Great Purge - Knowledge

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Stalin's paranoia and used terror to enhance their own position. Peter Whitewood examines the first purge, directed at the Army, and comes up with a third interpretation that Stalin and other top leaders believing that they were always surrounded by capitalist enemies, always worried about the vulnerability and loyalty of the Red Army. It was not a ploy—Stalin truly believed it. "Stalin attacked the Red Army because he seriously misperceived a serious security threat"; thus "Stalin seems to have genuinely believed that foreign‐backed enemies had infiltrated the ranks and managed to organize a conspiracy at the very heart of the Red Army." The purge hit deeply from June 1937 and November 1938, removing 35,000; many were executed. Experience in carrying out the purge facilitated purging other key elements in the wider Soviet polity. Historians often cite the disruption as factors in the Red Army's disastrous military performance during the German invasion.

4442: 3891: 3902: 4542: 4309: 1926:. The assassination, in December 1934, led to an investigation that revealed a network of party members supposedly working against Stalin, including several of Stalin's rivals. Many of those arrested after Kirov's murder, high-ranking party officials among them, also confessed plans to kill Stalin himself. The validity of these confessions is debated by historians, but there is consensus that Kirov's death was the flashpoint at which Stalin decided to take action and begin the purges. Some later historians came to believe that Stalin arranged the murder, or at least that there was sufficient evidence to reach such a conclusion. Kirov was a staunch Stalin loyalist, but Stalin may have viewed him as a potential rival because of his emerging popularity among the moderates. The 4474: 587: 4257:

sometimes gave instructions concerning certain individuals. In one instance, he told Yezhov "Isn't it time to squeeze this gentleman and force him to report on his dirty little business? Where is he: in a prison or a hotel?" In another, while reviewing one of Yezhov's lists, he added to M. I. Baranov's name, "beat, beat!" Stalin also signed 357 lists in 1937 and 1938 authorizing executions of some 40,000 people, and about 90% of these are confirmed to have been shot, this was 7.4% of those executed legally. While reviewing one such list, Stalin reportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riff-raff in ten or twenty years time? No one. Who remembers the names now of the

4202: 4356:, Serdyuk, Mironov, Rudenko, and Semichastny. The hard work resulted in two massive reports, which detailed the mechanism of falsification of the show-trials against Bukharin, Zinoviev, Tukhachevsky, and many others. The commission based its findings in large part on eyewitness testimonies of former NKVD workers and victims of repressions, and on many documents. The commission recommended rehabilitating every accused with the exceptions of Radek and Yagoda, because Radek's materials required some further checking, and Yagoda was a criminal and one of the falsifiers of the trials (though most of the charges against him had to be dropped too, he was not a "spy", etc.). The commission stated: 4226: 1806: 4494: 6636:"Despite the fact that the combined firepower of the Red Army was greater than that of the Germans, the Purges had effectively crippled it by destroying the officer corps. This was the decisive element which persuaded Hitler to attack in 1941. At the Nuremberg trial, Marshal Keitel testified that many German generals had warned Hitler not to attack Russia, arguing that the Red Army was a formidable opponent. Rejecting these Hitler gave Keitel his main reason 'The first-class high-ranking officers were wiped out by Stalin in 1937, and the new generation cannot yet provide the brains they need.'" 4530: 4110: 1895: 2464:) and civilian Communist Party members. Seeking to fulfill the quotas, the police rounded up people in markets and train stations, with the purpose of arresting "social outcasts". Local units of the NKVD, in order to meet their "casework minimums" and force confessions out of arrestees worked long uninterrupted shifts during which they interrogated, tortured and beat the prisoners. In many cases those arrested were forced to sign blank pages which were later filled in with a fabricated confession by the interrogators. 4454: 3450:

red-blue-and-yellow bruises with the strap and the pain was so intense that it felt as if boiling water was being poured on these sensitive areas. I howled and wept from the pain. I incriminated myself in the hope that by telling them lies I could end the ordeal. When I lay down on the cot and fell asleep, after 18 hours of interrogation, in order to go back in an hour's time for more, I was woken up by my own groaning and because I was jerking about like a patient in the last stages of typhoid fever.

12840: 1463: 2202: 2753: 2741: 12852: 11665: 4589:"The present purge draws between Bolshevism and Stalinism not simply a bloody line but a whole river of blood. The annihilation of all the older generation of Bolsheviks, an important part of the middle generation which participated in the civil war, and that part of the youth that took up most seriously the Bolshevik traditions, shows not only a political but a thoroughly physical incompatibility between Bolshevism and Stalinism. How can this not be seen?". 1753: 3837: 4129:

confessions extracted by torture. Khrushchev later claimed in his memoirs that he had initiated the process, overcoming objections and protests from the rest of Party leadership, but the transcripts belie this, although they show differences of opinion regarding the contents. Starting from 1954, some of the convictions were overturned. Mikhail Tukhachevsky and other generals convicted in the Trial of Red Army Generals were declared innocent ("

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point make it clear that the number shot in the two worst purge years was more likely in the hundreds of thousands than in the millions." According to historian Corrina Kuhr, 700,000 people were executed during the Great Purge out of the 2.5 million who were arrested. Professor Nérard François-Xavier estimates the same number of people who were sentenced to death; however, he states that 1.3 million people were arrested.

3675: 2828: 2428: 1802:, as well as the massive and uncontrolled migration of millions of peasants into cities. The threat of war heightened Stalin's and generally Soviet perception of marginal and politically suspect populations as the potential source of an uprising in case of invasion. Stalin began to plan for the preventive elimination of such potential recruits for a mythical "fifth column of wreckers, terrorists and spies." 10206: 3104: 2653: 2304: 3092: 138: 2927:, 60% of German exiles in the Soviet Union were liquidated during the Stalinist terror, and a higher proportion of the KPD Politburo membership had died in the Soviet Union than had died in Nazi Germany. Weitz also noted that hundreds of German citizens, the majority of whom were Communists, were handed over to the Gestapo from Stalin's administration. Many Jewish figures such as 36: 3492:. (Stalin received lessons twice a week from 1925 to 1928, but he found it difficult to master even some of the basic ideas. Stalin developed enduring hostility toward German idealistic philosophy, which he called "the aristocratic reaction to the French Revolution".) Sten eventually became a member of an underground opposition group, and this group later joined the 4279:

begun. Stalin may have failed to anticipate the catastrophic excesses of the NKVD under Yezhov. Stalin also objected to the large numbers of people that Yezhov was purging. For example, when Yezhov announced that 200,000 party members were expelled, Stalin interrupted him, said that they were "very many" and suggested instead to only expel 30,000 and 600 former

4162:, and 2,000 unofficially killed in non-article 58 shootings; whereas the total estimate of deaths brought about by Soviet repression during the Great Purge ranges from 950,000 to 1.2 million, which includes executions, deaths in detention and those who died shortly after being released from the Gulag, as a result of their treatment therein. There were also 2228:, is the most famous of the Soviet show trials, because of persons involved and the scope of charges which tied together all loose threads from earlier trials. Meant to be the culmination of previous trials, it included 21 defendants alleged to belong to the "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites", supposedly led by Nikolai Bukharin, the former chairman of the 1779:(USSR). Various established figures in Lenin's government attempted to succeed him. By 1928, Joseph Stalin, the party's General Secretary, had triumphed over his opponents and gained control of the party. Initially, Stalin's leadership was widely accepted; his main political adversary, Trotsky, was forced into exile in 1929, and Stalin's doctrine of " 2513: 2536:. The women were sentenced to forced labour for 5 or 10 years. Their minor children were put in orphanages. All possessions were confiscated. Extended families were purposely left with nothing to live on, which usually sealed their fate as well, affecting up to 200,000–250,000 people of Polish background depending on the size of their families. 1942:, participants in the repression as members of the Politburo, maintained this justification throughout the purge; they each signed many death lists. Stalin believed war was imminent, threatened both by an explicitly hostile Germany and an expansionist Japan. The Soviet press portrayed the country as threatened from within by fascist spies. 2186:

friends, and intellectual friendship is stronger than other friendships. I knew that Bukharin was in the same state of upheaval as myself. That is why I did not want to deliver him bound hand and foot to the People's Commissariat of Home Affairs. Just as in relation to our other cadres, I wanted Bukharin himself to lay down his arms.

2016: 2295:, the Bukharin trial marked their final break with communism, and even turned the first three into fervent anti-communists eventually. To them, Bukharin's confession symbolized the depredations of communism, which not only destroyed its sons but also conscripted them in self-destruction and individual abnegation. 4060:

also reported on the executions. He called them in 1941 "the great purges", and described how over four years they affected "the top fourth or fifth, to estimate it conservatively, of the Party itself, of the Army, Navy, and Air Force leaders and then of the new Bolshevik intelligentsia, the foremost

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Political prisoners already serving a sentence in the Gulag camps were also executed in large numbers. NKVD Order no. 00447 also targeted "the most vicious and stubborn anti-Soviet elements in camps", they were all "to be put into the first category"—that is, shot. NKVD Order no. 00447 decreed 10,000

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In early 1937, poet Pavel Nikolayevich Vasiliev is said to have defended Nikolai Bukharin as "a man of the highest nobility and the conscience of peasant Russia" at the time of his denunciation at the Pyatakov Trial (Second Moscow Trial) and damned other writers then signing the routine condemnations

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At first, it was thought 25–50% of Red Army officers had been purged; the true figure is now known to be in the area of 3.7–7.7%. This discrepancy was the result of a systematic underestimation of the true size of the Red Army officer corps, and it was overlooked that most of those purged were merely

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The result was a curious mix of fulsome confessions (of being a "degenerate fascist" working for "restoration of capitalism") and subtle criticisms of the trial. One observer noted that after disproving several charges against him, Bukharin "proceeded to demolish or rather showed he could very easily

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and Vyacheslav Molotov later claimed that Bukharin was never tortured, but it is now known that his interrogators were given the order "beating permitted", and were under great pressure to extract confession out of the "star" defendant. Bukharin initially held out for three months, but threats to his

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In the new form of Party organization, the Politburo, and Stalin in particular, were the sole dispensers of ideology. This required the elimination of all Marxists with different views, especially those among the prestigious "old guard" of revolutionaries. As the purges began, the government (through

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According to historian James Harris, contemporary archival research pokes "rather large holes in the traditional story" weaved by Conquest and others. His findings, while not exonerating Stalin or the Soviet state, dispel the notion that the bloodletting was merely the result of Stalin attempting to

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should be abandoned, it failed to fully rehabilitate the victims of the three Moscow trials, although the final report does contain an admission that the accusations have not been proven during the trials and "evidence" had been produced by lies, blackmail, and "use of physical influence". Bukharin,

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to spy for France. In the final interrogation, he retracted his confession and wrote letters to the prosecutor's office stating that he had implicated innocent people, but to no avail. Babel was tried before an NKVD troika and convicted of simultaneously spying for the French, Austrians and Trotsky,

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and believe that representatives of these minorities were killed not because of their ethnicity, but because of their possible relations to countries hostile to the USSR and fear of disloyalty in the case of an invasion. Nevertheless, little proof exists to suggest that Russia's and Stalin's alleged

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By 1929, Stalin had defeated his political opponents and gained full control over the party. He organized a committee to begin the process of industrialization of the Soviet Union. Backlash against industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture escalated, which prompted Stalin to increase

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It is quite possible that Yezhov misled Stalin about the aspects of the purge process. Many people at the time, and also a few subsequent commentators, surmised that the Great Purge wasn't started by Stalin's initiative, so the idea got about that the process was entirely out of control once it had

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and Oleg V. Naumov, "popular estimates of executions in the great purges vary from 500,000 to 7 million." However, according to them, "the archival evidence from the secret police rejects the astronomically high estimates often given for the number of terror victims" and "the data available at this

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for three years, but this proved to be a temporary reprieve. In May 1938, he was arrested again for "counter-revolutionary activities". On 2 August 1938, Mandelstam was sentenced to five years in correction camps and died on 27 December 1938 at a transit camp near Vladivostok. Pasternak himself was

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After the interrogations the files were submitted to NKVD troikas, which pronounced the verdicts in the absence of the accused. During a half-day-long session a troika went through several hundred cases, delivering either a death sentence or a sentence to the Gulag labor camps. Death sentences were

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On 2 July 1937, in a top secret order to regional Party and NKVD chiefs Stalin instructed them to produce the estimated number of "kulaks" and "criminals" in their districts. These individuals were to be arrested and executed, or sent to the gulag camps. The party chiefs complied and produced these

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I feel guilty of one thing more: even after admitting my guilt and exposing the organisation, I stubbornly refused to give evidence about Bukharin. I knew that Bukharin's situation was just as hopeless as my own, because our guilt, if not juridically, then in essence, was the same. But we are close

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testified that there was a "third organization separate from the cadres which had passed through school," as well as "semi-Trotskyites, quarter-Trotskyites, one-eighth-Trotskyites, people who helped us, not knowing of the terrorist organization but sympathizing with us, people who from liberalism,

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The Great Purge has provoked numerous debates about its purpose, scale, and mechanisms. According to one interpretation, Stalin's regime had to maintain its citizens in a state of fear and uncertainty to stay in power (Brzezinski, 1958). Robert Conquest emphasized Stalin's paranoia, focused on the

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The purge of the army was claimed to be supported by German-forged documents (said to have been correspondence between Marshal Tukhachevsky and members of the German high command). The claim is unsupported by facts, as by the time the documents were supposedly created, two people from the eight in

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However, a large number of people were arrested at random in sweeps, on the basis of denunciations or because they were related to, were friends with or knew people already arrested. Engineers, peasants, railwaymen, and other types of workers were arrested during the "Kulak Operation" based on the

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Between 1936 and 1938, three very large Moscow trials of former senior Communist Party leaders were held, in which they were accused of conspiring with fascist and capitalist powers to assassinate Stalin and other Soviet leaders, dismember the Soviet Union and restore capitalism. These trials were

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elected Kirov to the central committee with only three votes against, the fewest of any candidate, while Stalin received 292 votes against. After Kirov's assassination, the NKVD charged the ever-growing group of former oppositionists with Kirov's murder as well as a growing list of other offenses,

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Stalin committed a very grave crime against the Communist party, the socialist state, Soviet people and worldwide revolutionary movement...Together with Stalin, the responsibility for the abuse of law, mass unwarranted repressions and death of many thousands of wholly innocent people also lies on

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Stalin undoubtedly caused many innocent people to be executed, but it seems likely that he thought many of them guilty of crimes against the state and felt that the execution of others would act as a deterrent to the guilty. He signed the papers and insisted on documentation. Hitler, by contrast,

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Although the trials of former Soviet leaders were widely publicized, the hundreds of thousands of other arrests and executions were not. These became known in the West only as a few former gulag inmates reached the West with their stories. Not only did foreign correspondents from the West fail to

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made up the majority of victims, with 18,000 being killed in the terror. Other victims were nobility and political and academic figures, along with some ordinary workers and herders. Mass graves containing hundreds of executed Buddhist monks and civilians have been discovered as recently as 2003.

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minorities arrested during the Great Purge were executed while those sentenced during the Kulak Operation had only a 50% chance of being executed, (though this may have been due to the Gulag camp's lack of space in the late stages of the Purge rather than deliberate discrimination in sentencing).

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A distinctive feature of the Great Purge was that, for the first time, members of the ruling party were included on a massive scale as victims of the repression. In addition to ordinary citizens, prominent members of the Communist Party were also targets for the purges. The purge of the Party was

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So what was the motivation behind the Terror? The answers required a lot more digging, but it gradually became clearer that the violence of the late 1930s was driven by fear. Most Bolsheviks, Stalin among them, believed that the revolutions of 1789, 1848 and 1871 had failed because their leaders

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was flexibility: first, the numbers—the so-called limit—could be easily increased; second, it was left entirely to the NKVD officers whether a particular prisoner was to be shot or sent to the prison camps; third, the time-limits set for the completion of single operations were extended time and

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Two major lines of interpretation have emerged among historians. One argues that the purges reflected Stalin's ambitions, his paranoia, and his inner drive to increase his power and eliminate potential rivals. Revisionist historians explain the purges by theorizing that rival factions exploited

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to find work. At the height of the Terror, American immigrants besieged the US embassy, begging for passports so they could leave the Soviet Union. They were turned away by embassy officials, only to be arrested on the pavement outside by lurking NKVD agents. Many were subsequently shot dead at

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The Yezhovshchina or Stalin's Great Terror The precise end result of these operations is difficult to establish, but the total of the condemnations is estimated at roughly 1,300,000 of which 700,000 were sentenced to death, most of the others were sentenced to ten years in the camps (document

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states "theories about the elemental, spontaneous nature of the terror, about a loss of central control over the course of mass repression, and about the role of regional leaders in initiating the terror are simply not supported by the historical record". Besides signing Yezhov's lists, Stalin

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the Leninist and Stalinist purges (1918–1956), in which the 1936–1938 purge may have been simply the one that got the most attention from people in a position to record its magnitude for posterity—the intelligentsia—by directly targeting them, whereas several other waves of the ongoing flow of

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Poles comprised 12.5% of those who were killed during the Great Terror, while comprising only 0.4% of the population. Overall, national minorities targeted in these campaigns composed 36% of the victims of the Great Purge, despite being only 1.6% of the Soviet Union's population. 74% of ethnic

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was the largest of this kind. The Polish operation claimed the largest number of the NKVD victims: 143,810 arrests and 111,091 executions according to records. Snyder estimates that at least eighty-five thousand of them were ethnic Poles. The remainder were 'suspected' of being Polish, without

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and others, the methods used to extract the confessions are known: such tortures as repeated beatings, simulated drownings, making prisoners stand or go without sleep for days on end, and threats to arrest and execute the prisoners' families. For example, Kamenev's teenage son was arrested and

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congress in February 1956 (which was made public a month later), Khrushchev referred to the purges as an "abuse of power" by Stalin which resulted in enormous harm to the country. In the same speech, he recognized that many of the victims were innocent and were convicted on the basis of false

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Concerning diaspora minorities, the vast majority of whom were Soviet citizens and whose ancestors had resided for decades and sometimes centuries in the Soviet Union and Russian Empire, "this designation absolutized their cross-border ethnicities as the only salient aspect of their identity,

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and reconstruction of the Soviet economy in the late 1920s, veteran Bolsheviks no longer thought necessary the "temporary" wartime dictatorship, which had passed from Lenin to Stalin. Stalin's opponents inside the Communist Party chided him as undemocratic and lax on bureaucratic corruption.

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The investigators began to use force on me, a sick 65-year-old man. I was made to lie face down and beaten on the soles of my feet and my spine with a rubber strap ... For the next few days, when those parts of my legs were covered with extensive internal hemorrhaging, they again beat the

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The victims were executed at night, either in prisons, in the cellars of NKVD headquarters, or in a secluded area, usually a forest. The NKVD officers shot prisoners in the head using pistols. Other methods of dispatching victims were used on an experimental basis. In Moscow, the use of

3435:, and supplied him with information about the situation in the USSR. There is no doubt that Gide used this information in his book attacking the USSR." Pilnyak was tried on 21 April 1938. In the proceeding that lasted 15 minutes, he was condemned to death and executed shortly afterward. 1730:, who headed the NKVD during the purge years. Scholars estimate the death toll for the Great Purge (1936–1938) to be roughly 700,000-1.2 million. Despite the end of the Great Purge, the widespread surveillance and atmosphere of mistrust continued for decades. Similar purges took place 1715:, and Soviet citizens of Polish origin, who were subjected to forced deportation and extreme repression. Throughout the purge, the NKVD sought to strengthen control over civilians through fear, and frequently used imprisonment, torture, violent interrogation, and executions during its 4293:

posits that while the 'purposive deaths' caused by Hitler constitute 'murder', those caused under Stalin fall into the category of 'execution', although in terms of "causing death by criminal neglect and ruthlessness (...) Stalin probably exceeded Hitler". Wheatcroft elaborates:

2346:. His confessions were somewhat different from others in that while he pleaded guilty to "sum total of crimes", he denied knowledge when it came to specific crimes. Some astute observers noted that he would allow only what was in written confession and refuse to go any further. 2329:

young wife and infant son, combined with "methods of physical influence" wore him down. But when he read his confession amended and corrected personally by Stalin, he withdrew his whole confession. The examination started all over again, with a double team of interrogators.

