424:, Wingenum and Grey Eyes among them, came to the fort under a flag of truce to parley, and again requested that the British leave this place. They explained that by taking the Indian's country the British caused this war, and Tessecumme of the Delaware noted that the British were the cause of the trouble since they had broken their promises and treaties. They had come onto Indian land and built forts, despite being asked not to, so now the tribes in the area have amassed to take back their lands. He informed Ecuyer that there was still a short time remaining to leave peacefully. The Delaware and Shawnee chiefs made sure Captain Ecuyer at Fort Pitt understood the cause of the conflict. Turtleheart told him, "You marched your armies into our country, and built forts here, though we told you, again and again, that we wished you to move, this land is ours, and not yours." The Delaware also let it be known, "that all the country was theirs; that they had been cheated out of it, and that they would carry on the war till they burnt Philadelphia". The British refused to leave, claiming that this was their home now. They bluffed that they could hold out for three years, and bragged that several large armies were coming to their aid. This "very much enraged" the Indian delegation, Trent wrote, "White Eyes and Wingenum seemed to be very much irritated and would not shake hands with our people at parting." On July 28, the siege began in earnest and continued for several days. Seven of the fort garrison were wounded, at least one mortally; Ecuyer was wounded in the leg by an arrow.
618:. His account has been relied on by later writers. He described Amherst's reply to Bouquet as a âdetestable suggestionâ and concluded "There is no direct evidence that Bouquet carried into effect the shameful plan of infecting the Indians though, a few months after, the small-pox was known to have made havoc among the tribes of the Ohio." Parkman had the impression that Amherst had planned the gifting, although Amherst approached the matter only a month later. Following Parkman was Howard Peckham who was more interested in the overall war and paid only cursory glance to the incident, briefly describing Ecuyer handing over the handkerchief and blankets from the smallpox hospital. He quoted a testimony of a smallpox outbreak and stated that it certainly affected the Natives' ability to wage war. Bernhard Knollenberg was more critical and pointed out that both Parkman and Peckham hadn't noticed that the smallpox epidemic among the tribes had been reported to have begun in the spring of 1763, quite some time before the meeting. Knollenberg even doubted the authenticity of the documents at first before he was contacted via letter by historian Donald H. Kent who had found a record of Trent's sundries list signed by Ecuyer.
399:
chiefs advising against war. The following day, however, the
Shawnee returned and reported a more threatening situation, saying that all the nations "had taken up the hatchet" against the British, and were going to attack Fort Pitt. Even the local Shawnee themselves "were afraid to refuse" to join the uprising, a subtle hint that the occupants of Fort Pitt should leave. Ecuyer dismissed the warnings and ignored the requests to leave. On June 22, Fort Pitt was attacked on three sides by Shawnee, western Delaware, Mingo and Seneca, which prompted return fire from Ecuyer's artillery. This initial attack on the fort was repelled. Since the Indians were unfamiliar with siege warfare, they opted to try diplomacy yet again. On June 24,
502:, a fur trader and merchant commissioned as a captain at Fort Pitt. For June 24, 1763, Trent wrote about a meeting with two Delaware Indians at the fort. "Out of our regard to them we gave them two Blankets and an Handkerchief out of the Small Pox Hospital. I hope it will have the desired effect." (It was commonly believed in past centuries that smallpox could be readily spread at a distance through infected clothing or bedding. However, in the 1960s A. R. Raoâs detailed research, during the last years that smallpox was sufficiently prevalent for its mode of transmission to be studied, found no evidence for this mode of transmission. He concluded that it was a breath-borne disease, transmitted by "inhalation".)
510:
Delaware men tried to coax the people holed up in the fort to leave, an option that Ecuyer promptly rejected and stated that reinforcements were coming to Fort Pitt and that the stronghold could easily hold out. After conferring with their chiefs, the two "returned and said they would hold fast of the Chain of friendship", but they were not genuinely believable. The messengers had asked for presents such as food and alcohol, "to carry us Home." Requesting gifts was common, but Ecuyer in this case seemed especially generous. Turtle's Heart and his companion received food in "large quantities", some "600 Rations." Included among this was the linen bundle containing the handkerchief and two blankets.
