Social War (91–87 BC)

1022:, argues that Appian's citizenship narrative is highly anachronistic. For writers in the imperial period, Roman citizenship was highly desirable. Those writers then retrojected that desirability onto the Italians who lived centuries before their time. His analysis of the evidence also concludes that before the Social War, there was little agitation for citizenship, multiple citizenships still being invalid, which would have been incompatible with local autonomy. As to the possibility of votes for land, he writes "Flaccus' citizenship bill would have been infinitely more far-reaching in its implications than the reform promoted... it would lead to a total upheaval of the traditional alliance system on which Roman domination in Italy had been based for centuries... as an attempt to restart the land distribution process the bill would probably have been of scant value". The extent of the upheaval of the alliance system similarly leads Mouritsen to reject granting citizenship as part of Drusus' attempt to change jury composition as means far in excess of the ends sought. 1949:, paints the dominant Appianic narrative as being coloured by his second century AD imperialist world view and thereby creating an anachronistic and inaccurate interpretation of first century Italian war goals. He identifies two separate traditions, one for citizenship and one for independence. Mouritsen's account has been extremely influential in recent research, both in terms of a more convincing reconstruction of the war's start, especially in a non-teleological manner, but also in triggering scholarly re-evaluation of Romanisation in Italy and Italian war goals more generally. It has not, however, won universal acceptance. Other scholars have also connected the burdens of allied service in the Roman army with resentment against segregation and mistreatment. 1038:, Italians started to complain about Roman magistrates illegally encroaching on their land holdings; in 129 BC, the senate acted and deprived the land redistribution commission of its survey jurisdiction, putting a pause on land distributions. The commission, before the pause in 129 BC, likely quickly surveyed and parceled out the unoccupied and recently surveyed Hannibalic war-era lands. The older holdings elsewhere, however, were impossible to disentangle from private lands. Never surveyed and with unclear borders, Italians objected to the land commission's infringements on their property, which was guaranteed by treaty. The objections brought the redistributive process quickly to a halt. 991:) drove romanisation in an attempt to share in the rewards of empire. The exalted position of Italian businessmen in the provinces may have reinforced their status inferiority at home; combined with a desire to influence Roman provincial policy, they may have sought to secure their business rights by becoming Roman citizens. This thesis, however, is not widely accepted since the Italians who were most exposed to the Greek East were not those who led the revolt and had to be coerced into joining it. Similarly, A N Sherwin-White believed that the Italians wanted Roman citizenship to secure legal equality. Less convincingly, D B Nagle argued that economic factors could explain the start of the war. 1257: 1000: 1418:, consul in 91 BC and promagistrate this year, moved to relieve Firmum some time in October. Between Sextus' army and Pompey Strabo's forces, Labrenius' forces were routed and forced into Asculum, which was then besieged by Strabo. Sextus' forces then forced back Vidacilius into Apulia and placed it too under siege in December. The northern front of the war largely collapsed after these victories. Attempts to incite rebellion in Etruria and Umbria could have opened a third front against Rome, but were quickly suppressed; Appian notes also that the senate acceded to garrisoning Cumae with freedmen, recruited into the army for the first time. 1144:) possible hints for the lost portions of Livy's narrative on the Social War. Because much of Livy's work on early history have long been recognised to be anachronistic, Mouritsen believes that the narrative on the Latin War may anachronistically reflect Social War-era realities. In the Livian Latin War, the Latin allies demanded a real power-sharing arrangement where magistracies and senatorial seats were to be set aside for the Latins in proportion to military contributions. If the Italians had similar aims in 91 BC, they would have been incompatible with a centralised Roman state and the supremacy of Rome's urban elite. 46: 864:, which was allied in a collection of bilateral treaties with the many city-states on the peninsula. In general, those cities received guarantees of territorial integrity and internal self-government in exchange for supporting Rome with men during its many wars. Allied contingents made up an increasing portion of Roman manpower: by 295 BC, the allied contingents of Roman-led armies as a whole outnumbered the Romans on the field and, by 218 BC, there were three allies on the field for every two Romans. This made allied manpower indispensable for Roman military superiority. 1245: 1236:, then a plebeian tribune, set up a permanent court searching around for conspirators who incited the Italians to war. Mouritsen writes of the court, "such stab-in-the-back theories are plausible only when no other explanation is at hand; apparently the Romans did not see any direct connection between the franchise question and the outbreak of the war". It is possible that in the early winter of 90 BC there was an abortive attempt to negotiate a peace before fighting started; if it occurred, the senate refused to negotiate. 1540: 1008: 699:. Other Italian towns quickly declared for the rebels and the Roman response was initially confused. By the new year, the Romans had levied huge armies to crush the rebels but found initial headway difficult; by the end of the year, however, they were able to cut the Italian rebels into two, isolating them into northern and southern sectors. The Italian rebels attempted to invade Etruria and Umbria at the start of 89 BC but were defeated. In the south, they were defeated by 1229:

sources such as Diodorus (via Photius), Florus, and Velleius Paterclus recount events non-chronologically. There were two main theatres of the war, with one in the north and one in the south. There also was an abortive attempt to incite rebellion in Etruria and Umbria, but the Romans moved quickly and brutally to suppress it. The northern theatre was centred on Asculum (in the lands of the Piceni and Marsi) with the southern theatre in Samnium, Lucania, Apulia, and Campania.

1621: 1710:, challenged this plan. He brought and passed legislation, possibly by force, which would have the new citizens inscribed in the existing thirty-five tribes instead; he could only bring that proposal successfully with the support of Marius, whom he won over with the promise of the Mithridatic command. But his legislation was abrogated after Sulla – at the time continuing the siege at Nola – marched on Rome in response to the Mithridatic reassignment. 1375: 1787:, further speculates that the conflict may have driven a wedge between the common soldiery and the voters at Rome, reducing their loyalty to the state. Combined, these factors made the republic's victory in the Social war "a Pyrrhic one at best", creating "both Sulla the consul and Sulla's own particular kind of client army that was willing to march on Rome at his bidding, for the first time in Roman history". 1575:

still controlled large tracts of territory. The Italians reorganised around Quintus Poppaedius Silo and designated him supreme commander; according to Diodorus, Silo command a force of some 50,000 men, which would have been hopelessly insufficient to fight the Romans. Regardless, Silo was able to reverse Roman advances in Samnium and also recapture Bovianum. He then crossed the Apennines and engaged

980:. As part of a complex scheme to change criminal court jury composition, Drusus allegedly would have to seduce the people with free land, which required public lands, which required pushing Italians off that land, which required a sweetener of citizenship to quell objections. When the proposals failed, the Italians went to war to secure the citizenship and legal equality denied to them in peace. 1046:, in the senate some time in September. Rome responded to these rumours of Italian unrest by sending garrison forces into Italy, which explains their capture at the start of the war. Drusus may have then attempted to rescue his standing and placate the allies by trying to pass a law to give the allies citizenship. After this attempt failed amid Drusus' declining popularity, the attempts of the 1212:(the Varian court) to prosecute those who aided the Italians secure citizenship. After the double blow of Drusus' death and the prosecution of their allies at Rome, Appian then has the Italians form their conspiracy and revolt. However, as the Italians could not have had enough time between Drusus' death and the start of the war to organise, Appian's timing cannot be correct. 720:, who wrote in the imperial period during the 2nd century AD, and whose narrative is largely one based on demands of the allies for Roman citizenship. Other historians, most especially Henrik Mouritsen, have focused instead on a perceived alternative tradition which has the Italian allies rebelling against Roman hegemony and encroachment on allied lands. 4455: 1295:. According to the summary of Livy, Livy included tables of the Latin and foreign communities that sent auxiliaries to join the Romans. Modern estimates of Roman manpower exceed 140,000, split between fourteen legions (two for each consul and one each for ten legates). Rome also conscripted ships and mercenaries from its overseas allies; two 1193:, rushed to the city and threatened violence if Asculum did not desist. The inhabitants, however, fearful of Roman discovery, responded by killing the praetor and his legate Fonteius. They then killed all the Romans in the city and ransacked their goods. Violence having been committed against the Romans openly, the Italians revolted as one. 732:. The conflict also blurred the distinction between Romans and their enemies; the presence of large armies in Italy during the war also provided opportunities for generals to seize power extralegally. For these reasons and others, some historians believe the conflict played an important role in setting up the collapse of the republic. 1796: 1077:

locations. Already by late 91 BC, the Romans had sent praetors with levied troops around the peninsula to investigate rumours of a plot. But by the time the investigations completed (or as a result of those investigations), the war had started. Regardless, preparations for a revolt likely were brewing

1042:

the law passed over their objections and Rome started seizing allied lands; the allies therefore started preparations for an insurrection by late summer 91 BC. Amid this distrust, Drusus was blamed for breaking down relations with the allies, which led to a confrontation between Drusus and the consul,

940:, concludes that "it seems certain that the Social War is best understood as a revolt from Rome" but synthesises the approaches in that the desires for citizenship and independence are themselves expressions of an underlying desire for equality and freedom, inside or outside the Roman political system. 1514:

Asculum surrendered in November 89 BC after its commander, Vidacilius, committed suicide. For this victory, Pompey Strabo celebrated a triumph on 25 December over Asculum and Picenum. Strabo, however, infamously refused to give any of the plunder to the state, even though the public treasury was

1117:

in 1854 proposed that the Italians self-organised basically along the same lines as the Romans. Alfred von Domaszewski in 1924 suggested that Silo and Mutilus were merely leaders of two major factions in the Italian forces and that the twelve "praetors" reflected twelve tribal divisions arranged in a

1025:

Instead, Mouritsen focuses on Italian discontent with Roman public land reform. Rome's public lands had been won centuries prior to the 90s BC when the nascent republic had subjugated the Italian peninsula. Newer lands had also been forcibly taken from southern Italian cities that had sided with

983:

The most convincing theme which Appian presents, however, is an Italian desire for political equality: he says the Italians aspired to be "partners in rule rather than subjects". However, it is likely that poor and rich Italians sought different goals: poorer Italians were likely seeking freedom from

1041:

Mouritsen proposed instead the following reconstruction for the start of the war in the late 90s BC. Drusus, seeking to placate the plebs in exchange for a change in the jury courts, proposed a law to do more widespread land distributions against the allies' protests. Their anger increased when

1646:

than during the conflict", indicating the financial strain imposed on the Roman state in supplying and paying for an unprecedented number of troops. Devastation of the war in the central and southern portions of Italy was "profound". Archaeological evidence points towards the Social war, along with

1922:

in 1841. The first modern narrative history was that of Adolf Kiene in 1844, which established the narrative separation between northern and southern fronts and cast the consuls of 90 BC as engaging in a personalistic feud with their Italian counterparts. Kiene also was the first to recognise

1779:

The war also politicised the Roman army and broke down civil-military norms. Defections, lax discipline, and mutinies were tolerated as commanders could not afford to lose the support of the men. Conflict with the Italians also blurred the distinction between Romans and foreign enemies: for Andrew

1751:

The immediate aftermath of the war proved grounds for continued conflict. Beyond the unrest associated with Sulpicius' tribunate and Sulla's overturning of Sulpicius' laws, the continuing dispute over enfranchisement was one of the factors which motivated men to support Lucius Cornelius Cinna, who

1729:

The new citizens that were enrolled after the Social war also were distributed across the whole of the Italian peninsula. Only a few had the means to travel to Rome and vote in person. Those nearer the city likely had little connection to Rome's oligarchic political system. This new electorate was

1721:

both by the victor and the senate. This process started only in 70 BC with the election of new censors, who very likely stepped down before the census was complete. This was not helped by the irregular election of censors after the Social war: only two pairs completed their tasks (those of 86

1701:

The first proposals, emerging during the Social war itself, were merely to expand the number of tribes and to allot the Italians to those new tribes. This solution was also elegantly traditional: Rome's tribes had in the past been adduced to represent citizens living in new territories, though the

1574:

Early in the year, Pompey Strabo's command in the northern theatre was prorogued and he quickly accepted the surrender of multiple Italian towns and communities, putting an effective end to the war in the north. The remaining northern insurgents fled south to Samnium and Apulia, where the Italians

1929:

was the first to break from the ancient accounts, arguing that the Italian goals shifted during the war from citizenship before the war to independence during it, viewing this as a consequence of the Italian's parallel political institutions established at Corfinium and their christening of a new

1774:

for the first time in over a hundred years... large-scale military campaigning back to Italian soil. The impact on Roman politics was profound as well as instantaneous. Already in 88, Sulla exploited the presence of standing armies in Italy to seize power and for a period suspended the republican

908:

during the conquest of Italy; even afterwards, these allies retained their cohesiveness, having defected from Rome as a single bloc during the Second Punic war. Romanisation through to the second century proceeded with considerable heterogeneity: in Apulia and Samnium, Latin influence was largely

1769:

Longer-term impacts also were triggered by the war's change in political norms. In the immediate sense, of domestic politics in the period 91–88 BC, nothing at all can be said with certainty. But the war's extensive militarisation of Italy triggered an opening for generals to grab political

1611:

Even in ancient times the conflict was perplexing and the final outcome of the war or its immediate impacts were not entirely clear. One can interpret the terms under which the various Italian communities at different times reached with the Roman state as victory for either Italians or Romans or

1429:

to invade, but Mithridates responded equivocally. As Rome started to gain the upper hand, the senate decreed some time around October that consul Lucius Julius Caesar should bring legislation allowing any Italian community that had not revolted or otherwise promptly laid down their arms to elect

1072:

after an attempted revolt in 125 BC, it was an enormous risk to rebel against Rome. The Italians, in planning their war, would have to form reliable alliances secured with hostages. Appian describes a long series of secret negotiations between the Italian states, of which Rome was ignorant.

