163:
1053:. The gates are usually attached to the thickest part of the casting to assist in controlling shrinkage. In especially large castings multiple gates or runners may be required to introduce metal to more than one point in the mold cavity. The speed of the material is important because if the material is traveling too slowly it can cool before completely filling, leading to misruns and cold shuts. If the material is moving too fast then the liquid material can erode the mold and contaminate the final casting. The shape and length of the gating system can also control how quickly the material cools; short round or square channels minimize heat loss.
1549:
647:
allows a 'skin' of solid metal to form over the still-liquid center, gradually solidifying the metal from the outside in. After solidification, the strand, as it is sometimes called, is continuously withdrawn from the mold. Predetermined lengths of the strand can be cut off by either mechanical shears or traveling oxyacetylene torches and transferred to further forming processes, or to a stockpile. Cast sizes can range from strip (a few millimeters thick by about five meters wide) to billets (90 to 160 mm square) to slabs (1.25 m wide by 230 mm thick). Sometimes, the strand may undergo an initial
1639:, is an uncommon filling technique where the crucible is attached to the gating system and both are slowly rotated so that the metal enters the mold cavity with little turbulence. The goal is to reduce porosity and inclusions by limiting turbulence. For most uses tilt filling is not feasible because the following inherent problem: if the system is rotated slow enough to not induce turbulence, the front of the metal stream begins to solidify, which results in mis-runs. If the system is rotated faster it induces turbulence, which defeats the purpose.
155:
1057:
open gating system to fill the mold as quickly as possible. However, for turbulent sensitive materials short sprues are used to minimize the distance the material must fall when entering the mold. Rectangular pouring cups and tapered sprues are used to prevent the formation of a vortex as the material flows into the mold; these vortices tend to suck gas and oxides into the mold. A large sprue well is used to dissipate the kinetic energy of the liquid material as it falls down the sprue, decreasing turbulence. The
1501:, are used to make the patterns oversized to compensate for this type of shrinkage. These rulers are up to 2.5% oversize, depending on the material being cast. These rulers are mainly referred to by their percentage change. A pattern made to match an existing part would be made as follows: First, the existing part would be measured using a standard ruler, then when constructing the pattern, the pattern maker would use a contraction rule, ensuring that the casting would contract to the correct size.
1660:
901:
1829:
1036:
1561:
915:
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form the interface surfaces. It then recalescences, or heats back up to its solidification temperature, for the crystal growth stage. Nucleation occurs on a pre-existing solid surface because not as much energy is required for a partial interface surface as for a complete spherical interface surface. This can be advantageous because fine-grained castings possess better properties than coarse-grained castings. A fine grain structure can be induced by
134:
1764:
466:
332:
1105:. The shrinkage of the liquid is rarely a problem because more material is flowing into the mold behind it. Solidification shrinkage occurs because metals are less dense as a liquid than a solid, so during solidification the metal density dramatically increases. Patternmaker's shrinkage refers to the shrinkage that occurs when the material is cooled from the solidification temperature to room temperature, which occurs due to
31:
1061:, which is the smallest cross-sectional area in the gating system used to control flow, can be placed near the sprue well to slow down and smooth out the flow. Note that on some molds the choke is still placed on the gates to make separation of the part easier, but induces extreme turbulence. The gates are usually attached to the bottom of the casting to minimize turbulence and splashing.
39:
1274:, are the most common way of providing directional solidification. It supplies liquid metal to the solidifying casting to compensate for solidification shrinkage. For a riser to work properly the riser must solidify after the casting, otherwise it cannot supply liquid metal to shrinkage within the casting. Risers add cost to the casting because it lowers the
151:
other benefits to sand casting, such as very small-size operations. The process allows for castings small enough fit in the palm of one's hand to those large enough for a train car bed (one casting can create the entire bed for one rail car). Sand casting also allows most metals to be cast depending on the type of sand used for the molds.
594:
modified die casting machine is used to inject the semi-solid slurry into reusable hardened steel dies. The high viscosity of the semi-solid metal, along with the use of controlled die filling conditions, ensures that the semi-solid metal fills the die in a non-turbulent manner so that harmful porosity can be essentially eliminated.
1623:
Low-pressure filling uses 5 to 15 psig (35 to 100 kPag) of air pressure to force liquid metal up a feed tube into the mold cavity. This eliminates turbulence found in gravity casting and increases density, repeatability, tolerances, and grain uniformity. After the casting has solidified the
1619:
and slag, as these are lower density (lighter) and float to the top of the pool. The pressure differential helps the metal flow into every intricacy of the mold. Finally, lower temperatures can be used, which improves the grain structure. The first patented vacuum casting machine and process dates to
1536:
The distortion allowance is only necessary for certain geometries. For instance, U-shaped castings will tend to distort with the legs splaying outward, because the base of the shape can contract while the legs are constrained by the mold. This can be overcome by designing the mold cavity to slope the
1532:
The machining allowance varies drastically from one process to another. Sand castings generally have a rough surface finish, therefore need a greater machining allowance, whereas die casting has a very fine surface finish, which may not need any machining tolerance. Also, the draft may provide enough
1524:
and account for patternmaker's shrinkage, draft, machining, and distortion. In non-expendable processes, these allowances are imparted directly into the permanent mold, but in expendable mold processes they are imparted into the patterns, which later form the mold cavity. Note that for non-expendable
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The gating system may also be designed to trap dross. One method is to take advantage of the fact that some dross has a lower density than the base material so it floats to the top of the gating system. Therefore, long flat runners with gates that exit from the bottom of the runners can trap dross in
473:
Non-expendable mold casting differs from expendable processes in that the mold need not be reformed after each production cycle. This technique includes at least four different methods: permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous casting. This form of casting also results in improved repeatability in
185:
Loam molding has been used to produce large symmetrical objects such as cannon and church bells. Loam is a mixture of clay and sand with straw or dung. A model of the produced is formed in a friable material (the chemise). The mold is formed around this chemise by covering it with loam. This is then
170:
Sand casting requires a lead time of days, or even weeks sometimes, for production at high output rates (1–20 pieces/hr-mold) and is unsurpassed for large-part production. Green (moist) sand, which is black in color, has almost no part weight limit, whereas dry sand has a practical part mass limit of
654:
Continuous casting is used due to the lower costs associated with continuous production of a standard product, and also increased quality of the final product. Metals such as steel, copper, aluminum and lead are continuously cast, with steel being the metal with the greatest tonnages cast using this
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Centrifugal casting is both gravity and pressure independent since it creates its own force feed using a temporary sand mold held in a spinning chamber. Lead time varies with the application. Semi- and true-centrifugal processing permit 30–50 pieces/hr-mold to be produced, with a practical limit for
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and distortion. Simulation accurately describes a cast component's quality up-front before production starts. The casting rigging can be designed with respect to the required component properties. This has benefits beyond a reduction in pre-production sampling, as the precise layout of the complete
843:
is lower than the surrounded liquid, which creates an energy interface between the two. The formation of the surface at this interface requires energy, so as nucleation occurs, the material actually undercools (i.e. cools below its solidification temperature) because of the extra energy required to
297:
Investment casting derives its name from the fact that the pattern is invested, or surrounded, with a refractory material. The wax patterns require extreme care for they are not strong enough to withstand forces encountered during the mold making. One advantage of investment casting is that the wax
1614:
filling, is more metal efficient than gravity pouring because less material solidifies in the gating system. Gravity pouring only has a 15 to 50% metal yield as compared to 60 to 95% for vacuum pouring. There is also less turbulence, so the gating system can be simplified since it does not have to
1243:
For the materials that have narrow solidification ranges, pipes can be overcome by designing the casting to promote directional solidification, which means the casting freezes first at the point farthest from the gate, then progressively solidifies toward the gate. This allows a continuous feed of
906:
Note that before the thermal arrest the material is a liquid and after it the material is a solid; during the thermal arrest the material is converting from a liquid to a solid. Also, note that the greater the superheat the more time there is for the liquid material to flow into intricate details.