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The best estimate that can currently be made of the number of repression deaths in 1937–38 is the range 950,000–1.2 million, i.e. about a million. This is the estimate which should be used by historians, teachers and journalists concerned with twentieth century Russian—and

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Zinoviev and Kamenev demanded, as a condition for "confessing", a direct guarantee from the Politburo that their lives and that of their families and followers would be spared. This offer was accepted, but when they were taken to the alleged Politburo meeting, only Stalin,

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Rykov, Zinoviev, and others were still seen as political opponents, and though the charges against them were obviously false, they could not have been rehabilitated because "for many years they headed the anti-Soviet struggle against the building of socialism in USSR".

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and many lower-level victims were also declared innocent in the 1950s. Nikolai Bukharin and others convicted in the Moscow Trials were not rehabilitated until as late as 1988. Leon Trotsky, considered a major player in the Russian Revolution and a major contributor to

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took the position that evidence of the camps should be ignored so the French proletariat would not be discouraged. A series of legal actions ensued at which definitive evidence was presented that established the validity of the former labor camp inmates' testimony.

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demolish the whole case." He continued by saying that "the confession of the accused is not essential. The confession of the accused is a medieval principle of jurisprudence" in a trial that was based solely on confessions. He finished his last plea with the words:

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On the first day of trial, Krestinsky caused a sensation when he repudiated his written confession and pleaded not guilty to all the charges. However, he changed his plea the next day after "special measures", which dislocated his left shoulder among other things.

2696:(then equivalent to four-star generals), 13 of 15 army commanders (then equivalent to three-star generals), eight of nine admirals (the purge fell heavily on the Navy, who were suspected of exploiting their opportunities for foreign contacts), 50 of 57 army 2151:

That while confessions are necessarily entitled to the most serious consideration, the confessions themselves contain such inherent improbabilities as to convince the Commission that they do not represent the truth, irrespective of any means used to obtain

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Even previously sympathetic observers who had accepted the earlier trials found it more difficult to accept these new allegations as they became ever more absurd, and the purge expanded to include almost every living Old Bolshevik leader except Stalin and

1879:, as well as the majority of Lenin's Politburo, for disagreements in policy. The NKVD attacked the supporters, friends, and family of these "heretical" Marxists, whether they lived in Russia or not. The NKVD nearly annihilated Trotsky's family before 4064:

Evidence and the results of research began to appear after Stalin's death. This revealed the full enormity of the Purges. The first of these sources were the revelations of Nikita Khrushchev, which particularly affected the American editors of the

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wanted to be rid of the Jews and communists simply because they were Jews and communists. He was not concerned about making any pretence at legality. He was careful not to sign anything on this matter and was equally insistent on no documentation.

3478:, chief of the Soviet security and secret police apparatus under Stalin and subsequently head of the NKVD, further pressured Iashvili with the alternatives of denouncing Tabidze or being arrested and tortured by the NKVD, Iashvili killed himself. 2155:

That Trotsky never instructed any of the accused or witnesses in the Moscow trials to enter into agreements with foreign powers against the Soviet Union that Trotsky never recommended, plotted, or attempted the restoration of capitalism in the

4541: 4441: 3474:, shot himself with a hunting gun in the building of the Writers' Union. He witnessed and was even forced to participate in public trials that ousted many of his associates from the Writers' Union, effectively condemning them to death. When 2424:

fact that they worked for or near important strategic sites and factories where work accidents had occurred due to "frantic rhythms and plans". During this period the NKVD reopened these cases and relabeled them as "sabotage" or "wrecking."

2420:, participants in peasant rebellions, members of the clergy, persons deprived of voting rights, former members of non-Bolshevik parties, ordinary criminals, like thieves, known to the police and various other "socially harmful elements". 2052:

that opposed Stalin, although its activities were exaggerated. Among other accusations, they were incriminated with the assassination of Kirov and plotting to kill Stalin. After confessing to the charges, all were sentenced to death and

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establish his own personal dictatorship; evidence suggests he was committed to building the socialist state envisioned by Lenin. The real motivation for the terror, according to Harris, was an exaggerated fear of counterrevolution:

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the Tukhachevsky group were already imprisoned, and by the time the document was said to reach Stalin the purging process was already underway. However the actual evidence introduced at trial was obtained from forced confessions.

1824:. In 1933, for example, the Party expelled some 400,000 people. But from 1936 until 1953, the term changed its meaning, because being expelled from the Party came to mean almost certain arrest, imprisonment, and often execution. 1954:. As the Russian Civil War drew to a close, this campaign was relaxed although the secret police did remain active. From 1924 to 1928, the mass repression – including incarceration in the Gulag system – dropped significantly. 10328: 4185:

were of individuals who had received this sentence. Despite this, the lower figure did roughly confirm Conquest's original 1968 estimate of 700,000 "legal" executions and in the preface to the 40th anniversary edition of

2068:, and were accused of plotting with Trotsky, who was said to be conspiring with Germany. Thirteen of the defendants were eventually executed by shooting and the rest received sentences in labor camps where they soon died. 2544:. The officials were mandated to arrest and execute a specific number of so-called "counter-revolutionaries", compiled by administration using various statistics but also telephone books with names sounding non-Russian. 1917:

By 1934, several of Stalin's rivals, such as Trotsky, began calling for Stalin's removal and attempted to break his control over the party. In this atmosphere of doubt and suspicion, the popular high-ranking official

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Moscow show trial of "Old Bolsheviks", and analyzed the carefully planned and systematic destruction of the Communist Party. Some others view the Great Purge as a crucial moment, or rather the culmination, of a vast

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broke out amid the purge. Sheng received assistance from the NKVD. Sheng and the Soviets alleged a massive Trotskyist conspiracy and a "Fascist Trotskyite plot" to destroy the Soviet Union. The Soviet Consul General

2118:. Although the hearings were obviously conducted with a view to proving Trotsky's innocence, they brought to light evidence which established that some of the specific charges made at the trials could not be true. 2114:, commonly known as the Dewey Commission, was set up in the United States by supporters of Trotsky, to establish the truth about the trials. The commission was headed by the noted American philosopher and educator 4340:. They were given the task to investigate the materials concerning Bukharin, Rykov, Zinoviev, Tukhachevsky, and others. The commission worked in 1956–1957. While stating that the accusations against Tukhachevsky 3008:

While being the most visible part, the trials and executions of the former Bolshevik leaders were only a minor aspect of the purges. A series of documents discovered in the Central Committee archives in 1992 by

1738:. While the Soviet government desired to put Trotsky on trial during the purge, his exile prevented this. Trotsky survived the purge, though he would be assassinated in 1940 by the NKVD on the orders of Stalin. 3403:(Stalin jotted down in Bukharin's letter with feigned indignation: "Who gave them the right to arrest Mandelstam?"), Stalin instructed NKVD to "isolate but preserve" him, and Mandelstam was "merely" exiled to 2266:

The fact that Yagoda was one of the accused showed the speed at which the purges were consuming their own. It was now alleged that Bukharin and others sought to assassinate Lenin and Stalin from 1918, murder

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In 2007, one such site, the Butovo firing range near Moscow, was turned into a shrine to the victims of Stalinism. Between August 1937 and October 1938, more than 20,000 people were shot and buried there.

2279:. No other crime of the Stalin years so captivated Western intellectuals as the trial and execution of Bukharin, who was a Marxist theorist of international standing. For some prominent communists such as 1949:

onward, Lenin had used repression against perceived and legitimate enemies of the Bolsheviks as a systematic method of instilling fear and facilitating control over the population in a campaign called the

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development research was judged un-Marxist, 27 astronomers disappeared between 1936 and 1938. The Meteorological Office was violently purged as early as 1933 for failing to predict weather harmful to the

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he monstrousness of my crime is immeasurable especially in the new stage of struggle of the U.S.S.R. May this trial be the last severe lesson, and may the great might of the U.S.S.R. become clear to all.

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highly publicized and extensively covered by the outside world, which was mesmerized by the spectacle of Lenin's closest associates confessing to most outrageous crimes and begging for death sentences:

4061:

technicians, managers, supervisors, scientists". Knickerbocker also wrote about dekulakization: "It is a conservative estimate to say that some 5,000,000 ... died at once, or within a few years."

2610:

wrote "In Ukraine 1937 began in 1933", referring to the earlier Soviet political repressions in Ukraine. There was also deadly persecution of Ukrainian cultural elites, who are referred to as the

113: 3936: 3415:

was arrested in May 1939, and according to his confession paper (which contained a blood stain) he "confessed" to being a member of a Trotskyist organization and being recruited by French writer

2400:

The following categories appear to have been on index-cards, catalogues of suspects assembled over the years by the NKVD and were systematically tracked down: "ex-kulaks" previously deported to "

3583:

was arrested in 1938, and accused of being "an organizer and leader of a fascist, espionage, terrorist organization of Esperantists". He was executed on 4 October 1938. Another Esperanto writer

2442:, including active parishioners, was nearly annihilated: 85% of the 35,000 members of the clergy were arrested. Particularly vulnerable to repression were also the so-called "special settlers" ( 2449:

Common criminals such as thieves, "violators of the passport regime", etc. were also dealt with in a summary way. In Moscow, for example, nearly one third of the 20,765 persons executed on the

1962:. The kulaks responded by destroying crop yields and other acts of sabotage against the Soviet government. The food shortage led to a mass famine across the USSR and slowed the Five Year Plan. 3267:, was a Soviet economist, chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the National Economy and Professor of the Agricultural Academy in Moscow but was eventually executed on fabricated charges in 1938. 3645:, an expert on East Asian languages, was arrested by the NKVD on the charge of being a "Japanese spy". On 27 November 1937 he was executed, along with his Japanese wife Isoko Mantani-Nevsky. 1843:

This opposition to current leadership may have accumulated substantial support among the working class by attacking the privileges and luxuries the state offered to its high-paid elite. The

4391:("openness and transparency") it became possible not only to speak about the Great Terror but to begin locating the killing grounds of 1937–1938 and identifying those who lay buried there. 1966:

accompanied by the purge of the whole society. Soviet historians organize the Great Purge into three corresponding trials. The following events are used for the demarcation of the period:

10221: – Transcript of Nikolai Bukharin's testimonies and last plea; from "The Case of the Anti-Soviet Block of Rights and Trotskyites", Red Star Press, 1973, pp. 369–439, 767–79 4365:

Molotov stated "We would have been complete idiots if we had taken the reports at their face value. We were not idiots." and that "the cases were reviewed and some people were released"

2397:, former members of political parties other than the communist party, etc.). They were to be executed or sent to Gulag prison camps extrajudicially, under the decisions of NKVD troikas. 11120: 9093:

Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gabor T.; Zemskov, Viktor N. (October 1993). "Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence".

2446:) who were under permanent police surveillance and constituted a huge pool of potential "enemies" to draw on. At least 100,000 of them were arrested in the course of the Great Terror. 4217:

saying "The report written by that commission member…says that 1,370,000 arrests were made in the 1930s. That's too many. I responded that the figures should be thoroughly reviewed".

2225: 2196: 1993: 11759: 2618:

sufficient proof of their disloyalty and sufficient justification for their arrest and execution" (Martin, 2001: 338). Some scholars have called the national operations of the NKVD

4024:, with respect to the trials of former leaders, some Western observers were unintentionally or intentionally ignorant of the fraudulent nature of the charges and evidence, notably 10607: 2040:

The first trial was of 16 members of the so-called "Trotskyite-Kamenevite-Zinovievite-Leftist-Counter-Revolutionary Bloc," held in August 1936, at which the chief defendants were

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immediately enforceable. The executions were carried out at night, either in prisons or in secluded areas run by the NKVD and located as a rule on the outskirts of major cities.

2471:

The "Kulak Operation" was the largest single campaign of repression in 1937–38, with 669,929 people arrested and 376,202 executed, more than half the total of known executions.

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reports that the purge was not intended to subdue the Soviet masses, many of whom helped enact the purge, but to deal with opposition to Stalin's rule among the Soviet elites.

4405:

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, many more mass graves filled with executed victims of the terror were discovered and turned into memorial sites. Some, such as the

2626:

called Stalin's policy towards Poles in the 1930s "genocidal". However, he does not consider the Great Purge entirely genocidal because it also targeted political opponents.

656: 9715: 5389: 12163: 12146: 10291: 2583:, ethnic Poles constituted the largest group of victims in the Great Terror, comprising less than 0.5% of the country's population but comprising 12.5% of those executed. 1583: 1180: 4621:, which dealt with counter-revolutionary crimes. Due legal process, as defined by Soviet law in force at the time, was often largely replaced with summary proceedings by 1863:

participated, and which later led to both of their deaths. Stalin enforced a ban on party factions and banned those party members who had opposed him, effectively ending

12193: 10459: 10424: 10420: 1927: 4899: 3767:, established a Mongolian version of the NKVD troika, and proceeded to execute tens of thousands of people accused of having ties to "pro-Japanese spy rings". Buddhist 8962: 621: 3991:

When the relatives of those who had been executed in 1937–1938 inquired about their fate, they were told by NKVD that their arrested relatives had been sentenced to "

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communists that perished in his prison camps along with the thousands of German communists that were handed over from Stalin to the Gestapo after the signing of the

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Purging the elites; adopting plans for the mass repressions against the "social base" of the potential aggressors, starting of purging the "elites" from opposition.

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The Polish Operation of the NKVD served as a model for a series of similar NKVD secret decrees targeting a number of the Soviet Union's diaspora nationalities: the

2079:

It is now known that the confessions were given only after great psychological pressure and torture had been applied to the defendants. From the accounts of former

11221: 11179: 10622: 10358: 10297: 4669: 4122: 2647: 1650:. Soviet politicians who opposed or criticized Stalin were removed from office and imprisoned or executed by the NKVD. Eventually, the purges were expanded to the 553: 4699: 4628:

Valentin Berezhkov, who became Stalin's interpreter in 1941, suggests parallels in his memoir between Hitler's inner party purge and Stalin's mass repressions of

3286:, founder of the Computing Institute in 1919 and was noted for his specialism in applied celestial mechanics before the Second World War. He was executed in 1941. 1827:

The political purge was primarily an effort by Stalin to eliminate challenge from past and potential opposition groups, including the left and right wings led by

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report on the purges, but in many Western nations (especially France), attempts were made to silence or discredit these witnesses; according to Robert Conquest,

4493: 12656: 12156: 11360: 2579:. Of the operations against national minorities, it was the largest one, second only to the "Kulak Operation" in terms of the number of victims. According to 11623: 3969:, were just as huge and just as devoid of justice but were more successfully swallowed into oblivion in the popular memory of the (surviving) Soviet public. 3870:

Mass repressions against "kulaks", "dangerous" ethnic minorities, family members of oppositionists, military officers, saboteurs in agriculture and industry.

2892:

argued that Stalin had destroyed thousands of foreign communists capable of leading socialist change in their respective countries. He referenced 600 active

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viewed the excessive violence characteristic of the mass purges as an ideological differentiation between Stalinism and Bolshevism. He summarised his view:

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in December 1935 to "receive terrorist instructions" from Trotsky. The Dewey Commission established that no such flight had taken place. Another defendant,

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hadn't adequately anticipated the ferocity of the counter-revolutionary reaction from the establishment. They were determined not to make the same mistake.

3572:

was arrested on a charge of his alleged participation in the "Japanese-SR Terrorist Subversive Espionage Organization". He was executed on 12 October 1937.

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who lived until the Great Purge, Stalin himself was the only one who remained in the Soviet Union, alive. Four of the other five were executed; the fifth,

2982: 1958:

police presence in rural areas. Soviet authorities increased repression against the kulaks (i.e., wealthy peasants that owned farmland) in a policy called

427: 2361:

and others wrote to Stalin seeking clemency for Bukharin, but all the leading defendants were executed except Rakovsky and two others (who were killed in

1783:" became enshrined party policy. However, in the early 1930s, party officials began to lose faith in his leadership, largely due to the human cost of the 12141: 12093: 2598:

Timothy Snyder attributes 300,000 deaths during the Great Purge to "national terror" including ethnic minorities and Ukrainian "kulaks" who had survived

4529: 4316:

At least two Soviet commissions investigated the show-trials after Stalin's death. The first was headed by Molotov and included Voroshilov, Kaganovich,

11638: 11618: 11092: 3536:, was executed on 27 October 1937. He created a classification of Russian dialects that served as a base for modern scientific linguistic nomenclature. 3749:

executions for this contingent, but at least three times more were shot in the course of the secret mass operation, the majority in March–April 1938.

12911: 12390: 11628: 10712: 6602: 1747: 404: 389: 129: 4572:, much of the Great Purge was directed against the widespread banditry and criminal activity which was occurring in the Soviet Union at the time. 3459:

was arrested on 10 October 1937 on a charge of treason and was tortured in prison. In a bitter humor, he named only the 18th-century Georgian poet

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was arrested on 28 October 1937 for counter-revolutionary activities, spying and terrorism. One report alleged that "he held secret meetings with

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Official figures put the total number of documentable executions during the years 1937 and 1938 at 681,692, in addition to 116,000 deaths in the

4080: 895: 4883:

According to latest estimates 2,5 million people were arrested and 700,000 of them shot. These figures are based on reliable archival materials

4050:. While "Communist Parties everywhere simply transmitted the Soviet line", some of the most critical reporting also came from the left, notably 2456:

To carry out the mass arrests, the 25,000 officers of the State Security personnel of NKVD were complemented with units of ordinary police, and

586: 2263:, said in his memoirs that Bukharin told him that he formed a secret bloc with Zinoviev and Kamenev in order to remove Stalin from leadership. 918: 9843: 3976:, arrested in April 1938 and shot (or died from torture) in February 1939 (his wife, G. A. Yegorova, was shot in August 1938); Army Commander 3972:

In some cases, high military command arrested under Yezhov were later executed under Beria. Some examples include Marshal of the Soviet Union

12088: 11701: 11613: 10677: 10538: 7176: 7149: 6347:

Dyck, Kirsten (2022). "Holodomor and Holocaust memory in competition and cooperation". In Cox, John M.; Khoury, Amal; Minslow, Sarah (eds.).

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campaign started at the beginning of the 1930s (Hagenloh, 2000; Shearer, 2003; Werth, 2003). According to an October 1993 study published in

2629:

Some scholars, however, focus on the security dilemma in the border areas suggesting the need to secure the ethnic integrity of Soviet space

452: 447: 3876:

Stopping of mass operations, abolishing of many organs of extrajudicial executions, repressions against some organizers of mass repressions.

3273:, Soviet economist and ranked among the most influential contributors to the classical Marxist tradition. He is noted for his seminal work, 1654:

and military high command, which had a disastrous effect on the military. The campaigns also affected many other categories of the society:

11754: 11103: 10383: 10379: 6373:"The NKVD Mass Secret National Operations (August 1937 – November 1938) | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network" 4694: 4174: 3992: 2133:, confessed to taking part in the assassination of Sergei Kirov in December 1934, at a time when he had already been in prison for a year. 546: 527: 442: 437: 432: 3995:" (десять лет без права переписки). When these ten-year periods elapsed in 1947–1948 but the arrested did not appear, the relatives asked 2997:

in 1940. Of the seven members elected to the Politburo between the October Revolution and Lenin's death in 1924, four were executed, one (

12273: 12243: 10735: 10338: 6101:"The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n°00447 (August 1937 – November 1938) | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network" 5045: 4684: 1120: 956: 861: 717: 234: 204: 6871: 6790: 4402:

in the White Sea, and erected next to KGB headquarters in Moscow as a memorial to all "the victims of political repression" since 1917.

