vernae 3921:Vernae 3898:vernae 3886:vernae 3871:Vernae 3867:vernae 3863:vernae 3856:vernae 3850:) was 3804:Vernae 3763:Pompey 3743:rabbis 3720:Piracy 3692:hostis 3684:hostia 3645:servus 3640:Digest 3625:corona 3592:, and 3575:Hebron 3460:vernae 3444:Smyrna 3292:Ulpian 3229:operae 3221:. The 3219:operae 3082:censor 2961:pileus 2795:patron 2787:Digest 2777:vernae 2732:father 2701:relief 2610:domina 2598:liberi 2522:servus 2514:Cicero 2502:relief 2349:Horace 2187:liberi 2175:gentes 2163:Ulpian 2050:Seneca 1731:owners 1367:Kuwait 1362:Jordan 1315:Sweden 1305:Russia 1290:Poland 1285:Norway 1107:Laogai 1092:Brunei 1087:Bhutan 1049:revolt 1022:Brazil 985:Canada 948:partus 933:female 818:Angola 687:Coolie 670:Mamluk 623:Nantes 603:Brazil 532:Cariye 367:Thrall 335:Kholop 301:Greece 71:under 52:exomis 47:(left) 39:amulet 35:Dougga 24960:Galen 24902:Greek 24872:Varro 24682:Lucan 24494:Latin 24409:Latin 24384:Ships 24374:Roads 24359:Domes 24291:Women 24239:Plebs 24164:Music 23706:Forum 23701:Curia 23235:(PDF) 23150:S2CID 23134:JSTOR 23082:S2CID 22968:S2CID 22542:domus 22374:5.10. 21945:S2CID 21866:Numen 21792:8.16. 21235:2.7.4 21138:Varro 20912:10.5. 20499:9455. 19756:7.48. 19740:Apion 18917:(sic) 18614:verna 18556:8.21. 18436:Varro 18257:194.1 18242:16.21 17781:Signs 17553:5.27. 17515:9.93. 16021:7710. 15852:Sent. 15532:7.56. 15386:mango 14789:9.21. 14214:27.2. 13870:9.3; 13594:2.10. 13067:7.9; 13039:24-8. 13000:4:2; 12983:74.1. 12860:Fasti 12785:3.16. 12198:JSTOR 10824:. In 10530:3.13. 9904:Domus 9833:Domus 9636:Most 9515:serva 9413:Notes 9363:servi 9175:domus 9090:(res) 8988:Stoic 8930:Greek 8881:pudor 8813:Pliny 8768:domus 8760:Pliny 8735:LIBER 8712:(see 8676:from 8647:punch 8631:domus 8335:poet 8072:furca 8069:) or 8042:Judas 7931:bangs 7888:Venus 7738:Galen 7713:is a 7595:theft 7519:Capua 7396:Eunus 7369:ranch 7291:Setia 7194:sagum 7137:tunic 7037:Felix 7025:theos 6998:Ionia 6996:from 6986:Papus 6978:Oscan 6922:(vir) 6783:Names 6772:verna 6736:Galen 6533:Dacia 6483:natio 6479:Varro 6475:natio 6451:Syria 6337:Italy 6011:Caria 5965:actor 5799:Ostia 5758:Dacia 5673:mines 5663:were 5415:forum 5372:domus 5364:domus 5337:domus 5325:domus 5320:villa 5314:domus 5215:servi 5203:Zaraï 5162:asses 5151:asses 5113:genii 5087:mango 5055:mango 4998:(res) 4816:Dacia 4745:Aesop 4729:Caria 4725:Lydia 4675:Delos 4656:Capua 4625:Syria 4613:Italy 4535:fraud 4518:nexum 4500:nexus 4496:nexum 4480:Nexum 4472:nexus 4450:Nexum 4445:Nexum 4414:Sulla 4387:lease 4382:nexum 4097:music 4063:is a 3975:were 3917:verna 3902:verna 3881:verna 3852:verna 3847:villa 3842:domus 3821:Getty 3815:verna 3671:hasta 3594:Dacia 3567:Japha 3563:Titus 3527:coins 3469:villa 3464:domus 3448:İzmir 3410:ludus 3329:that 3119:Latin 3115:A law 2852:pecus 2821:(res) 2758:were 2580:domus 2538:manus 2062:domus 2033:Pliny 1910:Regal 1763:songs 1758:films 1671:] 1627:songs 1464:Islam 1442:Bible 1417:Yemen 1412:Qatar 1402:Syria 1377:Libya 1342:Egypt 1310:Spain 1280:Malta 1153:Korea 1141:Japan 1119:India 1097:China 1044:Haiti 904:Aztec 880:Sudan 848:Niger 740:Naval 613:Dutch 542:Qiyan 528:Jarya 503:Harem 345:Serfs 291:Egypt 25276:Laws 25251:Film 25170:Roma 24737:Ovid 24677:Livy 24445:Late 24259:Gens 24216:Wine 24028:Navy 23996:Army 23635:SPQR 23537:fall 23515:fall 23325:link 23305:ISBN 23214:ISBN 23193:ISBN 23142:OCLC 23126:ISSN 23049:ISBN 23030:ISBN 22994:ISBN 22412:2016 21779:1.8. 