408:
395:
Swiss mercenary in
British service, tried to ready his fort after this news of expanding hostilities, putting his 230 men, half regulars and half quickly organized militia, on alert. The fort's exceptional structural defenses, made of stone with bastions covering all angles of attack, were supported by 16 cannons which he had permanently loaded. Ecuyer demolished the nearby village houses and structures to deny cover for attackers. He had trenches dug outside the fort, and set out beaver traps. Smallpox had been discovered within the fort, prompting Ecuyer to build a makeshift hospital in which to quarantine those infected.
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month later, and that nearly all of the met natives were recorded to have lived for decades afterwards. He also questions why Trent didn't gloat about any possible success in his journal if there was such. David Dixon holds likely that the transmission happened via some other route and possibly from the event described by John McCullough. Barbara Mann holds that the distribution worked, describing that
Gershom Hick's testimony of the epidemic starting by spring is explainable by Hicks lacking a calendar. Mann also estimates that papers related to the incident have been destroyed.
506:
Natives, and the expense was signed by Ecuyer. Ecuyer was relatively inexperienced, having only been a captain since April the year before and having taken over the command of the fort the same
November. Trent was likely the main orchestrator of the idea, considering he had more experience with the disease and had even helped out setting the smallpox hospital. Half-Native Alexander McKee also played a part in parlaying messages, but he possibly didn't know about the items. This plan was carried out independently from General Amherst and Colonel Bouquet.
650:, found that "In retrospect, it is difficult to evaluate the tactical success of Captain Ecuyer's biological attack because smallpox may have been transmitted after other contacts with colonists, as had previously happened in New England and the South. Although scabs from smallpox patients are thought to be of low infectivity as a result of binding of the virus in fibrin metric, and transmission by fomites has been considered inefficient compared with respiratory droplet transmission." In an article published in the journal
48:
381:, mark what is generally considered to be the beginning of Pontiac's War. The siege of Fort Pitt and numerous other British forts during the spring and summer of 1763 were part of an effort by American Indians to reclaim their territory by driving the British out of the Ohio Country and back across the Appalachian Mountains. While many of the forts and outposts in the region were destroyed, the Indian effort to remove the British from Fort Pitt ultimately failed.
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They thanked
Turtleheart and assured him that Fort Pitt could withstand "all nations of Indians", and they presented the Indian dignitaries with two small blankets and a handkerchief from the smallpox hospital. For the next several days it remained relatively quiet, although reports were coming in about fort after fort falling before large bands of attacking warriors.
456:, which forbade all settlement west of the Appalachian Mountainsâa proclamation ignored by British settlers, and unenforced by the British military. Fort Pitt would remain in British hands, and would become a central hub for migrant settlers as they pushed west in ever larger numbers over the next decade.
419:
and tried to trick the occupants of Fort Pitt into surrender, but the ruse failed. This was followed by several weeks of relative quiet, through July 18 when a large group of warriors arrived, likely from the Fort
Ligonier area. McKee was informed by the Shawnee that the Indians were still hopeful of
403:
spoke with McKee and Trent outside the fort, informing them that all of the other forts had fallen, and that Fort Pitt "is the only one you have left in our country." He warned McKee that "six different nations of
Indians" were ready to attack if the garrison at the fort did not retreat immediately.