12530: 12490: 12400: 12211: 11727: 11161: 10985: 1107: 413: 7342: 6244:

Sundström, Olle; Kotljarchuk, Andrej (2017). "Introduction: the problem of ethnic and religious minorities in Stalin's Soviet Union".

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Anti-Soviet 'Bloc of Rights and Trotskyites' Heard before the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the U.S.S.R., Verbatim Report

2148:

That the conduct of the Moscow Trials was such as to convince any unprejudiced person that no attempt was made to ascertain the truth.

1722:

In 1938, Stalin reversed his stance on the purges, criticized the NKVD for carrying out mass executions, and oversaw the execution of

12518: 12413: 12285: 12071: 10745: 10717: 7721: 1764: 1484: 704: 699: 474: 7423: 3890: 3488:, philosopher and deputy head of the Marx-Engels Institute, was Stalin's private tutor when Stalin was trying hard to study Hegel's 1984: 17: 12966: 12423: 12340: 12233: 11390: 11047: 10687: 10353: 8705: 848: 484: 375: 7775: 6763: 5251: 12363: 12170: 12037: 10960: 10909: 10271: 4453: 4374: 3627:

executive producer for the Soviet film monopoly from 1930 to 1937, was executed as a "traitor" in 1938, following a purge of the

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lists within days, with figures which roughly corresponded to the individuals who were already under secret police surveillance.

818: 759: 539: 517: 7369: 2332:

Bukharin's confession in particular became subject of much debate among Western observers, inspiring Koestler's acclaimed novel

12976: 12906: 12061: 11906: 11138: 11005: 10964: 10617: 10543: 10454: 10348: 7987: 7694: 6923:"Kurapaty (1937–1941): NKVD Mass Killings in Soviet Belarus | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network" 4674: 4563: 4398:

in Belarus were the site of a clash between demonstrators and the police. In 1990, a boulder stone was brought from the former

3901: 2614:. Statistics of Ukraine's Ministry of Foreign Affairs indicate that about 200,000 victims of the Great Purge were Ukrainians. 2401: 1304: 1299: 1026: 616: 7494: 7467: 6844: 6066: 4308: 3496:

which was led by Leon Trotsky. In 1937, Sten was seized on the direct order of Stalin, who declared him one of the chiefs of "

12548: 12049: 12015: 12003: 11998: 11889: 10170: 10133:—— "In the shadow of the war: Bolshevik perceptions of polish subversive and military threats to the Soviet Union, 1920–32." 10052: 10031: 10010: 9988: 9966: 9947: 9925: 9903: 9856: 9823: 9802: 9783: 9761: 9738: 9226: 9139: 8742: 8715: 8688: 7997: 7970: 7785: 7758: 7748: 7731: 7704: 7659: 7585: 7558: 7531: 7521: 7504: 7477: 7450: 7406: 7379: 7352: 7325: 7298: 7186: 7159: 7132: 7105: 6881: 6854: 6827: 6817: 6800: 6773: 6746: 6719: 6692: 6665: 6356: 5261: 5234: 4704: 1173: 928: 754: 12475: 8966: 8130: 7575: 7315: 6449: 6390:"The Crime of Genocide Committed against the Poles by the USSR before and during World War II: An International Legal Study" 6147: 2723:

disagreed, arguing that the Red Army was less effective after its intellectual leadership had been eliminated in the purge.

1289: 12585: 12353: 10449: 10444: 10388: 9129: 7960: 7675: 6736: 6209: 5535: 5224: 4904: 3980:, arrested July 1938 and shot February 1939; Flagman Konstantin Dushenov, arrested May 1938 and shot February 1940; Komkor 3551: 1971: 1795: 1477: 730: 570: 344: 7241: 6168:О фашистско-повстанческой, шпионской, диверсионной, пораженческой и террористической деятельности польской разведки в СССР 3565:, considered by many to be the most important Ukrainian theater director of the 20th century, was shot on 3 November 1937. 2140:. Its conclusions asserted the innocence of all those condemned in the Moscow Trials. In its summary, the commission wrote 12981: 12465: 12131: 12078: 12066: 11155: 10899: 10817: 10682: 10501: 9723:

Rehabilitation: As It Happened. Documents of the CPSU CC Presidium and Other Materials. Vol. 2, February 1956–Early 1980s

9057: 7649: 6389: 4714: 4689: 4125: 3442:

was arrested in 1939 and shot in February 1940 for "spying" for Japanese and British intelligence. His wife, the actress

3408:

nearly purged, but Stalin is said to have crossed Pasternak's name off the list, saying "Don't touch this cloud dweller."

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began affecting civilian life. The purge reached its peak between September 1936 and August 1938 under the leadership of

1590: 1424: 626: 10590: 7548: 7006: 2056:

The second trial in January 1937 involved 17 lesser figures known as the "anti-Soviet Trotskyite-centre" which included

12881: 12513: 12508: 12228: 12176: 11302: 10975: 10940: 10882: 9654: 9616: 9597: 9578: 9543: 9511: 9488: 9466: 9447: 9425: 9401: 9380: 9359: 8807: 8777: 8535: 8424: 8373: 8182: 7826: 7288: 7002: 6906: 6490: 6331: 6258: 5884: 5585: 5007: 4121:

The Great Purge was denounced by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev following Stalin's death. In his secret speech to the

3996: 3331:, who oversaw Soviet construction projects and nationalization of the chemical industry. Bogdanov was executed in 1939. 3135: 2913: 1294: 1212: 1148: 694: 7440: 7095: 6480: 12896: 12891: 12886: 12765: 12716: 12649: 12460: 12188: 11790: 11694: 11340: 11071: 8732: 7676:"Yuri Gastev, Russian dissident and human rights activist; at 65 – The Boston Globe (Boston, MA) | HighBeam Research" 5877:

Not guilty : report of the Commission of Inquiry Into the Charges Made Against Leon Trotsky in the Moscow Trials

3758: 2871: 2809: 2434:, one of the remaining leaders of the White movement, was kidnapped by the NKVD in 1937 and executed 19 months later. 1731: 1128: 467: 72: 7122: 5158: 4940: 3923:

In the summer of 1938, Yezhov was relieved from his post as head of the NKVD and was eventually tried and executed.

2853: 12926: 12795: 12783: 12607: 12597: 12553: 12368: 12044: 11993: 11876: 11345: 10862: 10343: 8980: 8172: 7396: 6407: 4252:

Historians with archival access have confirmed that Stalin was intimately involved in the purge. Russian historian

1158: 462: 108: 10238: 9218:

At Stalin's side : his interpreter's memoirs from the October Revolution to the fall of the dictator's empire

7344:

An Economic Inquiry into the Nonlinear Behaviors of Nations: Dynamic Developments and the Origins of Civilizations

5509: 5483: 3013:

demonstrate that there were limits for arrests and executions as for all other activities in the planned economy.

2088:

charged with terrorism. After months of such interrogation, the defendants were driven to despair and exhaustion.

12800: 12788: 12644: 12629: 12543: 12445: 12027: 11847: 11365: 10852: 10847: 10827: 10775: 10491: 9666:"The Scale and Nature of Stalinist Repression and its Demographic Significance: On Comments by Keep and Conquest" 8619: 8612: 7205:

Sharma, Hari Prasad; Sen, Subir K. (2006). "Shubnikov: A case of non-recognition in superconductivity research".

5688: 4201: 3696: 2537: 2497:

was carried out from 1937 through 1938 targeting specific nationalities within the Soviet Union, on the order of

1229: 796: 316:

Elimination of political opponents, consolidation of power, fear of counterrevolution, fear of party infiltration

9940:

Two Lectures: Stalin's Great Terror: Origins and Consequences – Leon Trotsky and the Fate of Marxism in the USSR

9216: 3388:

had futilely pleaded for his case prior to his eventual execution due to accusations of working as a German spy.

3234:

considered the "Soviet founding father of Soviet low-temperature physics" He was known for the discovery of the

3219:. He was removed from his formal positions in 1935 and perished in prison in 1943 following his conflicts with 2271:

by poison, partition the USSR and hand its territories to Germany, Japan, and Great Britain, and other charges.

12741: 12721: 12418: 12032: 11857: 11785: 11410: 11314: 10955: 10822: 10141: 8600: 8575: 7926: 7872: 6982: 6966: 6291: 5651: 4568: 4190:, Conquest claimed that he had been "correct on the vital matter—the numbers put to death: about one million". 3764: 3704: 3580: 2838: 2791: 1799: 1707:. Many died at the penal labor camps of starvation, disease, exposure, and overwork. The NKVD targeted certain 1376: 1085: 1048: 479: 364: 354: 167: 6372: 4173:, a practice of falsification for lowering the execution numbers was disguising executions with the sentence " 3723:

Victims of the terror included American immigrants to the Soviet Union who had emigrated at the height of the

2993:, had been forced into exile outside the Soviet Union in 1929, but was assassinated in Mexico by Soviet agent 12936: 12931: 12921: 12812: 12639: 12503: 12455: 12216: 12010: 11884: 11867: 10935: 10832: 8454:"Victims of the Soviet penal system in the pre-war years: a first approach on the basis of archival evidence" 4916: 4618: 3642: 1923: 1444: 1414: 1409: 94: 6111: 6100: 5277: 12956: 12951: 12916: 12408: 12083: 11978: 11779: 11687: 11590: 11355: 11017: 10867: 10780: 10506: 10496: 10469: 10210: 8161:

Allen S. Whiting and General Sheng Shicai. "Sinkiang: Pawn or Pivot?" Michigan State University Press, 1958

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regarded the Moscow trials "as the prelude to the destruction of an entire generation of revolutionaries".

4225: 3973: 3613: 3529: 3377: 3235: 2940: 2928: 2787: 2708:

expelled from the Party. Thirty percent of officers purged in 1937–1939 were allowed to return to service.

2505: 2393:

was issued, directed against "ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements" (such as former officials of the

2084: 1708: 1429: 1279: 1095: 1090: 1070: 913: 908: 869: 823: 811: 786: 776: 745: 735: 422: 54: 3946:

Michael Parrish argues that while the Great Terror ended in 1938, a lesser terror continued in the 1940s.

1794:

From 1930 onwards, the Party and police officials feared the "social disorder" caused by the upheavals of

12961: 12689: 12671: 12437: 12295: 12256: 12223: 11913: 11901: 11817: 11719: 11037: 10692: 10464: 10439: 10415: 10323: 10264: 10121: 9415: 4679: 4432: 3940: 3828: 3339: 3037: 2950:, in which the NKVD oversaw purges of anti-Stalinist elements in the Spanish Republican forces including 2897: 2693: 2677: 2657: 2494: 2480: 1805: 1716: 1419: 1404: 1399: 1038: 1033: 974: 781: 578: 512: 46: 8936: 3943:

and suspended implementation of death sentences. The decree signaled the end of massive Soviet purges.

1688:

headed by Stalin. Hundreds of thousands of victims were accused of various political crimes (espionage,

12684: 12661: 12634: 11650: 11380: 11370: 11335: 10872: 10528: 10243: 10230: 10061:

Watt, Donald Cameron. "Who plotted against whom? Stalin's purge of the soviet high command revisited."

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Shearer, David. 2003. "Social Disorder, Mass Repression and the NKVD During the 1930s." pp. 85–117 in

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There was also a secret trial before a military tribunal of a group of Red Army commanders, including

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as "pornographic scrawls on the margins of Russian literature". He was promptly shot on 16 July 1937.

3074: 2917: 2909: 2893: 457: 12694: 6922: 6036:

Report by Viscount Chilston (British ambassador) to Viscount Halifax, No. 141, Moscow, 21 March 1938

12807: 11375: 11211: 11127: 11064: 10857: 10740: 10697: 10657: 9862: 8592: 7918: 7889: 6994: 2362: 1780: 1668:)—and professionals. As the scope of the purge widened, the omnipresent suspicion of saboteurs and 1635: 1058: 725: 8174:

Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949

8044: 7801: 2943:, spent twenty five years in Stalin's prisons and concentrations camps after the purges in 1937. 12056: 11585: 11189: 11078: 10945: 10812: 9503: 9173: 9155: 8851: 8206: 7124:

Covariant Loop Quantum Gravity: An Elementary Introduction to Quantum Gravity and Spinfoam Theory

4447:"Wall of sorrow" at the first exhibition of the victims of Stalinism in Moscow, 19 November 1988 4130: 4092: 3985: 3819:

were among the 435 alleged conspirators in the plot. Xinjiang came under virtual Soviet control.

3298: 2849: 2780: 2634: 2439: 2370: 2229: 1689: 1611: 1522: 1202: 879: 674: 9013: 8616: 7029: 5908: 5403: 4038:, who reported, "proof ... beyond reasonable doubt to justify the verdict of treason"; and 3446:, was murdered in her apartment. In a letter to Molotov dated 13 January 1940, Meyerhold wrote: 3320:. Gerasimovich was arrested along with 13 other astronomers and was personally executed in 1938. 1934:

Another justification for the purge was to remove any possible "fifth column" in case of a war.

12736: 12328: 12266: 11668: 11577: 10672: 10558: 10257: 9626: 8013: 4979:

James Harris, "Encircled by Enemies: Stalin's Perceptions of the Capitalist World, 1918–1941,"

4664: 3947: 3916:. He was posthumously removed from pictures, such as here where he stood next to Joseph Stalin. 3692: 3239: 2936: 2461: 2413: 10216: 8767: 8363: 6121: 5832: 1700:, conspiracies to prepare uprisings and coups). They were executed by shooting or sent to the 12855: 11827: 11564: 11109: 11098: 11032: 10612: 10333: 10069: 9570: 8567: 8527: 8073:

American Communists and Radicals Executed by Soviet Political Police and Buried at Sandarmokh

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Automation and Autonomy: Labour, Capital and Machines in the Artificial Intelligence Industry

7010: 6547: 6152:["The Polish operation" NKVD 1937–1938] (in Russian). НИПЦ «Мемориал». Archived from 5253:

Bringing Stalin Back In: Memory Politics and the Creation of a Useable Past in Putin's Russia

4793: 4752: 4290: 3952: 3511: 3343: 3170: 2339: 1864: 1697: 1669: 1075: 874: 10244:"Documenting the Death Toll: Research into the Mass Murder of Foreigners in Moscow, 1937–38" 9721:

A. Artizov, Yu. Sigachev, I. Shevchuk, V. Khlopov under editorship of acad. A. N. Yakovlev.

4427:

In August 2021, a mass grave containing between 5,000 and 8,000 skeletons was discovered in

4177:" which almost always meant execution. All of the bodies identified from the mass graves at 4109: 3798:

province in China launched his own purge in 1937 to coincide with Stalin's Great Purge. The

2177:

By the "third organization," he meant the last remaining former opposition group called the

12941: 12876: 12617: 12480: 12300: 12098: 11812: 11516: 11444: 11385: 11296: 11251: 10928: 10429: 10410: 9260: 7253: 7060: 7051:

Bronstein, Matvei (2011). "Republication of: Quantum theory of weak gravitational fields".

6941: 5431: 3962: 3950:(a Soviet Army officer who became a prisoner for a decade in the Gulag system) presents in 3653: 3628: 3212: 3062: 3025: 2661: 2611: 2533: 2390: 2072: 1872: 1784: 1757: 1681: 1366: 1222: 1080: 1053: 943: 938: 923: 791: 12704: 9411: 3984:, arrested August 1938 and shot March 1939. All the aforementioned have been posthumously 2259:

asserts that Bukharin was not involved. Differently from Broué, one of his former allies,

1735: 8: 12844: 12573: 12378: 12307: 12115: 11964: 11842: 11764: 11737: 11524: 11508: 11492: 11261: 11216: 11184: 10970: 10563: 10553: 10484: 10081: 9891: 6970: 4731: 4399: 4349: 4321: 4066: 4057: 3799: 3781: 3729: 3471: 3317: 3254: 3166: 3050: 2450: 1910: 1880: 1467: 1264: 1217: 1197: 1192: 1187: 1004: 843: 689: 643: 9665: 7257: 7064: 4926: 3420:

as well as "membership in a terrorist organization". On 27 January 1940, he was shot in

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Whitewood, Peter. "The Purge of the Red Army and the Soviet Mass Operations, 1937–38."

10098: 9696: 9642: 9110: 9052: 8998: 8903: 8478: 8211: 7630: 7222: 7076: 6430: 5759: 5363: 5346: 5341:

Hagenloh, Paul. 2000. "Socially Harmful Elements and the Great Terror." pp. 286–307 in

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about their fate again and this time were told that the arrested died in imprisonment.

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This article is about the 1936–1938 Soviet purge. For political purges in general, see

9877: 9184: 8113: 6512:

Cahiers du monde russe. Russie – Empire russe – Union soviétique et États indépendants

5317: 3036:, or their deputies) those arrested along national lines. A characteristic of all the 12819: 12759: 12538: 12324: 12020: 11822: 11807: 11749: 11595: 11226: 11027: 10950: 10667: 10511: 10434: 10405: 10166: 10073: 10048: 10042: 10027: 10006: 9998: 9984: 9976: 9962: 9943: 9921: 9899: 9852: 9819: 9798: 9779: 9757: 9734: 9700: 9688: 9650: 9631: 9612: 9593: 9574: 9539: 9507: 9484: 9462: 9443: 9421: 9397: 9376: 9370: 9355: 9222: 9135: 9021: 8911: 8803: 8773: 8738: 8711: 8684: 8660: 8596: 8571: 8531: 8453: 8420: 8369: 8178: 7993: 7966: 7922: 7868: 7781: 7754: 7727: 7700: 7655: 7622: 7581: 7554: 7527: 7500: 7473: 7446: 7402: 7375: 7348: 7321: 7294: 7269: 7214: 7182: 7155: 7128: 7101: 7080: 6998: 6978: 6962: 6945:

article (October 28, 1990, p. 2). Later, it was cited by several sources, including:

6902: 6877: 6850: 6823: 6796: 6769: 6742: 6715: 6688: 6661: 6642: 6529: 6486: 6352: 6327: 6287: 6254: 5890: 5880: 5763: 5751: 5647: 5581: 5541: 5257: 5230: 5197: 5106: 5003: 4862: 4610: 4594: 4384: 4261: 3932: 3908: 3732:. In addition, 141 American Communists of Finnish origin were executed and buried at 3608: 3591: 3584: 3158: 3147: 3017: 3010: 2981:, or in Lenin's Soviet government, were executed. Out of six members of the original 2901: 2845: 2374: 2292: 2201: 2112:

Commission of Inquiry into the Charges Made against Leon Trotsky in the Moscow Trials

1836: 1620: 1439: 1371: 1351: 1316: 1311: 1207: 1043: 994: 969: 964: 933: 669: 507: 219: 10842: 6434: 6247:

Ethnic and Religious Minorities in Stalin's Soviet Union: New Dimensions of Research

5226:

Stalin and War, 1918-1953: Patterns of Repression, Mobilization, and External Threat

4820: 4348:

The second commission largely worked from 1961 to 1963 and was headed by Shvernik ("

3858:

Reforming the security organizations, adopting official plans on purging the elites.

3525:

was arrested in 1933 for contradicting Soviet ideology. He was shot in October 1937.

