705:". Given SASO's position as a students' organisation, it paid particular attention to disrupting the "physical and intellectual isolation" and "indoctrination and intimidation" which Bantu Education imposed on black students. To this end, SASO organised "formation schools" on university campuses, aiming to provide forums in which students could apply Black Consciousness ideals to the consideration and debate of topical issues. SASO also organised educational and political activities at black high schools.
1916:
4649:
2563:
306:
613:
in March 1971, the SASO executive made clear that it was "not expedient" for it to cooperate with organisations led by or including whites – though the organisations did agree to remain in contact to exchange information as required. However, as Badat argues, SASO was not "anti-white": it broadly endorsed a vision of a future South Africa as a non-racial society,
810:. Following a high-profile trial, all were found guilty of "encouraging and furthering feelings of hostility between the Black and White inhabitants of the Republic" and were sentenced to imprisonment, leaving SASO – and the BPC – effectively "leaderless". Biko's political activity at that point was severely circumscribed by the
753:
and demonstrations. It associated such demonstrations with NUSAS's liberal activism and – according to a motion adopted by the
General Student Conference in 1970 – viewed them as "aimed at the white press and public" and as "deficient" because lacking "a strategic and continuous attempt to change the
725:
and in 1971 its approach to such initiatives was systematised under the so-called Action
Training model (by 1972 refined as the Community Action and Development model). Community outreach was an activity familiar to former UCM and NUSAS members, and within SASO was partly motivated by concern about
689:
SASO's constitution identified as one of the organisation's aims the imperative to "project at all times the Black
Consciousness image culturally, socially and educationally". One of the major platforms for this function – and for the development of Black Consciousness philosophy and doctrine – was
612:
By 1970, the SASO executive had formally withdrawn its recognition of NUSAS as the pre-eminent national students' union, arguing that "in the principles and make-up of NUSAS, the black students can never find expression for aspirations foremost in their minds". At a meeting with the NUSAS executive
765:
for having addressed the annual graduation ceremony with a fiery renunciation of apartheid and Bantu
Education. Black students nationwide were galvanised by the heavy-handed response of the university and police, which effectively blockaded and then expelled the occupying students. A SASO regional
777:
According to historian Julian Brown, the 1972 protests marked a break with SASO's earlier policy and inaugurated a newfound "embrace of public and confrontational forms of protest". Perhaps the most prominent outcome of this change in policy was the rallies which SASO and the BPC co-organised in
524:, which was perhaps the most important anti-apartheid force inside South Africa for much of the 1970s, and with which it was strongly aligned. The development of SASO is often viewed as coterminous with the development of the broader movement and its ideology. Indeed, according to sociologist
488:
who, in that order, were later to become SASO's first two presidents. After another consultative meeting organised by UNB students in
December 1968, SASO was officially launched in July 1969 at its inaugural conference, held at the Turfloop campus of the University of the North, where its
473:, black students broke off to discuss separately the problems facing black students and the best means by which to address them. However, according to a SASO memorandum, SASO definitively began to take shape at a similar breakaway from the UCM conference in July of the same year, held in
590:
Reflecting the terms of the founders' dissatisfaction with NUSAS and UCM, membership of SASO was restricted to blacks only – although "black", in the Black
Consciousness movement, was used as a positive identification for those formerly known as "non-white", and therefore included
821:, in which Black Consciousness movements played a leading role. In the crackdown that followed, the government, on 19 October 1977, banned SASO and various other Black Consciousness organisations, making the organisation and any association with it illegal.
694:
The newsletter was first published in August 1970, with an editorial note outlining its dual informative and educative aims, and ran until 1976. The best known feature in the newsletter was a regular series by Biko, under the
605:
and therefore was to enable both black self-reflection and black self-reliance in leading political change. A popular motto of both the organisation and the movement was coined by
Pityana: "Black man you are on your own".
477:. There, the memo recalls, "a group of about 40 blacks ... resolved themselves into a black caucus and debated the possibility of forming a black students organisation". The meeting was attended and spearheaded by
576:
That, in this context, because of the privileges accorded to them by legislation and because of their continual maintenance of an oppressive regime, Whites have defined themselves as part of the problem,
328:
528:, the movement was "largely the achievement of SASO", which contributed its key ideas and intellectuals, and which provided the movement with its ideological, political, and organisational leadership.
770:, near the University of Fort Hare, held an emergency meeting and drafted the so-called Alice Declaration, which called upon "all Black students force the Institutions/Universities to close down by
715:
At its first national formation school in
December 1969, SASO agreed to a proposal, lodged by Biko, that "fieldwork" or "work among the people" should be one of SASO's "primary occupations".
1360:
757:
In the winter of 1972, however, SASO was centrally involved in infamous student protests which shut down several black campuses across the country. The protests broke out with a
455:, attracted a membership of politically inclined black Christians. Both NUSAS and the UCM were multiracial, but their membership and leadership were dominated by white students,
4458:
2599:
739:
In later years, SASO outreach activities were coordinated with those of other Black
Consciousness organisations, particularly the BPC and the Black Community Programmes.
489:
constitution was ratified. In subsequent years, SASO evaded serious state repression, at least initially, and its membership grew on black campuses across South Africa,
1533:"'Lost Opportunities': The African National Congress of South Africa (ANC-SA)'s Evolving Relationship with the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) in Exile, 1970–1979"
749:
Viewing Black
Consciousness as "an attitude of mind, a way of life" more than as a tool for political activism, SASO was initially ambivalent about the use of public
3229:
1842:
651:
revolution) over race (the so-called national revolution). By July 1976, however, the SASO president himself, Diliza Mji, had begun to link apartheid to capitalist
732:
Specific projects pursued were wide-ranging but included "physical projects" (where students repaired schools or built houses during school holidays), as well as
2520:
4683:
335:
1459:
4018:
2525:
4708:
3476:
3180:
4628:
4562:
794:, as were the homes of several leaders, including Biko. Many leaders were arrested "as part of a general round up" of Black Consciousness activists.