686:
are usually used because of greater casting speed (in case of vertical upcasting) and because of better physical features obtained. The advantage of this method is that metals are almost oxygen-free and that the rate of product crystallization (solidification) may be adjusted in a crystallizer - a
646:
Continuous casting is a refinement of the casting process for the continuous, high-volume production of metal sections with a constant cross-section. It's primarily used to produce a semi-finished products for further processing. Molten metal is poured into an open-ended, water-cooled mold, which
401:
In waste molding a simple and thin plaster mold, reinforced by sisal or burlap, is cast over the original clay mixture. When cured, it is then removed from the damp clay, incidentally destroying the fine details in undercuts present in the clay, but which are now captured in the mold. The mold may
1528:
For surfaces of the casting that are perpendicular to the parting line of the mold a draft must be included. This is so that the casting can be released in non-expendable processes or the pattern can be released from the mold without destroying the mold in expendable processes. The required draft
1321:
which accelerate cooling in a certain part of the mold. There are two types: external and internal chills. External chills are masses of high-heat-capacity and high-thermal-conductivity material that are placed on an edge of the molding cavity. Internal chills are pieces of the same metal that is
1056:
The gating system may be designed to minimize turbulence, depending on the material being cast. For example, steel, cast iron, and most copper alloys are turbulent insensitive, but aluminium and magnesium alloys are turbulent sensitive. The turbulent insensitive materials usually have a short and
1322:
being poured, which are placed inside the mold cavity and become part of the casting. Insulating sleeves and toppings may also be installed around the riser cavity to slow the solidification of the riser. Heater coils may also be installed around or above the riser cavity to slow solidification.
150:
Sand casting is one of the most popular and simplest types of casting, and has been used for centuries. Sand casting allows for smaller batches than permanent mold casting and at a very reasonable cost. Not only does this method allow manufacturers to create products at a low cost, but there are
597:
Used commercially mainly for aluminium and magnesium alloys, SSM castings can be heat treated to the T4, T5 or T6 tempers. The combination of heat treatment, fast cooling rates (from using uncoated steel dies) and minimal porosity provides excellent combinations of strength and ductility. Other
631:
Small art pieces such as jewelry are often cast by this method using the lost wax process, as the forces enable the rather viscous liquid metals to flow through very small passages and into fine details such as leaves and petals. This effect is similar to the benefits from vacuum casting, also
593:
Semi-solid metal (SSM) casting is a modified die casting process that reduces or eliminates the residual porosity present in most die castings. Rather than using liquid metal as the feed material, SSM casting uses a higher viscosity feed material that is partially solid and partially liquid. A
392:
A durable plaster intermediate is often used as a stage toward the production of a bronze sculpture or as a pointing guide for the creation of a carved stone. With the completion of a plaster, the work is more durable (if stored indoors) than a clay original which must be kept moist to avoid
171:
2,300–2,700 kg (5,100–6,000 lb). Minimum part weight ranges from 0.075–0.1 kg (0.17–0.22 lb). The sand is bonded using clays, chemical binders, or polymerized oils (such as motor oil). Sand can be recycled many times in most operations and requires little maintenance.
1073:
can be advantageous. These take advantage of the fact that the dross is usually located at the beginning of the pour, therefore the runner is extended past the last gate(s) and the contaminates are contained in the wells. Screens or filters may also be used to trap contaminates.
204:
is used instead of sand as a mold material. Generally, the form takes less than a week to prepare, after which a production rate of 1–10 units/hr-mold is achieved, with items as massive as 45 kg (99 lb) and as small as 30 g (1 oz) with very good
1278:
of each casting; i.e. more metal is lost as scrap for each casting. Another way to promote directional solidification is by adding chills to the mold. A chill is any material which will conduct heat away from the casting more rapidly than the material used for molding.
891:
which affects the microstructure and properties. Generally speaking, an area of the casting which is cooled quickly will have a fine grain structure and an area which cools slowly will have a coarse grain structure. Below is an example cooling curve of a pure metal or
252:
so that it can be heated by the pattern and hardened into a shell around the pattern. Because of the resin and finer sand, it gives a much finer surface finish. The process is easily automated and more precise than sand casting. Common metals that are cast include
186:
baked (fired) and the chemise removed. The mold is then stood upright in a pit in front of the furnace for the molten metal to be poured. Afterwards the mold is broken off. Molds can thus only be used once, so that other methods are preferred for most purposes.
301:
The process is suitable for repeatable production of net shape components from a variety of different metals and high performance alloys. Although generally used for small castings, this process has been used to produce complete aircraft door frames, with
416:
This is a class of casting processes that use pattern materials that evaporate during the pour, which means there is no need to remove the pattern material from the mold before casting. The two main processes are lost-foam casting and full-mold casting.
1529:
angle depends on the size and shape of the feature, the depth of the mold cavity, how the part or pattern is being removed from the mold, the pattern or part material, the mold material, and the process type. Usually the draft is not less than 1%.
612:
In this process molten metal is poured in the mold and allowed to solidify while the mold is rotating. Metal is poured into the center of the mold at its axis of rotation. Due to inertial force, the liquid metal is thrown out toward the periphery.
1244:
liquid material to be present at the point of solidification to compensate for the shrinkage. Note that there is still a shrinkage void where the final material solidifies, but if designed properly, this will be in the gating system or riser.
318:, it can be an expensive process. However, the components that can be produced using investment casting can incorporate intricate contours, and in most cases the components are cast near net shape, so require little or no rework once cast.
119:
The modern casting process is subdivided into two main categories: expendable and non-expendable casting. It is further broken down by the mold material, such as sand or metal, and pouring method, such as gravity, vacuum, or low pressure.