656:
researchers
Vincent Barras and Gilbert Greub conclude that âin the light of contemporary knowledge, it remains doubtful whether his hopes were fulfilled, given the fact that the transmission of smallpox through this kind of vector is much less efficient than respiratory transmission, and that Native
394:
had fewer than 100 warriors, so did not immediately attack the well-fortified Fort Pitt. Instead, on May 29, they attacked the supporting farms, plantations and villages in the vicinity of the fort. Panicked settlers crowded into the already overcrowded fort. Captain Simeon Ecuyer, a 22-year veteran
509:
The meeting happened on June 24. The night before "Two
Delawares called for Mr. McKee and told him they wanted to speak to him in the Morning." The conference took place just outside of Fort Pitt. The participants were Ecuyer, McKee, Turtle's Heart, and another Delaware, "Mamaltee a Chief." The two
438:
and instructed him not to take any Indian prisoners. He proposed that they should be intentionally exposed to smallpox, hunted down with dogs, and "Every other method that can serve to
Extirpate this Execrable Race." Amherst had directed Bouquet to take his troops to relieve Fort Pitt, a march that
589:
A month later in July Colonel Bouquet discussed Pontiac's War in detail with General Amherst via letters, and in postscripts of three letters in more freeform style Amherst also briefly broached the subject of using of smallpox as a weapon. Bouquet brought up blankets as a means without going into
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writes that "the actual effectiveness of an attempt to spread smallpox remains impossible to ascertain: the possibility always exists that infection occurred by some natural route." Philip Ranlet describes as a clear sign that the blankets had no effect the fact that the same delegates were met a
398:
On the June 16, four Shawnee visited Fort Pitt and warned Alexander McKee and Captain Simeon Ecuyer that several Indian nations had accepted Pontiac's war belt and bloody hatchet and were going on the offensive against the British, but that the Delaware were still divided, with the older Delaware
484:
Sometime in the spring of 1763, a smallpox epidemic broke out near Fort Pitt and subsequently spread there. A smallpox hospital was then also established there to treat sick troops. There had also been an earlier epidemic among Ohio tribes in the early 1750s, as smallpox outbreaks occurred every
313:
infirmary as gifts to Native American emissaries with the hope of spreading the deadly disease to nearby tribes. The effectiveness is unknown, although it is known that the method used is inefficient compared to respiratory transmission and these attempts to spread the disease are difficult to
505:
The two blankets and the handkerchief from the infirmary were seemingly wrapped in a piece of linen. The blankets and handkerchief were unwashed and dirty. In 1955 a record of Trent's trading firm was found. It had an invoice for the handkerchief, two blankets and the linen to be given to the
389:
By May 27, the uprising reached the tribes near Fort Pitt, and there were many signs of impending hostilities. The captain of the Fort Pitt militia learned that the Delaware tribe just north of the fort had abandoned their dwellings and cornfields overnight. The Mingo had also abandoned their
543:
died in the smallpox epidemic, making it a relatively minor smallpox outbreak. After visiting Pittsburgh a few years later, David McClure would write in his journal published in 1899, "I was informed at Pittsburgh, that when the Delawares, Shawanese & others, laid siege suddenly and most
439:
would take several weeks. At Fort Pitt, the siege didn't let up until August 1, 1763, when most of the Indians broke off their attack in order to intercept the body of almost 500 British troops marching to the fort under Colonel Bouquet. On August 5, these two forces met at Edge Hill in the
531:
A month after meeting on July 22, Trent met with the same delegates again and they seemingly had not contracted smallpox: "Gray Eyes, Wingenum, Turtle's Heart and Mamaultee, came over the River told us their Chiefs were in Council, that they waited for Custaluga who they expected that Day."
544:
traitorously to Fort Pitt, in 1764, in a time of peace, the people within, found means of conveying the small pox to them, which was far more destructive than the guns from the walls, or all the artillery of Colonel Boquet's army, which obliged them to abandon the enterprise."
633:
says the act of biological aggression at Fort Pitt is indisputable, but that at the time the rare attempts to transmit infection rarely worked and they were probably made redundant with natural routes of transmission. The practice was restrained by lack of knowledge.