2994: 2908:

became victims of Stalinist terror. Repressive measures were also enforced upon the

1884: 11540: 11532: 11350: 11308: 11282: 11171: 11042: 11022: 10995: 10755: 10516: 10090: 9680: 9525: 9476: 9102: 8470: 8064: 7614: 7261: 7068: 6954: 6519: 6507: 6422: 6067:"Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)" 5743: 5727: 5533: 5390:"Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)" 5189: 5086: 4854: 4808: 4659: 4380: 4325: 4272: 4242: 4138: 4035: 4009: 3737: 3724: 3652:

was executed on 3 November 1937. He is considered to be one of the lead figures of

3635: 3620: 3533: 3501: 3373: 3258: 3190: 3033: 2970:, a left-wing academic and translator along with many members of the POUM faction. 2932: 2744: 2591: 2517: 2380: 2334: 2307: 2217: 2178: 2105: 2048:, two of the most prominent former party leaders, who had indeed been members of a 2041: 2029: 1939: 1898: 1888: 1860: 1848: 1832: 1559: 1513: 1284: 1254: 903: 889: 806: 611: 491: 297: 293: 9716:

Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union § Terror, famine and the Gulag

8140: 8118:

Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe

5747: 5663: 4519:

A monument to victims of political repressions in Rutchenkove settlement, part of

3939:) and the subsequent order of the NKVD undersigned by Beria cancelled most of the 3416: 12731: 11944: 11896: 11802: 11484: 11276: 11194: 10990: 10919: 10750: 10595: 10585: 10374: 10239:

Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)

10074:"The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45" 10021: 9813: 9771: 9553: 9535: 9391: 9352:

The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB

9079: 8797: 8678: 8623: 6946: 6321: 6153: 5575: 4997: 4993: 4602: 4576: 4206: 4170: 4017: 3924: 3815:, Mahmud Sijan, the official leader of the Xinjiang province Huang Han-chang and 3804: 3604:, seen as one of the founders of modern Yakut literature, died in prison in 1939. 3475: 3463:

as his accomplice in anti-Soviet activities. He was executed on 16 December 1937.

3456: 3400: 3392: 3385: 3290: 3200: 3194: 3120: 3084: 3002: 2673: 2665: 2541: 2325: 2288: 2276: 2161:

The commission concluded: "We therefore find the Moscow Trials to be frame-ups."

2130: 2122: 1977:

1937, introduction of NKVD troikas for implementation of "revolutionary justice."

1624: 1606: 1356: 1346: 1244: 884: 833: 281: 90: 10003:

Sketches from a Secret War: A Polish Artist's Mission to Liberate Soviet Ukraine

9731:

Enemies within the Gates?: The Comintern and the Stalinist Repression, 1934–1939

9255: 8877: 8524:

The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932–1939

8269: 7679: 6213: 5967:

De Lenine à Staline. Dix ans au service de l'Internationale communiste 1921–1931

5879:. 1859–1952. New York: Sam Sloan and Ishi Press International. pp. 154–55. 5193: 5072:"The Impact of the Great Purges on the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs" 5030: 4812: 4424:, an official but controversial recognition of the crimes of the Soviet regime. 2256: 12751: 12679: 11959: 11949: 11608: 11600: 11405: 11330: 11246: 11206: 10765: 10760: 10702: 9913: 7989:

Russian Academicians and the Revolution: Combining Professionalism and Politics

6986: 6351:. Routledge studies in modern history. London New York: Routledge. p. 31. 6317: 6273: 5577:

Origins of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933–1938

5131:

Goldman, W. (2005). "Stalinist Terror and Democracy: The 1937 Union Campaign".

4629: 4421: 4333: 4329: 4317: 4253: 4246: 4143: 4025: 3966: 3913: 3601: 3543: 3522: 3507: 3467: 3421: 3396: 3335: 3328: 3305: 3220: 3216: 3046: 3029: 2998: 2623: 2599: 2580: 2498: 2431: 2409: 2394: 2358: 2245: 2213: 1959: 1768: 1727: 1723: 1673: 1655: 1647: 1639: 1575: 1336: 1274: 1016: 1009: 999: 633: 349: 277: 273: 10224: 10094: 9684: 9256:"Historian James Harris says Russian archives show we've misunderstood Stalin" 7618: 7072: 6684:

Creating German Communism, 1890–1990: From Popular Protests to Socialist State

6081:

L'ivrogne et la marchande de fleurs. Autopsie d'un meurtre de masse, 1937–1938

2756: 12901: 12870: 12612: 11500: 11460: 11256: 11149: 11144: 11000: 10923: 10889: 10652: 10647: 10533: 10280: 10235: 9935: 9753: 9529: 9435: 9025: 8915: 8793: 7626: 7273: 7218: 6533: 6062: 5894: 5755: 5385: 5201: 4866: 4758: 4606: 4337: 4234: 4194: 4039: 3981: 3840: 3649: 3443: 3428: 3399:

to his circle of friends in 1934. After intervention by Nikolai Bukharin and

3361: 3351: 3283: 3231: 2924: 2889: 2532:

The wives and children of those arrested and executed were dealt with by the

2369:, was sent to a labor camp, but she survived to see her husband posthumously 2284: 2280: 2209: 2061: 2006: 1906: 1844: 1712: 1643: 1586: 1434: 1361: 1341: 1249: 1021: 769: 684: 339: 265: 104: 8072: 6524: 3432: 2136:

The Dewey Commission later published its findings in a 422-page book titled

12495: 12316: 11710: 11556: 11452: 11271: 11012: 10797: 10707: 10568: 10191: 9873: 9692: 9521: 8068: 6637: 4582: 4484: 4435:. The graves are believed to date back to the late 1930s during the purge. 4134: 4102: 4071: 4052: 3791: 3785: 3700: 3515: 3369: 3365: 3358: 3197:

was arrested, accused of fictional "terroristic" activity and shot in 1938.

3131: 2990: 2716: 2233: 2021: 1919: 1902: 1856: 1828: 1809: 1776: 1772: 1598: 305: 159: 9459:

On Stalin's Team : The years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics

8417:

On Stalin's Team : The years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics

4858: 4700:

Orphans in the Soviet Union#Children of "enemies of the people", 1937–1945

3470:, having earlier been forced to denounce several of his associates as the 12320: 12312: 11934: 11918: 11832: 11289: 11115: 8390: 7550:

Soviet Atomic Project, The: How The Soviet Union Obtained The Atomic Bomb

6283: 4622: 4284: 4114: 4043: 3547: 3539: 3412: 3347: 3270: 3096: 3066: 3021: 2967: 2935:

were arrested in 1937 by the NKVD and turned over to the German Gestapo.

2689: 2607: 2576: 2366: 2268: 2045: 2025: 1259: 1138: 989: 979: 638: 229: 10111:

The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military

9283:

The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military

8984: 7226: 6210:"Zapomniane ludobójstwo stalinowskie (The forgotten Stalinist genocide)" 5730:

The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military

4874: 4842: 3937:

Decree about Arrests, Prosecutor Supervision and Course of Investigation

1876: 12348: 11266: 10914: 10600: 10479: 9114: 8589:

Stalin's Loyal Executioner: People's Commissar Nikolai Ezhov, 1895–1940

8482: 6278: 5545: 5360:

Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union,

5098: 4709: 4548: 4280: 3977: 3833:

The Great Purge of 1936–1938 can be roughly divided into four periods:

3816: 3733: 3594:

was arrested and executed for "subversive writing" on 24 November 1937.

3562: 3497: 3309: 3204: 2974: 2959: 2951: 2885: 2794: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2560: 2417: 2170: 2115: 2057: 1951: 1752: 1704: 1163: 838: 679: 606: 384: 285: 192: 11679: 10102: 9590:

Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union

9215:

Berezhkov, V. M. (Valentin Mikhaĭlovich); Mikheyev, Sergei M. (1994).

7634: 7602: 7265: 5928:

British Embassy Report: Viscount Chilston to Mr. Eden, 6 February 1937

5209: 5177: 3611:, responsible for creating the synopsis for Sergei Prokofiev's ballet 1980:

1937, passage of Article 58-14 about "counter-revolutionary sabotage."

1887:

was part of an assassination task force put together by Special Agent

1638:

and secret police of the USSR. Starting in 1936, the NKVD under chief

1634:(People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs), which functioned as the 984: 12568: 12563: 12385: 12278: 12108: 11769: 10894: 10785: 10642: 10580: 10126:—— "Subversion in the Red Army and the Military Purge of 1937–1938." 8899: 8630: 4900:"The Levashovo cemetery and the Great Terror in the Leningrad region" 4719: 4312:

Opening of monument to victims of political repressions, Moscow, 1990

3928: 3836: 3812: 3808: 3576: 3489: 3187: 3070: 2955: 2701: 2603: 2556: 2521: 2311: 1234: 740: 601: 359: 143: 9106: 8474: 8135: 7317:

Managing Technological Innovation: Competitive Advantage from Change

5664:"Gulag History, Structure and Size: A View From the Secret Archives" 5090: 4843:"Children of 'Enemies of The People' as Victims of the Great Purges" 3115: 2856:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 2769: 2365:

in 1941). Despite the promise to spare his family, Bukharin's wife,

2208:

chiefs responsible for conducting mass repressions (left to right):

12558: 12103: 11837: 11797: 10837: 10548: 7577:

Hammer and Rifle: The Militarization of the Soviet Union, 1926–1933

6658:

Was There an Alternative? Trotskyism: a Look Back Through the Years

6426: 6377:

nkvd-mass-secret-national-operations-august-1937-november-1938.html

4460: 4406: 4395: 4388: 4265: 4182: 3795: 3708: 3485: 3224: 3154: 2685: 2619: 2568: 2564: 2552: 2457: 1693: 1651: 1616: 1133: 828: 239: 224: 196: 163: 7777:

Ensnared between Hitler and Stalin: Refugee Scientists in the USSR

7603:"Alexei Gastev and the Soviet Controversy over Taylorism, 1918-24" 7425:

The Official Record of the United States Department of Agriculture

3638:

was convicted as a "Japanese spy" and executed on 2 February 1938.

3142: 3079: 2586: 1820:" in Soviet political slang was an abbreviation of the expression 12450: 11954: 10573: 10398: 10393: 10153: 9845:

Crimes against humanity under communist regimes – Research review

8852:"Pictorial essay: Death trenches bear witness to Stalin's purges" 8014:"In memory of the scientist : Durnovo, Nikolai Nikolayevich" 7651:

The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, 1927–1932

6105:

nkvd-mass-secret-operation-n-00447-august-1937-november-1938.html

4614: 4520: 3685: 3660: 3555: 3174: 2427: 2405: 10249: 8963:"Jewish Cemeteries, Synagogues, and Mass Grave Sites in Ukraine" 7865:

A Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror

5707: 5464: 4605:, a great number of accusations, notably those presented at the 3763:

During the late 1930s, Stalin dispatched NKVD operatives to the

3674: 2715:

The purge had a significant effect on German decision making in

10205: 7401:. (Cottons Gardens, E2 8DN), Pluto Press Limited. p. 239. 5113: 4551:

burial grounds reads: "People! do not kill one another", Russia

4431:, Ukraine, during exploration works for a planned expansion of 4383:

and similar organisations across the Soviet Union at a time of

4258: 3597: 3460: 3294: 3208: 3127: 3103: 2720: 2652: 2633:

neighboring capitalistic enemy states. They stress the role of

2606:

famine that had been used to kill millions in the early 1930s.

2572: 2303: 200: 8821: 8819: 7442:

The Reception of David Ricardo in Continental Europe and Japan

6326:(4th revised ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 5909:"The Case of Leon Trotsky (Report of Dewey Commission – 1937)" 4535:

A memorial to victims of Stalinist repression in Tomsk, Russia

3927:

succeeded him as head. On 17 November 1938, a joint decree of

3223:. The controversy would also contribute to a wider decline in 2700:

commanders, 154 out of 186 division commanders, 16 of 16 army

1812:, in 1929, shortly before being driven out of the Soviet Union 256:

system (official figures) 700,000 to 1.2 million (estimated)

12373: 12251: 10792: 9918:

Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity)

8343: 7097:

Advances in the Interplay Between Quantum and Gravity Physics

5978: 5976: 5599: 5597: 5432:"The "Bloc" of the Oppositions against Stalin (January 1980)" 4878: 4504: 4464: 4428: 4159: 3844: 3091: 2947: 2697: 2548: 2220:. All three were themselves eventually arrested and executed. 1817: 1701: 1663: 1659: 1594: 399: 253: 137: 86: 10292:

General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

9896:

Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Twentieth-Century Russia

8452:

Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gábor; Zemskov, Viktor (1993).

8365:

Is Tomorrow Hitler's? 200 Questions on the Battle of Mankind

7750:

Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences

6975:

Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Twentieth-Century Russia

4164:

16,500 to 50,000 deaths in the deportation of Soviet Koreans

3368:

in 1934. He was also the sibling of prominent mathematician

2638:

prejudices played a central causal role in the Great Purge.

12485: 12261: 9048:"Critics Scoff as Kremlin Erects Monument to the Repressed" 8816: 8307: 8297: 8295: 8280: 8082: 6901:. United States: Oxford University Press. pp. 364–72. 6132: 6130: 4410: 4268: 3847: 3768: 3162: 2963: 2205: 2197:

Case of the Anti-Soviet "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites"

2126: 2080: 1631: 269: 10246:

by Barry McLoughlin, American Historical Association, 1999

9567:

The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s

9014:"Former Killing Ground Becomes Shrine to Stalin's Victims" 8731:

Dashpu̇rėv, Danzankhorloogiĭn; Soni, Sharad Kumar (1992).

8704:

Kotkin, Stephen; Elleman, Bruce Allen (12 February 2015).

8510:

The Great Terror: A Reassessment: 40th Anniversary Edition

8497:

The Great Terror: A Reassessment: 40th Anniversary Edition

8419:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 244–45. 6765:

On the Eve: The Jews of Europe Before the Second World War

6618: 6047:

Report of Court Proceedings in the Case of the Anti-Soviet

6018: 5973: 5594: 2719:: many German generals opposed an invasion of Russia, but 183:(2 years, 3 months, 4 weeks and 1 day) 12470: 12290: 8634: 8238: 6927:

kurapaty-1937-1941-nkvd-mass-killings-soviet-belarus.html

6873:

Russia's International Relations in the Twentieth Century

6711:

Marxism and the Philosophy of Science: A Critical History

2512: 2416:), former tsarist civil servants, former officers of the 2144:

Independent of extrinsic evidence, the Commission finds:

10329:

Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, Polish–Soviet War

10298:

Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union

9481:

Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe

9307:

For a critique of Whitewood see Alexander Hill, review,

9196: 8433: 8331: 8319: 8292: 8024: 7931: 7696:

Comprehending the Complexity of Countries: The Way Ahead

6959:

Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe

6127: 5644:

Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe

5626: 5624: 5534:

People's Comissariat of Justice of the U.S.S.R. (1938).

5138: 4941:"Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Party Purge" 4670:

Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin

4420:

On 30 October 2017, President Vladimir Putin opened the

4148:

Rehabilitation: The Political Processes of the 1930s–50s

3850:(1937–1938), later himself arrested and executed in 1939 2680:. Only Budyonny and Voroshilov survived the Great Purge. 2648:

Case of the Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization

9417:

The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression

9327: 9092: 8451: 7887: 7753:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 3460. 7439:

Faccarello, Gilbert; Izumo, Masashi (3 February 2014).

6577: 6565: 6006: 5994: 5931: 5812: 5800: 5788: 5362:

edited by B. McLaughlin and K. McDermott. Basingstoke:

3049:

to kill the victims during their transportation to the

2224:

The third and final trial, in March 1938, known as the

1931:

including treason, terrorism, sabotage, and espionage.

1775:

opened in the Communist Party, the ruling party in the

11361:

List of awards and honours bestowed upon Joseph Stalin

9235: 9174:"Leon Trotsky: Stalinism and Bolshevism (August 1937)" 9156:"Leon Trotsky: Stalinism and Bolshevism (August 1937)" 8250: 8226: 8094: 7854:

The Independent, "The History of Hell", 8 January 1995

7100:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 440. 7094:

Bergmann, Peter G.; Sabbata, V. de (6 December 2012).

5847: 4960: 4958: 4271:

in Mongolia to be liquidated but the political leader

3500:

idealists". On 19 June 1937, Sten was put to death in

3395:

was arrested for reciting his famous anti-Stalin poem

3215:

such as the law of homologous series in variation and

8204: 6145: 5991:

Bertram David Wolfe, "Breaking with communism", p. 10

5859: 5621: 5278:"Leon Trotsky – Exile and assassination | Britannica" 4213:

The Soviets themselves made their own estimates with

3703:, who both organized large-scale murderous purges in 2255:

led by Trotsky and with zinovievites really existed,

2174:

from a Fronde against the Party, gave us this help."

1543: 1527: 802:

Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina

10808:

Case of Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization

10044:

The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia

9221:. Secaucus, NJ : Carol Pub. Group. p. 10. 6243: 6220: 5609: 5046:"Rethinking Stalin's Purge of the Red Army, 1937–38" 4264:

got rid of? No one." Stalin had ordered for 100,000

2474: 2453:

were charged with a non-political criminal offence.