828:(Azapo). Many of the SASO trialists went on to hold office in Azapo – Cooper and Nefholovhodwe both served as Azapo president, as did SASO activist
4693:
4635:
2163:
4123:
3396:
3187:
2592:
2058:
726:
black people who lived in poverty. But it was also uniquely aligned to the Black Consciousness ideal of black self-affirmation and self-reliance.
2894:
802:
In the aftermath of the arrests which followed the 1974 pro-Frelimo rallies, the South African government in January 1975 charged the so-called
754:
status quo". The same motion recommended that black students should participate only in protests "directed primarily at the Black population".
4444:
4423:
4277:
3194:
2102:
508:
SASO is a Black Student Organisation working for the liberation of the Black man first from the psychological oppression by themselves through
4039:
3389:
2206:
1835:
840:, while, inside South Africa, Congress-aligned organisations began increasingly to dominate community organising (the so-called civics), the
790:, and were followed by a government crackdown on Black Consciousness leaders and organisations: the same evening, SASO's Durban offices were
1895:
458:
a major point of concern for some black members. In the case of NUSAS, the black students in question also disagreed politically with white
4703:
3955:
3871:
3326:
3305:
2147:
1927:
4416:
3275:
3236:
1202:"The Role of Radical Pedagogy in the South African Students Organisation and the Black Consciousness Movement in South Africa, 1968–1973"
4653:
4088:
3444:
3065:
2585:
824:
No clear successor organisation arose, although the Black Consciousness mantle was passed to a new generation of groups, including the
579:
That, therefore, we believe that in all matters relating to the struggle towards realising our aspirations, Whites must be excluded...
4479:
4340:
4256:
3546:
2505:
2014:
4698:
4621:
4409:
4137:
3469:
2500:
2139:
1828:
440:
4402:
4200:
3948:
3829:
3412:
2947:
2885:
2196:
2022:
778:
September 1974 in Durban and at Turfloop. The rallies aimed to demonstrate public support for the Mozambican liberation movement
647:
advocated for closer cooperation with SASO precisely because they believed that the ANC was wrongly foregrounding class (and the
4688:
609:
The same strategy implied a general policy against cooperation with white or multiracial organisations and with white activists.
492:
from a base of fourteen branches (four in seminaries, and the largest at Turfloop) in June 1970. Its main office was located in
4500:
4465:
3976:
3173:
2318:
1969:
926:
644:
602:
This exclusivity was viewed as allowing blacks "to forge solidarity and unity and formulate their political beliefs and goals",
447:
students' union, with a decades-long history of political activism. The second was the University Christian Movement (UCM), an
156:
4678:
4673:
4374:
3934:
3028:
2323:
1743:
1722:
321:
309:
81:
4590:
4381:
4284:
3906:
2096:
1364:
662:
The increased preoccupation of some SASO members with socialism was the result of increased exposure to the South African
4527:
4472:
4388:
4228:
3892:
3455:
3122:
3092:
2184:
136:
4486:
4451:
4395:
3913:
3878:
3567:
3016:
3005:
2434:
2119:
2064:
1076:"Resonances of Youth and Tensions of Race: Liberal Student Politics, White Radicals and Black Consciousness, 1968–1973"
845:
836:-aligned organisations: revived militancy and state repression drove many students into exile to train with the ANC's
535:
beyond university students, and it cooperated closely with those groups in line with its ideals of black cohesion and
4263:
4130:
4109:
4067:
3609:
3282:
2567:
2550:
2243:
2114:
1782:
1764:
1374:
1037:
1681:
432:. However, SASO has its roots in two other student organisations, which had emerged as focal points for student-led
4193:
4032:
3201:
3115:
3058:
2258:
2090:
1475:
1466:
825:
433:
262:
151:
4430:
4186:
4102:
3983:
3969:
3941:
3208:
3152:
2535:
2108:
1959:
1505:
543:
531:
Accordingly, SASO actively encouraged the formation of other Black Consciousness groups to represent segments of
376:. It was banned by the South African government in October 1977, as part of the repressive state response to the
3361:
1870:
4172:
4081:
3836:
3595:
1989:
639:(ANC), then operating in exile in Zambia. The ANC monitored SASO with interest from the outset, but favoured a
628:
At least for its first half-decade, SASO – like the rest of the Black Consciousness movement – firmly eschewed
554:
146:
4333:
4312:
4235:
4116:
4074:
4053:
3927:
3490:
3136:
2858:
1900:
3368:
1811:
1653:
4597:
4541:
4367:
4249:
4221:
4158:
3850:
3708:
2134:
2052:
1964:
1905:
1865:
1815:
1658:
729:
In addition, it was viewed as a means of educating, mobilising, and winning the trust of black communities.
547:
521:
373:
141:
89:
57:
3375:
4534:
4437:
4305:
4214:
4060:
3419:
2540:
2510:
2427:
2348:
1243:
616:
and some SASO activists maintained personal relationships with white activists, as did Biko with NUSAS's
3997:
3518:
3426:
3382:
3159:
3037:
2936:
2480:
2313:
2253:
2004:
1984:
1974:
659:, and class interests, reflecting a growing ideological debate within the Black Consciousness movement.