451:
More than 500 British troops and perhaps a couple thousand settlers had died in the Ohio Valley, and of more than a dozen British forts, only Detroit, Niagara and Pitt remained standing at the height of this uprising. On October 7, 1763, the Crown issued
390:
villages further up the river. The proprietor of the Pennsylvania provincial store reported that numerous Delaware warriors had arrived "in fear and haste" to exchange their skins for gunpowder and lead. The western Delaware warrior leaders Wolf and
369:
placing a limit upon the westward expansion of the American colonies. The hostilities between the French and British declined significantly after 1760, followed by a final cessation of hostilities and the formal surrender of the French at the
434:, who before the war had dismissed the possibility that the Indians would offer any effective resistance to British rule, the military situation over the summer had become increasingly grim. The frustration was so great, he wrote to Colonel
661:âs conquest of South America in the 16th century. As a whole, the analysis of the various âpre-microbiologicalâ attempts at BW illustrate the difficulty of differentiating attempted biological attack from naturally occurring epidemics.â
593:
Bouquet himself probably never had the opportunity to "Send the Small Pox." He was very concerned about smallpox, having never had it. When Bouquet wrote to Ecuyer, he didn't mention the disease. He died only two years later in 1765 of
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an amicable outcome, similar to agreements just made at Detroit. On July 26, a large conference headed by Ecuyer was convened with several leaders of the Ohioan tribes outside the walls of Fort Pitt. The Indian delegation,
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after they refused to honor their promises and treaties to leave voluntarily after the defeat of the French. The Native American efforts of diplomacy, and by siege, to remove the Anglo-Americans from
535:
Gershom Hicks, who was fluent in the Delaware language and also knew some Shawnee, testified that starting from spring 1763 up to April 1764 around a hundred Natives from different tribes such as
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629:, a historian who extensively studied Parkman's writings, had a more damning view. He indicated that the fighting strength of the Natives was greatly compromised by the plan. Microbiologist
2007:
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P.S. Could it not be contrived to Send the Small Pox among those Disaffected Tribes of Indians? We must, on this occasion, Use Every Stratagem in our power to Reduce them.
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History of that part of the Susquehanna and Juniata valleys, embraced in the counties of Mifflin, Juniata, Perry, Union and Snyder, in the commonwealth of Pennsylvania
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P.S. You will Do well to try to Innoculate the Indians by means of Blanketts, as well as to try Every other method that can serve to Extirpate this Execreble Race.
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361:âmade this agreement with the understanding that the British would leave the area after their war with the French. Instead of leaving the territory west of the
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in what is now the city of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. The French abandoned and destroyed Fort Duquesne in November 1758 with the approach of
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as they had agreed, the Anglo-Americans remained on Native lands and reinforced their forts while settlers continued to push westward, despite the
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P.S. I will try to inocculate the Indians by means of Blankets that may fall in their hands, taking care however not to get the disease myself.
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Out of our regard to them we gave them two Blankets and an Handkerchief out of the Small Pox Hospital. I hope it will have the desired effect.
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The account of the British infecting Natives with smallpox during Pontiac's War of 1763 originated with nineteenth century historian
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This event is usually described as an early attempt at biological warfare. However the plan's effectiveness is generally questioned.
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To Sundries got to Replace in kind those which were taken from people in the Hospital to Convey the Smallpox to the Indians Vizt:
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dozen or so years. According to John McCullough, who was held captive, some of the Mahoning village warriors raiding a
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Smallpox Blankets, Myth or Massacre, Historynet.com, John Koster, published August 15, 2017, accessed August 31, 2022
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Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix to settle a Boundary Line. 1768
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Americans had been in contact with smallpox >200 years before Ecuyerâs trickery, notably during
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and Simeon Ecuyer, a Swiss mercenary in British service, may have given items from a
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specifics, and Amherst supported the idea "to Extirpate this Execreble Race".
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The signal for Indian Messengers, and all your Directions will be observed.
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The attacks led by Pontiac against the British in early May 1763, near
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Ecuyer, Simeon: Fort Pitt and letters from the frontier (1892):
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took place during June and July 1763 in what is now the city of
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American Indian Chronology: Chronologies of the American Mosaic
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52:"A Plan of the New Fort at Pitts-Burgh", drawn by cartographer
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For the 1885 action in the Canadian North-West Rebellion, see
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Thomas Hutchins Map of Henry Bouquet's 1764 Expedition
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Diary of David McClure, Doctor of Divinity, 1748â1820
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William Trent, William Trent's Journal at Fort Pitt
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1685:Pontiac's War: Its Causes, Course and Consequences
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301:This event is known for an possible attempt at
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1267:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
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1645:Medical Aspects of Biological Warfare
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699:Martin, Christopher & Eitzen 2007
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526:& 1 linnen do: 3/6 0" 13" 6
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454:Royal Proclamation of 1763
367:Royal Proclamation of 1763
20:
16:Siege during Pontiac's War
2498:
2467:
2446:
2425:
2397:Battle of the Monongahela
2384:
2373:
2362:Battle of Jumonville Glen
2354:
2290:
2270:combined statistical area
2127:Colleges and universities
2119:
2071:
1968:
1902:John McCullough Narrative
1766:Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent)
1717:Parkman, Francis (1851).