932:

The "Italian question" refers to the relationship between Rome and her Italian allies. It is still not entirely clear what the Italian allies were fighting for. There are two threads in the ancient accounts: one depicting the struggle as one for Roman citizenship and another as one against Roman

1506:

by June. Sulla then moved into Samnium, subjugating the Hirpini and giving gentle terms, before taking Bovianum by September after a bitter struggle, forcing the Italians to move their capital again to Aesernia (now under their full control). That year, Sulla stood for and won the consulship of

895:

By the tune of the Social War, the allies were mainly located in the following regions: two northern ones (Etruria and Umbria) and more further south (Lucania, Apulia, and Magna Graecia). As far back as the fifth century, the Oscan and Umbrian-speaking communities in southern Italy had formed a

1834:

Most of the ancient accounts attributed the war to allied demands for citizenship. However, these accounts were written in the aftermath of the war, which extended that citizenship, and largely fail to justify how citizenship became an Italian demand. The core surviving source is Appian; other

1228:

The main sources for the course of the war are relatively confused. Appian's account present events roughly geographically, producing a confusing non-chronological account. Livy's summaries indicate that Livy wrote chronologically, but the details of the original Livian volumes are lost. Other

1076:

The Romans were likely aware of some kind of unrest, even if they did not know of its scope. This is evidenced by Roman garrisons being captured at the start of the war in unfriendly cities. It is likely those garrisons had been dispatched before the start of the war to strategically important

1742:

The impact of these new Italian citizens was felt, for example, in the legislation recalling Cicero from exile in 58 BC. It passed due to the support of the Italian landowners who had been enfranchised by the conflict, using Italian enfranchisement to support Italian political champions.

1825:

in 1998, which read the war not as a struggle for citizenship and political equality, as depicted in imperial accounts, but rather as an attempt by certain Italian allies to throw off the Roman yoke. Archaeological evidence also has continued to show substantial heterogeneity prior to Roman

723:

The massive expansion of the citizenship that followed the Social War remained a politically-charged topic, especially in terms of how they would be allocated into voting blocks. Disputes over enfranchisement played a role in Sulla's march on Rome in 88 BC to depose plebeian tribune

909:

absent in both the archaeological and literary sources, while in Marsic lands inscriptions indicate adoption of the Latin alphabet. On the whole, Italian tribes and peoples on the eve of the Social war still held themselves distinct from Rome, just as they had in previous centuries.

1404:, was able to pull off a decisive victory by forcing the river when alerted to the disaster by the bodies that flowed downstream; he eventually assumed command after Rutilius' replacement was assassinated at false surrender negotiations. Marius, assisted by a flanking manoeuvre by 1265:

Appian reports that the Italians at the start of the war mobilised some 100,000 men. Rome's Latin allies remained loyal. Rome also continued to control Capua and central Campania, which proved logistically vital. The consuls of the year, elected in a time of relative peace, were

3881:, p. 38. " was not a matter of concern for some Romans; they preferred to defer registration... as much as possible, so as to minimise their impact on political life... registration of all Italian residents as Roman citizens was completed only under the reign of Augustus". 1311:; the war also assumed a "distinctive character" in the extent to which Roman soldiers defected to the Italians. For example, when Nola was captured, the Italians were able to induce the defection of most of the Roman soldiers (the officers refused and were starved to death). 1204:, had his legislation invalidated by the senate. He was shortly thereafter killed by an unknown assassin. Around this time, the Italians send a delegation to Rome but the Romans refuse to negotiate. Appian asserts that after Drusus' death but before the start of the war, the 4437:

Beginning with Henrik Mouritsen's reassessment of the Social War as a fight for Italian independence, not enfranchisement, historians have abandoned this teleology and begun to reflect instead upon the many decentralized and multilinear processes that ultimately reshaped

1188:

In late 91 or early 90 BC, a rumour was heard that Asculum was exchanging hostages with another city. Such an exchange was customary in the preparations for war to prevent allied cities from defecting. A Roman praetor by the name of Quintus Servilius, possibly the

1866:

via Photius. It was written some time between 70 and 65 BC and describes two Italian motives: demands for citizenship which were refused and rebellion against Roman hegemony ("The Italians, who so many times before had fought with distinction on behalf of Rome's

1378:

Modern image of the Fucine lake, which was drained in the 19th century. Much of the rectangular land now used for agriculture would have been inundated in ancient times. The area around the lake was strategically important and repeatedly fought over during the war.

1698:, a Roman popular legislative and electoral assembly. With each tribe getting one vote irrespective of population and with tribal status being hereditary, how the enormous multitude of Italian citizens were tribally organised would sway politics for generations. 1780:

Lintott, "Roman armies were only to be used for civil war after their scruples had been drowned in a blood-bath of fighting with their own Italian allies... it may as well be argued that civil war created the self-seeking unprincipled soldier as the converse".

1366:. Aesernia fell later in the year after repeated failures by Lucius Julius Caesar to relieve the town; turning south, Caesar attempted to stop Mutilius from forcing the fortress at Acerrae, but both sides found themselves in a series of indecisive engagements. 1147:

However, beyond Diodorus' summarised description of the Italian government, there few other sources which describe the Italian coalition's internal politics or offices. Instead, they refer to various tribal and ethnic leaders without distinction of office.

1290:

The Romans levied a massive force over the winter, allowing the consuls of 90 BC to depart for war immediately. All consuls and praetors that year were assigned to Italy; the provincial governors at the start of the war had their terms continuously

1475:, and forced the Marsi to petition for peace. These victories allowed the Romans a free hand in the siege of Asculum and freedom to attack into southern theatre from the north. Corfinium was also taken, forcing the Italians to transfer their capital to 4093:

What was eroded... was the fundamental distinction between Romans and foreign enemies... older certainties were so radically overturned that soldiers deserting one Roman commander could apparently see both Sulla and as plausible options for their new

1647:

the following Sullan civil war, devastating the central Apennines. The literary sources indicate that after these conflicts much of the Italian countryside was both lawless, as men strove to take advantage of the breakdown in order, and miserable.

1306:

The initial Italian offensive struck in late 91 and early 90 BC. It was clearly planned with full knowledge of typical Roman strategy and operations. There was a policy of mercy toward pro-Roman combatants in the southern theatre commanded by

1030:. With each victory, the Romans demanded and received from the Italians a latent title to lands the Italians still occupied. For centuries, Roman claims on those lands were unenforced. After the start of the land reform process in 133 BC with 887:

in 216 BC, the defectors were defeated and harsh terms applied. Over time, the Romans started to interfere in the internal affairs of their allies, though historians differ as to its extent. For example, when the senate acted to suppress the

1738:

who had fallen on harder times sold their votes to the highest bidders. The distribution of the tribes across the whole of Italy also empowered magnates close to Rome, whose votes were few and the focus of much political and financial attention.

969:. Gaius Gracchus is said to have brought similar proposals. These attempts were largely brought because Roman tribunes and magistrates believed that granting citizenship could be traded for Italian elites acquiescing over occupied public lands. 1395:

when his undertrained men were routed during the crossing. After this battle, when the huge number of bodies returned to Rome caused a panic, the senate decreed that war dead should in the future be buried on the field. In this same engagement,

1586:

and even sent appeals to Mithridates of Pontus for an intervention in Italy. Faced with death or slavery, they refused to surrender. Late in 88 or in 87, after Sulla's departure for the east, this rebel force unsuccessfully attacked Isiae and

960:

were meant to support the Italians. However, there is no good evidence to verify this claim and most historians reject it as a political tactic either to distinguish between free and slave or as an anachronism interjected by his brother

3773:, p. 163, adding in n. 32, that the number of new tribes is unclear: "Sisenna, 17P, mentions an early proposal to create two new tribes, while Velleius, 2.20.2, states that the new citizens were to be inscribed in eight tribes". 1166:), which may have been appointed by each ethnic group. They did not seem to have been replaced after death in battle, implying the lack of any Italian elections. Christopher Dart suggests that the Italians converted the victory title 1260:

Coin of Quintus Pompeius Rufus, dated to 54 BC, which depicts Sulla. Sulla was a legate at the start of the war and was a notable victorious general in the southern theatre of the war, which led to his election as consul for

924:. Citizenship was linked to territories: a person who received Roman citizenship gave up their local citizenship; losing local citizenship and living outside of Roman territory meant a local reduction in socio-economic status. 715:

Views differ as to the causes of the war, primarily on whether Roman citizenship was already a coveted status whose extension was the goal of the Social War or not. The main ancient source for the period is the relatively late

1089:

At the outbreak of the war, the Italians levied forces and formed up armies to oppose the Romans. To have done this so quickly, agreements must have been reached on power-sharing and command before the outbreak of the war.

1054:

became known. With the prospect of the Latins deserting Rome, the balance of military power would shift into the Italians' favour. After secret negotiations, the Italians then launched their bid to throw off Roman hegemony.

1706:, which would deprive the overwhelming number of new citizens of much of their political influence. Appian further posits this number may have been ten. During Sulla's consulship, one of the tribunes of the plebs, 955:

is the main source for much of this period. It provides three themes for the Italians: support for agrarian reform, votes for land, and demands for political equality. According to Appian, the agrarian reforms of

711:

that year. At various stages of the war, Romans brought legislation allowing Italian towns to elect Roman citizenship if they had not revolted or would otherwise put down arms, draining support from the rebels.

3232:, p. 122. "The Roman strategy of opening a route to the Adriatic to split the enemy in two was now apparent. Success came only in the following year; but in this area the initiative now lay with the Roman." 1220:

While the inciting incident of the war is clear, its end is not. One could argue various dates, ranging from 89 BC, when most of the fighting was practically complete, down to November 82 BC and the

916:, were allied soldiers granted Roman citizenship at the close of their service. For example, Cicero deliberately contrasts Italic single citizenship against Greek multiple citizenship in his speech for 1902:, which Ovid claims had been "compelled to honest arms" by their "love of liberty" (either from Roman hegemony or the burdens of their alliances). An explicit statement to this effect comes also from 1130:. But others, such as Mouritsen, have taken a more critical eye at the evidence and viewed the Italian magistrates and senate as a more formally federal structure without direct popular involvement. 703:, who for his victories would win a consulship the next year. The Romans retained the initiative and by 88 BC, the conflict was largely over and Roman attention had been captured by the ongoing 1734:

more concentrated into those who had vested personal interests in the elections. Moreover, because no censuses were held to reclassify citizens on their wealth, those grandfathered into the upper

1650:

The extension of citizenship to the allies also redrew the political and legal maps of Italy. In place of the former sovereign and autonomous Italian communities, there was a sea of Roman citizen

1638:

The war was a "supreme effort" on both sides. For example, Appian reports the need for soldiers was so great that freedmen were for the first time inducted into the army. Edward Bispham, in a

1559:

By 88 BC, the war was largely over, except for some isolated holdouts. Elections for the consulship of 88 were delayed by Pompey Strabo's late return to the city, but eventually returned

1717:

took control of the city, espousing the cause of Italian suffrage, he settled the matter in favour of distributing the new citizens among the old tribes, which was confirmed during and after

1582:

Following Silo's death, Italian organised resistance collapsed. For Livy and Appian, his death marks the end of the Social war. However, a remnant of Samnite and Lucanian rebels fought on in

2267:, p. 46. "With Rome severely crippled , the Italian states chose their own allies and enemies according to earlier patterns of interstate rivalry which predated the Roman expansion". 1152:, for example, mentions no Italian senate or magistrates, but instead says that the Italians served each under their own standards. Coinage, along with Livy, seem to refer to a number of 1804: 1722:

and 70 BC). The process of registering those new citizens, however, took many years – probably delayed by Rome's purposeful inaction – and was only completed during the reign of

450: 1826:

assumption of direct rule over the peninsula. These field surveys have brought up new work in reassessing the extent of Italian regionalism in economic, military, and social terms.