4548:
4179:
4011:
4004:
3962:
3676:
3623:
3511:
3462:
3243:
2901:
2545:
2470:
2201:
2179:
2169:
1954:
1634:
1532:
636:
617:
429:
417:
388:
The founding members of the South African Students' Organisation (SASO) were black students from the
1915:
1201:
421:
4360:
3616:
3268:
2515:
2490:
2278:
2158:
2075:
1979:
1851:
1588:
1290:""Black Man, You Are on Your Own!": Making Race Consciousness in South African Thought, 1968-1972"
1075:
4319:
3990:
3885:
3752:
3602:
3483:
3215:
2998:
2908:
2530:
2360:
570:
South Africa is a country in which both Black and White live and shall continue to live together,
397:
389:
1880:
3560:
3525:
2727:
2303:
2032:
1890:
1774:
From Protest to Challenge: A Documentary History of African Politics in South Africa, 1882–1990
1127:
880:
652:
573:
That the Whiteman must be aware that one is either part of the solution or part of the problem,
470:
393:
4095:
4025:
3920:
3815:
3669:
3319:
3099:
3012:
2807:
2627:
2475:
2460:
2268:
2174:
1949:
892:
762:
719:
592:
257:
209:
3843:
3729:
3497:
3433:
3166:
2929:
2922:
2874:
2657:
2420:
787:
8:
4298:
4270:
4144:
3662:
3655:
3588:
3553:
3504:
2984:
2791:
2413:
2293:
2238:
2216:
1944:
1885:
807:
767:
702:
671:
509:
405:
285:
184:
557:, whose formation was partly the result of a resolution of the SASO conference in 1972.
2991:
2392:
2366:
1616:
1560:
1440:
1432:
1309:
1155:
1103:
1047:
1043:
993:
985:
4583:
4569:
3899:
3715:
3539:
3129:
2719:
2649:
2465:
2385:
1788:
1778:
1760:
1739:
1718:
1714:
Black Student Politics: Higher Education and Apartheid from SASO to SANSCO, 1968–1990
1620:
1608:
1564:
1552:
1444:
1424:
1370:
1301:
1263:
1221:
1159:
1147:
1107:
1095:
1033:
997:
977:
921:
837:
833:
718:
The 1970 SASO General Student's Council established a dedicated central committee on
204:
2577:
1875:
786:
the following year. They garnered extensive public attention, were broken up by the
4507:
3864:
3574:
3354:
3044:
2799:
2767:
2703:
2495:
2354:
2191:
2070:
1600:
1544:
1416:
1255:
1213:
1139:
1087:
969:
829:
635:
In this, as well as in its opposition to multiracialism, SASO stood apart from the
463:
1548:
1217:
1030:
Liberation and Development: Black Consciousness Community Programs in South Africa
108:
3822:
3736:
3630:
3298:
3222:
3143:
2867:
2751:
2743:
2735:
2711:
2455:
2341:
2308:
2263:
2224:
2153:
1733:
1712:
1604:
1420:
1091:
973:
916:
818:
663:
377:
103:
4576:
4291:
4165:
3808:
3722:
3405:
3347:
3340:
3333:
3051:
2977:
2823:
2783:
2273:
2080:
1994:
1806:
1639:
1500:
1366:
Students Must Rise: Youth Struggle in South Africa Before and Beyond Soweto '76
898:
868:
803:
629:
482:
452:
369:
272:
229:
224:
219:
199:
189:
179:
113:
1143:
364:
political action. The organisation was formed in 1969 under the leadership of
4667:
4493:
4207:
3312:
3291:
3261:
3254:
2963:
2298:
2283:
2085:
2047:
1999:
1612:
1556:
1428:
1305:
1267:
1225:
1151:
1099:
981:
911:
874:
811:
667:
532:
462:
in the organisation, who at the time outnumbered those advocating for a more
444:
413:
372:
and made vital contributions to the ideology and political leadership of the
291:
267:
234:
194:
2248:
958:"Students, Apartheid and the Ecumenical Movement in South Africa, 1960-1975"
4151:
3760:
3581:
3532:
2695:
2609:
2485:
1820:
1708:
1356:
1259:
783:
761:
by students at Turfloop in May 1972, after Turfloop expelled SASO activist
525:
353:
214:
1792:
1777:. Vol. 5: Nadir and Resurgence, 1964–1979. Indiana University Press.
3744:
2687:
2406:
1754:
1244:"Blurred Lines and Ideological Divisions in South African Youth Politics"
841:
791:
656:
474:
361:
1436:
1404:
1313:
1289:
1128:"Seminary Networks and Black Consciousness in South Africa in the 1970s"
989:
957:
512:
and secondly from physical oppression accruing out of living in a White
451:
students' association which, partly because of the growing influence of
4326:
3857:
2970:
2915:
2775:
2759:
1772:
862:
536:
478:
459:
365:
278:
174:
69:
1474:. Vol. 2. South African Democracy Education Trust. Archived from
3778:
3769:
3700:
3106:
3083:
3072:
2399:
2288:
2042:
886:
648:
596:
448:
425:
357:
252:
4555:
4046:
3691:
2815:
2672:
782:, in the wake of the news that Portugal would grant Mozambique its
733:
697:
409:
401:
1361:"SASO and Black Consciousness, and the Shift to Congress Politics"
520:
SASO's establishment coincided with the earliest stirrings of the
2956:
1405:"An Experiment in Confrontation: The Pro-Frelimo Rallies of 1974"
779:
771:
750:
640:
436:
to apartheid during the heightened state repression of the 1960s.