1208:. For the materials that do shrink upon solidification the type of shrinkage depends on how wide the freezing range is for the material. For materials with a narrow freezing range, less than 50 °C (122 °F), a cavity, known as a
293:
formed the pattern, to today's high technology waxes, refractory materials, and specialist alloys, the castings ensure high-quality components are produced with the key benefits of accuracy, repeatability, versatility, and integrity.
402:
then at any later time (but only once) be used to cast a plaster positive image, identical to the original clay. The surface of this plaster may be further refined and may be painted and waxed to resemble a finished bronze casting.
89:, and weapons and tools. Highly engineered castings are found in 90 percent of durable goods, including cars, trucks, aerospace, trains, mining and construction equipment, oil wells, appliances, pipes, hydrants, wind turbines,
669:
The upcasting (up-casting, upstream, or upward casting) is a method of either vertical or horizontal continuous casting of rods and pipes of various profiles (cylindrical, square, hexagonal, slabs etc.) of 8-30mm in diameter.
128:
Expendable mold casting is a generic classification that includes sand, plastic, shell, plaster, and investment (lost-wax technique) moldings. This method of mold casting involves the use of temporary, non-reusable molds.
1212:, forms in the center of the casting, because the outer shell freezes first and progressively solidifies to the center. Pure and eutectic metals usually have narrow solidification ranges. These materials tend to form a
578:
die castings are possible. The die casting method is especially suited for applications where many small to medium-sized parts are needed with good detail, a fine surface quality and dimensional consistency.
247:
Shell molding is similar to sand casting, but the molding cavity is formed by a hardened "shell" of sand instead of a flask filled with sand. The sand used is finer than sand casting sand and is mixed with a
397:
casting or stone carving may be deferred until a patron is found, and as such work is considered to be a technical, rather than artistic process, it may even be deferred beyond the lifetime of the artist.
1065:
the runners; note that long flat runners will cool the material more rapidly than round or square runners. For materials where the dross is a similar density to the base material, such as aluminium,
431:
Lost-foam casting is a type of evaporative-pattern casting process that is similar to investment casting except foam is used for the pattern instead of wax. This process takes advantage of the low
990:
865:
is when the material solidifies at one end and proceeds to solidify to the other end; this is the most ideal type of grain growth because it allows liquid material to compensate for shrinkage.
1085:, of a casting system can be calculated by dividing the weight of the casting by the weight of the metal poured. Therefore, the higher the number the more efficient the gating system/risers.
1049:
The gating system serves many purposes, the most important being conveying the liquid material to the mold, but also controlling shrinkage, the speed of the liquid, turbulence, and trapping
1669:
the material. Here is where the nucleation phase of the solidification process takes place. As more heat is removed the grains grow towards the center of the casting. These are thin, long
1228:
zone (the temperature range between the solidus and the liquidus), which leads to small pockets of liquid trapped throughout and ultimately porosity. These castings tend to have poor
874:
266:
2063:
1655:
The grain macrostructure in ingots and most castings have three distinct regions or zones: the chill zone, columnar zone, and equiaxed zone. The image below depicts these zones.
289:
in art) is a process that has been practiced for thousands of years, with the lost-wax process being one of the oldest known metal forming techniques. From 5000 years ago, when
814:
process, which means the solidification phenomenon controls most of the properties of the casting. Moreover, most of the casting defects occur during solidification, such as
598:
advantages of SSM casting include the ability to produce complex shaped parts net shape, pressure tightness, tight dimensional tolerances and the ability to cast thin walls.
1771:
for the simulation of casting processes provides opportunities for an interactive or automated evaluation of results (here, for example, of mold filling and solidification,
1240:
resistance. Moreover, for these types of materials to be fluid-tight, a secondary operation is required to impregnate the casting with a lower melting point metal or resin.
62:) that contains a negative impression (i.e., a three-dimensional negative image) of the intended shape. The metal is poured into the mold through a hollow channel called a
1988:
10th
International Conference Semi-Solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, Eds. G. Hirt, A. Rassili & A. Buhrig-Polaczek, Aachen Germany & Liege, Belgium, 2008
1520:
The mold cavity of a casting does not reflect the exact dimensions of the finished part due to a number of reasons. These modifications to the mold cavity are known as
1817:, commercial programs are available which make it possible for foundries to gain new insight into what is happening inside the mold or die during the casting process.
1640:
1027:
is the mold constant. It is most useful in determining if a riser will solidify before the casting, because if the riser does solidify first then it is worthless.
920:
Note that there is no longer a thermal arrest, instead there is a freezing range. The freezing range corresponds directly to the liquidus and solidus found on the
861:
is extracted from the liquid until there is no liquid left. The direction, rate, and type of growth can be controlled to maximize the properties of the casting.
720:
Molding material: The material that is packed around the pattern and then the pattern is removed to leave the cavity where the casting material will be poured.
457:
foam pattern which is then surrounded by sand, much like sand casting. The metal is then poured directly into the mold, which vaporizes the foam upon contact.
910:
The above cooling curve depicts a basic situation with a pure metal, however, most castings are of alloys, which have a cooling curve shaped as shown below.
1537:
leg inward to begin with. Also, long horizontal sections tend to sag in the middle if ribs are not incorporated, so a distortion allowance may be required.
213:. Plaster casting is an inexpensive alternative to other molding processes for complex parts due to the low cost of the plaster and its ability to produce
2733:
1077:
It is important to keep the size of the gating system small, because it all must be cut from the casting and remelted to be reused. The efficiency, or
1802:
The software supports the user in component design, the determination of melting practice and casting methoding through to pattern and mold making,
1317:
Riser aids are items used to assist risers in creating directional solidification or reducing the number of risers required. One of these items are
2064:"Technologies of continuous casting: horizontal, vertical downward, vertical upward – KMM | bronze and brass foundry | vertical continuous casting"
1813:, mainly in Europe and in the U.S., and is regarded as the most important innovation in casting technology over the last 50 years. Since the late
2695:
772:: The pouring cup attaches to the sprue, which is the vertical part of the gating system. The other end of the sprue attaches to the runners.
162:
1677:
properties. Finally, in the center the equiaxed zone contains spherical, randomly oriented crystals. These are desirable because they have
2067:
2006:
798:
Chaplet: Long vertical holding rod for core that after casting it become the integral part of casting, provide the support to the core.
70:) is extracted. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.
1540:
Cores may be used in expendable mold processes to produce internal features. The core can be of metal but it is usually done in sand.
877:
Intermediate cooling rates from melt result in a dendritic microstructure. Primary and secondary dendrites can be seen in this image.