554: 348: 867:

Cities cooperated with Rome for various reasons. They received shares of the war spoils and land assignments. Rome also supported allied elites against popular revolts (eg at

1464:

the Marsi near the Fucine lake, but was himself killed in battle. It is likely that Cato was killed early in the year, leaving only Strabo as consul for the remainder of 89.

1225:

when an identifiably Italian group of rebels was at last defeated. This article presents events down to the nominal pacification of the Samnites and Lucanians in 87 BC.

5366: 1421:

With a collapsing northern front and the division of the Italians into two, Italian defeat became largely inevitable. The Italians attempted opening negotiations, inviting

4349:, pp. 9–10 ("Ovid is likely to express a local tradition of the Social war as a glorious moment when the Italians had stood up to Rome and fought for their freedom"). 1862:

The earliest accounts of the Social war emerge before the fall of the republic. The first is an excerpt of what is believed to be Posidonius' history of Rome preserved by

1200:' assassination in Rome and Roman prosecution of Italian allies. In this narrative, Drusus, whose political star was waning since the death of his influential supporter 1105:

and five-hundred-man senate. The senate then appointed two consuls and twelve praetors, dividing them evenly between northern and southern fronts (with Italian consuls

1855:(who wrote more on the Social war than the Second Punic War) – are fragmentary or lost. No Italian perspectives survive, except that which can be gleamed from the few 443: 547: 3033:, 72, adding "for the consuls to have departed immediately, the muster must have begun in November/December 91 and the levy would have been truly enormous". 781:

Usage in the late republican and early imperial period treated the names Marsic and Italian war as largely interchangeable. Cicero's works refer to it as

1599:

at Rome in 87 BC allowed them to nonetheless reach a negotiated settlement with the weakened Roman government; the rebels sided with the faction of

341: 1456:. In January, the Marsi attempted to support the rebellions in Etruria and Umbria. The two consuls moved to intercept the Marsi, who were commanded by 1880:, a broad term describing legal protections against unjust punishment, the vote, the right to appeal, and the rule of law. Sources voicing demands for 1521:(though the Samnites and Lucanians, still under arms, were excepted). New legislation was also brought by Pompey Strabo to incorporate new colonies in 1571:'s invasion of Asia in the east, assigned neither consul to commands against the Italians; Sulla by lot was assigned the command against Mithridates. 1799:

Theodor Mommsen, pictured in 1902, put forward the proposition that the Italians had been fighting first for Roman citizenship then for independence.

436: 1821:

account of demands for Roman citizenship. More recently, however, a "much debated" re-evaluation emerged with the publication of Henrik Mouritsen's

1318:

was put under prolonged siege: the consul Lucius Julius Caesar moved to break it but was unsuccessful; the Romans suffered further reverses, losing

1634:– in Spain. Similar municipal laws, predecessors to the later Flavian-era laws, would have been drawn up through Italy in the aftermath of the war. 540: 1766:, stoked fears that Sulla might – if victorious – strip some Italians of their hard-won citizenship rights by abrogating Cinna-era legislation. 1656:. Municipal constitutions dating from time immemorial over the next decades were replaced by laws and charters passed under the auspices of the 3161:, pp. 136, 152, citing Oros. 5.18.11. "Marius had urged the consul Rutilius to delay... because of undertrained recruits in their armies". 334: 5472: 3795: 1999:, p. 439 – "late sources suggest that Livy may have estimated that 50,000 were killed on each side" – citing Eutrop. 5.9. However, 1440:

would be created for new citizens. Between the citizenship law and the costs of the war, only the Italian hard-liners remained in the field.

1436:; it also removed one of the main causes of the war – be it demands for citizenship or for security of land holdings – and provided that new 984:

unfair treatment by Roman magistrates; it would have been their richer compatriots that would benefit from direct access to Roman politics.

5053: 965:

to legitimate Gaius' reform agenda some ten years later. Attempts to actually grant citizenship started in 125 BC with a proposal by

3986:, pp. 182–83, noting also that Sulla attempted to calm this fear by disclaiming any grudge against the mass of new or old citizens. 1603:

and Gaius Marius after being promised citizenship, the return of hostages and deserters and the return of all loot taken by the Romans.

2144: 1668:. The dating of this municipalisation process is not entirely straightforward: the formation of the quattorvirates likely dates to the 1190: 2640:, p. 41, noting also that the prospect of Drusus taking on the whole of Italy as clients would have motivated his assassination. 1531:

as well as surveying of their lands and establishment of their charters. This longer process would continue until the age of Caesar.

3375:, p. 124, adding "we do not know why was excluded from the command... his age should have been outweighed by his experience"; 1252:. Actual identification of the bust is disputed. The historical Marius, regardless, was a legate during the early stages of the war. 1958: 1460:. Strabo defeated the Marsi near Asculum, forcing them into retreat across the snowy mountains. Cato, taking command from Marius, 892:

in 186 BC, historians differ as to whether this applied only to Roman land or was extended extraterritorially to the allies.

5309: 5201: 5062: 3419:, who was killed by his own men either on false charges of treason (Val. Max., 9.8.3) or intolerable arrogance (Oros., 5.18.22). 1043: 912:

Also importantly, before the 1st century AD, it was not possible for a person to hold more than one citizenship. Nor, before the

638: 987:

More modern versions of the citizenship thesis have been advanced by Emilio Gabba, arguing that Italian commercial classes (the

5356: 5070: 3416: 966: 917: 754:, meaning "ally"). Today, the name is used more generally in classics scholarship to refer to any war between allies. The name 1003:

Denarius of Gaius Papius Mutilus, one of the Italian generals during the war, depicting an Italian bull goring the Roman wolf.

5487: 5013: 4908: 4879: 4830: 4803: 4765: 4736: 4715: 4574: 4078: 4045: 1702:

last time this had been done was in 242 BC. Plans were made to create possibly two or eight new tribes, pursuant to the

1564: 1508: 5482: 4969:. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Shipley, Frederick W. Cambridge: Harvard University Press – via LacusCurtius. 1759: 564: 5395: 1415: 1267: 245: 207: 5477: 1807:

Gaetano De Sanctis brought a similar view as that of Mommsen, interpreting Italian war goals in the context of Italian

50:

Roman territory in red. Initial insurgent territories in dark green, with later insurgents' territories in light green.

1490:

Rome also took the offensive in the south. Sulla, commanding an army and supported by a fleet, besieged Nola and took

4994: 4784: 4634: 4553: 3948: 1113:

assigned to the north and south, respectively). Reconstructions have differed over the Italian state's organisation.

4933:. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by White, Horace. Cambridge: Harvard University Press – via LacusCurtius. 5442: 5430: 5046: 4964: 4944:. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Forster, ES. Cambridge: Harvard University Press – via LacusCurtius. 1196:

This sequence is at odds with Appian's account, which paints Asculum as rioting in late 91 BC in response to

1050:– who actually were agitating for citizenship – to assassinate the consuls, who opposed Latin citizenship, at the 4528: 1576: 1384: 1271: 1197: 977: 511: 212: 770:, an Italian tribe located east of Rome who during the war killed two Roman consuls, or otherwise called it the 2140: 707:. The few Italian rebels on the field by 87 BC eventually reached a negotiated settlement during a short 5100: 4939: 2620:

Indeed, Drusus and his associates were blamed for the start of the war during the confused operations of the

1256: 496: 4683:

Dart, Christopher J. (2009). "The 'Italian constitution' in the Social war: a reassessment (91 to 88 BCE)".

1487:. By summer, the Romans had pacified the northern theatre, except for Asculum, which was still under siege. 37: 3204:, 1.44. The initial replacement was Quintus Servilius Caepio, who was probably praetor the previous year. 2890:

was passed after the outbreak of the Social War... Appian deliberately distorts and inverts this sequence.

1660:

in Rome. The varying magistrates of the Italian city-states were largely replaced by a relatively uniform

1362:. Vidacilius took the opportunity then to advance into down the eastern Italian coast into Apulia, taking 5425: 5039: 1388: 387: 22: 1330:. The most important victories for the Italians were in Campania and Picenum. In Campania, Mutilus took 1222: 397: 4928: 5467: 5462: 5400: 5383: 1472: 1120: 392: 1906:, where the Italians rose up seeking liberty, citizenship, and equality with the Romans. Similarly, 5410: 5376: 5329: 5080: 1836: 623: 461: 402: 4953: 999: 5415: 5314: 5105: 5085: 1707: 1201: 1106: 775: 725: 491: 476: 266: 5420: 5292: 5191: 1714: 1685: 1600: 1568: 1560: 1468: 1449: 1422: 1405: 1383:

While attempting to lead his men across a river in the northern theatre on 11 June, the consul

1355: 1279: 1233: 700: 417: 225: 4858: 3804:, pp. 167–68 (distribution among the tribes, Marius' support), 169–71 (Sulla's response). 5405: 5319: 5297: 5287: 5184: 5174: 5132: 5110: 1907: 1552: 1548: 1461: 1232:

The immediate reaction in Rome to the rebellion was one of confusion. After the war's start,

704: 613: 521: 412: 45: 4707:

The Social War, 91 to 88 BCE: a history of the Italian insurgency against the Roman republic

5277: 5179: 5169: 5095: 2004: 1919: 1817:

Views on the Social war have changed over the years. For many years, scholars accepted the

1763: 1718: 1308: 1244: 1110: 729: 598: 486: 279: 2667: 1775:

government altogether... offered unprecedented opportunities for generals to grab power.

879:

in 302, 296, and 264 BC, respectively). While some of the cities defected during the

762:, and only became common during the imperial period. The Romans of the time called it the 8: 1517: 1515:

empty. Further legislation was enacted to extend the citizenship with the passage of the

1457: 1453: 808: 230: 1543:

Coin depicting Mithridates VI Eupator. On the right, it displays in Greek, his title as

1007: 5258: 5090: 4692: 4542: 1935: 1343: 1126: 728:. Fears of Sulla rolling back hard-won Italian rights contributed to resistance during 583: 481: 377: 3271:, p. 31 n. 11 noting that Appian's general confusion of Sextus and Lucius Caesar. 1467:

The Romans continued on the offensive against the Marsi, under the command of legates

5271: 5263: 5253: 5159: 5019: 5009: 4990: 4904: 4885: 4875: 4836: 4826: 4809: 4799: 4780: 4761: 4742: 4732: 4711: 4640: 4630: 4629:. Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 4580: 4570: 4549: 4479: 4428: 4202: 4163: 4084: 4074: 4051: 4041: 3954: 3944: 2877: 1754: 1596: 1592: 1426: 1031: 957: 826: 812: 708: 608: 593: 578: 372: 1014:

depicting a soldier standing next to an Italian bull and on top of a Roman standard.