1755:
Black Political Thought in the Making of South African Democracy
1589:"SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972"
3683:
2839:
2618:
758:
513:
493:
47:
2831:
632:
in favour of a view of race as the central political divide.
1807:
Constitution of the South African Students' Organisation
736:
campaigns, skills seminars, and volunteering at clinics.
1294:
The International Journal of African Historical Studies
2607:
1028:
Hadfield, Leslie Anne (2016). "Liberating Concepts".
1032:. Michigan State University Press. pp. 19–38.
670:, and other propaganda), and to socialist-leaning
16:Black university students organization (1969–1977)
1363:. In Heffernan, Anne; Nieftagodien, Noor (eds.).
4665:
2164:People Against Suffering, Oppression and Poverty
1682:"Black Peoples Convention – National Leadership"
3397:Storming of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre
2059:Congress of Traditional Leaders of South Africa
1460:"The Revival of the Labour Movement, 1970–1980"
832:. However, other former members of SASO joined
817:State repression, moreover, worsened after the
643:analysis of apartheid. Indeed, portions of the
4684:Defunct student organisations in South Africa
2593:
1836:
1457:
329:
1850:
1770:
2103:South African Liberal Students' Association
1771:Karis, Thomas G.; Gerhart, Gail M. (1997).
1654:"South African Student Organisation (SASO)"
666:, to the ANC (through the ANC underground,
2600:
2586:
1843:
1829:
1458:Sithole, Jabulani; Ndlovu, Sifiso (2006).
797:
336:
322:
4709:Student organizations established in 1969
1451:
1287:
1241:
3470:Reconstruction and Development Programme
1073:
1027:
955:
441:National Union of South African Students
4694:National liberation movements in Africa
3066:1946 African Mine Workers' Union strike
1530:
504:According to its 1971 policy manifesto:
4666:
3547:2012 Western Cape farm workers' strike
1582:
1580:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1199:
927:Zanempilo Community Health Care Centre
684:
623:
585:
157:Zanempilo Community Health Care Centre
2581:
1824:
1731:
1707:
1586:
1526:
1524:
1468:The Road to Democracy in South Africa
1402:
1355:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1345:
1343:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1125:
710:
404:, the so-called Black Section of the
2097:People Against Gangsterism and Drugs
1398:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1237:
1235:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1059:
1057:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1013:
1011:
1009:
1007:
951:
949:
947:
945:
943:
941:
599:as well as so-called black Africans.
350:South African Students' Organisation
20:South African Students' Organisation
4704:1969 establishments in South Africa
3477:Truth and Reconciliation Commission
3123:Coloured-vote constitutional crisis
2185:Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign
1571:
1409:Journal of Southern African Studies
962:Journal of Southern African Studies
858:National leaders of SASO included:
13:
2120:Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front
2065:Congress of South African Students
1914:
1812:South African Student Organisation
1701:
1521:
853:
846:Congress of South African Students
550:(BPC), an umbrella political body;
14:
4720:
4636:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania
4264:South African Party (Cape Colony)
1800:
1383:
1320:
1274:
1232:
1166:
1114:
1054:
1004:
938:
690:SASO's official media organ, the
356:university students who resisted
4648:
4647:
2562:
2561:
2355:"Dubul' ibhunu" (Shoot the Boer)
2091:Lesbian and Gay Equality Project
1593:South African Historical Journal
1537:South African Historical Journal
1200:Naidoo, Leigh-Ann (2015-05-04).
1132:South African Historical Journal
1080:South African Historical Journal
469:At the 1968 NUSAS conference in
418:higher education in South Africa
305:
304:
263:Internal resistance to apartheid
4699:Student political organizations
4278:South African Party (1977–1980)
4271:South African Party (1911–1934)
4187:Progressive Party (Cape Colony)
3984:Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners
2109:South African Students Congress
1674:
1646:
1635:"Remembering Ingelosi Yomhlaba"
1627:
1493:
766:formation school being held in
544:South African Students Movement
3596:2019 service delivery protests
3582:#FeesMustFall student protests
3327:1983 constitutional referendum
2023:South Africa political parties
1735:Black Man, You Are On Your Own
1:
4054:Johannesburg Reform Committee
3283:Israel–South Africa Agreement
2676:
2661:
2638:
2631:
2259:(Don't) touch me on my studio
2115:South African Wine Initiative
1549:10.1080/02582473.2018.1483962
1531:Asheeke, Toivo (2018-07-03).
1218:10.1080/16823206.2015.1085614
932:
826:Azanian People's Organisation
679:
443:(NUSAS), the main nationwide
4679:Black Consciousness Movement
4674:Anti-apartheid organisations
3709:Black Consciousness Movement
3463:Government of National Unity
2207:Unemployed Peoples' Movement
2053:Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging
1816:South African History Online
1686:South African History Online
1659:South African History Online
1633:Mbele, Veli (25 July 2012).
1605:10.1080/02582473.2010.519940
1421:10.1080/03057070.2012.644978
1092:10.1080/02582473.2013.770062
974:10.1080/03057070.2013.765693
522:Black Consciousness Movement
416:, and other institutions of
383:
374:Black Consciousness Movement
58:Black Consciousness Movement
7:
3420:Saint James Church massacre
3306:Weapons of mass destruction
2435:No Land! No House! No Vote!
2349:No Land! No House! No Vote!
905:
844:movement, and, through the
674:in Portugal and Mozambique.
561:SASO Policy Manifesto, 1971
555:Black Allied Workers' Union
542:Allied groups included the
499:
352:(SASO) was a body of black
10:
4725:
4689:Groups of students' unions
3160:1957 Alexandra bus boycott
3038:South West Africa campaign
2937:Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814
2902:French Huguenot settlement
1759:Indiana University Press.