1643:
of France was the first to try tilt casting, in the 1800s. He tried to use it to reduce surface defects when casting coinage from
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1504:
Note that patternmaker's shrinkage does not take phase change transformations into account. For example, eutectic reactions,
1282:
Risers are classified by three criteria. The first is if the riser is open to the atmosphere, if it is then it is called an
3256:
607:
101:
1220:. For materials with a wide freezing range, greater than 110 °C (230 °F), much more of the casting occupies the
887:
Cooling curves are important in controlling the quality of a casting. The most important part of the cooling curve is the
3010:
1483:
Shrinkage after solidification can be dealt with by using an oversized pattern designed specifically for the alloy used.
491:
17:
2663:
944:
1917:
754:
Mold cavity: The combined open area of the molding material and core, where the metal is poured to produce the casting.
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Pouring cup or pouring basin: The part of the gating system that receives the molten material from the pouring vessel.
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2688:
2553:
2534:
379:
217:
castings. The biggest disadvantage is that it can only be used with low melting point non-ferrous materials, such as
1298:. Finally, if the riser is located on the gating system so that it fills after the molding cavity, it is known as a
361:
4001:
2756:
1842:
257:, aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys. This process is ideal for complex items that are small to medium-sized.
1525:
molds an allowance is required for the dimensional change of the mold due to heating to operating temperatures.
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type. The second criterion is where the riser is located; if it is located on the casting then it is known as a
620:
Industrially, the centrifugal casting of railway wheels was an early application of the method developed by the
4011:
2915:
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properties. The creation of this zone can be promoted by using a low pouring temperature, alloy inclusions, or
786:
Parting line or parting surface: The interface between the cope and drag halves of the mold, flask, or pattern.
357:
353:
760:: An extra void in the mold that fills with molten material to compensate for shrinkage during solidification.
4021:
2654:
1306:, but if the riser fills with materials that have already flowed through the molding cavity it is known as a
495:
617:
batch processing of approximately 9000 kg total mass with a typical per-item limit of 2.3–4.5 kg.
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1695:
1615:
control turbulence. Plus, because the metal is drawn from below the top of the pool the metal is free from
1204:
Most materials shrink as they solidify, but, as the adjacent table shows, a few materials do not, such as
548:
molds. Permanent molds, while lasting more than one casting still have a limited life before wearing out.
2771:
435:
of foam to simplify the investment casting process by removing the need to melt the wax out of the mold.
411:
2813:
763:
Gating system: The network of connected channels that deliver the molten material to the mold cavities.
1735:
There are a number of problems that can be encountered during the casting process. The main types are:
862:
566:
under high pressure into mold cavities (which are machined into dies). Most die castings are made from
449:
Full-mold casting is an evaporative-pattern casting process which is a combination of sand casting and
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3467:
105:
2474:
N. Hansen; Erwin
Flender; Jörg C. Sturm (April 2010). "Thirty Years of Casting Process Simulation".
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839:. In the nucleation stage, solid particles form within the liquid. When these particles form, their
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Schleg, Frederick P.; Kohloff, Frederick H.; Sylvia, J. Gerin; American
Foundry Society (2003),
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1707:
816:
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Core print: The region added to the pattern, core, or mold used to locate and support the core.
487:
1624:
pressure is released and any remaining liquid returns to the crucible, which increases yield.
3834:
2874:
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2424:
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1998:
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769:
210:
63:
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Casting process simulation was initially developed at universities starting from the early
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Runners: The horizontal portion of the gating system that connects the sprues to the gates.
743:
683:
454:
195:
109:
55:
8:
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high-temperature resistant device that cools a growing metal rod or pipe by using water.
73:
Casting processes have been known for thousands of years, and have been widely used for
3075:
3055:
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1834:
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that are perpendicular to the casting surface, which are undesirable because they have
1237:
746:: An insert in the mold that produces internal features in the casting, such as holes.
691:
664:
641:
274:
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and cooling, and provides a quantitative prediction of casting mechanical properties,
783:
Vents: Additional channels that provide an escape for gases generated during the pour.
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The chill zone is named so because it occurs at the walls of the mold where the wall
1016:
714:
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501:
450:
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508:. The most common process uses gravity to fill the mold. However, gas pressure or a
154:
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1862:
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846:
286:
280:
201:
97:
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The local solidification time can be calculated using
Chvorinov's rule, which is:
3527:
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2869:
2839:
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2625:
2604:
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2505:
2270:
1730:
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840:
792:: The taper on the casting or pattern that allow it to be withdrawn from the mold
757:
723:
1806:, and finishing. This saves costs along the entire casting manufacturing route.
3880:
3824:
3812:
3741:
3385:
3323:
2890:
1791:
1787:
1509:
1205:
882:
858:
835:
811:
475:
214:
206:
90:
86:
3100:
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3995:
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3885:
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3512:
3200:
2844:
2818:
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1803:
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802:
Some specialized processes, such as die casting, use additional terminology.
735:
729:
717:: An approximate duplicate of the final casting used to form the mold cavity.
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513:
432:
242:
166:
Personal protective equipment to shield from radiant heat and molten splashes
2664:
Castings or
Forgings? A look at the advantages of each manufacturing process
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are also used. A variation on the typical gravity casting process, called
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castings of up to 30 kg. Compared to other casting processes such as
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Gates: The controlled entrances from the runners into the mold cavities.
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Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that employs reusable
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cracking. With the low cost plaster at hand, the expensive work of
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726:: The rigid wood or metal frame that holds the molding material.
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and this capability enabled the rapid growth of the enterprise.
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Aluminum structures: a guide to their specifications and design
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All of the nucleations represent a crystal, which grows as the
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to calculate cast component quality considering mold filling,
66:. The metal and mold are then cooled, and the metal part (the
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There are a few common methods for filling the mold cavity:
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Schematic of the low-pressure permanent mold casting process
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and if it is located next to the casting it is known as a
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2525:
Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003),
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1810:
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is a process in which a liquid metal is delivered into a
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710:
Metal casting processes uses the following terminology:
738:: The bottom half of the pattern, flask, mold, or core.
200:
Plaster casting is similar to sand casting except that
2385:, vol. 86, Iron and Steel Institute, p. 547.
1705:. Common inspection methods for aluminum castings are
516:, produces hollow castings. Common casting metals are
1039:
A simple gating system for a horizontal parting mold.
947:
93:, medical devices, defense products, toys, and more.
1914:"About Metalcasting | American Foundry Society"
1824:
795:
Core box: The mold or die used to produce the cores.
732:: The top half of the pattern, flask, mold, or core.
1331:Typical patternmaker's shrinkage of various metals
2669:Video clip of a 50 gram arc cast alloy solidifying
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1976:
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985:{\displaystyle t=B\left({\frac {V}{A}}\right)^{n}}
984:
2652:Interactive casting design/manufacturing examples
2627:Metal Casting: Computer-aided Design and Analysis
2606:Science and Engineering of Casting Solidification
2402:(2nd ed.), John Wiley and Sons, p. 39,
1693:Common inspection methods for steel castings are
3993:
2543:
2268:
2027:Karl-Heinrich Grote; Hamid Hefazi, eds. (2021).