9609:

The Lesser Terror: Soviet state security, 1939–1953

9587: 8361: 8170: 7178:

The 20th Century O-Z: Dictionary of World Biography

7151:

The 20th Century O-Z: Dictionary of World Biography

6045:Tucker, Robert. "Block of Rights and Trotskyites." 5713: 4975: 4973: 4955: 4303: 3181:Those who perished during the Great Purge include: 1642:began the removal of the central party leadership, 11093:Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia 9842:Karlsson, Klas-Göran; Schoenhals, Michael (2008). 9841: 9633:The Gulag Archipelago, 1918–1956: In Three Volumes 9630: 8904:"Wary of its past, Russia ignores mass grave site" 8650:. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1999, p. 470 8355: 6939:This information was published first in 1990 in a 5540:. People's Comissariat of Justice of the U.S.S.R. 5392:. Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network. 5159:"Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Purge" 2958:factions. Notable cases involved the execution of 1680:. The campaigns were carried out according to the 975:50th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide protests 10150:Rehabilitation: Political Trials of the 1930s–50s 10146:Реабилитация. Политические процессы 30–50-х годов 9214: 8617:Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited 8565:Master of the House: Stalin and His Inner Circle. 7422:Agriculture, United States Department of (1925). 6505: 3257:and developed the business cycle theory known as 2900:. Rogovin also noted that sixteen members of the 2181:, led by Bukharin, whom he implicated by saying: 2011: 1748:Purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 1597:also sought to remove the remaining influence of 130:purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 12972:Persecution of intellectuals in the Soviet Union 12868: 12559:Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences 9776:The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties 9350:Andrew, Christopher; Mitrokhin, Vasili (2000) . 6212:. Gliwicki klub Fondy. Czytelnia. Archived from 6095: 6093: 6091: 6089: 5574:Getty, John Arch; Getty, John Archibald (1987). 4970: 4146:, was never rehabilitated by the USSR. The book 4022:The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties 11201:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences 9531:In Denial: Historians, Communism, and Espionage 9440:The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia 9349: 9320:Roger R. Reese, "Stalin Attacks the Red Army." 7780:. University of Toronto Press. pp. 1–376. 7723:Groups and Analysis: The Legacy of Hermann Weyl 7438: 7371:Reconstructing Lenin: An Intellectual Biography 7093: 6819:The End of the Spanish Civil War: Alicante 1939 6207: 5470: 4992: 4897: 4787: 4785: 4783: 4781: 4779: 4599:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences 2373:a half-century later by the Soviet state under 2164: 1662:—especially those lending out money or wealth ( 89:. For the period of the French Revolution, see 49:for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling 8730: 8207:"«Большой террор»: 1937–1938. Краткая хроника" 8077:In Denial: Historians, Communism and Espionage 8042: 7850: 7848: 7846: 7120: 6869: 6506:Kuromiya, Hiroaki; Pepłoński, Andrzej (2009). 6216:on 23 March 2012 – via Internet Archive. 5833:"The British Stalinists and the Moscow Trials" 5510:"Who Killed Kirov? 'The Crime of the Century'" 4034:, a Russian speaker; the American Ambassador, 3743: 3169:. He was accused of being a Japanese spy, and 11695: 10776:Demolition of Cathedral of Christ the Saviour 10678:Aggravation of class struggle under socialism 10539:Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance 10265: 9920:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 9647:Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941 8703: 8177:. Cambridge: CUP Archive. pp. 151, 376. 7428:. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 3. 7200: 7198: 6405: 6086: 5924: 5922: 5178:"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" 4794:"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" 4556: 4413:, are said to contain up to 200,000 corpses. 4379:In the late 1980s, with the formation of the 1553: 1537: 1485: 547: 252:681,692 executions and 116,000 deaths in the 146:searching through the exhumed victims of the 10226:Actual video footage from Third Moscow Trial 10188:Eternal Memory: Voices from the Great Terror 10023:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin 9625: 9588:McLoughlin, Barry; McDermott, Kevin (2002). 9500:The Great Fear: Stalin's Terror of the 1930s 9193:, p. 121 which cites his secret speech. 8937:"Stalin-era mass grave yields tons of bones" 8244: 8209:["Great Terror": Brief Chronology]. 8131:"RTÉ News: Mass grave uncovered in Mongolia" 7127:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 6–7. 6279:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin 6192:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin 4938: 4898:François-Xavier, Nérard (27 February 2009). 4776: 4695:Family members of traitors to the Motherland 4368: 4175:10 years without the right of correspondence 4153: 3993:10 years without the right of correspondence 2381:"Ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements" 10736:1906 Bolshevik raid on the Tsarevich Giorgi 9520: 9456: 9420:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 9045: 8521: 8512:, Oxford University Press, US, 2007. p. xvi 8499:, Oxford University Press, US, 2007. p. 287 8414: 8388: 8368:. Reynal & Hitchcock. pp. 133–34. 8088: 7888:Tarkhan-Mouravi, George (19 January 1997). 7843: 7840:Robert C. Tucker, "Stalin in Power", p. 445 7794: 7746: 7726:. Cambridge University Press. p. 318. 7421: 7121:Rovelli, Carlo; Vidotto, Francesca (2015). 6870:Kocho-Williams, Alastair (4 January 2013). 6761: 6687:. Princeton University Press. p. 280. 6057: 6055: 4547:The monumental slab at the entrance to the 4105:on a 1963 postage stamp of the Soviet Union 3466:Tabidze's lifelong friend and fellow poet, 2757:Nikita Khrushchev speech during Great purge 1871:the NKVD) shot Bolshevik heroes, including 1646:, government officials, and regional party 1564: 11702: 11688: 11162:Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR 10272: 10258: 10068: 10040: 9975: 9750:Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis 9663: 9011: 8825: 8802:. Cambridge University Press. p. 51. 7654:. Princeton University Press. p. 47. 7580:. University Press of Kansas. p. 72. 7239: 7195: 6991:Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis 6474: 6472: 6470: 6253:. Södertörn Academic Studies. p. 16. 5919: 5573: 4632:, military commanders and intellectuals. 4394:In 1988, for instance, the mass graves at 4113:Monument to victims of the repressions in 3354:, emigre and eventual political dissident. 3279:. Rubin was arrested and executed in 1937. 3020:and in camera by extrajudicial organs—the 3001:) committed suicide, and two (Molotov and 2977:who had played prominent roles during the 2745:Soviet woman speech during the Great purge 1589:'s campaign to consolidate power over the 1492: 1478: 554: 540: 136: 10746:National delimitation in the Soviet Union 10718:Backwardness brings on beatings by others 9890: 9475: 9461:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 9127: 8898: 8878:"Mass grave found at Ukrainian monastery" 8772:. Harvard University Press. p. 369. 7958: 7949:Roy Medvedev, "Let history judge", p. 438 7773: 7465: 7204: 7050: 6849:. Harvard University Press. p. 212. 6815: 6734: 6523: 6203: 6201: 6185: 6183: 6181: 6179: 6177: 5630: 5043: 4133:") in 1957. The former Politburo members 3718: 3123:'s photo, taken at the time of his arrest 2872:Learn how and when to remove this message 2810:Learn how and when to remove this message 1847:seemed to vindicate Stalin's suspicions. 1630:The purges were largely conducted by the 73:Learn how and when to remove this message 12912:Political repression in the Soviet Union 10688:Great Construction Projects of Communism 10165:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 10160: 10140: 10005:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 9770: 9733:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 9649:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 9641: 9564: 9552: 9410: 9389: 9368: 9333: 9202: 9190: 9080:"Stalin-era mass grave found in Ukraine" 8841:. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 1993, pp. 276, 294 8587:Marc Jansen, Nikita Vasilʹevich Petrov. 8522:Getty, J. Arch; Naumov, Oleg V. (2010). 8439: 8349: 8337: 8325: 8313: 8301: 8286: 8100: 8030: 7937: 7883: 7881: 7802:"Biography of Osip Emilevich Mandelstam" 7774:Zimmerman, David K. (21 December 2022). 7492: 7242:"On seven decades of antiferromagnetism" 6624: 6608: 6583: 6571: 6450:"The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact" 6408:"The origins of Soviet ethnic cleansing" 6316: 6226: 6139: 6052: 6024: 6012: 6000: 5964: 5937: 5853: 5818: 5806: 5794: 5603: 5380: 5378: 5376: 5374: 5372: 5301: 5119: 5069: 4986: 4922: 4893: 4891: 4307: 4224: 4200: 4108: 4096: 3835: 3752: 3346:of labour in the Soviet Union. His son, 3153: 3141: 3126: 3114: 3102: 3090: 3078: 2651: 2585: 2511: 2426: 2404:" in inhospitable parts of the country ( 2302: 2298: 2200: 2015: 1893: 1851:was working with the even larger secret 1804: 1751: 11709: 11104:Alleged 19 August 1939 speech 9956: 9934: 9912: 9811: 9778:(Revised ed.). London: Macmillan. 9606: 8762: 8256: 8232: 7692: 7546: 7519: 7286: 6846:Comrades!: A History of World Communism 6842: 6707: 6655: 6478: 6467: 5725: 5256:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 7. 5223:Shearer, David R. (11 September 2023). 5222: 4999:Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion 4685:History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953) 4375:Mass graves from Soviet mass executions 3775: 3325:Supreme Council of the National Economy 3242:. He also one of the first to discover 3217:centres of origins of cultivated plants 3138:politician, later arrested and executed 3028:and the two-man dvoiki (NKVD Commissar 2946:External purges were also conducted in 2540:were conducted on a quota system using 2248:, recently disgraced head of the NKVD. 1891:, under the personal orders of Stalin. 14: 12869: 11728:Index of Soviet Union–related articles 11139:Dialectical and Historical Materialism 10163:A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia 10019: 9997: 9747: 9497: 9253: 9241: 8758: 8756: 8754: 8737:. South Asian Publishers. p. 44. 8734:Reign of Terror in Mongolia, 1920-1990 8676: 8633:. Vol. 59, No. 4, June 2007, 663–693. 8018:National academy of Science of Belarus 7647: 7600: 7394: 7367: 7174: 7147: 6896: 6447: 6392:by Karol Karski, Case Western Reserve 6198: 6189: 6174: 6149:"Польская операция" НКВД 1937–1938 гг. 5830: 5824: 5736:The Journal of Slavic Military Studies 5558: 5488:The National WWII Museum | New Orleans 5249: 5175: 5156: 4964: 4836: 4834: 4791: 4675:Index of Soviet Union-related articles 4229:A list from the Great Purge signed by 3510:, Soviet historian and founder of the 2704:, and 25 of 28 army corps commissars. 1027:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 617:Russian Social Democratic Labour Party 27:1936–1938 campaign in the Soviet Union 11683: 10253: 9872: 9795:The Red Army and the Second World War 9728: 9434: 9375:. New York: Oxford University Press. 9131:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky 9046:MacFarquhar, Neil (30 October 2017). 8792: 7962:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky 7878: 7573: 7496:History of Astronomy: An Encyclopedia 7320:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 31. 6822:. Pen and Sword History. p. 81. 6788: 6738:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky 6680: 6239: 6237: 6235: 6117: 5952:Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution 5874: 5689:"The First Five Year Plan, 1928–1932" 5615: 5425: 5423: 5421: 5419: 5417: 5384: 5369: 5229:. Taylor & Francis. p. vii. 5144: 4888: 4705:Mass killings under communist regimes 3561:Ukrainian theater and movie director 3293:who among the key founders of Soviet 3024:sentenced indigenous "enemies" under 2190: 1558: 929:Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution 11222:22nd Congress of the Communist Party 11180:20th Congress of the Communist Party 10623:19th Congress of the Communist Party 10460:18th Congress of the Communist Party 10425:17th Congress of the Communist Party 9832: 9792: 9039: 8981:"Bykivnia between Hitler and Stalin" 7985: 7719: 7648:Graham, Loren R. (8 December 2015). 7314:Betz, Frederick (22 February 2011). 7313: 6816:Whitehead, Jonathan (4 April 2024). 6346: 5458:Stalin: Paradoxes of Power 1878–1928 4905:Paris Institute of Political Studies 4840: 4048:Soviet Communism: A New Civilization 4002: 3965:of 1928–1933's collectivization and 3941:NKVD orders of systematic repression 3518:. Arrested and put to death in 1938. 3323:Soviet engineer and chairman of the 2821: 2792:adding citations to reliable sources 2763: 2641: 29: 11156:Marxism and Problems of Linguistics 10380:Anti-religious campaign (1921–1928) 10118:Slavonic & East European Review 9592:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 9396:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 9128:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). 8751: 8581: 8198: 8045:"Nightmare in the workers paradise" 7959:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). 7678:. 18 September 2017. Archived from 7340: 7240:Kharchenko, N. F. (1 August 2005). 7032:(in Finnish). Parliament of Finland 6789:Sakwa, Richard (12 November 2012). 6768:. Simon and Schuster. p. 395. 6735:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). 6708:Sheehan, Helena (23 January 2018). 6656:Rogovin, Vadim Zakharovich (2021). 6349:Denial: the final stage of genocide 6208:Michał Jasiński (27 October 2010). 5831:Redman, Joseph (March–April 1958). 5484:"Trotsky's Struggle against Stalin" 5250:Nelson, Todd H. (16 October 2019). 4831: 4715:Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan 4690:Armenian victims of the Great Purge 4287:which "would be a bigger victory". 3617:, was executed on 21 November 1937. 3211:that made several contributions to 3134:; (1885–1937) Finnish educator and 3083:1938 NKVD arrest photo of the poet 2489:Armenian victims of the Great Purge 2485:Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan 2099: 1796:forced collectivization of peasants 1591:Communist Party of the Soviet Union 24: 11303:Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism 11122:The History of the Communist Party 10941:Soviet offensive plans controversy 10906:Ideological repression in science 10450:1937 Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang 10063:Journal of Soviet Military Studies 9837:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 9709: 9012:Kishkovsky, Sophia (8 June 2007). 8799:Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives 8554:. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 1993, p. 285 7553:(109 ed.). World Scientific. 7368:Krausz, Tamás (27 February 2015). 7053:General Relativity and Gravitation 6611:, pp. 198–89 (a Soviet book, 6448:Snyder, Timothy (5 October 2010). 6232: 5779: 5693:Special Collections & Archives 5455: 5414: 5295: 4619:Article 58 of the RSFSR Penal Code 4617:, and on loose interpretations of 3514:. He had been an old associate of 3372:who made various contributions to 3301:. Kleymyonov was executed in 1938. 3261:. Kondratiev was executed in 1938. 1149:Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan 695:Treaty on the Creation of the USSR 25: 12993: 11341:Generalissimo of the Soviet Union 11072:Marxism and the National Question 10279: 10198: 9815:Stalinism: The Essential Readings 8707:Mongolia in the Twentieth Century 7915:The Making of the Georgian Nation 7747:Ben-Menahem, Ari (6 March 2009). 7693:Kuijper, Hans (18 January 2022). 7520:Chertok, Boris Evseevich (2005). 7466:Steinhoff, James (21 June 2021). 7341:Guo, Rongxing (6 February 2017). 7287:Shifman, Misha (28 August 2015). 7181:. Routledge. pp. 3801–3805. 7154:. Routledge. pp. 3801–3805. 6762:Wasserstein, Bernard (May 2012). 6714:. Verso Books. pp. 416–417. 6615:by Nikulin, pp. 189–94 is cited). 6597:European Dictatorships 1918–1945, 6061: 5949: 5429: 5044:Whitewood, Peter (13 June 2016). 4725: 4503:victims of Stalinist repression, 4361:Molotov, Kaganovich, Malenkov.... 4086: 3759:Stalinist repressions in Mongolia 3740:were also shot and buried there. 3246:. Shubnikov was executed in 1937. 