1288:Magaziner, Daniel (2009).
889:(former secretary-general)
744:
4645:
4622:African National Congress
4611:
4517:
4350:
4075:Liberal Party (1953–1968)
3798:
3789:
3647:
3443:
3413:1992 apartheid referendum
3082:
3027:
2946:
2884:
2857:
2850:
2616:
2559:
2448:
2375:
2333:
2232:
2215:
2202:Treatment Action Campaign
2180:Landless Peoples Movement
2148:South Africa trade unions
2133:
2030:
2013:
1937:
1926:
1912:
1858:
1752:Halisi, C. R. D. (2000).
1738:. Steve Biko Foundation.
1369:. Wits University Press.
1144:10.1080/02582471003778417
848:, the students' movement.
637:African National Congress
548:Black People's Convention
420:, which at the time were
414:teacher training colleges
63:
53:
43:
32:
24:
4068:Labour Party (1969–1994)
4061:Labour Party (1910–1958)
3617:2020 Phala Phala Robbery
3575:#RhodesMustFall protests
3174:1960 republic referendum
2521:Political assassinations
2197:Social Justice Coalition
2159:Mandela Park Backyarders
1852:Politics of South Africa
1242:Heffernan, Anne (2016).
1126:Denis, Philippe (2010).
4520:terrorist organisations
4320:National Party of Venda
3603:2019 Johannesburg riots
3216:Constructive engagement
3181:International isolation
2999:Witwatersrand Gold Rush
2361:One Settler, One Bullet
1501:"SASO Policy Manifesto"
1048:10.14321/j.ctt1b7x7sb.6
883:(former vice president)
877:(former vice president)
806:with violations of the
798:Crackdown and aftermath
398:University of the North
390:University of Fort Hare
3526:Attack on Kennedy Road
3137:Congress of the People
2728:South African Republic
2319:Anti-Chinese sentiment
2304:White monopoly capital
2170:Poor People's Alliance
1920:
1732:Badat, Saleem (2009).
1587:Brown, Julian (2010).
1403:Brown, Julian (2012).
1074:Macqueen, Ian (2013).
956:Macqueen, Ian (2013).
701:Frank Talk, entitled "
582:
518:
410:theological seminaries
394:University of Zululand
4096:Natal Indian Congress
3816:Afrikaner Broederbond
3670:Afrikaner nationalism
3456:1994 general election
3427:Bophuthatswana crisis
3320:Church Street bombing
3100:Apartheid legislation
3093:1948 general election
3013:South Africa Act 1909
2808:Union of South Africa
2628:Kingdom of Mapungubwe
2608:Political history of
2506:Legacies of apartheid
2367:"Each One, Teach One"
2324:Anti-Indian sentiment
2269:Proudly South African
2175:Abahlali baseMjondolo
1950:Afrikaner nationalism
1918:
865:(inaugural president)
720:community development
563:
506:
466:stance on apartheid.
258:Apartheid legislation
3730:Greater South Africa
3568:2014 platinum strike
3434:Shell House massacre
3362:Transkei coup d'état
3167:Sharpeville massacre
2930:Battle of Blaauwberg
2923:Battle of Muizenberg
2875:Battle of Salt River
2658:Mthethwa Paramountcy
2526:Political repression
2421:Long Walk to Freedom
1919:Flag of South Africa
1717:. Psychology Press.
1260:10.1093/afraf/adw052
819:1976 Soweto Uprising
788:South African Police
672:liberation movements
48:Durban, South Africa
4629:Democratic Alliance
3799:Civic and political
3663:Afrikaner Calvinism
3656:African nationalism
3505:African Renaissance
3195:UNSC Resolution 591
3116:Internal resistance
3017:National Convention
2985:Transvaal Civil War
2909:Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars
2792:Orange River Colony
2516:Phala Phala robbery
2414:I Write What I Like
2239:African Renaissance
1965:Black consciousness
1945:African nationalism
1206:Education as Change
703:I Write What I Like
685:Education and media
624:Race-based analysis
586:Black self-reliance
510:inferiority complex
430:Bantu Education Act
406:University of Natal
286:I Write What I Like
185:Tshenuwani Farisani
109:Death of Steve Biko
90:Black Consciousness
21:
3369:Ciskei coup d'état
3188:UN Resolution 1761
3153:Women's March 1956
3006:South African Wars
2992:Mineral Revolution
1921:
901:(former organiser)
895:(former organiser)
871:(former president)
711:Community projects
439:The first was the
65:Founding President
19:
4661:
4660:
4614:political parties
4607:
4606:
4584:Orde van die Dood
4194:Progressive Party
3900:Congress Alliance
3716:Cape Independence
3648:Political culture
3643:
3642:
3610:COVID-19 pandemic
3540:Marikana massacre
3376:Venda coup d'état
3130:Defiance Campaign
2720:Orange Free State
2650:Dutch Cape Colony
2575:
2574:
2466:Cape Independence
2444:
2443:
2386:African Communist
2342:Amandla Ngawethu!