1964:
2563:Kissell, J. Randolph; Ferry, Robert L. (2002),
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1216:in open air molds, therefore they are known as
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2269:Porter, David A.; Easterling, K. E. (2000),
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2544:Kalpakjian, Serope; Schmid, Steven (2006),
2504:Blair, Malcolm; Stevens, Thomas L. (1995),
2426:Castings practice: the 10 rules of castings
2029:Springer handbook of mechanical engineering
1118:Solidification shrinkage of various metals
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360:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
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2272:Phase transformations in metals and alloys
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574:, copper, and aluminium-based alloys, but
123:
2429:, Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 69–71,
481:
380:Learn how and when to remove this message
2546:Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
2527:Materials and Processes in Manufacturing
2422:
2275:(2nd ed.), CRC Press, p. 236,
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1533:of a machining allowance to begin with.
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2382:Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute
504:("permanent molds"), usually made from
189:
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1512:can cause expansions or contractions.
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562:The die casting process forces molten
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2569:(2nd ed.), John Wiley and Sons,
2476:International Journal of Metalcasting
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1093:There are three types of shrinkage:
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827:Solidification occurs in two steps:
608:Centrifugal casting (silversmithing)
438:
420:
358:adding citations to reliable sources
325:
2510:(6th ed.), ASM International,
927:
492:low-pressure permanent mold casting
100:(which may be further divided into
24:
2053:
1955:
1286:riser, otherwise it is known as a
896:alloy, with defining terminology.
306:castings of up to 300 kg and
25:
4033:
2645:
2603:Stefanescu, Doru Michael (2008),
1799:, material, and tooling savings.
1650:
1015:of the casting that contacts the
868:
158:Iron bell cooling after iron pour
2703:
2364:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2349:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2332:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2311:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2296:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2228:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2211:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2199:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2184:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2169:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2154:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2139:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2127:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2115:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2100:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2088:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
2031:(2nd ed.). Cham: Springer.
1977:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
1938:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
1901:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
1843:Bronze and brass ornamental work
1827:
1658:
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528:alloys. Other materials include
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27:Pouring liquid metal into a mold
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2009:from the original on 2022-10-04
1920:from the original on 2023-06-07
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96:Traditional techniques include
2916:Semi-finished casting products
2020:
1991:
1982:
1970:
1943:
1931:
1906:
1894:
1610:Vacuum filling, also known as
1515:
1329:
1116:
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551:
269:An investment-cast valve cover
13:
1:
3018:
1883:
1795:casting system also leads to
1688:
496:vacuum permanent mold casting
469:The permanent molding process
285:Investment casting (known as
2588:, American Foundry Society,
1965:Kalpakjian & Schmid 2006
1780:Casting processes simulation
1088:
999:is the solidification time,
690:The method is comparable to
658:
632:applied to jewelry casting.
474:parts produced and delivers
7:
2741:
1820:
544:and steel are also cast in
461:Non-expendable mold casting
412:Evaporative-pattern casting
406:Evaporative-pattern casting
42:Casting iron in a sand mold
34:Molten metal before casting
10:
4038:
2609:(2nd ed.), Springer,
2586:Technology of Metalcasting
1775:and flow characteristics).
1759:Casting process simulation
1728:
1724:
1543:
1259:
1042:
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863:Directional solidification
698:(Si) crystals, which is a
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651:process before being cut.
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2749:
2711:
2548:(5th ed.), Pearson,
1696:magnetic particle testing
1256:Different types of risers
805:
106:vacuum assist direct pour
2462:Kissell & Ferry 2002
2450:Blair & Stevens 1995
2377:Iron and Steel Institute
1888:
1719:liquid penetrant testing
1702:liquid penetrant testing
1113:Solidification shrinkage
1103:patternmaker's shrinkage
1099:solidification shrinkage
924:for the specific alloy.
822:solidification shrinkage
589:Semi-solid metal casting
583:Semi-solid metal casting
322:Waste molding of plaster
4002:Casting (manufacturing)
3513:Nickel silver (alpacca)
2529:(9th ed.), Wiley,
2507:Steel castings handbook
2423:Campbell, John (2004),
1095:shrinkage of the liquid
124:Expendable mold casting
1776:
1553:
1270:Risers, also known as
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1040:
986:
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488:Permanent mold casting
482:Permanent mold casting
470:
270:
167:
159:
43:
35:
4012:History of metallurgy
3854:Other natural objects
2973:Tools and terminology
2789:Investment (Lost wax)
2630:(1st ed.), PHI,
1999:"Centrifugal casting"
1766:
1753:metallurgical defects
1749:pouring metal defects
1745:mold material defects
1551:
1326:Patternmaker's shrink
1255:
1248:Risers and riser aids
1045:Sprue (manufacturing)
1038:
987:
876:
468:
268:
165:
157:
41:
33:
4022:Sculpture techniques
3329:Wire wrapped jewelry
3309:Repoussé and chasing
945:
455:expanded polystyrene
354:improve this section
196:Plaster mold casting
190:Plaster mold casting
110:plaster mold casting
50:and jewelry making,
3871:Ebonite (vulcanite)
2772:Evaporative-pattern
2396:Lesko, Jim (2007),
2366:, pp. 319–320.
2298:, pp. 286–288.