3056: 2475:Campaigns targeting nationalities 1605:was popularized by the historian 12851: 12850: 12838: 11664: 11663: 10981:Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina 10445:Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 10204: 9818:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. 9393:The Great Terror: A Reassessment 9314: 9301: 9288: 9275: 9247: 9208: 9166: 9148: 9121: 9086: 9072: 9005: 8991: 8973: 8955: 8929: 8892: 8870: 8844: 8831: 8786: 8724: 8697: 8670: 8653: 8640: 8606: 8557: 8544: 8515: 8502: 8489: 8445: 8408: 8391:"On Leaving the Communist Party" 8389:Howard Fast (16 November 1957). 8382: 8262: 8164: 8155: 8123: 8106: 8058: 8043:Tim Tzouliadis (2 August 2008). 8036: 8006: 7979: 7952: 7943: 7907: 7857: 7834: 7819: 7767: 7740: 7720:Tent, Katrin (16 October 2008). 7713: 7699:. Springer Nature. p. 164. 7686: 7668: 7641: 7594: 7567: 7547:Pondrom, Lee G. (25 July 2018). 7540: 7513: 7486: 7459: 7432: 7415: 7388: 7361: 7334: 7307: 7293:. World Scientific. p. 19. 7280: 7233: 7175:Magill, Frank N. (13 May 2013). 7168: 7148:Magill, Frank N. (13 May 2013). 7141: 7114: 7087: 7044: 7022: 6933: 6915: 6681:Weitz, Eric D. (13 April 2021). 6307:, Basic Books, 2010, pp. 411–12 4911:translated in Werth, 2006: 143). 4540: 4528: 4512: 4492: 4472: 4452: 4440: 4304:Soviet investigation commissions 4220: 3900: 3889: 3684: 3673: 3590:Playwright and avant-garde poet 3276:Essays on Marx's Theory of Value 2966:and former government minister, 2826: 2768: 2751: 2739: 2000: 1684:, often by direct orders of the 1461: 1213:End of communist rule in Hungary 1159:Estonian Sovereignty Declaration 585: 34: 12967:Persecution by the Soviet Union 11366:Statue of Joseph Stalin, Berlin 10502:Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact 10492:Occupation of the Baltic states 9812:Hoffman, David L., ed. (2003). 9611:. Westport, CT: Praeger Press. 7493:Lankford, John (7 March 2013). 7472:. Springer Nature. p. 55. 7445:. Routledge. pp. 203–204. 6890: 6863: 6836: 6809: 6792:Soviet Politics: In Perspective 6782: 6755: 6728: 6701: 6674: 6649: 6630: 6589: 6540: 6499: 6441: 6399: 6383: 6365: 6340: 6310: 6297: 6267: 6073: 6039: 6030: 5985: 5958: 5943: 5901: 5868: 5770: 5719: 5714:McLoughlin & McDermott 2002 5681: 5656: 5636: 5567: 5552: 5527: 5502: 5476: 5449: 5396: 5352: 5335: 5310: 5270: 5243: 5216: 5169: 5150: 5125: 5063: 5050:University Press of Kansas Blog 5037: 4166:which correspond to the purge. 3697:National University of Mongolia 3587:was executed on 3 October 1938. 2779:needs additional citations for 2538:National operations of the NKVD 2432:Yevgeny-Ludvig Karlovich Miller 2125:testified that he had flown to 1789:collectivization of agriculture 1230:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 797:Occupation of the Baltic states 205:religious activists and leaders 181:19 July 1936 – 17 November 1938 9797:, Cambridge University Press, 9254:Harris, James (26 July 2016). 9095:The American Historical Review 8139:. 14 June 2003. Archived from 7986:Tolz, Vera (13 October 1997). 6660:. Mehring Books. p. 380. 5726:Harward, Grant (2 July 2016). 5580:. Cambridge University Press. 5133:The American Historical Review 5023: 4932: 4569:The American Historical Review 2726: 2516:Polish-born Soviet politician 2012:First and second Moscow trials 1883:him in Mexico; the NKVD agent 1835:, respectively. Following the 1049:Mozambican War of Independence 746:Kazakhstan famine of 1932–1933 528:Ukrainian language suppression 13: 1: 12977:Massacres in the Soviet Union 12907:Political and cultural purges 12391:Political abuse of psychiatry 12183:Congress of People's Deputies 11207:Gomulka thaw (Polish October) 11018:1946–1947 Soviet famine 10591:1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 9959:1937: Stalin's Year of Terror 9134:. Verso Books. p. 1370. 8683:. Monsudar Pub. p. 322. 8677:Baabar, Bat-Ėrdėniĭn (1999). 8530:. pp. xiv, 243, 590–91. 8205:N.G. Okhotin; A.B. Roginsky. 7965:. Verso Books. p. 1206. 6951:KGB: The State Within a State 6741:. Verso Books. p. 1443. 6415:The Journal of Modern History 6136:Snyder 2010, pp. 103–04. 5748:10.1080/13518046.2016.1200397 5033:– via Internet Archive. 4765: 4075:, who, following the lead of 3289:Soviet engineer and inventor 3227:research in the Soviet Union. 3146:Paleontologist and geologist 2973:Eventually almost all of the 1741: 1108:Death and funeral of Brezhnev 390:Purges of the Communist Party 95:Great Terror (disambiguation) 11356:1956 Georgian demonstrations 10135:Journal of Strategic Studies 9851:. Forum for Living History. 9457:Fitzpatrick, Sheila (2017). 9294:Ronald Grigor Suny, review, 8415:Fitzpatrick, Sheila (2017). 8362:Knickerbocker, H.R. (1941). 8171:Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). 7913:Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994), 7890:"70 years of Soviet Georgia" 6394:Journal of International Law 4981:Journal of Strategic Studies 4770: 4101:Posthumously rehabilitated, 3956:his view of the timeline of 3855:October 1936 – February 1937 3568:Russian writer and explorer 3376:. He had contributed to the 3165:in the USSR and co-invented 2941:Communist Party of Palestine 2929:Alexander Weissberg-Cybulski 2658:Marshals of the Soviet Union 2506:Polish Operation of the NKVD 2165:Implication of the Rightists 914:Hungarian Revolution of 1956 909:1956 Georgian demonstrations 870:East German uprising of 1953 812:Soviet invasion of Manchuria 7: 12554:Academy of Medical Sciences 11371:Stalin Monument in Budapest 11038:Night of the Murdered Poets 10956:Allegations of antisemitism 10693:Engineers of the human soul 10440:Soviet invasion of Xinjiang 10416:Sino-Soviet conflict (1929) 9833:Ilic, Melanie, ed. (2006). 9748:Colton, Timothy J. (1998). 9637:. New York: Harper and Row. 9372:Stalin and the Kirov Murder 9285:(2015) Quoting pp. 12, 276. 8665:Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy 7601:Bailes, Kendall E. (1977). 6485:. Oxford University Press. 6479:Naimark, Norman M. (2016). 6194:. Basic Books. p. 104. 6146:Н.В.Петров, А.Б.Рогинский. 5471:Andrew & Mitrokhin 2000 5194:10.1080/0966813022000017177 5070:Uldricks, Teddy J. (1977). 4813:10.1080/0966813022000017177 4680:Timeline of the Great Purge 4653: 4433:Odesa International Airport 3829:Timeline of the Great Purge 3822: 3765:Mongolian People's Republic 3744:Executions of Gulag inmates 3342:and pioneering theorist of 3340:Central Institute of Labour 3038:mass operations of the NKVD 3016:The victims were convicted 2852:the claims made and adding 2495:mass operations of the NKVD 2481:Mass operations of the NKVD 2338:and philosophical essay by 1544: 1528: 1039:Angolan War of Independence 896:"On the Cult of Personality 849:Death and funeral of Stalin 579:History of the Soviet Union 168:Mongolian People's Republic 10: 12998: 12982:Ethnic cleansing in Europe 11411:Stalin Bloc – For the USSR 11381:Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori 10529:Soviet atomic bomb project 9884:Harcourt Brace and Company 9729:Chase, William J. (2001). 9713: 9627:Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I. 9565:Kuromiya, Hiroaki (2007). 9342: 9322:Military History Quarterly 9309:American Historical Review 8710:. Routledge. p. 112. 8508:Robert Conquest, Preface, 8462:American Historical Review 8120:, London, 2002, pp. 155–68 7894:rolfgross.dreamhosters.com 7526:. NASA. pp. 164–165. 7499:. Routledge. p. 365. 7374:. NYU Press. p. 417. 7016:Two Hundred Years Together 5982:Corey Robin, "Fear", p. 96 4557:Historical interpretations 4372: 4090: 4056:. The American journalist 3826: 3779: 3756: 3494:Bloc of Soviet Oppositions 3364:had fled persecution from 3350:became a prominent Soviet 3087:, who died in a labor camp 3060: 3032:and Main State Prosecutor 2906:Communist Party of Germany 2645: 2478: 2194: 2103: 2020:Bolshevik revolutionaries 2004: 1745: 1240:First Nagorno-Karabakh War 824:Soviet famine of 1946–1947 736:Soviet famine of 1932–1933 705:Death and funeral of Lenin 355:Soviet famine of 1930–1933 84: 18:Stalin's Great Terror 12882:1930s in the Soviet Union 12832: 12776: 12750: 12670: 12593: 12584: 12529: 12436: 12399: 12339: 12242: 12204: 12124: 11986: 11977: 11927: 11875: 11866: 11718: 11659: 11576: 11437: 11419: 11391:Places named after Stalin 11376:Stalin Monument in Prague 11323: 11235: 11170: 11056: 10900:Repressions in Azerbaijan 10726: 10635: 10618:1950 legislative election 10544:1946 legislative election 10455:1937 legislative election 10367: 10316: 10307: 10287: 10186:Pultz, David, dir. 1997. 10095:10.1080/09668139608412415 10036:– via Google Books. 10026:. New York: Basic Books. 9835:Stalin's Terror Revisited 9685:10.1080/09668130050143860 9607:Parrish, Michael (1996). 9354:. New York: Basic Books. 9311:(2017) 122#5 pp. 1713–14. 8908:Christian Science Monitor 8667:(New York, 1991), p. 210. 7619:10.1080/09668137708411134 7347:. Springer. p. 164. 7073:10.1007/s10714-011-1285-4 6876:. Routledge. p. 60. 6795:. Routledge. p. 43. 6482:Genocide: A World History 5865:Snyder 2010, p. 137. 5785:Rogovin (1998), pp. 36–38 5776:Rogovin (1998), pp. 17–18 5343:Stalinism: New Directions 5002:. ABC-CLIO. p. 110. 4613:, often obtained through 4369:Mass graves and memorials 4154:Number of people executed 3550:on 11 November 1937. The 3240:type-II superconductivity 3111:at the time of his arrest 3095:The NKVD photo of writer 2750: 2738: 2733: 2660:in November 1935. (l–r): 2522:1932–33 famine in Ukraine 1989:1937, the military purge. 1682:general line of the party 1554: 1538: 1517: 312: 261: 248: 210: 187: 173: 155: 135: 127: 122: 12897:1938 in the Soviet Union 12892:1937 in the Soviet Union 12887:1936 in the Soviet Union 11212:Soviet Nonconformist Art 11128:1936 Soviet Constitution 10781:Soviet famine of 1932–33 10741:1907 Tiflis bank robbery 10713:Transformation of nature 10698:1936 Soviet Constitution 10658:Socialism in One Country 10497:German–Soviet Axis talks 10161:—— (2004) . 10041:Tzouliadis, Tim (2008). 9793:Hill, Alexander (2017), 9390:—— (2008) . 8593:Hoover Institution Press 8112:Christopher Kaplonski, " 7992:. Springer. p. 48. 7919:Indiana University Press 7574:Stone, David R. (2000). 6995:Harvard University Press 6897:Freeze, Gregory (2009). 6843:Service, Robert (2007). 6190:Snyder, Timothy (2010). 6148: 5304:Behind the Moscow Trials 5176:Ellman, Michael (2002). 4792:Ellman, Michael (2002). 3867:July 1937 – October 1938 3378:Herglotz–Noether theorem 3316:who was director of the 3253:was a proponent for the 3236:Shubnikov–de Haas effect 3203:was a prominent Russian 3171:extrajudicially executed 1822:purge of the Party ranks 1781:socialism in one country 1584:Soviet General Secretary 1300:independence declaration 1071:Cambodian–Vietnamese War 1059:South African Border War 726:Socialism in one country 12927:Massacres in Uzbekistan 12845:Soviet Union portal 11336:Iosif Stalin locomotive 11079:Foundations of Leninism 11065:Anarchism or Socialism? 10946:Hitler Youth Conspiracy 10813:NKVD prisoner massacres 10465:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 10354:Death and state funeral 10180: 10020:—— (2010). 9957:—— (1998). 9664:—— (2000). 9504:Oxford University Press 9369:—— (1987). 8622:14 October 2007 at the 8270:"Московский мартиролог" 8114:Thirty thousand bullets 8089:Haynes & Klehr 2003 7395:Rosmer, Alfred (1971). 7246:Low Temperature Physics 6525:10.4000/monderusse.9736 5646:, 2007, Knopf, 720 pp. 5163:McNair Scholars Journal 5122:, pp. 250, 257–58. 5031:"Tokaev Comrade X 1956" 4945:McNair Scholars Journal 4483:memorial cemetery near 4093:Rehabilitation (Soviet) 4053:The Manchester Guardian 3843:; (1896–1939) chief of 3648:Ukrainian drama writer 3558:is named after Chavain. 3299:Gas Dynamics Laboratory 3230:Experimental physicist 2923:According to historian 2690:Military Maritime Fleet 2635:international relations 2520:, a contributor to the 2363:NKVD prisoner massacres 2230:Communist International 2226:Trial of the Twenty-One 1670:counter-revolutionaries 1560:[(j)ɪˈʐofɕːɪnə] 1468:Soviet Union portal 1203:Fall of the Berlin Wall 1169:Lithuanian independence 880:1954 transfer of Crimea 782:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 675:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 109:Infobox civilian attack 101: 12737:Stalinist architecture 12491:Science and technology 12401:Ideological repression 12329:Soviet Airborne Forces 12267:Destruction battalions 11544:(second father-in-law) 10798:Murder of Sergey Kirov 10673:Stalinist architecture 10559:Turkish Straits crisis 10142:Yakovlev, Alexander N. 10120:93.2 (2015): 286–314. 9498:Harris, James (2017). 9442:. London: Allen Lane. 9082:. BBC. 26 August 2021. 7867:. Enigma Books, 2003. 7290:Physics In A Mad World 6406:Martin, Terry (1998). 6079:Werth, Nicolas. 2009. 5302:Schatman, Max (1938). 5157:Homkes, Brett (2004). 4847:Cahiers du Monde russe 4841:Kuhr, Corinna (1998). 4665:Anti-Rightist Campaign 4643: 4591: 4363: 4313: 4301: 4249: 4210: 4118: 4106: 3948:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 3880: 3851: 3790:The pro-Soviet leader 3719:Western émigré victims 3693:Khorloogiin Choibalsan 3579:writer and translator 3452: 3178: 3151: 3139: 3124: 3112: 3100: 3088: 3053:has been documented. 2937:Joseph Berger-Barzilai 2692:removed three of five 2681: 2595: 2525: 2462:Young Communist League 2435: 2412:, Kazakhstan, and the 2356: 2318: 2221: 2188: 2159: 2032: 1914: 1813: 1760: 1593:and Soviet state. The 1123:: Decline and collapse 414:Ideological repression 114:considered for merging 93:. For other uses, see 12519:List of metro systems 12072:Collective leadership 11565:William Wesley Peters 11110:Falsifiers of History 11033:Rootless cosmopolitan 10339:Rule as Soviet leader 9983:. London: Routledge. 9571:Yale University Press 8987:on 23 September 2020. 8969:on 23 September 2020. 8794:Getty, John Archibald 8568:Yale University Press 8528:Yale University Press 7828:Collecting Mandelstam 7682:on 18 September 2017. 7011:Alexandr Solzhenitsyn 6613:Marshal Tukhachevskiy 5965:Humbert-Droz, Jules. 4939:Brett Homkes (2004). 4859:10.3406/cmr.1998.2520 4753:30 September killings 4638: 4587: 4463:mass grave site near 4358: 4311: 4296: 4291:Stephen G. Wheatcroft 4228: 4204: 4112: 4100: 3953:The Gulag Archipelago 3839: 3753:Mongolian Great Purge 3512:Marx-Engels Institute 3472:enemies of the people 3447: 3344:scientific management 3157: 3145: 3130: 3118: 3106: 3099:made after his arrest 3094: 3082: 3075:Korets–Landau leaflet 2655: 2646:Further information: 2589: 2515: 2430: 2389:On 30 July 1937, the 2352: 2340:Maurice Merleau-Ponty 2306: 2299:Bukharin's confession 2204: 2183: 2169:In the second trial, 2142: 2019: 1897: 1865:democratic centralism 1808: 1755: 1698:anti-Soviet agitation 1615:, whose title was an 1545:Tridtsat' sed'moy god 1532:), also known as the 875:Virgin Lands campaign 700:National delimitation 191:Political opponents, 12937:Massacres in Armenia 12932:Massacres in Belarus 12922:Massacres in Ukraine 12481:Net material product 12424:Censorship of images 12341:Political repression 12301:Soviet Border Troops 12234:First Deputy Premier 11818:1965 economic reform 11813:Soviet space program 11586:Stalin's house, Gori 11517:Yevgeny Dzhugashvili 11445:Besarion Jughashvili 11386:Batumi Stalin Museum 11297:Nineteen Eighty-Four 11048:Censorship of images 10727:Crimes, repressions, 10430:1931 Menshevik Trial 10411:First five-year plan 10218:The Case of Bukharin 10213:at Wikimedia Commons 10130:67.1 (2015): 102–22. 9892:Merridale, Catherine 9879:Assignment in Utopia 9298:(2018) 80#1: 177–79. 9261:History News Network 8999:"War Stats Redirect" 8646:Getty & Naumov, 8352:, pp. 465, 467. 6971:Merridale, Catherine 6942:Komsomolskaya Pravda 6083:. Paris: Tallandier. 5875:Dewey, John (2008). 5559:Knight, Amy (1999). 5514:www.wilsoncenter.org 5349:. London: Routledge. 4747:Khmer Rouge genocide 4742:Hungarian Revolution 4601:", and to historian 4409:killing fields near 4275:resisted the order. 