972:

Appian similarly frames the war as a reaction to the failed reform proposals of the

5371: 5282: 5206: 5147: 4854: 4471: 4452:, pp. 80 et seq, for example, presents an account largely based on Mouritsen. 4421:"Review of "Processes of integration and identity formation in the Roman republic"" 4195:"Review of "Processes of integration and identity formation in the Roman republic"" 1863: 1848: 1522: 1495: 1347: 1300: 1094: 1027: 973: 884: 880: 837: 816: 407: 382: 270: 234: 216: 1894:

in which the Italians are painted as rebelling against Roman rule. The later poet

1525:

with Latin rights. The reorganisation of Italy also required the formation of new

5388: 5226: 5164: 5152: 5142: 4984: 4726: 4705: 4624: 3943:. Jerome Lectures, 22. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. pp. 150–51. 1926: 1694: 1539: 1114: 1124:

in 1932. Later reconstructions have interjected popular elements à la the Roman

5335: 5238: 5211: 1626: 1351: 1157: 1051: 962: 861: 677: 628: 99: 4088: 532: 5456: 5346: 5324: 5221: 5216: 5023: 5006:

The struggle for Roman citizenship: Romans, allies, and the wars of 91-77 BCE

4889: 4840: 4813: 4584: 4483: 4432: 4420: 4206: 4194: 4167: 4155: 2881: 2643: 1923:

the impact and occurrence of delays in the registration of the new citizens.

1856: 1688:) was how the newly enfranchised Italian citizens would be enrolled into the 1177: 1102: 860:

The Italian peninsula during the second century BC was dominated by the

804: 696: 643: 618: 603: 4055: 5341: 5248: 5243: 5196: 5115: 4898: 1939: 1809: 1689: 1401: 1397: 1275: 1011: 913: 905: 633: 501: 428: 250: 4869: 4644: 2971:, p. 26, giving 90 BC as the date of Varius Hybrida's tribunate. 2741: 1118:

federal structure; this position was accepted in the first edition of the

5304: 5233: 5120: 1503: 1437: 1409: 1335: 1327: 1097:, which is accepted by most modern scholars, the Italians established at 889: 689: 506: 71: 4696: 1938:(drawing parallels between the Social war-era Italians and 19th century 326: 5137: 2865: 2169: 2167: 1803: 1795: 1620: 1526: 1292: 1249: 169: 1752:

posed as a champion for the Italians to gain their support during the

5031: 4871:

The end of the Roman republic, 146 to 44 BC: conquest and crisis

2483: 1579:

in Apulia, where his forces were badly defeated and Silo was killed.

1484: 1431: 1323: 1168: 1134: 1098: 1069: 901: 179: 174: 137: 2164: 1631: 1374: 4475: 3468: 3350: 3136: 2598: 1899: 1840: 1723: 1583: 1363: 1319: 1315: 897: 876: 868: 164: 147: 142: 127: 4746: 4601:

Bispham, Edward (2016b). "The civil wars and the triumvirate". In

3736: 3633: 2934: 4874:. Edinburgh History of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh University Press. 4260: 1588: 1499: 1491: 1480: 1339: 1296: 872: 800: 184: 132: 3958: 896:

flexible confederal league; the most powerful of these were the

3443: 1903: 1818: 1476: 1359: 1149: 1047: 948: 921: 759: 717: 189: 4779:. BICS Supplement 70. London: Institute of Classical Studies. 3712: 2222: 2003:, pp. 696–97 notes that many of the Social war and later 3645: 2152: 1844: 1392: 767: 683: 660: 255: 122: 3812: 3810: 2473: 2471: 4949: 4535:. Vol. 2. New York: American Philological Association. 4488:

This is now the best modern introduction to the Social war.

2950: 2690: 2200: 2198: 1942:) and, most influentially and radically, Henrik Mouritsen. 1910:

attributes the insurgents as fighting for "equal freedom".

1895: 1852: 1331: 3908: 3700: 2403:, 1.21.86–87 ("they preferred the citizenship to lands"). 2333: 2270: 2007:

estimates may be exaggerations taken from Sulla's memoirs.

695:

The war started in late 91 BC, with the rebellion of

4505: 4288: 4013: 4001: 3807: 2707: 2705: 2504: 2502: 2468: 2377: 2375: 2350: 2348: 1890:, in which a speech is putatively being given before the 1630:, a 1st century AD municipal charter for Malaca – modern 758:

was first used in the second century AD by the historian

3520: 2845: 2833: 2769: 2678: 2586: 2574: 2562: 2550: 2538: 2195: 2025: 2015: 2013: 1871:, were now risking life and limb to secure their own"). 1684:

One of the main issues in 88 BC (the consulship of

4958:. Translated by Lendering, Jona – via Livius.org. 4610:

Scopacasa, Raphael. "Rome's encroachment on Italy". In

4174: 3896: 3884: 3724: 3688: 3573: 3571: 3340: 3338: 3267:, 1.48, claiming Sextus died of illness at Asculum and 2246: 2234: 2210: 2183: 1918:

The first coherent study of the Social war was that of

676:, was fought largely from 91 to 88 BC between the 4493: 4400: 4388: 4135: 4111: 4099: 3965: 3860: 3848: 3657: 3532: 2900: 2898: 2702: 2514: 2499: 2456: 2406: 2372: 2360: 2345: 1980: 1978: 4123: 3989: 3752: 3604:, p. 169 instead title him "probably proconsul". 2010: 1874:

The sources also attribute to the allies demands for

3568: 3556: 3544: 3496: 3335: 3235: 3005: 2974: 2069: 2057: 1642:, notes that the republic "never minted more silver 1172:

into an official magisterial title, in the same way

4376: 4300: 4276: 4248: 3920: 3484: 3397: 3385: 3211: 3176: 3164: 3048: 3036: 2922: 2910: 2895: 2801: 2729: 2717: 1975: 1498:. After the capture of Pompeii, Sulla quickly took 1408:, then inflicted a victory over the Marsi near the 1303:on the Black Sea and returned eleven years later. 920:, a provincial who had been granted citizenship by 4541: 1934:. Other historians also hold this view, including 1746: 1676:came only during the time of Caesar and Augustus. 1430:Roman citizenship. This was passed and became the 774:. The focus on the Marsi may also have to do with 1274:. The two men had access to experienced legates: 855: 5454: 4156:"Review of "The struggle for Roman citizenship"" 1494:, defeating an attempt to relieve the cities by 692:. Some of the allies held out until 87 BC. 4661:Gabba, E. "Rome and Italy: the social war". In 4652:Lintott, A. "Political history, 146–95 BC". In 1400:, another of Rutilius' legates and hero of the 1133:Mouritsen reads from Livy's description of the 1018:Henrik Mouritsen, in the influential 1998 book 562: 4592:Bispham, Edward (2016a). "The Social war". In 2314:example of such a grant before the Social war. 748:, which means "war of the allies" (from Latin 5047: 4848:Scullard, H H; Derow, P S. "Social Wars". In 4847: 4821:Hornblower, Simon; et al., eds. (2012). 4626:The last age of the Roman Republic, 146–43 BC 2031: 1783:Harriet Flower, in the influential 2010 book 548: 444: 342: 5431:Wars of the fall of the Western Roman Empire 4989:(2nd ed.). Liverpool University Press. 4222:, pp. 27–35, citing among others, Cic. 3596:, p. 131. Mackay calls him propraetor; 3446:served in Sulla's army during this campaign. 2665: 1679: 904:. The Romans had fought with the Samnites a 458: 2766:, pp. 138–39, citing Livy, 8.4 et seq. 2297:. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 125. 2117: 2093: 1881: 1875: 1664:of city magistrates and more rarely with a 1651: 842: 830: 820: 794: 788: 782: 749: 681: 663: 5054: 5040: 2110:, 1.99, 2.54, 2.59. Gell., 2.27.2 = Sall. 555: 541: 451: 437: 349: 335: 44: 4825:(4th ed.). Oxford University Press. 4793: 4774: 4760:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4685:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 4609: 4527: 4346: 4322: 4294: 4180: 4019: 4007: 3828: 3816: 3770: 3597: 3478: 3360: 3268: 3257: 3205: 3146: 2968: 2956: 2886:Asconius' facts must here be right: the 2870:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 2851: 2839: 2819: 2775: 2763: 2751: 2696: 2684: 2653: 2608: 2592: 2580: 2568: 2556: 2544: 2489: 2354: 2339: 2323: 2307: 2288: 2276: 2264: 2252: 2240: 2228: 2216: 2204: 2189: 2177: 2173: 2158: 1612:alternatively as a negotiated stalemate. 943: 356: 4982: 4600: 4591: 4035: 3730: 3718: 3706: 3694: 2940: 2711: 2532: 2520: 2508: 2493: 2462: 2443: 2412: 2393: 2381: 2366: 2019: 1802: 1794: 1619: 1547:, followed by his name. His invasion of 1538: 1373: 1314:In the initial offensive, the colony of 1255: 1243: 1006: 998: 668:, "war of the allies"), also called the 16:War between Rome and its Italian allies 5202:Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula 5003: 4896: 4859:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5977 4651: 4623:Crook, John; et al., eds. (1994). 4418: 4192: 4105: 3914: 3902: 3890: 3878: 3866: 3854: 3742: 778:, who was one of the Italian leaders. 5455: 5061: 4962: 4926: 4755: 4724: 4671: 4669: 4662: 4653: 4622: 4611: 4602: 4593: 4564: 4239: 4227: 4141: 4129: 4117: 4031: 3995: 3983: 3971: 3941:The crowd in Rome in the late republic 3938: 3832: 3801: 3786: 3746: 3679: 3663: 3617: 3593: 3538: 3459: 3436: 3376: 3326: 3284: 3261: 3198: 3127: 3108: 3089: 3070: 2996: 2863: 2823: 2447: 2428: 2397: 2292: 2135: 2063: 1945:Mouritsen's account, in the 1998 book 1326:in Lucania, and suffering defeat near 744:is an improper English translation of 680:and several of its autonomous allies ( 5035: 4948: 4867: 4660: 4539: 4533:The magistrates of the Roman republic 4453: 4449: 4270: 4153: 4068: 4040:. London: Routledge. pp. 71–92. 3839: 3782: 3758: 3675: 3624: 3526: 3514: 3502: 3474: 3455: 3432: 3372: 3356: 3344: 3322: 3306: 3291: 3280: 3253: 3241: 3229: 3194: 3170: 3142: 3123: 3104: 3085: 3027: 3011: 2980: 2944: 2904: 2649: 2637: 2625: 2604: 2424: 2000: 1996: 1984: 1835:literary accounts – such as those of 1692:. The thirty-five tribes made up the 1615: 1354:, and one Publius Ventidius defeated 1346:from advancing on Capua. In Picenum, 1160: 536: 432: 330: 5473:1st century BC in the Roman Republic 5310:Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain 4900:Roman elections in the age of Cicero 4849: 4820: 4703: 4682: 4511: 4499: 4406: 4394: 4382: 4370: 4358: 4338: 4318: 4306: 4282: 4266: 4254: 4219: 3926: 3651: 3639: 3613: 3601: 3589: 3577: 3562: 3550: 3517:, pp. 126–27, citing Asc. 2–3C. 3490: 3420: 3403: 3391: 3217: 3182: 3158: 3066: 3054: 3042: 3023: 2992: 2928: 2916: 2807: 2787: 2747: 2735: 2723: 2671: 2535:, p. 78 (emphasis in original). 2477: 2087: 2075: 2043: 1448:The new consuls for 89 BC were 1285: 1183: 936:Edward Bispham, writing in the 2016 829:dated to 22 May 78 BC calls it 4758:The breakdown of the Roman republic 4361:, p. 38, citing Strab., 5.4.2. 2310:, p. 90, noting there is only 1829: 1412:, which split the Italians in two. 1176:later turned into the title of the 1137:(when Rome's Latin allies rebelled 1084: 1068:As evidenced by the destruction of 13: 4975: 4919: 4373:, p. 39, citing Etur., 5.3.1. 1913: 1567:. The senate, troubled by news of 927: 14: 5499: 5008:. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. 4986:Rome and the unification of Italy 4937: 4520: 4231: 3309:, p. 122, citing Posidonius 2827: 2791: 2047: 1790: 1479:. The Romans also subjugated the 1369: 1093:According to Photius' summary of 1081:Drusus' tribunate in 91 BC. 5443:Military history of ancient Rome 4529:Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon 4443: 4412: 4364: 4352: 4332: 4312: 4213: 4186: 4147: 4062: 4038:The army in the Roman revolution 4025: 3977: 3932: 3872: 3831:, p. 41, citing Asc., 64C; 3822: 3776: 3764: 3669: 3607: 3583: 2138:, 2.15.1. Asc. 73. Iul. Ob. 54. 1624:This bronze tablet contains the 5426:Civil wars of the Third Century 4823:The Oxford classical dictionary 4071:SPQR: a history of ancient Rome 3508: 3449: 3426: 3409: 3366: 3316: 3300: 3274: 3247: 3223: 3188: 3152: 3117: 3098: 3079: 3060: 3017: 2986: 2962: 2857: 2813: 2781: 2757: 2659: 2631: 2614: 2526: 2437: 2418: 2387: 2317: 2301: 2282: 2258: 1747:Destabilisation of the republic 1577:Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius 1534: 1299:, for example, were taken from 1063: 4798:. Cambridge University Press. 4796:Politics in the Roman republic 4756:Mackay, Christopher S (2009). 4731:. Princeton University Press. 4704:Dart, Christopher J. (2016) . 3442:, 1.50. Gabba notes also that 2081: 2037: 1990: 1248:The so-called "Marius" at the 856:Italy in the second century BC 1: 4897:Vishnia, Rachel Feig (2012). 4544:Italian Manpower 225 BC–AD 14 1964: 1138: 850: 497:Roman conquest of the Hernici 315: 5488:Crisis of the Roman Republic 4963:Velleius Paterculus (1924). 4565:Cooley, Alison, ed. (2016). 4193:Bernard, Seth (2013-03-03). 4154:Raggi, Andrea (2014-09-13). 3642:, p. 170, 194–195, 199. 1969: 1672:; a uniform and generalised 1551:in 89 BC triggered the 994: 38:Crisis of the Roman Republic 7: 5483:Roman Republican civil wars 4670:Seager, Robin. "Sulla". In 4548:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 4454:Smith, Christopher (1999). 4341:, p. 37, citing Ovid. 3785:, p. 86 n. 25, citing 3415:The fleet was commanded by 1952: 1391:while fighting against the 1389:Battle of the Tolenus River 1058: 807:, calls it the Marsic war; 23:Social War (disambiguation) 10: 5504: 4983:Keaveney, Arthur (2005) . 4794:Mouritsen, Henrik (2017). 4775:Mouritsen, Henrik (1998). 4567:A companion to Roman Italy 4425:Bryn Mawr Classical Review 4199:Bryn Mawr Classical Review 4160:Bryn Mawr Classical Review 3313:, 87 F 36; Diod., 37.2.11. 2326:, p. 88, citing Cic. 2090:, pp. 40–41, citing: 1762:, during preparations for 1342:, before being stopped at 1223:Battle of the Colline Gate 639:Pompeian–Parthian invasion 20: 5478:1st-century BC rebellions 5439: 5384:Roman conquest of Britain 5355: 5069: 4868:Steel, Catherine (2013). 4036:Keaveney, Arthur (2007). 2666:Salmon, ET; Potter, TW. " 2624:in the war's first year. 2295:The making of Roman Italy 2032:Scullard & Derow 2012 1959:Coinage of the Social War 1680:Enrolment of new citizens 1606: 1473:Marcus Caecilius Cornutus 1215: 1121:Cambridge Ancient History 574: 472: 368: 314: 301: 288: 198: 90: 54: 43: 35: 30: 4941:Epitome of Roman History 4725:Flower, Harriet (2010). 4464:Journal of Roman Studies 3654:, pp. 194, 199–200. 1837:Lucius Cornelius Sisenna 1640:Companion to Roman Italy 1443: 1239: 1044:Lucius Marcius Philippus 938:Companion to Roman Italy 463:Roman expansion in Italy 5081:Roman conquest of Italy 4540:Brunt, Peter A (1971). 3939:Millar, Fergus (1998). 3417:Aulus Postumius Albinus 2796:sub suis quisque signis 2790:, p. 220, quoting 2446:, p. 80, quoting, 1764:civil war against Sulla 1708:Publius Sulpicius Rufus 1202:Lucius Licinius Crassus 1191:quaestor of 103 BC 1107:Quintus Poppaedius Silo 918:Lucius Cornelius Balbus 776:Quintus Poppaedius Silo 735: 726:Publius Sulpicius Rufus 267:Quintus Poppaedius Silo 5004:Kendall, Seth (2013). 4456:"Review of Mouritsen, 4419:Bernard, Seth (2013). 4034:, p. 159, citing 3616:, p. 169, citing 3069:, p. 129, citing 3026:, p. 121, citing 2995:, p. 122, citing 2864:Badian, Ernst (1969). 2822:, p. 129, citing 2754:, pp. 139 et seq. 2396:, p. 79, quoting 2118: 2094: 1888:Rhetorica ad Herennium 1882: 1876: 1814: 1800: 1777: 1715:Lucius Cornelius Cinna 1686:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 1652: 1635: 1601:Lucius Cornelius Cinna 1569:Mithridates VI Eupator 1565:Quintus Pompeius Rufus 1561:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 1556: 1509:Quintus Pompeius Rufus 1469:Lucius Cornelius Cinna 1450:Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo 1423:Mithridates VI Eupator 1406:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 1385:Publius Rutilius Lupus 1380: 1356:Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo 1280:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 1272:Publius Rutilius Lupus 1262: 1253: 1234:Quintus Varius Hybrida 1015: 1004: 967:Marcus Fulvius Flaccus 944:Desire for citizenship 843: 831: 821: 795: 789: 783: 750: 701:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 682: 664: 256:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 226:Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo 213:Publius Rutilius Lupus 199:Commanders and leaders 5411:Domitian's Dacian War 5330:Liberators' civil war 3721:, pp. 97 et seq. 3678:, p. 85, citing 3260:, p. 27, citing 2652:, p. 40 n. 117; 2291:, p. 82, citing 2231:, pp. 45 et seq. 2161:, pp. 2, 40, 44. 