2244:Alternative media
2233:Political culture
2225:South African law
2129:
2128:
2015:Political parties
1745:978-1-920222-39-0
1724:978-0-415-93248-6
1508:Historical Papers
922:Mamphela Ramphele
881:Nkosazana Dlamini
664:workers' movement
346:
345:
205:Mamphela Ramphele
75:
74:
4716:
4651:
4650:
4638:
4631:
4624:
4600:
4593:
4586:
4579:
4572:
4565:
4558:
4551:
4544:
4537:
4530:
4518:Paramilitary and
4510:
4508:Umkosi Wezintaba
4503:
4496:
4489:
4482:
4475:
4468:
4461:
4454:
4447:
4440:
4433:
4426:
4419:
4412:
4405:
4398:
4391:
4384:
4377:
4370:
4363:
4353:social movements
4351:Trade unions and
4343:
4336:
4329:
4322:
4315:
4308:
4301:
4294:
4287:
4280:
4273:
4266:
4259:
4252:
4245:
4238:
4231:
4224:
4217:
4210:
4203:
4196:
4189:
4182:
4175:
4168:
4161:
4154:
4147:
4140:
4133:
4126:
4119:
4112:
4105:
4098:
4091:
4084:
4077:
4070:
4063:
4056:
4049:
4042:
4035:
4028:
4021:
4014:
4007:
4000:
3993:
3986:
3979:
3972:
3965:
3958:
3951:
3944:
3937:
3930:
3923:
3916:
3909:
3902:
3895:
3888:
3881:
3874:
3867:
3865:Boerestaat Party
3860:
3853:
3846:
3839:
3832:
3825:
3818:
3811:
3796:
3795:
3782:
3773:
3764:
3755:
3748:
3739:
3732:
3725:
3718:
3711:
3704:
3695:
3686:
3679:
3672:
3665:
3658:
3636:
3626:
3619:
3612:
3605:
3598:
3591:
3584:
3577:
3570:
3563:
3556:
3549:
3542:
3535:
3528:
3521:
3514:
3507:
3500:
3493:
3486:
3479:
3472:
3465:
3458:
3436:
3429:
3422:
3415:
3408:
3399:
3392:
3385:
3378:
3371:
3364:
3357:
3355:Dakar Conference
3350:
3343:
3336:
3329:
3322:
3315:
3308:
3301:
3294:
3285:
3278:
3276:Israeli alliance
3271:
3264:
3257:
3246:
3239:
3232:
3230:Sporting boycott
3225:
3218:
3211:
3204:
3202:Academic boycott
3197:
3190:
3183:
3176:
3169:
3162:
3155:
3146:
3139:
3132:
3125:
3118:
3109:
3102:
3095:
3075:
3068:
3061:
3059:Great Depression
3054:
3047:
3045:Maritz rebellion
3040:
3020:
3008:
3001:
2994:
2987:
2980:
2973:
2966:
2959:
2939:
2932:
2925:
2918:
2911:
2904:
2897:
2895:Dutch settlement
2877:
2870:
2868:Bantu migrations
2855:
2854:
2843:
2835:
2827:
2819:
2811:
2803:
2800:Transvaal Colony
2795:
2787:
2779:
2771:
2768:Nieuwe Republiek
2763:
2755:
2747:
2739:
2731:
2723:
2715:
2707:
2704:Natalia Republic
2699:
2691:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2673:Ndwandwe Kingdom
2668:
2666:
2663:
2653:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2636:
2633:
2602:
2595:
2588:
2579:
2578:
2565:
2564:
2501:Land occupations
2496:Labour brokering
2428:Molotov Cocktail
2331:
2330:
2192:Reclaim the City
2140:Social movements
2071:Earthlife Africa
1970:Environmentalism
1935:
1934:
1845:
1838:
1831:
1822:
1821:
1796:
1749:
1728:
1696:
1695:
1693:
1692:
1678:
1672:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1650:
1644:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1584:
1569:
1568:
1528:
1519:
1518:
1516:
1515:
1497:
1491:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1480:
1473:
1464:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1400:
1381:
1380:
1353:
1318:
1317:
1285:
1272:
1271:
1254:(461): 664–687.
1239:
1230:
1229:
1197:
1164:
1163:
1123:
1112:
1111:
1071:
1052:
1051:
1025:
1002:
1001:
953:
838:Umkhonto weSizwe
830:Mosibudi Mangena
692:SASO Newsletter.
645:ANC Youth League
338:
331:
324:
308:
307:
77:
76:
22:
18:
4724:
4723:
4719:
4718:
4717:
4715:
4714:
4713:
4664:
4663:
4662:
4657:
4641:
4634:
4627:
4620:
4613:
4603:
4596:
4589:
4582:
4575:
4568:
4561:
4554:
4547:
4540:
4533:
4526:
4519:
4513:
4506:
4499:
4492:
4485:
4478:
4471:
4464:
4457:
4450:
4443:
4436:
4429:
4422:
4415:
4408:
4401:
4394:
4387:
4380:
4373:
4366:
4359:
4352:
4346:
4339:
4332:
4325:
4318:
4311:
4304:
4297:
4290:
4283:
4276:
4269:
4262:
4255:
4248:
4241:
4234:
4227:
4220:
4213:
4206:
4199:
4192:
4185:
4178:
4171:
4164:
4157:
4150:
4143:
4136:
4129:
4122:
4115:
4108:
4101:
4094:
4087:
4080:
4073:
4066:
4059:
4052:
4045:
4038:
4031:
4024:
4017:
4012:HNP (Herstigte)
4010:
4005:HNP (Herenigde)
4003:
3996:
3989:
3982:
3975:
3968:
3961:
3954:
3947:
3940:
3933:
3926:
3919:
3912:
3905:
3898:
3891:
3884:
3877:
3870:
3863:
3856:
3849:
3842:
3835:
3828:
3823:Afrikaner Party
3821:
3814:
3807:
3800:
3791:
3785:
3776:
3767:
3758:
3751:
3742:
3737:Honorary whites
3735:
3728:
3721:
3714:
3707:
3698:
3689:
3682:
3675:
3668:
3661:
3654:
3639:
3629:
3622:
3615:
3608:
3601:
3594:
3587:
3580:
3573:
3566:
3559:
3552:
3545:
3538:
3531:
3524:
3517:
3510:
3503:
3498:Soweto bombings
3496:
3489:
3482:
3475:
3468:
3461:
3454:
3446:
3439:
3432:
3425:
3418:
3411:
3404:
3395:
3388:
3381:
3374:
3367:
3360:
3353:
3346:
3339:
3332:
3325:
3318:
3311:
3304:
3299:Soweto Uprising
3297:
3290:
3281:
3274:
3267:
3260:
3253:
3242:
3235:
3228:
3223:Tar Baby Option
3221:
3214:
3207:
3200:
3193:
3186:
3179:
3172:
3165:
3158:
3151:
3144:Freedom Charter
3142:
3135:
3128:
3121:
3114:
3105:
3098:
3091:
3078:
3071:
3064:
3057:
3050:
3043:
3036:
3023:
3011:
3004:
2997:
2990:
2983:
2976:
2969:
2962:
2955:
2942:
2935:
2928:
2921:
2914:
2907:
2900:
2893:
2880:
2873:
2866:
2846:
2838:
2830:
2822:
2814:
2806:
2798:
2790:
2782:
2774:
2766:
2758:
2750:
2744:Griqualand West
2742:
2736:Griqualand East
2734:
2726:
2718:
2710:
2702:
2694:
2686:
2679:
2671:
2664:
2656:
2648:
2641:
2634:
2626:
2612:
2606:
2576:
2571:
2555:
2536:Sexual violence
2456:Corrective rape
2440:
2377:
2371:
2329:
2309:Ungovernability
2264:Freedom Charter
2228:
2211:
2154:Equal Education
2138:
2125:
2034:
2026:
2009:
1929:
1922:
1910:
1854:
1849:
1803:
1785:
1746:
1725:
1704:
1702:Further reading
1699:
1690:
1688:
1680:
1679:
1675:
1665:
1663:
1662:. 30 March 2011
1652:
1651:
1647:
1632:
1628:
1585:
1572:
1529:
1522:
1513:
1511:
1499:
1498:
1494:
1484:
1482:
1481:on 17 June 2021
1478:
1471:
1462:
1456:
1452:
1401:
1384:
1377:
1354:
1321:
1286:
1275:
1248:African Affairs
1240:
1233:
1198:
1167:
1124:
1115:
1072:
1055:
1040:
1026:
1005:
954:
939:
935:
917:Cyril Ramaphosa
908:
856:
854:Notable members
800:
763:Onkgopotse Tiro
747:
713:
687:
682:
626:
588:
583:
566:
562:
502:
408:(UNB), various
386:
378:Soweto uprising
342:
297:
296:
248:
240:
239:
210:Onkgopotse Tiro
170:
162:
161:
127:
119:
118:
104:Soweto uprising
99:
66:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4722:
4712:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4659:
4658:
4646:
4643:
4642:
4640:
4639:
4632:
4625:
4617:
4615:
4609:
4608:
4605:
4604:
4602:
4601:
4594:
4587:
4580:
4577:Ossewabrandwag
4573:
4566:
4559:
4552:
4545:
4538:
4531:
4523:
4521:
4515:
4514:
4512:
4511:
4504:
4497:
4490:
4483:
4476:
4469:
4462:
4455:
4448:
4441:
4434:
4427:
4420:
4413:
4406:
4399:
4392:
4385:
4378:
4371:
4364:
4356:
4354:
4348:
4347:
4345:
4344:
4337:
4330:
4323:
4316:
4313:Unionist Party
4309:
4302:
4295:
4292:Torch Commando
4288:
4281:
4274:
4267:
4260:
4253:
4246:
4239:
4232:
4225:
4218:
4211:
4204:
4197:
4190:
4183:
4176:
4169:
4166:Orde Boerevolk
4162:
4155:
4148:
4141:
4134:
4127:
4120:
4113:
4106:
4099:
4092:
4085:
4078:
4071:
4064:
4057:
4050:
4043:
4036:
4029:
4022:
4015:
4008:
4001:
3994:
3987:
3980:
3973:
3966:
3959:
3952:
3945:
3942:DP (1989–2000)
3938:
3935:DP (1973–1977)
3931:
3928:Dominion Party
3924:
3917:
3910:
3903:
3896:
3889:
3882:
3875:
3868:
3861:
3854:
3847:
3840:
3833:
3826:
3819:
3812:
3809:Afrikaner Bond
3804:
3802:
3793:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3783:
3774:
3765:
3756:
3749:
3740:
3733:
3726:
3723:Day of the Vow
3719:
3712:
3705:
3696:
3687:
3680:
3673:
3666:
3659:
3651:
3649:
3645:
3644:
3641:
3640:
3638:
3637:
3627:
3620:
3613:
3606:
3599:
3592:
3585:
3578:
3571:
3564:
3557:
3550:
3543:
3536:
3529:
3522:
3515:
3508:
3501:
3494:
3491:Floor crossing
3487:
3480:
3473:
3466:
3459:
3451:
3449:
3441:
3440:
3438:
3437:
3430:
3423:
3416:
3409:
3406:Bisho massacre
3402:
3401:
3400:
3386:
3379:
3372:
3365:
3358:
3351:
3348:Operation Vula
3344:
3341:Rubicon speech
3337:
3334:Langa massacre
3330:
3323:
3316:
3309:
3302:
3295:
3288:
3287:
3286:
3272:
3265:
3258:
3251:
3250:
3249:
3248:
3247:
3240:
3226:
3219:
3212:
3205:
3198:
3191:
3177:
3170:
3163:
3156:
3149:
3148:
3147:
3133:
3126:
3119:
3112:
3111:
3110:
3096:
3088:
3086:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3076:
3069:
3062:
3055:
3052:Rand Rebellion
3048:
3041:
3033:
3031:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3021:
3009:
3002:
2995:
2988:
2981:
2978:Boer Republics
2974:
2967:
2960:
2952:
2950:
2944:
2943:
2941:
2940:
2933:
2926:
2919:
2912:
2905:
2898:
2890:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2871:
2863:
2861:
2852:
2848:
2847:
2845:
2844:
2836:
2828:
2824:Bophuthatswana
2820:
2812:
2804:
2796:
2788:
2784:Klein Vrystaat
2780:
2772:
2764:
2756:
2748:
2740:
2732:
2724:
2716:
2708:
2700:
2692:
2684:
2669:
2654:
2646:
2623:
2621:
2614:
2613:
2605:
2604:
2597:
2590:
2582:
2573:
2572:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2554:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
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1866:Eastern Cape
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3383:Third Force
3244:Rugby union
2842:(1981–1994)
2834:(1979–1994)
2826:(1977–1994)
2818:(1976–1994)
2810:(1910–1961)
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2688:Cape Colony
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2652:(1652–1806)
2642: 1220
2635: 1075
2551:Third Force
2541:Shack fires
2378:periodicals
1859:By province
842:trade union
774:lectures".