1767:A high-performance
1332:
1218:skin forming alloys
1119:
1107:thermal contraction
1023:is a constant, and
624:industrial company
602:Centrifugal casting
102:centrifugal casting
18:Shrinkage (casting)
3216:Jewellery designer
2657:2020-06-09 at the
2488:10.1007/BF03355463
2213:, pp. 285–286
2129:, pp. 280–281
2102:, pp. 279–280
2090:, pp. 278–279
1950:Schleg et al. 2003
1835:Engineering portal
1777:
1714:ultrasonic testing
1571:. You can help by
1554:
1330:
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1117:
1041:
982:
879:
692:Czochralski method
665:Czochralski method
642:Continuous casting
636:Continuous casting
471:
275:Investment casting
271:
261:Investment casting
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36:
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3906:
3905:
3776:Organic gemstones
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2985:
2929:
2928:
2637:978-81-203-2726-9
2616:978-0-387-74609-8
2595:978-0-87433-257-5
2576:978-0-471-01965-7
2517:978-0-87170-556-3
2436:978-0-7506-4791-5
2409:978-0-470-05538-0
2399:Industrial design
2282:978-0-7487-5741-1
2038:978-3-030-47035-7
1784:numerical methods
1741:shrinkage defects
1589:
1588:
1481:
1480:
1202:
1201:
1195:Ductile cast iron
1171:High carbon steel
1067:runner extensions
1031:The gating system
970:
568:nonferrous metals
451:lost-foam casting
445:Full-mold casting
439:Full-mold casting
427:Lost-foam casting
421:Lost-foam casting
390:
389:
382:
16:(Redirected from
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4007:Jewellery making
3433:Britannia silver
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2999:
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2809:Semi-solid metal
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2624:Ravi, B (2010),
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2070:on March 7, 2021
2066:. Archived from
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2014:
2003:Eminent Engitech
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1863:Porosity sealing
1848:Bronze sculpture
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1792:thermal stresses
1662:
1645:aluminium bronze
1635:, also known as
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1487:Contraction rule
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1007:of the casting,
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934:Chvorinov's rule
928:Chvorinov's rule
917:
903:
847:grain refinement
385:
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371:
365:
334:
326:
287:lost-wax casting
281:Lost-wax casting
202:plaster of paris
136:
98:lost-wax casting
21:
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4030:
4028:
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3891:Spondylus shell
3849:
3771:
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3528:Stainless steel
3479:
3463:Sterling silver
3423:Precious metal
3418:
3386:Precious metals
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2891:Casting defects
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2659:Wayback Machine
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2240:Stefanescu 2008
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1731:Casting defects
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1612:counter-gravity
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1569:needs expansion
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1508:reactions, and
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1266:chill (casting)
1262:Riser (casting)
1260:Main articles:
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1179:White cast iron
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1033:
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841:internal energy
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486:Main articles:
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87:precious metals
77:(especially in
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3952:Related topics
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3396:
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3379:
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3374:
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3370:
3368:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3341:
3339:
3335:
3334:
3332:
3331:
3326:
3324:Wire sculpture
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3270:
3269:
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3259:
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3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
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3024:
3023:
3016:
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3008:
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2993:
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2867:
2862:
2857:
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2834:
2830:
2829:
2827:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2794:Permanent mold
2791:
2786:
2785:
2784:
2779:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2753:
2751:
2747:
2746:
2739:
2738:
2731:
2724:
2716:
2709:
2708:
2701:
2700:
2693:
2686:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2647:
2646:External links
2644:
2643:
2642:
2636:
2621:
2615:
2600:
2594:
2581:
2575:
2560:
2554:
2541:
2535:
2522:
2516:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2493:
2466:
2454:
2452:, p. 4‐6.
2442:
2435:
2415:
2408:
2388:
2368:
2353:
2336:
2315:
2300:
2288:
2281:
2261:
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2188:
2173:
2158:
2143:
2131:
2119:
2104:
2092:
2080:
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2037:
2019:
1990:
1981:
1969:
1954:
1942:
1930:
1905:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1822:
1819:
1804:heat treatment
1788:solidification
1760:
1757:
1729:Main article:
1726:
1723:
1690:
1687:
1652:
1651:Macrostructure
1649:
1629:
1626:
1587:
1586:
1566:
1564:
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1542:
1517:
1514:
1510:graphitization
1479:
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1373:
1372:
1351:
1348:
1344:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1327:
1324:
1249:
1246:
1206:gray cast iron
1200:
1199:
1196:
1192:
1191:
1188:
1187:Gray cast iron
1184:
1183:
1180:
1176:
1175:
1172:
1168:
1167:
1164:
1160:
1159:
1156:
1152:
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1140:
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1128:
1127:
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1111:
1090:
1087:
1032:
1029:
993:
992:
979:
974:
969:
966:
961:
956:
953:
950:
932:Main article:
929:
926:
883:Cooling curves
870:
869:Cooling curves
867:
859:heat of fusion
836:crystal growth
812:solidification
807:
804:
800:
799:
796:
793:
787:
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780:
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755:
752:
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750:
741:
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739:
733:
721:
718:
707:
704:
660:
657:
640:Main article:
637:
634:
606:Main article:
603:
600:
587:Main article:
584:
581:
556:Main article:
553:
550:
483:
480:
476:near net shape
462:
459:
443:Main article:
440:
437:
425:Main article:
422:
419:
410:Main article:
407:
404:
388:
387:
338:
336:
329:
323:
320:
273:Main article:
262:
259:
241:Main article:
238:
235:
215:near net shape
207:surface finish
194:Main article:
191:
188:
179:Main article:
176:
173:
144:Main article:
141:
138:
125:
122:
91:nuclear plants
58:(usually by a
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4034:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
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3999:
3997:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3956:Body piercing
3954:
3951:
3950:
3947:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3930:
3927:
3924:
3921:
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3845:Tortoiseshell
3843:
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3327:
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3307:
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3297:
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3258:
3255:
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3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3244:
3242:
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3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3201:Bench jeweler
3199:
3198:
3196:
3192:
3189:
3185:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3168:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3033:
3031:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3014:
3009:
3007:
3002:
3000:
2995:
2994:
2991:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2935:
2932:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2886:
2882:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2845:Cope and drag
2843:
2841:
2838:
2837:
2835:
2831:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2819:Shell molding
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2774:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2737:
2732:
2730:
2725:
2723:
2718:
2717:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2699:
2694:
2692:
2687:
2685:
2680:
2679:
2676:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2656:
2653:
2650:
2649:
2639:
2633:
2629:
2628:
2622:
2618:
2612:
2608:
2607:
2601:
2597:
2591:
2587:
2582:
2578:
2572:
2568:
2567:
2561:
2557:
2555:0-13-148965-8
2551:
2547:
2542:
2538:
2536:0-471-65653-4
2532:
2528:
2523:
2519:
2513:
2509:
2508:
2502:
2501:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2470:
2464:, p. 73.
2463:
2458:
2451:
2446:
2438:
2432:
2428:
2427:
2419:
2411:
2405:
2401:
2400:
2392:
2384:
2383:
2378:
2372:
2365:
2360:
2358:
2351:, p. 290
2350:
2345:
2343:
2341:
2334:, p. 289
2333:
2328:
2326:
2324:
2322:
2320:
2313:, p. 288
2312:
2307:
2305:
2297:
2292:
2284:
2278:
2274:
2273:
2265:
2259:, p. 67.
2258:
2253:
2251:
2249:
2242:, p. 66.