2050:, 2.18.1; Aur. Vict. 1806: 1798: 1772: 1760:Gnaeus Papirius Carbo 1623: 1553:First Mithridatic War 1542: 1433:lex Julia de civitate 1377: 1259: 1247: 1101:a new capital with a 1010: 1002: 835:and the Augustan-era 793:(though he also uses 705:First Mithridatic War 360:Social War (91–87 BC) 302:Casualties and losses 5416:Trajan's Dacian Wars 5101:Roman–Hernician wars 4069:Beard, Mary (2015). 2866:"Quaestiones Variae" 2480:, p. 223 n. 84. 2147:(senatus consultum). 1416:Sextus Julius Caesar 1358:and forced him into 1309:Gaius Papius Mutilus 1268:Lucius Julius Caesar 1198:Marcus Livius Drusus 1180:in the Flavian era. 1111:Gaius Papius Mutilus 1026:Hannibal during the 1020:Italian Unification 978:Marcus Livius Drusus 280:Gaius Papius Mutilus 246:Sextus Julius Caesar 208:Lucius Julius Caesar 21:For other uses, see 5315:Roman–Parthian Wars 5106:Roman–Volscian wars 5086:Roman–Etruscan Wars 4777:Italian unification 4674:, pp. 165–207. 4665:, pp. 104–128. 4514:, p. 20 n. 28. 4458:Italian Unification 4325:, pp. 134–37; 3435:, pp. 124–25; 3107:, pp. 120–21; 2427:, pp. 113–14; 2293:Salmon, ET (1982). 1947:Italian Unification 1823:Italian Unification 1518:lex Plautia Papiria 1458:Titus Vettius Scato 1454:Lucius Porcius Cato 809:Velleius Paterculus 492:Roman–Volscian wars 477:Roman–Etruscan Wars 231:Lucius Porcius Cato 5421:Roman–Persian Wars 5320:Caesar's civil war 5192:Roman–Seleucid war 5091:Roman-Aequian wars 5063:Ancient Roman wars 4656:, pp. 40–103. 4605:, pp. 90–102. 4269:, pp. 24–26; 3917:, pp. 147–48. 3529:, pp. 127–28. 3256:, p. 122. Cf 2959:, pp. 137–38. 2699:, pp. 130–31. 2656:, pp. 150–51. 1936:Gaetano De Sanctis 1898:also sings of the 1815: 1801: 1636: 1616:Economic and legal 1595:. The outbreak of 1557: 1511:as his colleague. 1381: 1263: 1254: 1142: 340 BC 1127:comitia centuriata 1016: 1005: 482:Roman-Aequian wars 5450: 5449: 5406:Jewish–Roman wars 5278:Sulla's civil war 5272:Bellum Octavianum 5160:Illyro-Roman Wars 5133:Roman–Gallic wars 5111:Roman–Sabine wars 5015:978-1-4632-0309-2 4910:978-1-136-47872-7 4881:978-0-7486-2902-2 4832:978-0-19-954556-8 4805:978-1-139-41086-1 4767:978-0-521-51819-2 4738:978-0-691-14043-8 4717:978-1-4724-1676-6 4614:, pp. 35-56. 4596:, pp. 76–89. 4576:978-1-118-99310-1 4502:, pp. 19–20. 4409:, pp. 14–21. 4397:, pp. 12–13. 4080:978-1-84765-441-0 4047:978-0-415-39486-4 3709:, pp. 94–96. 3600:, p. 42 and 2628:, pp. 81–82. 2342:, pp. 89–90. 2279:, pp. 80–81. 2078:, pp. 40–41. 1758:. Both Cinna and 1755:bellum Octavianum 1719:Sulla's civil war 1597:a short civil war 1593:Strait of Messina 1535:88 and 87 BC 1507:88 BC, with 1286:Initial offensive 1250:Munich Glyptothek 1184:Inciting incident 1032:Tiberius Gracchus 958:Tiberius Gracchus 827:senatus consultum 813:Asconius Pedianus 730:Sulla's civil war 652: 651: 594:Bellum Octavianum 565:Roman Republican 530: 529: 522:Roman–Sabine wars 426: 425: 325: 324: 86: 85: 5495: 5468:80s BC conflicts 5463:90s BC conflicts 5372:Marcomannic Wars 5283:Mithridatic Wars 5207:Celtiberian Wars 5096:Roman–Latin wars 5056: 5049: 5042: 5033: 5032: 5027: 5000: 4970: 4959: 4945: 4934: 4927:Appian (1913) . 4914: 4893: 4853: 4844: 4817: 4790: 4771: 4750: 4721: 4700: 4675: 4666: 4657: 4648: 4615: 4606: 4597: 4588: 4559: 4547: 4536: 4515: 4509: 4503: 4497: 4491: 4490: 4447: 4441: 4440: 4416: 4410: 4404: 4398: 4392: 4386: 4380: 4374: 4368: 4362: 4356: 4350: 4336: 4330: 4316: 4310: 4304: 4298: 4292: 4286: 4280: 4274: 4264: 4258: 4252: 4246: 4234:, 2.18.1; Plut. 4217: 4211: 4210: 4190: 4184: 4178: 4172: 4171: 4151: 4145: 4139: 4133: 4127: 4121: 4115: 4109: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4066: 4060: 4059: 4029: 4023: 4017: 4011: 4005: 3999: 3993: 3987: 3981: 3975: 3969: 3963: 3962: 3936: 3930: 3924: 3918: 3912: 3906: 3900: 3894: 3888: 3882: 3876: 3870: 3864: 3858: 3852: 3846: 3826: 3820: 3814: 3805: 3799: 3793: 3780: 3774: 3768: 3762: 3756: 3750: 3740: 3734: 3728: 3722: 3716: 3710: 3704: 3698: 3692: 3686: 3673: 3667: 3661: 3655: 3649: 3643: 3637: 3631: 3611: 3605: 3587: 3581: 3575: 3566: 3560: 3554: 3548: 3542: 3536: 3530: 3524: 3518: 3512: 3506: 3500: 3494: 3488: 3482: 3472: 3466: 3453: 3447: 3430: 3424: 3413: 3407: 3401: 3395: 3389: 3383: 3370: 3364: 3354: 3348: 3342: 3333: 3320: 3314: 3304: 3298: 3278: 3272: 3251: 3245: 3239: 3233: 3227: 3221: 3215: 3209: 3192: 3186: 3180: 3174: 3168: 3162: 3156: 3150: 3140: 3134: 3121: 3115: 3102: 3096: 3083: 3077: 3064: 3058: 3052: 3046: 3040: 3034: 3021: 3015: 3009: 3003: 2990: 2984: 2978: 2972: 2966: 2960: 2954: 2948: 2938: 2932: 2926: 2920: 2914: 2908: 2902: 2893: 2892: 2861: 2855: 2849: 2843: 2837: 2831: 2817: 2811: 2805: 2799: 2785: 2779: 2773: 2767: 2761: 2755: 2745: 2739: 2733: 2727: 2721: 2715: 2709: 2700: 2694: 2688: 2682: 2676: 2675: 2663: 2657: 2647: 2641: 2635: 2629: 2618: 2612: 2602: 2596: 2590: 2584: 2578: 2572: 2566: 2560: 2554: 2548: 2542: 2536: 2530: 2524: 2518: 2512: 2506: 2497: 2487: 2481: 2475: 2466: 2460: 2454: 2441: 2435: 2422: 2416: 2410: 2404: 2391: 2385: 2379: 2370: 2364: 2358: 2352: 2343: 2337: 2331: 2321: 2315: 2305: 2299: 2298: 2286: 2280: 2274: 2268: 2262: 2256: 2250: 2244: 2238: 2232: 2226: 2220: 2214: 2208: 2202: 2193: 2187: 2181: 2171: 2162: 2156: 2150: 2121: 2097: 2085: 2079: 2073: 2067: 2061: 2055: 2041: 2035: 2029: 2023: 2017: 2008: 2005:Sullan civil war 1994: 1988: 1982: 1885: 1879: 1864:Diodorus Siculus 1849:Diodorus Siculus 1830:Ancient accounts 1655: 1523:Transpadane Gaul 1496:Lucius Cluentius 1348:Gaius Vidacilius 1301:Heraclea Pontica 1162: 1143: 1140: 1095:Diodorus Siculus 1085:Military command 1028:Second Punic War 974:plebeian tribune 885:Battle of Cannae 881:Second Punic war 846: 838:fasti consulares 834: 824: 817:Julius Obsequens 798: 796:bella cum sociis 792: 786: 753: 687: 667: 569: 557: 550: 543: 534: 533: 487:Roman–Latin wars 467: 466: 464: 453: 446: 439: 430: 429: 363: 361: 351: 344: 337: 328: 327: 320: 317: 275: 239: 221: 56: 55: 48: 28: 27: 5503: 5502: 5498: 5497: 5496: 5494: 5493: 5492: 5453: 5452: 5451: 5446: 5435: 5401:Civil war of 69 5389:Boudican revolt 5358: 5351: 5227:Cantabrian Wars 5165:Macedonian Wars 5072: 5065: 5060: 5030: 5016: 4997: 4978: 4976:Further reading 4973: 4938:Florus (1929). 4922: 4920:Ancient sources 4917: 4911: 4882: 4833: 4806: 4787: 4768: 4739: 4728:Roman republics 4718: 4637: 4577: 4556: 4523: 4518: 4510: 4506: 4498: 4494: 4448: 4444: 4417: 4413: 4405: 4401: 4393: 4389: 4381: 4377: 4369: 4365: 4357: 4353: 4337: 4333: 4317: 4313: 4305: 4301: 4297:, pp. 5–6. 4293: 4289: 4281: 4277: 4265: 4261: 4253: 4249: 4218: 4214: 4191: 4187: 4179: 4175: 4152: 4148: 4140: 4136: 4128: 4124: 4116: 4112: 4104: 4100: 4081: 4073:. p. 244. 4067: 4063: 4048: 4030: 4026: 4018: 4014: 4006: 4002: 3994: 3990: 3982: 3978: 3970: 3966: 3951: 3937: 3933: 3925: 3921: 3913: 3909: 3901: 3897: 3889: 3885: 3877: 3873: 3865: 3861: 3853: 3849: 3827: 3823: 3815: 3808: 3800: 3796: 3781: 3777: 3769: 3765: 3757: 3753: 3741: 3737: 3729: 3725: 3717: 3713: 3705: 3701: 3693: 3689: 3674: 3670: 3662: 3658: 3650: 3646: 3638: 3634: 3612: 3608: 3592:, p. 169; 3588: 3584: 3576: 3569: 3561: 3557: 3549: 3545: 3537: 3533: 3525: 3521: 3513: 3509: 3501: 3497: 3489: 3485: 3477:, p. 126; 3473: 3469: 3458:, p. 125; 3454: 3450: 3431: 3427: 3414: 3410: 3402: 3398: 3390: 3386: 3371: 3367: 3359:, p. 124; 3355: 3351: 3343: 3336: 3325:, p. 123; 3321: 3317: 3305: 3301: 3283:, p. 122; 3279: 3275: 3252: 3248: 3240: 3236: 3228: 3224: 3216: 3212: 3197:, p. 121; 3193: 3189: 3181: 3177: 3169: 3165: 3157: 3153: 3145:, p. 121; 3141: 3137: 3126:, p. 121; 3122: 3118: 3103: 3099: 3088:, p. 120; 3084: 3080: 3065: 3061: 3053: 3049: 3041: 3037: 3022: 3018: 3010: 3006: 2991: 2987: 2979: 2975: 2967: 2963: 2955: 2951: 2939: 2935: 2927: 2923: 2915: 2911: 2903: 2896: 2862: 2858: 2850: 2846: 2838: 2834: 2818: 2814: 2806: 2802: 2786: 2782: 2774: 2770: 2762: 2758: 2750:, p. 218; 2746: 2742: 2734: 2730: 2722: 2718: 2710: 2703: 2695: 2691: 2683: 2679: 2664: 2660: 2648: 2644: 2636: 2632: 2619: 2615: 2603: 2599: 2591: 2587: 2579: 2575: 2567: 2563: 2555: 2551: 2543: 2539: 2531: 2527: 2519: 2515: 2507: 2500: 2488: 2484: 2476: 2469: 2461: 2457: 2442: 2438: 2423: 2419: 2411: 2407: 2392: 2388: 2380: 2373: 2365: 2361: 2353: 2346: 2338: 2334: 2322: 2318: 2306: 2302: 2287: 2283: 2275: 2271: 2263: 2259: 2251: 2247: 2239: 2235: 2227: 2223: 2215: 2211: 2203: 2196: 2188: 2184: 2172: 2165: 2157: 2153: 2119:bellum Italicum 2095:bellum Marsicum 2086: 2082: 2074: 2070: 2062: 2058: 2042: 2038: 2030: 2026: 2018: 2011: 1995: 1991: 1983: 1976: 1972: 1967: 1955: 1927:Theodor Mommsen 1920:Prosper Mérimée 1916: 1914:Modern accounts 1832: 1793: 1785:Roman republics 1749: 1695:comitia tributa 1682: 1674:lex municipalis 1670:Cinnanum tempus 1618: 1609: 1537: 1446: 1372: 1352:Titus Lafrenius 1288: 1242: 1218: 1186: 1141: 1115:Theodor Mommsen 1087: 1066: 1061: 997: 976:of 91 BC, 946: 930: 928:Italian demands 858: 853: 844:bellum Marsicum 832:bellum Italicum 822:bellum Italicum 803:, according to 790:bellum Italicum 784:bellum Marsicum 738: 653: 648: 570: 566: 563: 561: 531: 526: 512:Cisalpine Gauls 468: 462: 460: 459: 457: 427: 422: 364: 359: 357: 355: 321:killed in total 318: 284: 271: 260: 235: 217: 194: 161: 160: 152: 119: 118: 107: 74: 49: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5501: 5491: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5465: 5448: 5447: 5440: 5437: 5436: 5434: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5398: 5393: 5392: 5391: 5381: 5380: 5379: 5374: 5363: 5361: 5353: 5352: 5350: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5336:Bellum Siculum 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5301: 5300: 5295: 5290: 5280: 5275: 5268: 5267: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5246: 5241: 5239:Jugurthine War 5236: 5231: 5230: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5212:Lusitanian War 5209: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5188: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5162: 5157: 5156: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5135: 5130: 5129: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5077: 5075: 5073:Roman Republic 5067: 5066: 5059: 5058: 5051: 5044: 5036: 5029: 5028: 5014: 5001: 4995: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4971: 4960: 4946: 4935: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4915: 4909: 4894: 4880: 4864: 4863: 4862: 4861: 4831: 4818: 4804: 4791: 4785: 4772: 4766: 4752: 4751: 4737: 4722: 4716: 4701: 4691:(2): 215–224. 