1702:. Yale University Press.
563:Colonel Bouquet, July 13:
522:2 Blankets @ 20/ ÂŁ2" 0" 0
210:
150:
130:
68:June 22 â August 10, 1763
60:
45:
37:
32:
2744:Native American genocide
2709:Fort Pitt (Pennsylvania)
2699:Battles of Pontiac's War
2152:Pittsburgh Parking Chair
1860:NativeWeb documents on:
1698:Ostler, Jeffrey (2019).
558:General Amherst, July 8:
2719:Battles in Pennsylvania
2480:Battle of Fort Ligonier
2475:Battle of Fort Duquesne
2459:Bloody Springs massacre
2433:Battle of Sideling Hill
2221:2018 synagogue shooting
1920:Pioneers of Second Fork
1896:"Colonial Germ Warfare"
1572:King, J. C. H. (2016).
1389:10.1111/1469-0691.12706
682:Barras & Greub 2014
1907:April 7, 2014, at the
1891:Entry of June 24, 1763
1803:Royle, Trevor (2016).
1689:. Routledge. pp.
577:
528:
524:1 Silk Handkerchef 10/
473:
412:
151:Commanders and leaders
56:and published in 1765.
2734:1763 in North America
2678:Heinrich Zeller House
2568:Fort Juniata Crossing
2438:Kittanning Expedition
2417:GnadenhĂźtten massacre
2402:Penn's Creek massacre
2348:French and Indian War
2260:Notable Pittsburghers
1528:"Fort Pitt holds out"
1470:Dixon, David (2005).
555:
518:
514:INVOICE for 1763 June
469:
410:
363:Appalachian Mountains
324:French and Indian War
2454:Hochstetler massacre
2081:Allegheny Conference
1741:Pennsylvania History
245:Enoch Brown's school
2407:Great Cove massacre
2392:Braddock Expedition
2091:Chamber of Commerce
1826:. pp. 407â424.
1822:Sipe, C.H. (1931).
765:, pp. 103â104.
441:Battle of Bushy Run
385:Diplomacy and siege
374:in February 1763.
337:'s expedition. The
298:ultimately failed.
103:40.4412°N 80.0098°W
99: /
23:Battle of Fort Pitt
2739:British war crimes
2704:Biological warfare
2643:Fort Prince George
2181:Fictional settings
1962:City of Pittsburgh
1887:Entry June 2, 1763
460:Biological warfare
413:
303:biological warfare
260:siege of Fort Pitt
33:Siege of Fort Pitt
2729:Conflicts in 1763
2686:
2685:
2648:Redstone Old Fort
2638:Fort Presque Isle
2490:Forbes Expedition
2310:
2309:
2228:Pittsburgh toilet
2023:District Attorney
1983:Convention Center
1814:978-1-4055-1476-7
1709:978-0-300-24526-4
1673:978-0-8032-3142-9
1654:978-0-16-087238-9
1631:978-0-313-35338-3
1583:978-1-84614-808-8
1564:978-0-393-02537-8
1541:978-0-8229-7520-5
1481:978-0-8061-3656-1
1424:978-0-19-530071-0
1249:on August 8, 2017
1132:, pp. 92â93.
996:, pp. 8, 10.
636:Elizabeth A. Fenn
622:Later researchers
602:Later assessments
573:Bouquet, July 19:
568:Amherst, July 16:
339:Forbes expedition
292:Allegheny Plateau
253:
252:
169:
168:
126:
125:
108:40.4412; -80.0098
2751:
2485:Treaty of Easton
2379:
2337:
2330:
2323:
2314:
2313:
2299:
2298:
1955:
1948:
1941:
1932:
1931:
1849:
1836:
1827:
1818:
1799:
1789:
1756:
1735:
1733:
1722:
1713:
1694:
1688:
1677:
1658:
1635:
1616:
1587:
1568:
1556:
1545:
1522:
1497:(4): 1552â1580.