2241:
2236:
2230:, p. 286
2229:
2224:
2222:
2220:
2212:
2207:
2201:, p. 287
2200:
2195:
2193:
2186:, p. 285
2185:
2180:
2178:
2171:, p. 284
2170:
2165:
2163:
2156:, p. 282
2155:
2150:
2148:
2141:, p. 281
2140:
2135:
2128:
2123:
2117:, p. 280
2116:
2111:
2109:
2101:
2096:
2089:
2084:
2069:
2065:
2059:
2057:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2034:
2030:
2023:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1994:
1985:
1979:, p. 315
1978:
1973:
1966:
1961:
1959:
1951:
1946:
1940:, p. 278
1939:
1934:
1919:
1915:
1909:
1903:, p. 277
1902:
1897:
1893:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1873:Spray forming
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1840:
1836:
1830:
1825:
1818:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1805:
1800:
1798:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1756:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1732:
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1720:
1716:
1715:
1710:
1709:
1704:
1703:
1698:
1697:
1686:
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1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1663:
1661:
1656:
1648:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1625:
1621:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1601:high-pressure
1598:
1594:
1583:
1580:February 2010
1574:
1570:
1567:This section
1565:
1562:
1558:
1557:
1550:
1541:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1523:
1513:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1500:
1491:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1429:
1426:
1423:
1422:
1400:
1397:
1394:
1393:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1352:
1349:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1323:
1320:
1315:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1280:
1277:
1273:
1267:
1263:
1254:
1245:
1241:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1197:
1194:
1193:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1181:
1178:
1177:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1162:
1161:
1157:
1154:
1153:
1149:
1146:
1145:
1141:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1130:
1129:
1125:
1122:
1121:
1110:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1086:
1084:
1075:
1072:
1068:
1062:
1060:
1054:
1052:
1046:
1037:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
977:
972:
967:
964:
959:
954:
951:
948:
941:
940:
939:
935:
925:
923:
922:phase diagram
918:
916:
911:
908:
904:
902:
897:
895:
890:
884:
875:
866:
864:
860:
855:
853:
849:
848:
842:
838:
837:
832:
831:
825:
823:
819:
818:
813:
810:Casting is a
803:
797:
794:
791:
788:
785:
782:
777:
774:
771:
768:
765:
764:
762:
759:
756:
753:
748:
747:
745:
742:
737:
734:
731:
728:
727:
725:
722:
719:
716:
713:
712:
711:
703:
701:
697:
693:
688:
685:
684:nickel alloys
681:
677:
673:
666:
656:
652:
650:
643:
633:
629:
627:
623:
618:
614:
609:
599:
595:
590:
580:
577:
576:ferrous metal
573:
569:
565:
559:
549:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
514:slush casting
511:
507:
503:
497:
493:
489:
479:
477:
467:
458:
456:
453:. It uses an
452:
446:
436:
434:
433:boiling point
428:
418:
413:
403:
399:
396:
384:
381:
373:
370:February 2009
363:
359:
355:
349:
348:
344:
339:This section
337:
333:
328:
327:
319:
317:
313:
309:
305:
299:
295:
292:
288:
282:
276:
267:
258:
256:
251:
244:
243:Shell molding
237:Shell molding
234:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
203:
197:
187:
182:
172:
164:
156:
152:
147:
137:
135:
130:
121:
117:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
94:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
71:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
40:
32:
19:
3981:Wearable art
3976:Phaleristics
3971:Metalworking
3876:Gutta-percha
3652:Lapis lazuli
3438:Colored gold
3319:Stonesetting
3266:
3251:
2860:Molding sand
2814:Shaw process
2799:Plaster mold
2742:
2705:Metalworking
2626:
2605:
2585:
2565:
2545:
2526:
2506:
2498:Bibliography
2479:
2475:
2469:
2457:
2445:
2425:
2418:
2398:
2391:
2381:
2371:
2291:
2271:
2264:
2235:
2206:
2134:
2122:
2095:
2083:
2072:. Retrieved
2068:the original
2028:
2022:
2011:. Retrieved
2002:
1993:
1984:
1972:
1945:
1933:
1922:. Retrieved
1908:
1896:
1868:Spin casting
1808:
1801:
1778:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1737:gas porosity
1736:
1734:
1718:
1712:
1706:
1700:
1694:
1692:
1670:
1666:
1664:
1657:
1654:
1637:tilt casting
1636:
1633:Tilt filling
1632:
1631:
1628:Tilt filling
1622:
1611:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1597:low-pressure
1596:
1592:
1590:
1577:
1573:adding to it
1568:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1521:
1519:
1503:
1493:
1484:
1482:
1318:
1316:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1281:
1275:
1271:
1269:
1242:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1203:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1092:
1078:
1076:
1071:runner wells
1070:
1066:
1063:
1058:
1055:
1048:
1024:
1020:
1013:surface area
1008:
1000:
996:
994:
937:
919:
912:
909:
905:
898:
889:cooling rate
888:
886:
856:
851:
845:
834:
828:
826:
821:
817:gas porosity
815:
809:
801:
709:
689:
668:
653:
645:
630:
619:
615:
611:
596:
592:
561:
499:
472:
448:
430:
415:
400:
391:
376:
367:
352:Please help
340:
316:sand casting
300:
296:
284:
246:
199:
184:
181:Loam molding
175:Loam molding
169:
149:
146:Sand casting
140:Sand casting
131:
127:
118:
114:sand casting
95:
72:
67:
51:
48:metalworking
45:
3918:Art jewelry
3742:Tiger's eye
3647:Labradorite
3597:Chrysocolla
3592:Chrysoberyl
3508:Mokume-gane
3485:Base metals
3257:centrifugal
3226:Silversmith
3101:Ferronnière
3051:Belt buckle
3046:Belly chain
2943:Fabrication
2884:Terminology
2757:Centrifugal
2482:(2): 7–23.
1878:Stone mould
1708:radiography
1675:anisotropic
1516:Mold cavity
1506:martensitic
1496:shrink rule
1158:3.7 or 6.5
1150:4.0 or 4.2
1126:Percentage
852:inoculation
706:Terminology
694:of growing
649:hot rolling
558:Die casting
552:Die casting
540:alloys and
312:die casting
4017:Metallurgy
3996:Categories
3752:Tourmaline
3697:Prasiolite
3572:Aventurine
3443:Crown gold
3345:Draw plate
3294:Metal clay
3231:Watchmaker
3221:Lapidarist
3206:Clockmaker
3081:Collar pin
3076:Chatelaine
2963:Metallurgy
2833:Components
2762:Continuous
2074:2022-05-05
2047:1246246146
2013:2022-05-09
1924:2021-01-12
1884:References
1689:Inspection
1683:inoculants
1522:allowances
1339:Percentage
1312:cold riser
1308:dead riser
1300:live riser
1296:side riser
1043:See also:
881:See also:
830:nucleation
663:See also:
279:See also:
211:tolerances
209:and close
108:casting),
3898:Toadstone
3835:Operculum
3762:Variscite
3757:Turquoise
3737:Tanzanite
3672:Moonstone
3667:Marcasite
3662:Malachite
3587:Carnelian
3562:Amazonite
3549:gemstones
3523:Pinchbeck
3468:Argentium
3458:Shibuichi
3399:Palladium
3378:Materials
3314:Soldering
3304:Polishing
3279:Engraving
3274:Enameling
3240:Processes
3211:Goldsmith
3146:Tie chain
3121:Neck ring
3111:Lapel pin
3020:Jewellery
2958:Machining
2953:Jewellery
2782:Lost foam
2777:Full mold
2750:Processes
1679:isotropic
1424:Cast iron
1395:Magnesium
1347:Aluminium
1304:hot riser
1292:top riser
1234:toughness
1230:ductility
1198:−4.5–2.7
1190:−2.5–1.6
1147:Magnesium
1131:Aluminium
1089:Shrinkage
700:metalloid
659:Upcasting
522:magnesium
478:results.