4679: 4678: 4677: 4676: 4667: 4658: 4635: 4619: 4618: 4617: 4616: 4607: 4598: 4575: 4561: 4560: 4554: 4537: 4524: 4522: 4521:Modern sources 4519: 4517: 4516: 4504: 4492: 4476:10.2307/300760 4442: 4411: 4399: 4387: 4375: 4363: 4351: 4347:Mouritsen 1998 4331: 4323:Mouritsen 1998 4321:, p. 35; 4311: 4299: 4295:Mouritsen 1998 4287: 4275: 4259: 4247: 4212: 4185: 4181:Mouritsen 1998 4173: 4146: 4144:, p. 159. 4134: 4122: 4120:, p. 160. 4110: 4098: 4079: 4061: 4046: 4024: 4022:, p. 171. 4020:Mouritsen 2017 4012: 4010:, p. 129. 4008:Mouritsen 2017 4000: 3988: 3976: 3974:, p. 175. 3964: 3949: 3931: 3919: 3907: 3905:, p. 147. 3895: 3893:, p. 146. 3883: 3871: 3859: 3847: 3829:Broughton 1952 3821: 3819:, p. 168. 3817:Mouritsen 1998 3806: 3794: 3775: 3771:Mouritsen 1998 3763: 3761:, p. 123. 3751: 3745:, p. 32; 3735: 3723: 3711: 3699: 3687: 3668: 3666:, p. 176. 3656: 3644: 3632: 3606: 3598:Broughton 1952 3582: 3580:, p. 168. 3567: 3565:, p. 167. 3555: 3553:, p. 166. 3543: 3541:, p. 165. 3531: 3519: 3507: 3505:, p. 126. 3495: 3493:, p. 158. 3483: 3479:Broughton 1952 3467: 3448: 3425: 3423:, p. 161. 3408: 3406:, p. 153. 3396: 3394:, p. 152. 3384: 3365: 3361:Broughton 1952 3349: 3347:, p. 124. 3334: 3315: 3299: 3273: 3269:Broughton 1952 3258:Broughton 1952 3246: 3244:, p. 122. 3234: 3222: 3220:, p. 136. 3210: 3206:Broughton 1952 3187: 3185:, p. 137. 3175: 3163: 3151: 3147:Broughton 1952 3135: 3116: 3097: 3078: 3059: 3057:, p. 126. 3047: 3045:, p. 122. 3035: 3016: 3014:, p. 120. 3004: 2985: 2983:, p. 115. 2973: 2969:Broughton 1952 2961: 2957:Mouritsen 1998 2949: 2947:, p. 118. 2943:, p. 87; 2933: 2931:, p. 128. 2921: 2919:, p. 149. 2909: 2894: 2856: 2854:, p. 132. 2852:Mouritsen 1998 2844: 2842:, p. 128. 2840:Mouritsen 1998 2832: 2820:Mouritsen 1998 2812: 2810:, p. 224. 2800: 2780: 2778:, p. 139. 2776:Mouritsen 1998 2768: 2764:Mouritsen 1998 2756: 2752:Mouritsen 1998 2740: 2738:, p. 216. 2728: 2726:, p. 215. 2716: 2701: 2697:Mouritsen 1998 2689: 2687:, p. 130. 2685:Mouritsen 1998 2677: 2658: 2654:Mouritsen 1998 2642: 2630: 2622:quaestio Varia 2613: 2611:, p. 150. 2609:Mouritsen 1998 2607:, p. 40; 2597: 2595:, p. 149. 2593:Mouritsen 1998 2585: 2583:, p. 143. 2581:Mouritsen 1998 2573: 2571:, p. 142. 2569:Mouritsen 1998 2561: 2559:, p. 117. 2557:Mouritsen 1998 2549: 2547:, p. 112. 2545:Mouritsen 1998 2537: 2525: 2513: 2498: 2492:, p. 72; 2490:Mouritsen 1998 2482: 2467: 2455: 2436: 2417: 2405: 2386: 2371: 2359: 2355:Mouritsen 1998 2344: 2340:Mouritsen 1998 2332: 2324:Mouritsen 1998 2316: 2308:Mouritsen 1998 2300: 2289:Mouritsen 1998 2281: 2277:Mouritsen 1998 2269: 2265:Scopacasa 2016 2257: 2253:Scopacasa 2016 2245: 2241:Scopacasa 2016 2233: 2229:Mouritsen 1998 2221: 2217:Scopacasa 2016 2209: 2207:, p. 147. 2205:Mouritsen 1998 2194: 2190:Scopacasa 2016 2182: 2178:Mouritsen 1998 2176:, p. 45; 2174:Scopacasa 2016 2163: 2159:Mouritsen 1998 2151: 2149: 2148: 2115: 2080: 2068: 2066:, p. 125. 2056: 2046:, p. 40; 2036: 2024: 2009: 1989: 1987:, p. 439. 1973: 1971: 1968: 1966: 1963: 1962: 1961: 1954: 1951: 1915: 1912: 1892:quaestio Varia 1831: 1828: 1792: 1791:Historiography 1789: 1748: 1745: 1681: 1678: 1627:lex Malacitana 1617: 1614: 1608: 1605: 1536: 1533: 1445: 1442: 1371: 1370:Roman breakout 1368: 1287: 1284: 1241: 1238: 1217: 1214: 1210:quaestio Varia 1185: 1182: 1086: 1083: 1065: 1062: 1060: 1057: 1052:Latin Festival 996: 993: 945: 942: 929: 926: 906:number of wars 862:Roman Republic 857: 854: 852: 849: 825:. An official 766:named for the 756:bellum sociale 746:bellum sociale 737: 734: 678:Roman Republic 665:bellum sociale 650: 649: 647: 646: 641: 636: 631: 629:Bellum Siculum 626: 621: 616: 611: 606: 601: 596: 591: 586: 581: 575: 572: 571: 560: 559: 552: 545: 537: 528: 527: 525: 524: 519: 514: 509: 504: 499: 494: 489: 484: 479: 473: 470: 469: 456: 455: 448: 441: 433: 424: 423: 421: 420: 415: 410: 405: 403:Mount Falernus 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 369: 366: 365: 354: 353: 346: 339: 331: 323: 322: 319: 100,000 312: 311: 308: 304: 303: 299: 298: 295: 291: 290: 286: 285: 283: 282: 277: 263: 261: 259: 258: 253: 248: 242: 241: 228: 223: 210: 204: 201: 200: 196: 195: 193: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 167: 155: 154: 153: 151: 150: 145: 140: 135: 130: 125: 113: 112: 111: 110:Italian rebels 108: 106: 105: 104:Italian allies 102: 100:Roman Republic 96: 93: 92: 88: 87: 84: 83: 80: 76: 75: 70: 68: 64: 63: 60: 52: 51: 41: 40: 33: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5500: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5460: 5458: 5445: 5444: 5438: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5390: 5387: 5386: 5385: 5382: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5369: 5368: 5367:Germanic wars 5365: 5364: 5362: 5360: 5354: 5348: 5347:War of Actium 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5337: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5325:War of Mutina 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5285: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5251: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5235: 5232: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5222:Sertorian War 5220: 5218: 5217:Numantine War 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5204: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5167: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5140: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5083: 5082: 5079: 5078: 5076: 5074: 5068: 5064: 5057: 5052: 5050: 5045: 5043: 5038: 5037: 5034: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5011: 5007: 5002: 4998: 4996:1-904675-37-9 4992: 4988: 4987: 4981: 4980: 4968: 4967: 4966:Roman History 4961: 4957: 4956: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4942: 4936: 4932: 4931: 4925: 4924: 4912: 4906: 4903:. Routledge. 4902: 4901: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4877: 4873: 4872: 4866: 4865: 4860: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4845: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4828: 4824: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4801: 4797: 4792: 4788: 4786:0-9005-8781-4 4782: 4778: 4773: 4769: 4763: 4759: 4754: 4753: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4734: 4730: 4729: 4723: 4719: 4713: 4710:. Routledge. 4709: 4708: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4681: 4680: 4673: 4668: 4664: 4659: 4655: 4650: 4649: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4636:0-521-85073-8 4632: 4628: 4627: 4621: 4620: 4613: 4612:Cooley (2016) 4608: 4604: 4603:Cooley (2016) 4599: 4595: 4594:Cooley (2016) 4590: 4589: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4572: 4568: 4563: 4562: 4557: 4555:0-19-814283-8 4551: 4546: 4545: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4525: 4513: 4508: 4501: 4496: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4459: 4451: 4446: 4439: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4415: 4408: 4403: 4396: 4391: 4385:, p. 12. 4384: 4379: 4372: 4367: 4360: 4355: 4348: 4345:, 3.15.8–10; 4344: 4340: 4335: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4315: 4309:, p. 35. 4308: 4303: 4296: 4291: 4285:, p. 27. 4284: 4279: 4273:, p. 80. 4272: 4268: 4263: 4257:, p. 23. 4256: 4251: 4244: 4243: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4216: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4189: 4182: 4177: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4150: 4143: 4138: 4132:, p. 91. 4131: 4126: 4119: 4114: 4108:, p. 92. 4107: 4102: 4095: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4076: 4072: 4065: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4043: 4039: 4033: 4028: 4021: 4016: 4009: 4004: 3998:, p. 92. 3997: 3992: 3985: 3980: 3973: 3968: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3950:0-472-10892-1 3946: 3942: 3935: 3929:, p. 40. 3928: 3923: 3916: 3911: 3904: 3899: 3892: 3887: 3880: 3875: 3869:, p. 79. 3868: 3863: 3857:, p. 38. 3856: 3851: 3844: 3843: 3837: 3836: 3830: 3825: 3818: 3813: 3811: 3803: 3798: 3791: 3790: 3784: 3779: 3772: 3767: 3760: 3755: 3749:, p. 21. 3748: 3744: 3739: 3733:, p. 98. 3732: 3731:Bispham 2016b 3727: 3720: 3719:Bispham 2016b 3715: 3708: 3707:Bispham 2016b 3703: 3697:, p. 87. 3696: 3695:Bispham 2016a 3691: 3684: 3683: 3677: 3672: 3665: 3660: 3653: 3648: 3641: 3636: 3629: 3628: 3622: 3621: 3615: 3610: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3586: 3579: 3574: 3572: 3564: 3559: 3552: 3547: 3540: 3535: 3528: 3523: 3516: 3511: 3504: 3499: 3492: 3487: 3481:, p. 32. 3480: 3476: 3471: 3464: 3463: 3457: 3452: 3445: 3441: 3440: 3434: 3429: 3422: 3418: 3412: 3405: 3400: 3393: 3388: 3381: 3380: 3374: 3369: 3363:, p. 32. 3362: 3358: 3353: 3346: 3341: 3339: 3331: 3330: 3324: 3319: 3312: 3308: 3303: 3296: 3295: 3289: 3288: 3282: 3277: 3270: 3266: 3265: 3259: 3255: 3250: 3243: 3238: 3231: 3226: 3219: 3214: 3208:, p. 28. 3207: 3203: 3202: 3196: 3191: 3184: 3179: 3173:, p. 87. 3172: 3167: 3160: 3155: 3149:, p. 25. 3148: 3144: 3139: 3132: 3131: 3125: 3120: 3113: 3112: 3106: 3101: 3094: 3093: 3087: 3082: 3075: 3074: 3068: 3063: 3056: 3051: 3044: 3039: 3032: 3031: 3025: 3020: 3013: 3008: 3001: 3000: 2994: 2989: 2982: 2977: 2970: 2965: 2958: 2953: 2946: 2942: 2941:Bispham 2016a 2937: 2930: 2925: 2918: 2913: 2907:, p. 80. 2906: 2901: 2899: 2891: 2889: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2860: 2853: 2848: 2841: 2836: 2829: 2826:, 2.15.1 and 2825: 2821: 2816: 2809: 2804: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2784: 2777: 2772: 2765: 2760: 2753: 2749: 2744: 2737: 2732: 2725: 2720: 2714:, p. 86. 2713: 2712:Bispham 2016a 2708: 2706: 2698: 2693: 2686: 2681: 2673: 2669: 2662: 2655: 2651: 2646: 2639: 2634: 2627: 2623: 2617: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2594: 2589: 2582: 2577: 2570: 2565: 2558: 2553: 2546: 2541: 2534: 2533:Bispham 2016a 2529: 2523:, p. 82. 2522: 2521:Bispham 2016a 2517: 2511:, p. 83. 2510: 2509:Bispham 2016a 2505: 2503: 2496:, p. 82. 2495: 2494:Bispham 2016a 2491: 2486: 2479: 2474: 2472: 2465:, p. 81. 2464: 2463:Bispham 2016a 2459: 2452: 2451: 2445: 2444:Bispham 2016a 2440: 2433: 2432: 2426: 2421: 2415:, p. 80. 2414: 2413:Bispham 2016a 2409: 2402: 2401: 2395: 2394:Bispham 2016a 2390: 2384:, p. 79. 2383: 2382:Bispham 2016a 2378: 2376: 2369:, p. 85. 2368: 2367:Bispham 2016a 2363: 2356: 2351: 2349: 2341: 2336: 2329: 2325: 2320: 2313: 2309: 2304: 2296: 2290: 2285: 2278: 2273: 2266: 2261: 2255:, p. 36. 2254: 2249: 2243:, p. 45. 2242: 2237: 2230: 2225: 2219:, p. 52. 2218: 2213: 2206: 2201: 2199: 2192:, p. 46. 2191: 2186: 2179: 2175: 2170: 2168: 2160: 2155: 2146: 2143: 2142: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2120: 2116: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2096: 2092: 2091: 2089: 2084: 2077: 2072: 2065: 2060: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2040: 2033: 2028: 2022:, p. 76. 