1485:
1466:
1450:
1439:
1428:
1412:
1401:
1391:
1357:
1351:
1345:
1339:
1333:
1327:
1321:
1315:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1294:Knollenberg 1954
1291:
1285:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1266:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1248:
1242:. Archived from
1241:
1233:
1227:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1195:
1189:
1183:
1172:
1166:
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1127:
1121:
1115:
1109:
1103:
1097:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1058:
1055:Knollenberg 1954
1052:
1039:
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1024:
1018:
1009:
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997:
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935:
926:
920:
914:
903:
897:
886:
880:
874:
868:
859:
853:
838:
835:Knollenberg 1954
832:
823:
817:
808:
802:
796:
790:
781:
775:
766:
760:
751:
745:
730:
725:
719:
713:
702:
696:
685:
679:
648:Borden Institute
627:Francis Jennings
585:
480:
347:American Indians
345:, in which area
343:Treaty of Easton
284:Native Americans
205:
195:
188:
181:
172:
171:
114:
113:
111:
110:
109:
104:
100:
97:
96:
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92:
62:
61:
50:
30:
29:
2759:
2758:
2754:
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2752:
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2749:
2748:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2682:
2500:
2494:
2463:
2442:
2421:
2380:
2371:
2350:
2341:
2311:
2306:
2286:
2115:
2067:
1964:
1959:
1909:Wayback Machine
1862:Amherst-Bouquet
1857:
1852:
1815:
1807:. Hachette UK.
1710:
1674:
1655:
1632:
1605:10.2307/1897495
1584:
1565:
1542:
1503:10.2307/2567577
1482:
1463:
1425:
1365:
1360:
1352:
1348:
1340:
1336:
1328:
1324:
1316:
1312:
1304:
1300:
1292:
1288:
1280:
1276:
1260:
1259:
1252:
1250:
1246:
1239:
1237:"Archived copy"
1235:
1234:
1230:
1222:
1218:
1208:
1206:
1196:
1192:
1188:, p. 1564.
1184:
1175:
1167:
1160:
1152:
1148:
1140:
1136:
1128:
1124:
1116:
1112:
1104:
1100:
1096:, p. 1554.
1092:
1088:
1084:, pp. 7â8.
1080:
1076:
1072:, pp. 8â9.
1068:
1061:
1053:
1042:
1034:
1027:
1019:
1012:
1004:
1000:
992:
988:
980:
976:
968:
959:
951:
938:
927:
923:
915:
906:
898:
889:
881:
877:
869:
862:
854:
841:
833:
826:
822:, p. 1557.
818:
811:
803:
799:
791:
784:
776:
769:
761:
754:
746:
733:
726:
722:
714:
705:
697:
688:
680:
671:
667:
624:
616:Francis Parkman
612:
604:
587:
579:
571:
566:
561:
554:
550:
548:Amherst letters
539:(Delaware) and
529:
525:
523:
521:
517:
515:
482:
475:
467:
462:
449:
432:Jeffery Amherst
387:
372:Treaty of Paris
320:
282:, an effort by
256:
255:
254:
249:
206:
201:
199:
162:
122:British victory
107:
105:
101:
98:
93:
90:
88:
86:
85:
84:
51:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2757:
2747:
2746:
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2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2628:Fort Northkill
2625:
2623:Fort Necessity
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2598:Fort Lyttleton
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2543:Fort Granville
2540:
2535:
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2515:
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2427:
2423:
2422:
2420:
2419:
2414:
2412:Kobel massacre
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
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2386:
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2381:
2374:
2372:
2370:
2369:
2364:
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2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2225:
2224:
2223:
2216:Jewish history
2213:
2208:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2191:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2172:
2171:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2129:
2123:
2121:
2117:
2116:
2114:
2113:
2111:Stock Exchange
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2077:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1974:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1958:
1957:
1950:
1943:
1935:
1929:
1928:
1923:
1922:James P. Burke
1917:
1911:
1899:
1893:
1883:
1877:
1875:Bouquet Papers
1872:
1856:
1855:External links
1853:
1851:
1850:
1837:
1828:
1819:
1813:
1800:
1757:
1736:
1723:
1714:
1708:
1695:
1678:
1672:
1659:
1653:
1636:
1630:
1617:
1599:(3): 489â494.