21509:Zile 21489:Zeus 21453:and 21155:Livy 21016:16). 20142:134. 19867:1.9. 19318:TAPA 19061:GARS 19057:GARS 19016:apud 18665:-por 18648:-por 18631:EAOR 18627:EAOR 18580:-por 18524:-por 18449:-por 18424:-por 18411:-por 18394:-por 18364:-por 18186:16.3 18173:16.6 18113:11; 17694:FIRA 17390:ISBN 17366:ISBN 17294:ISBN 17245:ISBN 17226:8.3. 16836:and 16786:and 16666:6," 16173:2.7. 15272:The 15262:ISBN 14834:FGrH 14822:MAMA 14584:481. 14457:ISBN 13762:n.p. 13634:apud 13281:ISBN 12832:6.4. 12639:ISSN 12629:ISBN 12455:40.4 12403:OCLC 12393:ISBN 12190:ISSN 12021:and 11816:and 11756:6," 11555:n.p. 11301:n.p. 11024:6," 10784:3.37 10518:and 10324:Odes 10142:Livy 9850:-por 9728:gens 9712:Gaul 9692:gens 9607:and 9519:puer 9499:homo 9452:The 9357:and 9115:and 9073:and 9016:The 8986:The 8913:". 8864:has 8826:The 8801:and 8698:VERN 8672:The 8655:toga 8527:The 8457:popa 8433:The 8397:popa 8314:The 8268:and 8170:Cato 8138:sica 7800:Paul 7418:The 7381:Enna 7363:The 7276:Livy 7229:Cato 7069:pass 7059:and 6994:Iona 6984:and 6949:Eros 6934:-por 6918:puer 6914:puer 6910:-por 6824:gens 6764:Tiro 6439:Gaul 6435:race 6323:Rome 6223:and 6163:ludi 5729:lime 5723:and 5689:bona 5538:Cato 5237:lime 5185:Nero 4848:salt 4685:and 4664:Alps 4631:and 4199:pais 4195:puer 4079:and 4052:and 4021:and 3755:Side 3688:Ovid 3669:sub 3637:The 3615:The 3579:Gaza 3242:and 3100:Nero 3060:will 2987:was 2874:Auch 2663:Nero 2621:homo 2532:, a 2218:Veii 2109:Livy 1888:and 1709:laws 1571:U.S. 1566:U.K. 1504:U.S. 1499:U.K. 1387:Oman 1357:Iraq 1352:Iran 1039:Cuba 943:maps 838:Mali 823:Chad 409:Baqt 306:Rome 202:Debt 160:and 24430:Old 24114:Art 23887:Rex 23731:Dux 23645:Law 23239:PhD 23118:doi 23074:doi 23022:doi 22960:doi 22869:doi 22448:," 22427:, “ 22405:19" 22293:n, 21937:doi 21499:at 21463:CIL 21356:By 21063:100 20923:CIL 20663:,” 20552:CIL 20497:ILS 20290:FUR 19926:," 19833:49. 19816:56. 19227:," 19106:," 19065:CIL 18936:59. 18434:by 18381:por 18121:47. 18115:CIL 18078:ILS 18074:CIL 16876:ILS 16872:CIL 16868:CIL 16664:CIL 16662:in 16628:CIL 16602:CIL 16201:at 16141:ILS 16019:ILS 15767:CIL 15565:CIL 14962:24. 14635:CIL 14606:25. 13836:," 13745:CIL 13605:CIL 13234:CIL 13106:10. 13093:24. 12931:28. 12182:doi 11820:,” 11754:CIL 11752:in 11358:in 11041:," 11022:CIL 11020:in 10999:(= 10958:CIL 10750:," 10543:,” 10522:," 10255:of 10228:,” 9932:," 9827:, " 9625:lex 9611:," 9509:), 9053:in 8928:in 8777:). 8727:or 8718:LIB 8702:VER 8700:or 8694:SER 8649:or 8622:CIL 8486:in 8482:at 8474:in 8399:or 8284:in 8280:at 8208:CIL 8156:or 8020:." 7940:at 6874:). 6774:or 6758:'s 6416:19 6402:28 6388:27 6374:17 6360:20 6346:25 6332:30 6072:or 5797:in 5417:in 5288:In 5271:or 5045:or 5034:CIL 4666:to 4513:). 4416:as 4149:or 4041:to 3795:as 3757:in 3577:or 3258:or 2770:. 2338:in 25348:: 23321:}} 23317:{{ 23148:. 23140:. 23132:. 23124:. 23112:: 23108:. 