2021: 2020:Bispham 2016a 2016: 2014: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1993: 1986: 1981: 1979: 1974: 1960: 1957: 1956: 1950: 1948: 1943: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1930:state called 1928: 1924: 1921: 1911: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1884: 1878: 1872: 1870: 1865: 1860: 1858: 1857:Italian coins 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1827: 1824: 1820: 1813: 1811: 1805: 1797: 1788: 1786: 1781: 1776: 1771: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1756: 1744: 1740: 1737: 1733: 1727: 1725: 1720: 1716: 1711: 1709: 1705: 1699: 1697: 1696: 1691: 1687: 1677: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1662:quattorvirate 1659: 1654: 1648: 1645: 1641: 1633: 1629: 1628: 1622: 1613: 1604: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1578: 1572: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1541: 1532: 1530: 1529: 1524: 1520: 1519: 1512: 1510: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1488: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1465: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1441: 1439: 1435: 1434: 1428: 1424: 1419: 1417: 1413: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1376: 1367: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1312: 1310: 1304: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1283: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1258: 1251: 1246: 1237: 1235: 1230: 1226: 1224: 1213: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1194: 1192: 1181: 1179: 1178:Roman emperor 1175: 1171: 1170: 1165: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1145: 1136: 1131: 1129: 1128: 1123: 1122: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1091: 1082: 1080: 1074: 1071: 1056: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1039: 1037: 1036:lex Sempronia 1033: 1029: 1023: 1021: 1013: 1009: 1001: 992: 990: 985: 981: 979: 975: 970: 968: 964: 959: 954: 950: 941: 939: 934: 933:domination. 925: 923: 919: 915: 910: 907: 903: 899: 893: 891: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 865: 863: 848: 845: 840: 839: 833: 828: 823: 818: 814: 810: 806: 805:Aulus Gellius 802: 797: 791: 785: 779: 777: 773: 769: 765: 761: 757: 752: 747: 743: 733: 731: 727: 721: 719: 713: 710: 706: 702: 698: 693: 691: 686: 685: 679: 675: 671: 666: 662: 658: 645: 642: 640: 637: 635: 632: 630: 627: 625: 622: 620: 617: 615: 612: 610: 607: 605: 602: 600: 597: 595: 592: 590: 587: 585: 582: 580: 577: 576: 573: 568: 558: 553: 551: 546: 544: 539: 538: 535: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 478: 475: 474: 471: 465: 454: 449: 447: 442: 440: 435: 434: 431: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 388:Tolenus River 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 370: 367: 362: 352: 347: 345: 340: 338: 333: 332: 329: 313: 310:50,000 killed 309: 307:50,000 killed 306: 305: 300: 296: 293: 292: 287: 281: 278: 276: 274: 268: 265: 264: 262: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 243: 240: 238: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 220: 214: 211: 209: 206: 205: 203: 202: 197: 191: 188: 186: 183: 181: 178: 176: 173: 171: 168: 166: 163: 162: 158: 157:Samnite group 149: 146: 144: 141: 139: 136: 134: 131: 129: 126: 124: 121: 120: 116: 109: 103: 101: 98: 97: 95: 94: 89: 82:Roman victory 81: 78: 77: 73: 69: 66: 65: 61: 58: 57: 53: 47: 42: 39: 34: 29: 24: 19: 5441: 5396:Armenian War 5359:Roman Empire 5342:Perusine War 5334: 5270: 5249:Servile Wars 5244:Cimbrian War 5197:Galatian War 5125: 5116:Samnite Wars 5005: 4985: 4965: 4954: 4940: 4929: 4899: 4870: 4822: 4795: 4776: 4757: 4727: 4706: 4688: 4684: 4672:CAH 9 (1994) 4663:CAH 9 (1994) 4654:CAH 9 (1994) 4625: 4566: 4543: 4532: 4507: 4495: 4487: 4467: 4463: 4457: 4445: 4436: 4424: 4414: 4402: 4390: 4378: 4366: 4354: 4342: 4334: 4326: 4314: 4302: 4290: 4278: 4262: 4250: 4241: 4235: 4223: 4215: 4198: 4188: 4183:, p. 2. 4176: 4159: 4149: 4137: 4125: 4113: 4106:Lintott 1994 4101: 4092: 4070: 4064: 4037: 4027: 4015: 4003: 3991: 3979: 3967: 3940: 3934: 3922: 3915:Vishnia 2012 3910: 3903:Vishnia 2012 3898: 3891:Vishnia 2012 3886: 3879:Vishnia 2012 3874: 3867:Vishnia 2012 3862: 3855:Vishnia 2012 3850: 3841: 3834: 3824: 3797: 3788: 3778: 3766: 3754: 3743:Vishnia 2012 3738: 3726: 3714: 3702: 3690: 3681: 3671: 3659: 3647: 3635: 3626: 3619: 3609: 3585: 3558: 3546: 3534: 3522: 3510: 3498: 3486: 3470: 3461: 3451: 3438: 3428: 3411: 3399: 3387: 3378: 3368: 3352: 3328: 3318: 3310: 3302: 3293: 3286: 3276: 3263: 3249: 3237: 3225: 3213: 3200: 3190: 3178: 3166: 3154: 3138: 3129: 3119: 3110: 3100: 3091: 3081: 3072: 3062: 3050: 3038: 3029: 3019: 3007: 2998: 2988: 2976: 2964: 2952: 2936: 2924: 2912: 2887: 2885: 2873: 2869: 2859: 2847: 2835: 2815: 2803: 2795: 2783: 2771: 2759: 2743: 2731: 2719: 2692: 2680: 2661: 2645: 2633: 2621: 2616: 2600: 2588: 2576: 2564: 2552: 2540: 2528: 2516: 2485: 2458: 2449: 2439: 2430: 2420: 2408: 2399: 2389: 2362: 2357:, p. 5. 2335: 2327: 2319: 2311: 2303: 2294: 2284: 2272: 2260: 2248: 2236: 2224: 2212: 2185: 2154: 2139: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2083: 2071: 2059: 2052:De vir. ill. 2051: 2039: 2027: 1992: 1946: 1944: 1940:risorgimento 1931: 1925: 1917: 1891: 1887: 1873: 1868: 1861: 1833: 1822: 1816: 1810:risorgimento 1808: 1784: 1782: 1778: 1773: 1768: 1753: 1750: 1741: 1735: 1731: 1728: 1712: 1703: 1700: 1693: 1690:Roman tribes 1683: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1649: 1643: 1639: 1637: 1625: 1610: 1581: 1573: 1558: 1544: 1527: 1516: 1513: 1489: 1466: 1447: 1432: 1420: 1414: 1402:Cimbric wars 1398:Gaius Marius 1387:fell in the 1382: 1313: 1305: 1289: 1276:Gaius Marius 1264: 1231: 1227: 1219: 1209: 1205: 1195: 1187: 1173: 1167: 1163: 1153: 1146: 1132: 1125: 1119: 1092: 1088: 1078: 1075: 1067: 1064:Preparations 1040: 1035: 1024: 1019: 1017: 1012:Italian coin 988: 986: 982: 971: 952: 947: 937: 935: 931: 911: 894: 866: 859: 836: 819:call it the 780: 771: 763: 755: 745: 741: 739: 722: 714: 694: 673: 669: 656: 654: 588: 516: 502:Samnite Wars 358: 272: 251:Gaius Marius 236: 218: 156: 115:Marsic group 114: 91:Belligerents 36:Part of the 18: 5357:Wars of the 5305:Gallic Wars 5234:Achaean War 5121:Pyrrhic War 5071:Wars of the 4470:: 227–227. 4142:Flower 2010 4130:Flower 2010 4118:Flower 2010 4094:allegiance. 4032:Flower 2010 3996:Flower 2010 3984:Seager 1994 3972:Seager 1994 3838:, 1.55–56; 3802:Seager 1994 3747:Mackay 2009 3664:Seager 1994 3623:, 1.53 and 3594:Mackay 2009 3539:Seager 1994 2453:, 1.34.152. 2064:Mackay 2009 1504:Herculaneum 1410:Fucine lake 1336:Herculaneum 1328:Alba Fucens 1261:88 BC. 1208:set up the 1154:imperatores 890:Bacchanalia 772:Italian war 670:Italian War 624:Liberators' 609:3rd Servile 584:2nd Servile 579:1st Servile 507:Pyrrhic War 413:Fucine Lake 297:130,000 men 294:175,000 men 72:Roman Italy 5457:Categories 5377:Gothic War 5138:Punic Wars 5126:Social War 4930:Civil Wars 4850:OCD (2012) 4747:2009004551 4450:Steel 2013 4271:Steel 2013 4238:, 32; and 4228:Vell. Pat. 4089:1100981198 3783:Steel 2013 3759:Gabba 1994 3676:Steel 2013 3527:Gabba 1994 3515:Gabba 1994 3503:Gabba 1994 3475:Gabba 1994 3465:, 1.50–52. 3456:Gabba 1994 3433:Gabba 1994 3373:Gabba 1994 3357:Gabba 1994 3345:Gabba 1994 3323:Gabba 1994 3307:Gabba 1994 3281:Gabba 1994 3254:Gabba 1994 3242:Gabba 1994 3230:Gabba 1994 3195:Gabba 1994 3171:Steel 2013 3143:Gabba 1994 3133:, 1.42–45. 3124:Gabba 1994 3105:Gabba 1994 3086:Gabba 1994 3012:Gabba 1994 2981:Gabba 1994 2945:Gabba 1994 2905:Steel 2013 2876:(4): 459. 2824:Vell. Pat. 2672:OCD (2012) 2650:Steel 2013 2638:Steel 2013 2626:Steel 2013 2605:Steel 2013 2425:Gabba 1994 2136:Vell. Pat. 2001:Brunt 1971 1997:Brunt 1971 1985:Brunt 1971 1965:References 1730:therefore 1549:Roman Asia 953:Civil Wars 883:after the 851:Background 764:Marsic war 742:Social war 674:Marsic War 657:Social War 567:civil wars 517:Social War 170:Campanians 31:Social War 5024:878406233 4955:Periochae 4890:840473534 4841:959667246 4814:981917178 4585:934513985 4569:. Wiley. 4512:Dart 2016 4500:Dart 2016 4484:1753-528X 4433:1055-7660 4407:Dart 2016 4395:Dart 2016 4383:Dart 2016 4371:Dart 2016 4359:Dart 2016 4339:Dart 2016 4327:Ad Heren. 4319:Dart 2016 4307:Dart 2016 4283:Dart 2016 4267:Dart 2016 4255:Dart 2016 4226:, 12.27; 4220:Dart 2016 4207:1055-7660 4168:1055-7660 3927:Dart 2016 3652:Dart 2016 3640:Dart 2016 3614:Dart 2016 3602:Dart 2016 3590:Dart 2016 3578:Dart 2016 3563:Dart 2016 3551:Dart 2016 3491:Dart 2016 3421:Dart 2016 3404:Dart 2016 3392:Dart 2016 3218:Dart 2016 3183:Dart 2016 3159:Dart 2016 3114:, 1.47.1. 3067:Dart 2016 3055:Dart 2016 3043:Dart 2016 3024:Dart 2016 2993:Dart 2016 2929:Dart 2016 2917:Dart 2016 2888:lex Varia 2882:0018-2311 2808:Dart 2009 2794:, 1.18.6 2788:Dart 2009 2748:Dart 2009 2736:Dart 2009 2724:Dart 2009 2668:Fregellae 2478:Dart 2009 2434:, 1.38.1. 2128:Leg. agr. 2100:Leg. agr. 2088:Dart 2016 2076:Dart 2016 2044:Dart 2016 1970:Citations 1908:Eutropius 1869:hegemonia 1736:centuriae 1704:lex Julia 1666:duovirate 1653:municipia 1591:near the 1528:municipia 1485:Marrucini 1324:Grumentum 1293:prorogued 1174:imperator 1169:imperator 1135:Latin War 1099:Corfinium 1070:Fregellae 995:Rebellion 989:publicani 902:Lucanians 740:The name 709:civil war 604:Sertorian 180:Lucanians 175:Iapygians 138:Marrucini 4952:(2003). 4697:25598463 4531:(1952). 4230:, 2.15; 4056:73994209 3959:97-50351 3290:, 1.49; 2830:, 2.6.4. 2330:, 28–30. 2130:, 2.80; 2106:, 8.31; 2102:, 2.90; 1953:See also 1900:Paeligni 1886:include 1883:libertas 1877:libertas 1841:Lucullus 1819:Appianic 1732:de facto 1724:Augustus 1584:Bruttium 1545:basileos 1483:and the 1477:Bovianum 1462:defeated 1364:Canusium 1340:Salernum 1320:Venafrum 1316:Aesernia 1297:triremes 1164:embratur 1059:Outbreak 898:Samnites 877:Volsinii 869:Arretium 841:call it 634:Perusine 614:Caesar's 398:Canusium 378:Aesernia 289:Strength 165:Samnites 148:Frentani 143:Picentes 128:Paeligni 67:Location 62:91–87 BC 4329:, 4.13. 4245:, 1.21. 3792:, 1.49. 3685:, 1.49. 3382:, 1.50. 3332:, 1.49. 3095:, 1.41. 3076:, 1.42. 3002:, 1.39. 2122:: Cic. 2114:, 1.77. 2098:: Cic. 2054:, 75.5. 1770:power: 1658:comitia 1644:denarii 1589:Rhegium 1500:Stabiae 1492:Pompeii 1481:Vestini 1344:Acerrae 1206:equites 873:Lucania 801:Sallust 697:Asculum 672:or the 599:Sulla's 393:Asculum 373:Acerrae 273:† 237:† 219:† 190:Venusia 185:Hirpini 133:Vestini 5293:Second 5259:Second 5185:Fourth 5175:Second 5148:Second 5022: 5012: 4993: 4907: 4888: 4878: 4839: 4829: 4812: 4802: 4783: 4764: 4745: 4735: 4714: 4695: 4645:121060 4643: 4633: 4583: 4573: 4552: 4482: 4438:Italy. 4431: 4205: 4166: 4087: 4077: 4054: 4044: 3957: 3947: 3444:Cicero 2880: 2670:". 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Knowledge

Social War (91–87 BC)

Index