1588:
1582:
1576:. Penguin UK.
1569:
1563:
1546:
1540:
1523:
1486:
1480:
1467:
1461:
1440:
1429:
1423:
1402:
1382:(6): 497â502.
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1358:
1346:
1334:
1322:
1310:
1298:
1286:
1274:
1228:
1216:
1190:
1173:
1158:
1154:McConnell 1992
1146:
1134:
1122:
1110:
1108:, p. 154.
1098:
1086:
1074:
1059:
1040:
1025:
1010:
998:
986:
974:
957:
936:
921:
904:
902:, p. 155.
887:
875:
860:
839:
824:
809:
807:, p. 117.
797:
782:
767:
752:
748:Middleton 2007
731:
720:
703:
686:
668:
666:
663:
623:
620:
611:
610:Early research
608:
603:
600:
552:
551:
549:
546:
513:
512:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
448:
445:
386:
383:
319:
316:
278:was a part of
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43:
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15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2654:
2653:Fort Robinson
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2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
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2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2618:Mercer's Fort
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2603:Fort Machault
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2588:Fort Ligonier
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2578:Fort Le Boeuf
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2563:Fort Hyndshaw
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2538:Fort Duquesne
2536:
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2250:Neighborhoods
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2109:
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2101:Economic Club
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2097:
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2089:
2087:
2086:Duquesne Club
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1793:
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1779:
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1771:
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1763:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1747:(3): 427â41.
1746:
1742:
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1477:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1462:0-8018-7079-8
1458:
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1399:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1368:
1367:
1355:
1350:
1344:, p. 18.
1343:
1338:
1332:, p. 12.
1331:
1326:
1320:, p. 33.
1319:
1314:
1307:
1306:Jennings 1988
1302:
1295:
1290:
1283:
1278:
1270:
1264:
1245:
1238:
1232:
1225:
1220:
1205:
1201:
1194:
1187:
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1180:
1178:
1170:
1165:
1163:
1155:
1150:
1144:, p. 72.
1143:
1138:
1131:
1126:
1120:, p. 44.
1119:
1114:
1107:
1102:
1095:
1090:
1083:
1078:
1071:
1066:
1064:
1056:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1038:, p. 60.
1037:
1032:
1030:
1022:
1017:
1015:
1008:, p. 13.
1007:
1002:
995:
990:
984:, p. 11.
983:
978:
972:, p. 10.
971:
966:
964:
962:
954:
949:
947:
945:
943:
941:
933:
932:
925:
918:
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911:
909:
901:
896:
894:
892:
885:, p. 73.
884:
879:
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857:
852:
850:
848:
846:
844:
836:
831:
829:
821:
816:
814:
806:
801:
794:
789:
787:
779:
778:Calloway 2006
774:
772:
764:
763:Harpster 1938
759:
757:
749:
744:
742:
740:
738:
736:
729:
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511:
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328:Fort Duquesne
325:
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307:William Trent
304:
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280:Pontiac's War
277:
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203:Pontiac's War
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164:William Trent
161:Simeon Ecuyer
160:
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40:Pontiac's War
36:
31:
24:
19:
2673:Fort William
2668:Fort Venango
2663:Fort Swatara
2658:Fort Shirley
2593:Fort Loudoun
2583:Light's Fort
2573:Fort Lebanon
2548:Fort Halifax
2533:Fort Deshler
2518:Fort Bedford
2513:Fort Augusta
2344:Pennsylvania
2294:
2157:Picklesburgh
2137:cookie table
2120:Other topics
2096:Corporations
1841:
1832:
1823:
1804:
1772:(4): 400â6.
1769:
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1434:
1408:
1379:
1375:
1356:, p. 9.
1349:
1337:
1325:
1318:Wheelis 1999
1313:
1301:
1289:
1282:Peckham 1947
1277:
1251:. Retrieved
1244:the original
1231:
1219:
1207:. Retrieved
1203:
1193:
1171:, p. 5.
1149:
1137:
1125:
1113:
1101:
1089:
1077:
1057:, p. 2.