657:imperialism
618:Rick Turner
475:Stutterheim
471:Grahamstown
445:progressive
362:non-violent
4668:Categories
4563:Greyshirts
4327:Volksparty
3858:Black Sash
3519:Xenophobia
3512:Travelgate
3269:Border War
3073:Bantustans
2971:Great Trek
2916:Xhosa Wars
2776:Upingtonia
2760:Stellaland
2314:Xenophobia
2254:Corruption
2005:Trotskyism
1985:Liberalism
1975:Federalism
1938:Ideologies
1896:North West
1891:Mpumalanga
1871:Free State
1691:2022-12-05
1514:2022-09-23
933:References
893:Abram Tiro
863:Steve Biko
772:boycotting
680:Activities
537:solidarity
479:Steve Biko
449:ecumenical
434:resistance
424:under the
422:segregated
366:Steve Biko
279:Frank Talk
175:Steve Biko
70:Steve Biko
38:(de facto)
3779:Volkstaat
3770:Uitlander
3701:Boerehaat
3677:Anarchism
3484:Arms Deal
3447:apartheid
3107:Pass laws
3084:Apartheid
3029:1910–1948
2948:1815–1910
2886:1652–1815
2546:Terrorism
2476:e-tolling
2471:Elections
2400:ANC Today
2376:Books and
2289:Toyi-toyi
2076:Keep Left
2043:AfriForum
2033:political
1955:Anarchism
1930:movements
1928:Political
1621:144826918
1613:0258-2473
1565:150323926
1557:0258-2473
1445:145698378
1429:0305-7070
1306:0361-7882
1268:0001-9909
1226:1682-3206
1160:144308914
1152:0258-2473
1108:145138768
1100:0258-2473
998:143810813
982:0305-7070
887:Ben Langa
804:SASO Nine
649:socialist
597:Coloureds
426:apartheid
384:Formation
358:apartheid
253:Apartheid
33:Dissolved
28:July 1969
25:Formation
4654:Category
4556:Boeremag
4047:Jeugkrag
3998:Het Volk
3692:Baasskap
3634:incident
3237:Olympics
2816:Transkei
2619:polities
2617:Defunct
2568:Category
2531:Protests
2491:HIV/AIDS
2279:Renaming
2166:(PASSOP)
1980:Feminism
1960:Anti-war
1711:(2002).
1485:13 March
1437:23267002
1359:(2016).
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990:42001323
906:See also
834:Congress
751:protests
734:literacy
553:and the
516:society.
500:Ideology
460:liberals
402:Turfloop
360:through
310:Category
82:a series
80:Part of
4459:SAAPAWU
3790:Defunct
3753:Slavery
2957:Mfecane
2511:Lindela
2393:Amandla
2334:Slogans
2111:(SASCO)
2105:(SALSA)
2099:(PAGAD)
2067:(COSAS)
1886:Limpopo
1876:Gauteng
780:Frelimo
745:Protest
641:Marxist
593:Indians
464:radical
54:Origins
4410:FOSATU
4257:SAYRCO
4229:SADECO
4145:Occupy
3684:Azania
3632:Lady R
3561:Racism
3390:CODESA
2851:Events
2840:Ciskei
2752:Goshen
2682:–1819)
2667:–1817)
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4382:CNETU
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4138:NUSAS
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3830:AITUP
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2832:Venda
2461:Crime
2449:Other
2055:(AWB)
1666:9 May
1617:S2CID
1561:S2CID
1479:(PDF)
1472:(PDF)
1463:(PDF)
1441:S2CID
1433:JSTOR
1310:JSTOR
1156:S2CID
1104:S2CID
1044:JSTOR
994:S2CID
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768:Alice
428:-era
152:AZAPO
4598:SANF
4528:APLA
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4452:PAWE
4438:NEUM
4431:MUSA
4396:FCWU
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4285:TNIP
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4236:SAIC
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3879:CNIP
2407:Biko
2223:see
2146:see
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1779:ISBN
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978:ISSN
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137:SASM
132:SASO
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4110:NNP
4103:NLP
4089:NCP
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3991:GNP
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3893:COD
3872:CDA
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2217:Law
2137:and
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