3963:first five-year plan 3961:purges, such as the 3873:November 1938 – 1939 3776:Xinjiang Great Purge 3654:Executed Renaissance 3629:Soviet film industry 3542:poet and playwright 3534:Durnovo noble family 3213:agricultural science 3063:Executed Renaissance 3026:NKVD Order No. 00447 2939:, co-founder of the 2788:improve this article 2662:Mikhail Tukhachevsky 2612:Executed Renaissance 2534:NKVD Order No. 00486 2391:NKVD Order No. 00447 2073:Mikhail Tukhachevsky 1873:Mikhail Tukhachevsky 1785:first five-year plan 1758:NKVD Order No. 00447 1295:Ukrainian revolution 1223:German reunification 1181:Latvian independence 1096:1984 Olympic boycott 1091:1980 Olympic boycott 1081:1980 Summer Olympics 1054:Mozambican Civil War 944:Cuban Missile Crisis 924:Peaceful coexistence 792:Operation Barbarossa 523:Repressions of Poles 518:Population transfers 376:Political repression 12957:Mass murder in 1938 12952:Mass murder in 1937 12917:Massacres in Russia 12549:Academy of Sciences 12364:Population transfer 12308:Soviet Armed Forces 12171:Congress of Soviets 12152:Presidium/Politburo 12116:Soviet anti-Zionism 11965:West Siberian Plain 11843:Revolutions of 1989 11780:Great Patriotic War 11765:New Economic Policy 11578:Stalin's residences 11525:Galina Dzhugashvili 11509:Svetlana Alliluyeva 11493:Nadezhda Alliluyeva 11420:Cultural depictions 11262:Anti-Stalinist left 11217:Shvernik Commission 11185:Pospelov Commission 10961:Population transfer 10936:1941 Red Army purge 10910:Suppressed research 10564:First Indochina War 10507:Great Patriotic War 10485:Moscow Peace Treaty 10349:Cult of personality 10128:Europe-Asia Studies 10082:Europe-Asia Studies 10070:Wheatcroft, Stephen 10047:. London: Penguin. 9898:. London: Penguin. 9673:Europe-Asia Studies 9324:27.1 (2014): 38–45. 8902:(10 October 2002). 8769:Stalin: A Biography 8680:History of Mongolia 8627:Europe–Asia Studies 8563:Oleg V. Khlevniuk. 7917:(2nd ed.), p. 272. 7258:2005LTP....31..633K 7065:2012GReGr..44..267B 6156:on 15 February 2017 5728:"Whitewood, Peter, 5490:. 12 September 2018 5182:Europe-Asia Studies 5147:, pp. 227–315. 4801:Europe-Asia Studies 4732:Cultural Revolution 4400:Solovki prison camp 4350:Shvernik Commission 4205:Memorial events in 4067:Communist Party USA 4058:H. R. Knickerbocker 3800:Xinjiang War (1937) 3782:Xinjiang War (1937) 3730:Butovo firing range 3607:Russian dramaturge 3318:Pulkovo Observatory 3255:New Economic Policy 3150:, executed in 1938. 3051:Butovo firing range 2451:Butovo firing range 2402:special settlements 2344:Humanism and Terror 2050:Conspiratorial Bloc 1985:second Moscow trial 1928:1934 Party Congress 1800:famine of 1932–1933 1218:Romanian Revolution 1198:Peaceful Revolution 1193:Pan-European Picnic 1188:Revolutions of 1989 1129:Invasion of Grenada 1005:Cambodian Civil War 959:: Era of Stagnation 844:First Indochina War 819:Soviet deportations 787:Great Patriotic War 760:Cultural Revolution 690:New Economic Policy 644:February Revolution 513:National operations 405:Punitive psychiatry 332:Economic repression 327:in the Soviet Union 12962:Soviet phraseology 12194:Military Collegium 12062:Capital punishment 11940:Caucasus Mountains 11853:Post-Soviet states 11733:Russian Revolution 11549:Alexander Svanidze 11477:Konstantin Kuzakov 11469:Yakov Dzhugashvili 11428:Apocalypse: Stalin 11401:Stalin Peace Prize 11396:State Stalin Prize 11099:"Ten Blows" speech 11086:Dizzy with Success 10996:Operation "Priboi" 10976:Operation "Lentil" 10929:1937 Soviet Census 10608:Sino-Soviet Treaty 10522:Potsdam Conference 10475:Invasion of Poland 10109:Whitewood, Peter. 10065:3.1 (1990): 46–65. 9977:Rosefielde, Steven 9914:Naimark, Norman M. 9868:on 24 August 2010. 9412:Courtois, Stéphane 9060:on 3 February 2024 9053:The New York Times 9018:The New York Times 8648:The Road to Terror 8316:, pp. 472–74. 8289:, pp. 472–73. 7523:Rockets and People 6987:Colton, Timothy J. 6518:(50/2–3): 647–70. 6508:"The Great Terror" 6323:Ukraine: A History 6107:. 19 January 2016. 6027:, pp. 364–35. 5642:Robert Gellately, 5606:, pp. 122–38. 5563:. Hill & Wang. 5364:Palgrave MacMillan 5282:www.britannica.com 4736:Great Leap Forward 4648:Robert W. Thurston 4611:forced confessions 4607:Moscow show trials 4564:social engineering 4314: 4250: 4215:Vyacheslav Molotov 4211: 4119: 4107: 4077:The New York Times 4031:The New York Times 3852: 3699:, and portrait of 3570:Maximilian Kravkov 3440:Vsevolod Meyerhold 3382:special relativity 3314:Boris Gerasimovich 3265:Valerian Obolensky 3251:Nikolai Kondratiev 3244:antiferromagnetism 3179: 3161:, who popularized 3152: 3140: 3125: 3113: 3109:Vsevolod Meyerhold 3101: 3089: 2987:October Revolution 2979:Russian Revolution 2898:German-Soviet Pact 2837:possibly contains 2682: 2670:Kliment Voroshilov 2596: 2594:, executed in 1938 2526: 2524:, executed in 1939 2436: 2319: 2261:Jules Humbert-Droz 2253:an Opposition Bloc 2242:Nikolai Krestinsky 2238:Christian Rakovsky 2222: 2191:Third Moscow trial 2094:Kliment Voroshilov 2066:Grigory Sokolnikov 2033: 1994:third Moscow trial 1972:first Moscow trial 1947:October Revolution 1936:Vyacheslav Molotov 1915: 1909:(and his daughter 1814: 1798:and the resulting 1761: 1450:Post-Soviet states 1154:Singing Revolution 1144:Chernobyl disaster 1064:Rhodesian Bush War 665:October Revolution 302:Kliment Voroshilov 290:Vyacheslav Molotov 220:Summary executions 148:Vinnytsia massacre 53:You can assist by 12864: 12863: 12828: 12827: 12820:Hammer and sickle 12762:and their groups 12760:Soviet dissidents 12539:Communist Academy 12456:Economic planning 12432: 12431: 12325:Soviet Air Forces 12244:Security services 12164:General Secretary 12147:Central Committee 12089:Political parties 12021:Brezhnev Doctrine 12016:Foreign relations 11973: 11972: 11914:Autonomous okrugs 11828:Soviet–Afghan War 11808:Sino-Soviet split 11750:Russian Civil War 11677: 11676: 11634:Kholodnaya Rechka 11331:Iosif Stalin tank 11252:Lenin's Testament 11227:Era of Stagnation 11028:Mingrelian Affair 11006:Forced settlement 10991:Operation "North" 10951:Soviet war crimes 10729:and controversies 10668:Socialist realism 10631: 10630: 10613:Tito–Stalin split 10512:Tehran Conference 10435:Spanish Civil War 10406:Chinese Civil War 10209:Media related to 10172:978-0-300-10322-9 10054:978-1-59420-168-4 10033:978-0-465-00239-9 10012:978-0-300-10670-1 9990:978-0-415-77757-5 9968:978-0-929087-77-1 9961:. Mehring Books. 9949:978-0-929087-83-2 9942:. Mehring books. 9927:978-0-691-14784-0 9905:978-0-14-200063-2 9858:978-91-977487-2-8 9825:978-0-631-22890-5 9804:978-1-1070-2079-5 9785:978-0-02-527560-7 9763:978-0-674-58749-6 9740:978-0-300-08242-5 9569:. New Haven, CT: 9522:Haynes, John Earl 9477:Gellately, Robert 9281:Peter Whitewood, 9228:978-1-55972-212-4 9141:978-1-78168-721-5 8839:Molotov Remembers 8744:978-1-881318-15-6 8717:978-1-317-46010-7 8690:978-99929-0-038-3 8661:Dmitri Volkogonov 8552:Molotov Remembers 8495:Robert Conquest, 8245:Solzhenitsyn 1973 7999:978-1-349-25840-6 7972:978-1-78168-721-5 7787:978-1-4875-4366-2 7760:978-3-540-68831-0 7733:978-0-521-71788-5 7706:978-981-16-4709-3 7661:978-1-4008-7551-1 7587:978-0-7006-1037-2 7560:978-981-323-557-1 7533:978-0-16-073239-3 7506:978-1-136-50834-9 7479:978-3-030-71689-9 7452:978-1-317-81995-0 7408:978-0-902818-11-8 7381:978-1-58367-449-9 7354:978-3-319-48772-4 7327:978-0-470-54782-3 7300:978-981-4619-31-8 7266:10.1063/1.2008126 7213:(11): 1576–1578. 7188:978-1-136-59369-7 7161:978-1-136-59369-7 7134:978-1-107-06962-6 7107:978-94-010-0347-6 6977:. Penguin Books. 6955:Gellately, Robert 6899:Russia: A History 6883:978-1-136-15747-9 6856:978-0-674-02530-1 6829:978-1-3990-6395-1 6802:978-1-134-90996-4 6775:978-1-4165-9427-7 6748:978-1-78168-721-5 6721:978-1-78663-426-9 6694:978-0-691-22812-9 6667:978-1-893638-97-6 6643:Let History Judge 6627:, p. 200–02. 6358:978-1-003-01070-8 5473:, pp. 86–87. 5456:Kotkin, Stephen, 5388:(15 April 2019). 5263:978-1-4985-9153-9 5236:978-1-000-95544-6 5135:, 110(5), 1427–53 4597:'s 1956 speech, " 4595:Nikita Khrushchev 4262:Ivan the Terrible 4254:Oleg V. Khlevniuk 4020:in his 1968 book 4003:Western reactions 3974:Alexander Yegorov 3933:Central Committee 3909:Damnatio memoriae 3861:March – June 1937 3738:Finnish Canadians 3641:Russian linguist 3609:Adrian Piotrovsky 3592:Nikolay Oleynikov 3585:Vladimir Varankin 3528:Russian linguist 3438:Theatre director 3249:Soviet economist 3159:Vasili Oshchepkov 3148:Dmitrii Mushketov 3136:Social Democratic 3107:Theatre director 3011:Vladimir Bukovsky 2902:Central committee 2882: 2881: 2874: 2839:original research 2820: 2819: 2812: 2762: 2761: 2684:The purge of the 2678:Alexander Yegorov 2642:Purge of the army 2509:further inquiry. 2444:spetzpereselentsy 2375:Mikhail Gorbachev 2293:Heinrich Brandler 2232:, former premier 2110:In May 1937, the 1709:ethnic minorities 1676:, hence the name 1636:interior ministry 1621:French Revolution 1609:in his 1968 book 1526: 1502: 1501: 1331:Soviet leadership 1317:Alma-Ata Protocol 1312:Belovezha Accords 1208:Velvet Revolution 1174:Economic blockade 1076:Soviet–Afghan War 1044:Angolan Civil War 995:Laotian Civil War 970:Era of Stagnation 965:Brezhnev Doctrine 934:Sino-Soviet split 864:: Khrushchev Thaw 755:Industrialization 670:Russian Civil War 564: 563: 508:De-Cossackization 500:Ethnic repression 320: 319: 83: 82: 75: 16:(Redirected from 12989: 12854: 12853: 12843: 12842: 12841: 12591: 12590: 12499: 12354:Collectivization 12099:Marxism–Leninism 11984: 11983: 11873: 11872: 11704: 11697: 11690: 11681: 11680: 11667: 11666: 11569: 11561: 11553: 11552:(brother-in-law) 11545: 11541:Sergei Alliluyev 11537: 11533:Joseph Alliluyev 11529: 11521: 11513: 11505: 11497: 11489: 11481: 11473: 11465: 11457: 11449: 11351:Pantheon, Moscow 11309:The Soviet Story 11283:Darkness at Noon 11172:De-Stalinization 11023:Leningrad Affair 10756:Decossackization 10554:1946 Iran crisis 10517:Yalta Conference 10389:Collectivization 10314: 10313: 10274: 10267: 10260: 10251: 10250: 10227: 10208: 10176: 10157: 10106: 10078: 10058: 10037: 10016: 9994: 9972: 9953: 9931: 9909: 9887: 9869: 9867: 9861:. Archived from 9850: 9838: 9829: 9807: 9789: 9772:Conquest, Robert 9767: 9744: 9704: 9670: 9660: 9643:Thurston, Robert 9638: 9636: 9622: 9603: 9584: 9561: 9558:Darkness at Noon 9554:Koestler, Arthur 9549: 9517: 9494: 9472: 9453: 9431: 9407: 9386: 9365: 9337: 9331: 9325: 9318: 9312: 9305: 9299: 9292: 9286: 9279: 9273: 9272: 9270: 9268: 9251: 9245: 9239: 9233: 9232: 9212: 9206: 9200: 9194: 9188: 9182: 9181: 9178:www.marxists.org 9170: 9164: 9163: 9160:www.marxists.org 9152: 9146: 9145: 9125: 9119: 9118: 9090: 9084: 9083: 9076: 9070: 9069: 9067: 9065: 9056:. Archived from 9043: 9037: 9036: 9034: 9032: 9009: 9003: 9002: 8995: 8989: 8988: 8983:. Archived from 8977: 8971: 8970: 8965:. Archived from 8959: 8953: 8952: 8950: 8948: 8933: 8927: 8926: 8924: 8922: 8896: 8890: 8889: 8887: 8885: 8874: 8868: 8867: 8865: 8863: 8848: 8842: 8835: 8829: 8823: 8814: 8813: 8790: 8784: 8783: 8760: 8749: 8748: 8728: 8722: 8721: 8701: 8695: 8694: 8674: 8668: 8657: 8651: 8644: 8638: 8610: 8604: 8585: 8579: 8561: 8555: 8548: 8542: 8541: 8519: 8513: 8506: 8500: 8493: 8487: 8486: 8458: 8449: 8443: 8437: 8431: 8430: 8412: 8406: 8405: 8403: 8401: 8386: 8380: 8379: 8359: 8353: 8347: 8341: 8335: 8329: 8323: 8317: 8311: 8305: 8299: 8290: 8284: 8278: 8277: 8266: 8260: 8254: 8248: 8242: 8236: 8230: 8224: 8223: 8221: 8219: 8202: 8196: 8195: 8193: 8191: 8168: 8162: 8159: 8153: 8152: 8150: 8148: 8127: 8121: 8110: 8104: 8098: 8092: 8086: 8080: 8065:John Earl Haynes 8062: 8056: 8055: 8053: 8051: 8040: 8034: 8028: 8022: 8021: 8010: 8004: 8003: 7983: 7977: 7976: 7956: 7950: 7947: 7941: 7935: 7929: 7911: 7905: 7904: 7902: 7900: 7885: 7876: 7861: 7855: 7852: 7841: 7838: 7832: 7823: 7817: 7816: 7814: 7812: 7798: 7792: 7791: 7771: 7765: 7764: 7744: 7738: 7737: 7717: 7711: 7710: 7690: 7684: 7683: 7672: 7666: 7665: 7645: 7639: 7638: 7598: 7592: 7591: 7571: 7565: 7564: 7544: 7538: 7537: 7517: 7511: 7510: 7490: 7484: 7483: 7463: 7457: 7456: 7436: 7430: 7429: 7419: 7413: 7412: 7392: 7386: 7385: 7365: 7359: 7358: 7338: 7332: 7331: 7311: 7305: 7304: 7284: 7278: 7277: 7237: 7231: 7230: 7202: 7193: 7192: 7172: 7166: 7165: 7145: 7139: 7138: 7118: 7112: 7111: 7091: 7085: 7084: 7048: 7042: 7041: 7039: 7037: 7026: 7020: 6947:Albats, Yevgenia 6937: 6931: 6930: 6929:. 29 April 2019. 6919: 6913: 6912: 6894: 6888: 6887: 6867: 6861: 6860: 6840: 6834: 6833: 6813: 6807: 6806: 6786: 6780: 6779: 6759: 6753: 6752: 6732: 6726: 6725: 6705: 6699: 6698: 6678: 6672: 6671: 6653: 6647: 6634: 6628: 6622: 6616: 6606: 6600: 6593: 6587: 6581: 6575: 6569: 6563: 6562: 6560: 6558: 6544: 6538: 6537: 6527: 6503: 6497: 6496: 6476: 6465: 6464: 6462: 6460: 6445: 6439: 6438: 6412: 6403: 6397: 6387: 6381: 6380: 6379:. 15 April 2019. 6369: 6363: 6362: 6344: 6338: 6337: 6314: 6308: 6303:Timothy Snyder, 6301: 6295: 6271: 6265: 6264: 6252: 6241: 6230: 6224: 6218: 6217: 6205: 6196: 6195: 6187: 6172: 6171: 6166:Original title: 6163: 6161: 6143: 6137: 6134: 6125: 6115: 6109: 6108: 6097: 6084: 6077: 6071: 6070: 6059: 6050: 6043: 6037: 6034: 6028: 6022: 6016: 6010: 6004: 5998: 5992: 5989: 5983: 5980: 5971: 5970: 5962: 5956: 5955: 5950:Cohen, Stephen. 5947: 5941: 5935: 5929: 5926: 5917: 5916: 5913:www.marxists.org 5905: 5899: 5898: 5872: 5866: 5863: 5857: 5851: 5845: 5844: 5828: 5822: 5816: 5810: 5804: 5798: 5792: 5786: 5783: 5777: 5774: 5768: 5767: 5723: 5717: 5711: 5705: 5704: 5702: 5700: 5695:. 7 October 2015 5685: 5679: 5678: 5676: 5674: 5660: 5654: 5640: 5634: 5628: 5619: 5613: 5607: 5601: 5592: 5591: 5571: 5565: 5564: 5561:Who Killed Kirov 5556: 5550: 5549: 5531: 5525: 5524: 5522: 5520: 5506: 5500: 5499: 5497: 5495: 5480: 5474: 5468: 5462: 5460: 5453: 5447: 5446: 5444: 5442: 5436:www.marxists.org 5427: 5412: 5411: 5408:www.marxists.org 5400: 5394: 5393: 5382: 5367: 5356: 5350: 5339: 5333: 5332: 5330: 5328: 5314: 5308: 5307: 5299: 5293: 5292: 5290: 5288: 5274: 5268: 5267: 5247: 5241: 5240: 5220: 5214: 5213: 5188:(7): 1151–1172. 5173: 5167: 5166: 5154: 5148: 5142: 5136: 5129: 5123: 5117: 5111: 5110: 5076: 5067: 5061: 5060: 5058: 5056: 5041: 5035: 5034: 5027: 5021: 5020: 5018: 5016: 4990: 4984: 4977: 4968: 4962: 4953: 4952: 4936: 4930: 4920: 4914: 4913: 4895: 4886: 4885: 4838: 4829: 4828: 4798: 4789: 4761:(Czechoslovakia) 4660:Leningrad affair 4609:, were based on 4544: 4532: 4516: 4496: 4476: 4456: 4444: 4381:Memorial Society 4352:"). It included 4273:Peljidiin Genden 4188:The Great Terror 4139:Stanislav Kosior 4079:, published the 4036:Joseph E. Davies 4010:Jean-Paul Sartre 3904: 3893: 3805:Garegin Apresoff 3725:Great Depression 3695:in front of the 3688: 3677: 3636:Julian Shchutsky 3621:Boris Shumyatsky 3614:Romeo and Juliet 3581:Nikolai Nekrasov 3546:was executed in 3532:, born into the 3502:Lefortovo prison 3374:abstract algebra 3259:Kondratiev waves 3191:Matvei Bronstein 3034:Andrey Vyshinsky 2933:Fritz Houtermans 2918:Polish Communist 2877: 2870: 2866: 2863: 2857: 2854:inline citations 2830: 2829: 2822: 2815: 2808: 2804: 2801: 2795: 2772: 2764: 2755: 2754: 2743: 2742: 2731: 2730: 2592:Khadija Gayibova 2518:Stanislav Kosior 2335:Darkness at Noon 2317:executed in 1938 2308:Nikolai Bukharin 2218:Stanislav Redens 2106:Dewey Commission 2100:Dewey Commission 2042:Grigory Zinoviev 2030:Grigory Zinoviev 1940:Lazar Kaganovich 1889:Pavel Sudoplatov 1861:Grigori Zinoviev 1833:Nikolai Bukharin 1660:wealthy peasants 1612:The Great Terror 1581: 1578: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1562: 1557: 1556: 1547: 1541: 1540: 1531: 1521: 1519: 1494: 1487: 1480: 1466: 1465: 1464: 1445:Soviet republics 1285:New Union Treaty 1086:Olympic boycotts 904:We will bury you 890:De-Stalinization 807:Battle of Berlin 731:Collectivization 612:World revolution 589: 566: 565: 556: 549: 542: 345:Collectivization 322: 321: 298:Lazar Kaganovich 294:Andrey Vyshinsky 235:Ethnic cleansing 140: 120: 119: 117: 78: 71: 67: 64: 58: 38: 37: 30: 21: 12997: 12996: 12992: 12991: 12990: 12988: 12987: 12986: 12867: 12866: 12865: 12860: 12839: 12837: 12824: 12772: 12746: 12666: 12580: 12525: 12497: 12471:Internet domain 12466:Five-year plans 12428: 12395: 12335: 12238: 12200: 12132:Communist Party 12120: 12079:Passport system 11969: 11945:European Russia 11923: 11862: 11803:Khrushchev Thaw 11782:(World War II) 11760:Creation treaty 11714: 11708: 11678: 11673: 11655: 11651:Stalin's bunker 11601:Room at Kremlin 11591:Tiflis Seminary 11572: 11567: 11559: 11551: 11543: 11535: 11528:(granddaughter) 11527: 11519: 11511: 11503: 11495: 11487: 11485:Artyom Sergeyev 11479: 11471: 11463: 11455: 11447: 11433: 11415: 11319: 11277:True Communists 11240: 11238: 11231: 11195:Khrushchev Thaw 11166: 11133:Stalin's poetry 11052: 10920:Japhetic theory 10858:Medvedev Forest 10751:Georgian Affair 10728: 10722: 10683:Five-year plans 10627: 10596:Berlin Blockade 10586:Greek Civil War 10375:August Uprising 10363: 10344:Political views 10309: 10303: 10283: 10278: 10225: 10201: 10183: 10173: 10152:]. 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Moscow, 2003. 9718: 9712: 9710:Further reading 9707: 9668: 9657: 9619: 9600: 9581: 9546: 9536:Encounter Books 9514: 9491: 9469: 9450: 9428: 9404: 9383: 9362: 9345: 9340: 9332: 9328: 9319: 9315: 9306: 9302: 9293: 9289: 9280: 9276: 9266: 9264: 9252: 9248: 9244:, pp. 2–4. 