341:does not
308:aluminium
255:cast iron
227:magnesium
219:aluminium
75:sculpture
3966:Gemology
3940:Fineness
3931:(purity)
3866:Bog-wood
3813:Precious
3793:Ammolite
3732:Sunstone
3722:Sodalite
3717:Sapphire
3677:Obsidian
3617:Fluorite
3607:Diopside
3567:Amethyst
3547:Mineral
3538:Tungsten
3533:Titanium
3448:Electrum
3404:Platinum
3289:Kazaziye
3284:Filigree
3262:lost-wax
3161:Toe ring
3151:Tie clip
3126:Pectoral
3116:Necklace
3091:Cufflink
3066:Bracelet
3061:Bolo tie
3041:Barrette
2968:Smithing
2655:Archived
2379:(1912),
2007:Archived
1918:Archived
1821:See also
1773:porosity
1769:software
1641:Durville
1182:4.0–5.5
1166:2.5–3.0
894:eutectic
682:alloy),
655:method.
546:graphite
518:aluminum
60:crucible
3961:Fashion
3935:Finding
3783:Abalone
3692:Peridot
3657:Larimar
3642:Kyanite
3627:Howlite
3612:Emerald
3602:Diamond
3475:Tumbaga
3453:Shakudō
3409:Rhodium
3360:Mandrel
3299:Plating
3252:Casting
3247:Carving
3156:Tie pin
3131:Pendant
3106:Genital
3096:Earring
2978:Welding
2948:Forming
2938:Casting
2906:Foundry
2865:Pattern
2743:Casting
1858:Foundry
1853:Forging
1725:Defects
1671:columns
1593:gravity
1544:Filling
1473:⁄
1463:⁄
1456:1.5–2.0
1444:⁄
1434:⁄
1427:0.8–1.0
1415:⁄
1405:⁄
1398:1.0–1.3
1386:⁄
1367:⁄
1357:⁄
1350:1.0–1.3
1272:feeders
1238:fatigue
1011:is the
1003:is the
715:Pattern
696:silicon
362:removed
347:sources
291:beeswax
83:jewelry
68:casting
52:casting
3925:(mass)
3861:Bezoar
3767:Zircon
3727:Spinel
3702:Quartz
3637:Jasper
3622:Garnet
3518:Pewter
3503:Copper
3498:Bronze
3425:alloys
3414:Silver
3365:Pliers
3355:Hammer
3267:vacuum
3194:People
3187:Making
3171:pocket
3071:Brooch
3036:Anklet
2634:
2613:
2592:
2573:
2552:
2533:
2514:
2433:
2406:
2279:
2045:
2035:
1797:energy
1751:, and
1717:, and
1667:chills
1620:1879.
1605:vacuum
1603:, and
1342:in/ft
1319:chills
1236:, and
1226:slushy
1139:Copper
1005:volume
995:Where
806:Theory
676:bronze
674:(Cu),
672:Copper
622:German
536:, and
526:copper
524:, and
510:vacuum
494:, and
395:bronze
229:, and
223:copper
104:, and
79:bronze
3929:Carat
3923:Carat
3911:Terms
3886:Shell
3840:Pearl
3830:Nacre
3820:Ivory
3808:Black
3803:Coral
3798:Copal
3788:Amber
3747:Topaz
3706:smoky
3577:Beryl
3557:Agate
3493:Brass
3338:Tools
3176:strap
3166:Watch
3141:Tiara
3086:Crown
3056:Bindi
3028:Forms
2911:Ingot
2901:Dross
2896:Draft
2875:Sprue
2870:Riser
2855:Flask
2840:Chill
1889:Notes
1815:1980s
1811:1970s
1782:uses
1617:dross
1492:, or
1453:Steel
1376:Brass
1336:Metal
1288:blind
1276:yield
1222:mushy
1123:Metal
1081:yield
1059:choke
1051:dross
790:Draft
770:Sprue
758:Riser
724:Flask
626:Krupp
564:metal
506:metal
502:molds
304:steel
250:resin
64:sprue
3881:Hair
3712:Ruby
3687:Opal
3682:Onyx
3632:Jade
3394:Gold
3350:File
3136:Ring
2921:Slag
2850:Core
2824:Spin
2804:Sand
2632:ISBN
2611:ISBN
2590:ISBN
2571:ISBN
2550:ISBN
2531:ISBN
2512:ISBN
2431:ISBN
2404:ISBN
2277:ISBN
2043:OCLC
2033:ISBN
1699:and
1284:open
1264:and
1214:skin
1210:pipe
1174:4.0
1155:Zinc
1142:4.9
1134:6.6
1101:and
1069:and
1017:mold
833:and
820:and
744:Core
736:Drag
730:Cope
678:(Cu·
572:zinc
542:iron
538:lead
534:zinc
345:any
343:cite
231:zinc
112:and
81:),
56:mold
3825:Jet
3581:red
2767:Die
2484:doi
1575:.
1379:1.5
1310:or
1302:or
1224:or
850:or
530:tin
356:by
314:or
85:in
46:In
3998::
2478:.
2356:^
2339:^
2318:^
2303:^
2247:^
2218:^
2191:^
2176:^
2161:^
2146:^
2107:^
2055:^
2041:.
2005:.
2001:.
1957:^
1916:.
1755:.
1747:,
1743:,
1739:,
1721:.
1711:,
1685:.
1647:.
1607:.
1599:,
1595:,
1465:16
1436:10
1417:32
1388:16
1369:32
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1232:,
1109:.
1097:,
1019:,
824:.
702:.
680:Sn
532:,
520:,
490:,
233:.
225:,
221:,
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3704:(
3583:)
3579:(
3012:e
3005:t
2998:v
2735:e
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2721:v
2697:e
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2641:.
2620:.
2599:.
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2559:.
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2486::
2480:4
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2412:.
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2077:.
2049:.
2016:.
1967:.
1927:.
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1475:4
1471:1
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1461:3
1446:8
1442:1
1439:–
1432:1
1413:5
1410:–
1407:8
1403:1
1384:3
1365:5
1362:–
1359:8
1355:1
1025:B
1021:n
1009:A
1001:V
997:t
978:n
973:)
968:A
965:V
960:(
955:B
952:=
949:t
383:)
377:(
372:)
368:(
364:.
350:.
20:)
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