1023:, p. 3.
1001:
989:
977:
955:, p. 8.
930:
924:
919:, p. 2.
878:
871:Parkman 1851
858:, p. 9.
837:, p. 6.
800:
723:
701:, p. 3.
651:
641:
631:Mark Wheelis
625:
613:
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596:yellow fever
592:
588:
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492:In 1924 the
491:
483:
477:
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450:
426:
414:
397:
388:
379:Fort Detroit
376:
321:
300:
288:Ohio Country
268:Pennsylvania
259:
257:
240:Devil's Hole
224:
215:Fort Detroit
137:Ohio Country
131:Belligerents
82:Pennsylvania
18:
2613:Fort McCord
2608:Fort Manada
2558:Fort Hunter
2523:Fort Bigham
2346:during the
2277:Skyscrapers
1624:. Praeger.
1330:Ranlet 2000
1224:Riedel 2004
1169:Ranlet 2000
1130:Dexter 1899
1082:Ranlet 2000
1036:Ostler 2019
1021:Ranlet 2000
982:Ranlet 2000
970:Ranlet 2000
953:Ranlet 2000
917:Ranlet 2000
856:Ranlet 2000
401:Turtleheart
392:Keekyuscung
351:Six Nations
335:John Forbes
305:, in which
220:Point Pelee
106: /
54:John Rocque
2693:Categories
2553:Fort Henry
2528:Fort Depuy
2508:Fort Allen
2194:television
1993:Courthouse
1970:Government
1557:. Norton.
1363:References
1118:White 2011
1106:Dixon 2005
928:A.R. Rao,
900:Dixon 2005
805:Royle 2016
318:Background
264:Pittsburgh
230:Bloody Run
94:80°00â˛35âłW
91:40°26â˛28âłN
78:Pittsburgh
2633:Fort Pitt
2255:Nicknames
2235:Hospitals
2147:Green Man
2048:Education
2038:Libraries
1988:City Hall
1866:Fort Pitt
1455:â7, 190.
1354:Mann 2009
1342:Mann 2009
1186:Fenn 2000
1142:King 2016
1094:Fenn 2000
1070:Mann 2009
1006:Mann 2009
994:Mann 2009
883:King 2016
820:Fenn 2000
793:Dowd 2002
716:Sipe 1931
665:Citations
447:Aftermath
355:Delawares
296:Fort Pitt
235:Bushy Run
225:Fort Pitt
2724:Smallpox
2499:Frontier
2301:Category
2211:timeline
2185:Filming
2106:HYP Club
2063:Regional
2013:InterGov
1905:Archived
1796:16200127
1753:17216901
1519:18271127
1398:24894605
1263:cite web
931:Smallpox
359:Shawnees
311:smallpox
157:Guyasuta
73:Location
38:Part of
2245:Museums
2201:History
2164:Dialect
2142:theatre
2132:Culture
2073:Economy
2043:Transit
2028:Sheriff
2003:Council
1978:Airport
1787:1200679
1613:1897495
1511:2567577
1253:May 16,
659:Pizarro
541:Shawnee
487:Juniata
422:Shingas
332:General
140:natives
2282:Sports
2265:Region
2169:Yinzer
2018:Police
2008:Events
1811:
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1784:
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1478:
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1421:
1396:
1209:May 5,
417:parley
274:. The
119:Result
2501:Forts
2240:Media
2189:films
2053:Parks
1998:Mayor
1609:JSTOR
1507:JSTOR
1417:â75.
1247:(PDF)
1240:(PDF)
1204:Metro
276:siege
2468:1758
2447:1757
2426:1756
2385:1755
2355:1754
2206:name
2176:Flag
2058:Port
2033:Fire
1809:ISBN
1792:PMID
1749:PMID
1704:ISBN
1693:â91.
1668:ISBN
1649:ISBN
1626:ISBN
1578:ISBN
1559:ISBN
1536:ISBN
1515:PMID
1476:ISBN
1457:ISBN
1419:ISBN
1394:PMID
1269:link
1255:2017
1211:2021
427:For
357:and
290:and
258:The
65:Date
1782:PMC
1774:doi
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