23106:84 23104:. 23100:. 23080:. 23070:16 23068:. 23028:. 22966:. 22956:31 22954:. 22894:^ 22616:, 22399:. 22273:. 22166:, 22077:, 21943:. 21931:. 21457:,” 21449:, 21428:, 21360:, 21343:, 21327:, 21194:, 21114:, 21102:, 21094:, 21058:, 21008:, 20968:^ 20954:). 20546:| 20542:| 20534:| 19901:, 19515:, 19163:; 18834:, 18732:^ 18635:AE 17787:, 17579:" 17436:. 17376:^ 17312:^ 17302:. 17231:^ 17085:1. 17081:, 16832:, 16790:,” 16782:, 16550:^ 16104:). 16001:^ 15799:^ 15782:, 15632:, 15351:, 15335:). 15327:, 15239:^ 15131:. 15107:. 14531:^ 14400:^ 14327:^ 14243:, 13939:, 13874:, 13806:, 13786:PG 13777:, 13649:, 13639:, 13628:, 13620:, 13557:, 13089:, 13071:, 13061:, 12979:, 12962:2. 12637:. 12451:, 12401:. 12327:). 12268:, 12257:^ 12248:, 12196:. 12188:. 12178:43 12176:. 12172:. 12154:, 11812:, 11718:, 11515:, 11394:AE 10891:, 10804:, 10789:^ 10729:, 10689:, 10395:, 10364:, 10211:, 10195:, 10166:, 10085:^ 10050:, 9902:, 9873:, 9831:, 9627:.” 9261:. 9162:. 8920:, 8860:, 8472:Ma 8388:. 8242:. 7641:. 7628:. 7577:. 7557:. 7371:" 7340:, 7256:, 7083:. 7047:, 7043:, 7039:, 6943:, 6897:. 6882:, 6870:, 6812:: 6683:, 6561:AE 6469:. 6457:, 6453:, 6449:, 6445:, 6441:, 6413:80 6399:70 6385:70 6371:80 6357:70 6354:10 6340:70 6329:15 6326:55 6124:. 6047:, 6035:. 5992:. 5840:, 5816:A 5768:. 5552:. 5471:. 5445:, 5292:, 4928:. 4831:. 4799:. 4787:, 4735:, 4731:, 4727:, 4670:. 4654:, 4646:. 4627:. 4619:, 4393:. 4330:. 4171:. 4145:, 4103:, 4095:, 4087:, 4083:, 3912:. 3858:. 3799:. 3738:. 3600:. 3588:, 3493:, 3402:, 3254:" 3025:. 2972:(" 2872:, 2827:. 2809:. 2587:; 2452:. 2278:. 2084:. 1669:fa 152:on 137:. 23408:e 23401:t 23394:v 23327:) 23313:. 23245:. 23237:( 23224:. 23222:. 23201:. 23169:. 23156:. 23120:: 23088:. 23076:: 23057:. 23038:. 23024:: 23002:. 22974:. 22962:: 22875:. 22871:: 22763:. 22633:. 22544:. 22414:. 22283:. 22260:. 21951:. 21939:: 21933:2 21706:. 21605:. 21140:. 20586:. 20550:( 20538:| 20512:. 19426:, 18919:. 18714:. 18616:. 18586:. 18438:. 18400:. 18019:. 17998:. 17791:. 17440:. 17398:. 17253:. 16882:. 16769:. 15270:. 15234:. 15141:. 15117:. 14465:. 14181:. 13904:. 13849:( 13793:. 13764:. 13739:( 13697:. 13477:. 13407:. 13289:. 13211:. 12896:. 12883:. 12645:. 12489:. 12409:. 12293:. 12204:. 12184:: 11764:. 11726:. 11435:( 11383:. 11362:. 11307:. 11239:. 10716:. 10463:. 10347:. 10259:. 9229:) 9225:( 8948:. 8895:) 8891:( 8883:) 8879:( 8875:) 8871:( 8619:( 8551:( 8420:) 8416:( 8147:) 8048:) 7377:) 7373:( 7323:) 7319:( 7192:( 7148:) 7144:( 6970:) 6966:( 6952:( 6886:( 6826:) 6822:( 6793:( 6687:) 6679:( 6410:1 6396:2 6382:3 6368:3 6343:5 6195:) 6191:( 6165:) 6161:( 6145:) 6141:( 6104:) 5834:) 5830:( 5811:) 5807:( 5657:) 5653:( 5576:) 5572:( 5532:( 5449:) 5437:( 5411:) 5407:( 5384:) 5380:( 5078:) 5074:( 5031:( 4703:) 4699:( 4503:( 4318:) 4314:( 3894:) 3890:( 3834:) 3830:( 3682:( 3627:) 3623:( 3412:) 3278:) 3274:( 3019:) 3015:( 2985:) 2936:) 2932:( 2876:) 2868:( 2779:) 2775:( 2713:) 2709:( 2636:) 2562:) 2558:( 2550:) 2546:( 2445:) 2441:( 1873:e 1866:t 1859:v 1064:) 1060:( 530:/ 405:‎ 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Knowledge

Slavery in ancient Rome

Index