9240: 9236: 9229: 9213: 9209: 9201: 9197: 9189: 9185: 9172: 9171: 9167: 9154: 9153: 9149: 9142: 9126: 9122: 9107:10.2307/2166597 9091: 9087: 9078: 9077: 9073: 9063: 9061: 9044: 9040: 9030: 9028: 9010: 9006: 8997: 8996: 8992: 8979: 8978: 8974: 8961: 8960: 8956: 8946: 8944: 8935: 8934: 8930: 8920: 8918: 8897: 8893: 8883: 8881: 8876: 8875: 8871: 8861: 8859: 8850: 8849: 8845: 8837:Chuev, Feliks. 8836: 8832: 8828:, p. 1348. 8826:Wheatcroft 1996 8824: 8817: 8810: 8791: 8787: 8780: 8764:Service, Robert 8761: 8752: 8745: 8729: 8725: 8718: 8702: 8698: 8691: 8675: 8671: 8658: 8654: 8645: 8641: 8624:Wayback Machine 8611: 8607: 8586: 8582: 8562: 8558: 8550:Chuev, Feliks. 8549: 8545: 8538: 8520: 8516: 8507: 8503: 8494: 8490: 8475:10.2307/2166597 8456: 8450: 8446: 8438: 8434: 8427: 8413: 8409: 8399: 8397: 8395:www.trussel.com 8387: 8383: 8376: 8360: 8356: 8348: 8344: 8336: 8332: 8324: 8320: 8312: 8308: 8300: 8293: 8285: 8281: 8268: 8267: 8263: 8255: 8251: 8243: 8239: 8231: 8227: 8217: 8215: 8203: 8199: 8189: 8187: 8185: 8169: 8165: 8160: 8156: 8146: 8144: 8143:on 14 June 2003 8129: 8128: 8124: 8111: 8107: 8099: 8095: 8087: 8083: 8075:" (appendix to 8063: 8059: 8049: 8047: 8041: 8037: 8029: 8025: 8012: 8011: 8007: 8000: 7984: 7980: 7973: 7957: 7953: 7948: 7944: 7936: 7932: 7912: 7908: 7898: 7896: 7886: 7879: 7862: 7858: 7853: 7844: 7839: 7835: 7831:, November 2006 7824: 7820: 7810: 7808: 7800: 7799: 7795: 7788: 7772: 7768: 7761: 7745: 7741: 7734: 7718: 7714: 7707: 7691: 7687: 7674: 7673: 7669: 7662: 7646: 7642: 7599: 7595: 7588: 7572: 7568: 7561: 7545: 7541: 7534: 7518: 7514: 7507: 7491: 7487: 7480: 7464: 7460: 7453: 7437: 7433: 7420: 7416: 7409: 7393: 7389: 7382: 7366: 7362: 7355: 7339: 7335: 7328: 7312: 7308: 7301: 7285: 7281: 7238: 7234: 7207:Current Science 7203: 7196: 7189: 7173: 7169: 7162: 7146: 7142: 7135: 7119: 7115: 7108: 7092: 7088: 7049: 7045: 7035: 7033: 7028: 7027: 7023: 6938: 6934: 6921: 6920: 6916: 6909: 6895: 6891: 6884: 6868: 6864: 6857: 6841: 6837: 6830: 6814: 6810: 6803: 6787: 6783: 6776: 6760: 6756: 6749: 6733: 6729: 6722: 6706: 6702: 6695: 6679: 6675: 6668: 6654: 6650: 6635: 6631: 6623: 6619: 6607: 6603: 6594: 6590: 6582: 6578: 6570: 6566: 6556: 6554: 6546: 6545: 6541: 6504: 6500: 6493: 6477: 6468: 6458: 6456: 6446: 6442: 6410: 6404: 6400: 6396:, Vol. 45, 2013 6388: 6384: 6371: 6370: 6366: 6359: 6345: 6341: 6334: 6318:Subtelny, Orest 6315: 6311: 6302: 6298: 6294:. pp. 102, 107. 6274:Snyder, Timothy 6272: 6268: 6261: 6250: 6242: 6233: 6225: 6221: 6206: 6199: 6188: 6175: 6159: 6157: 6150: 6144: 6140: 6135: 6128: 6116: 6112: 6099: 6098: 6087: 6078: 6074: 6060: 6053: 6044: 6040: 6035: 6031: 6023: 6019: 6011: 6007: 5999: 5995: 5990: 5986: 5981: 5974: 5963: 5959: 5948: 5944: 5936: 5932: 5927: 5920: 5907: 5906: 5902: 5887: 5873: 5869: 5864: 5860: 5852: 5848: 5829: 5825: 5817: 5813: 5805: 5801: 5793: 5789: 5784: 5780: 5775: 5771: 5724: 5720: 5712: 5708: 5698: 5696: 5687: 5686: 5682: 5672: 5670: 5662: 5661: 5657: 5641: 5637: 5629: 5622: 5614: 5610: 5602: 5595: 5588: 5572: 5568: 5557: 5553: 5532: 5528: 5518: 5516: 5508: 5507: 5503: 5493: 5491: 5482: 5481: 5477: 5469: 5465: 5454: 5450: 5440: 5438: 5430:Broué, Pierre. 5428: 5415: 5402: 5401: 5397: 5383: 5370: 5357: 5353: 5340: 5336: 5326: 5324: 5318:"Joseph Stalin" 5316: 5315: 5311: 5300: 5296: 5286: 5284: 5276: 5275: 5271: 5264: 5248: 5244: 5237: 5221: 5217: 5174: 5170: 5155: 5151: 5143: 5139: 5130: 5126: 5118: 5114: 5091:10.2307/2495035 5074: 5068: 5064: 5054: 5052: 5042: 5038: 5029: 5028: 5024: 5014: 5012: 5010: 4994:Helen Rappaport 4991: 4987: 4978: 4971: 4963: 4956: 4937: 4933: 4921: 4917: 4896: 4889: 4853:(1/2): 209–20. 4839: 4832: 4796: 4790: 4777: 4773: 4768: 4728: 4656: 4603:Robert Conquest 4577:Isaac Deutscher 4559: 4552: 4545: 4536: 4533: 4524: 4517: 4508: 4497: 4488: 4477: 4468: 4457: 4448: 4445: 4377: 4371: 4306: 4223: 4207:Bykivnia graves 4171:Robert Conquest 4156: 4095: 4089: 4069:newspaper, the 4018:Robert Conquest 4005: 3925:Lavrentiy Beria 3921: 3920: 3919: 3918: 3917: 3905: 3896: 3895: 3894: 3883: 3831: 3825: 3788: 3780:Main articles: 3778: 3761: 3755: 3746: 3721: 3716: 3715: 3714: 3713: 3712: 3689: 3680: 3679: 3678: 3667: 3530:Nikolai Durnovo 3476:Lavrentiy Beria 3457:Titsian Tabidze 3401:Boris Pasternak 3393:Osip Mandelstam 3386:Albert Einstein 3297:, chief of the 3291:Ivan Kleymyonov 3201:Nikolai Vavilov 3195:quantum gravity 3193:and pioneer of 3121:Nikolai Vavilov 3085:Osip Mandelstam 3077: 3059: 2878: 2867: 2861: 2858: 2843: 2831: 2827: 2816: 2805: 2799: 2796: 2785: 2773: 2752: 2740: 2734:External videos 2729: 2674:Vasily Blyukher 2666:Semyon Budyonny 2656:The first five 2650: 2644: 2542:album procedure 2491: 2479:Main articles: 2477: 2440:Orthodox clergy 2383: 2326:Anastas Mikoyan 2301: 2289:Arthur Koestler 2199: 2193: 2167: 2123:Georgy Pyatakov 2108: 2102: 2085:Alexander Orlov 2075:, in June 1937. 2014: 2009: 2003: 1853:Opposition Bloc 1750: 1744: 1717:mass operations 1625:Reign of Terror 1607:Robert Conquest 1579: 1573: 1570: 1567: 1529:Bol'shoy terror 1498: 1462: 1460: 1455: 1454: 1395: 1387: 1386: 1332: 1324: 1323: 1245:April 9 tragedy 1124: 1113: 1112: 960: 949: 948: 885:Khrushchev Thaw 865: 854: 853: 834:Berlin Blockade 721: 710: 709: 660: 659:: Establishment 649: 648: 627:Bolshevik Party 622:Bolshevik split 597: 560: 326: 325:Mass repression 282:Lavrentiy Beria 257: 244: 213: 182: 180: 151: 118: 102: 98: 91:Reign of Terror 79: 68: 62: 59: 52: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12995: 12985: 12984: 12979: 12974: 12969: 12964: 12959: 12954: 12949: 12944: 12939: 12934: 12929: 12924: 12919: 12914: 12909: 12904: 12899: 12894: 12889: 12884: 12879: 12862: 12861: 12859: 12858: 12848: 12833: 12830: 12829: 12826: 12825: 12823: 12822: 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12254: 12248: 12246: 12240: 12239: 12237: 12236: 12231: 12229:Deputy Premier 12226: 12221: 12220: 12219: 12212:Heads of state 12208: 12206: 12202: 12201: 12199: 12198: 12197: 12196: 12186: 12180: 12177:Supreme Soviet 12174: 12168: 12167: 12166: 12161: 12160: 12159: 12154: 12144: 12139: 12128: 12126: 12122: 12121: 12119: 12118: 12113: 12112: 12111: 12106: 12101: 12094:State ideology 12091: 12086: 12081: 12076: 12075: 12074: 12064: 12059: 12054: 12053: 12052: 12042: 12041: 12040: 12030: 12025: 12024: 12023: 12013: 12008: 12007: 12006: 12001: 11990: 11988: 11981: 11975: 11974: 11971: 11970: 11968: 11967: 11962: 11960:Ural Mountains 11957: 11952: 11950:North Caucasus 11947: 11942: 11937: 11931: 11929: 11925: 11924: 11922: 11921: 11916: 11911: 11910: 11909: 11899: 11894: 11893: 11892: 11881: 11879: 11870: 11864: 11863: 11861: 11860: 11855: 11850: 11845: 11840: 11835: 11830: 11825: 11820: 11815: 11810: 11805: 11800: 11795: 11794: 11793: 11788: 11777: 11772: 11767: 11762: 11757: 11752: 11747: 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Narrated by 10182: 10179: 10178: 10177: 10171: 10158: 10144:, ed. (1991). 10138: 10131: 10124: 10114: 10107: 10089:(8): 1319–53. 10066: 10059: 10053: 10038: 10032: 10017: 10011: 9995: 9989: 9973: 9967: 9954: 9948: 9936:Rogovin, Vadim 9932: 9926: 9910: 9904: 9888: 9870: 9857: 9839: 9830: 9824: 9809: 9803: 9790: 9784: 9768: 9762: 9745: 9739: 9726: 9711: 9708: 9706: 9705: 9679:(6): 1143–59. 9661: 9656:978-0300074420 9655: 9639: 9623: 9618:978-0275951139 9617: 9604: 9599:978-1403901194 9598: 9585: 9580:978-0300123890 9579: 9562: 9550: 9545:978-1893554726 9544: 9518: 9513:978-0198797869 9512: 9495: 9490:978-1400040056 9489: 9473: 9468:978-0691175775 9467: 9454: 9449:978-0713997026 9448: 9436:Figes, Orlando 9432: 9427:978-0674076082 9426: 9408: 9403:978-0195317008 9402: 9387: 9382:978-0195055795 9381: 9366: 9361:978-0465003129 9360: 9346: 9344: 9341: 9339: 9338: 9326: 9313: 9300: 9287: 9274: 9246: 9234: 9227: 9207: 9205:, p. 286. 9195: 9183: 9165: 9147: 9140: 9120: 9101:(4): 1030–35. 9085: 9071: 9038: 9004: 8990: 8972: 8954: 8928: 8891: 8880:. 16 July 2002 8869: 8858:. 17 July 1997 8843: 8830: 8815: 8809:978-0521446709 8808: 8785: 8779:978-0674016972 8778: 8750: 8743: 8723: 8716: 8696: 8689: 8669: 8652: 8639: 8613:Michael Ellman 8605: 8580: 8556: 8543: 8537:978-0300104073 8536: 8514: 8501: 8488: 8444: 8442:, p. 139. 8432: 8426:978-0691175775 8425: 8407: 8381: 8375:978-1417992775 8374: 8354: 8342: 8340:, p. 469. 8330: 8328:, p. 468. 8318: 8306: 8304:, p. 472. 8291: 8279: 8261: 8249: 8237: 8225: 8197: 8184:978-0521255141 8183: 8163: 8154: 8122: 8105: 8093: 8091:, p. 117. 8081: 8057: 8035: 8033:, p. 295. 8023: 8005: 7998: 7978: 7971: 7951: 7942: 7940:, p. 301. 7930: 7906: 7877: 7856: 7842: 7833: 7818: 7793: 7786: 7766: 7759: 7739: 7732: 7712: 7705: 7685: 7667: 7660: 7640: 7613:(3): 373–394. 7607:Soviet Studies 7593: 7586: 7566: 7559: 7539: 7532: 7512: 7505: 7485: 7478: 7458: 7451: 7431: 7414: 7407: 7398:Lenin's Moscow 7387: 7380: 7360: 7353: 7333: 7326: 7306: 7299: 7279: 7252:(8): 633–634. 7232: 7194: 7187: 7167: 7160: 7140: 7133: 7113: 7106: 7086: 7059:(1): 267–283. 7043: 7030:"Aino Forsten" 7021: 7003:978-0674587496 6932: 6914: 6908:978-0199560417 6907: 6889: 6882: 6862: 6855: 6835: 6828: 6808: 6801: 6781: 6774: 6754: 6747: 6727: 6720: 6700: 6693: 6673: 6666: 6648: 6629: 6617: 6601: 6588: 6586:, p. 198. 6576: 6574:, p. 211. 6564: 6539: 6498: 6492:978-0190637729 6491: 6466: 6440: 6427:10.1086/235168 6398: 6382: 6364: 6357: 6339: 6333:978-1442609914 6332: 6309: 6296: 6266: 6260:978-9176017777 6259: 6231: 6219: 6197: 6173: 6138: 6126: 6110: 6085: 6072: 6063:Werth, Nicolas 6051: 6038: 6029: 6017: 6015:, p. 352. 6005: 6003:, p. 258. 5993: 5984: 5972: 5957: 5942: 5940:, p. 164. 5930: 5918: 5900: 5886:978-0923891312 5885: 5867: 5858: 5846: 5823: 5821:, p. 121. 5811: 5809:, p. 182. 5799: 5797:, p. 142. 5787: 5778: 5769: 5718: 5706: 5680: 5655: 5635: 5631:Gellately 2007 5620: 5618:, p. 239. 5608: 5593: 5587:978-0521335706 5586: 5566: 5551: 5526: 5501: 5475: 5463: 5448: 5413: 5404:"Great Terror" 5395: 5386:Werth, Nicolas 5368: 5351: 5347:S. Fitzpatrick 5334: 5309: 5294: 5269: 5262: 5242: 5235: 5215: 5168: 5149: 5137: 5124: 5112: 5085:(2): 187–204. 5062: 5036: 5022: 5009:978-1576070840 5008: 4985: 4983:30#3 : 513–45. 4969: 4954: 4931: 4915: 4887: 4830: 4807:(7): 1151–72. 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4763: 4762: 4756: 4750: 4744: 4739: 4727: 4726:Similar events 4724: 4723: 4722: 4717: 4712: 4707: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4672: 4667: 4662: 4655: 4652: 4630:Old Bolsheviks 4558: 4555: 4554: 4553: 4546: 4539: 4537: 4534: 4527: 4525: 4518: 4511: 4509: 4499:A memorial to 4498: 4491: 4489: 4478: 4471: 4469: 4458: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4439: 4422:Wall of Sorrow 4373:Main article: 4370: 4367: 4305: 4302: 4222: 4219: 4155: 4152: 4144:Marxist theory 4091:Main article: 4088: 4087:Rehabilitation 4085: 4026:Walter Duranty 4004: 4001: 3967:dekulakization 3914:Nikolai Yezhov 3906: 3899: 3898: 3897: 3888: 3887: 3886: 3885: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3878: 3877: 3874: 3871: 3868: 3865: 3862: 3859: 3856: 3827:Main article: 3824: 3821: 3777: 3774: 3757:Main article: 3754: 3751: 3745: 3742: 3720: 3717: 3690: 3683: 3682: 3681: 3672: 3671: 3670: 3669: 3668: 3666: 3665: 3657: 3646: 3643:Nikolai Nevsky 3639: 3632: 3618: 3605: 3602:Platon Oyunsky 3595: 3588: 3573: 3566: 3559: 3544:Sergei Chavain 3537: 3526: 3523:Nikolai Klyuev 3519: 3508:David Riazanov 3505: 3483: 3479: 3468:Paolo Iashvili 3464: 3455:Georgian poet 3453: 3436: 3425: 3422:Butyrka prison 3409: 3397:Stalin Epigram 3389: 3357:Jewish German 3355: 3338:, director of 3336:Aleksei Gastev 3332: 3329:Pyotr Bogdanov 3321: 3306:astrophysicist 3302: 3287: 3280: 3268: 3262: 3247: 3228: 3221:Trofim Lysenko 3198: 3183: 3058: 3057:Intelligentsia 3055: 3030:Nikolai Yezhov 2995:Ramón Mercader 2880: 2879: 2834: 2832: 2825: 2818: 2817: 2776: 2774: 2767: 2760: 2759: 2748: 2747: 2736: 2735: 2728: 2725: 2643: 2640: 2624:Norman Naimark 2600:dekulakization 2581:Timothy Snyder 2499:Nikolai Yezhov 2476: 2473: 2395:Tsarist regime 2382: 2379: 2359:Romain Rolland 2300: 2297: 2246:Genrikh Yagoda 2214:Genrikh Yagoda 2192: 2189: 2166: 2163: 2158: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2104:Main article: 2101: 2098: 2077: 2076: 2069: 2054: 2013: 2010: 2005:Main article: 2002: 1999: 1998: 1997: 1990: 1987: 1981: 1978: 1975: 1960:dekulakization 1885:Ramón Mercader 1769:Vladimir Lenin 1763:Following the 1756:An excerpt of 1743: 1740: 1728:Nikolai Yezhov 1724:Genrikh Yagoda 1674:Nikolai Yezhov 1656:intelligentsia 1644:Old Bolsheviks 1640:Genrikh Yagoda 1518:Большой террор 1500: 1499: 1497: 1496: 1489: 1482: 1474: 1471: 1470: 1457: 1456: 1453: 1452: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1432: 1427: 1422: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1402: 1396: 1394:Related topics 1393: 1392: 1389: 1388: 1385: 1384: 1383: 1382: 1369: 1364: 1359: 1354: 1349: 1344: 1339: 1333: 1330: 1329: 1326: 1325: 1322: 1321: 1320: 1319: 1314: 1309: 1308: 1307: 1302: 1292: 1287: 1282: 1277: 1275:The Barricades 1272: 1270:January Events 1267: 1265:Dushanbe riots 1262: 1257: 1252: 1247: 1242: 1237: 1227: 1226: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1195: 1185: 1184: 1183: 1178: 1177: 1176: 1166: 1161: 1151: 1146: 1141: 1136: 1131: 1125: 1119: 1118: 1115: 1114: 1111: 1110: 1105: 1100: 1099: 1098: 1093: 1083: 1078: 1073: 1068: 1067: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1046: 1041: 1034:Wars in Africa 1031: 1030: 1029: 1019: 1017:Yom Kippur War 1014: 1013: 1012: 1010:Fall of Saigon 1007: 1002: 1000:Operation Menu 997: 987: 982: 977: 972: 967: 961: 955: 954: 951: 950: 947: 946: 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 916: 911: 906: 901: 900: 899: 887: 882: 877: 872: 866: 860: 859: 856: 855: 852: 851: 846: 841: 836: 831: 826: 821: 816: 815: 814: 809: 804: 799: 794: 789: 784: 774: 773: 772: 762: 757: 752: 751: 750: 749: 748: 743: 728: 722: 716: 715: 712: 711: 708: 707: 702: 697: 692: 687: 682: 677: 672: 667: 661: 655: 654: 651: 650: 647: 646: 641: 636: 634:Russian Empire 631: 630: 629: 624: 619: 609: 604: 598: 595: 594: 591: 590: 582: 581: 575: 574: 562: 561: 559: 558: 551: 544: 536: 533: 532: 531: 530: 525: 520: 515: 510: 502: 501: 497: 496: 495: 494: 489: 488: 487: 477: 472: 471: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 417: 416: 410: 409: 408: 407: 402: 397: 392: 387: 379: 378: 372: 371: 370: 369: 368: 367: 362: 352: 350:Dekulakization 347: 342: 334: 333: 329: 328: 318: 317: 314: 310: 309: 278:Nikolai Yezhov 274:Genrikh Yagoda 263: 259: 258: 250: 246: 245: 243: 242: 237: 232: 227: 222: 216: 214: 211: 208: 207: 189: 185: 184: 175: 171: 170: 157: 153: 152: 141: 133: 132: 125: 124: 81: 80: 42: 40: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12994: 12983: 12980: 12978: 12975: 12973: 12970: 12968: 12965: 12963: 12960: 12958: 12955: 12953: 12950: 12948: 12945: 12943: 12940: 12938: 12935: 12933: 12930: 12928: 12925: 12923: 12920: 12918: 12915: 12913: 12910: 12908: 12905: 12903: 12900: 12898: 12895: 12893: 12890: 12888: 12885: 12883: 12880: 12878: 12875: 12874: 12872: 12857: 12849: 12847: 12846: 12835: 12834: 12831: 12821: 12818: 12814: 12811: 12810: 12809: 12806: 12802: 12799: 12798: 12797: 12794: 12790: 12787: 12786: 12785: 12782: 12781: 12779: 12775: 12767: 12764: 12763: 12761: 12758: 12757: 12755: 12753: 12749: 12743: 12740: 12738: 12735: 12733: 12730: 12728: 12725: 12723: 12720: 12718: 12717:Printed media 12715: 12713: 12710: 12706: 12703: 12702: 12701: 12698: 12696: 12693: 12691: 12688: 12686: 12683: 12681: 12678: 12677: 12675: 12673: 12669: 12663: 12660: 12658: 12655: 12651: 12650:Cyrillisation 12648: 12646: 12643: 12642: 12641: 12638: 12636: 12633: 12631: 12628: 12624: 12621: 12619: 12618:Working class 12616: 12614: 12613:Soviet people 12611: 12610: 12609: 12606: 12604: 12601: 12599: 12596: 12595: 12592: 12589: 12587: 12583: 12575: 12572: 12571: 12570: 12567: 12565: 12562: 12560: 12557: 12555: 12552: 12550: 12547: 12545: 12542: 12540: 12537: 12536: 12534: 12532: 12528: 12520: 12517: 12515: 12512: 12510: 12507: 12506: 12505: 12502: 12500: 12494: 12492: 12489: 12487: 12484: 12482: 12479: 12477: 12474: 12472: 12469: 12467: 12464: 12462: 12461:Energy policy 12459: 12457: 12454: 12452: 12449: 12447: 12444: 12443: 12441: 12439: 12435: 12425: 12422: 12420: 12417: 12415: 12412: 12410: 12407: 12406: 12404: 12402: 12398: 12392: 12389: 12387: 12384: 12380: 12377: 12376: 12375: 12372: 12370: 12367: 12365: 12362: 12360: 12357: 12355: 12352: 12350: 12347: 12346: 12344: 12342: 12338: 12330: 12326: 12322: 12318: 12314: 12311: 12310: 12309: 12306: 12302: 12299: 12297: 12294: 12293: 12292: 12289: 12287: 12284: 12280: 12277: 12276: 12275: 12272: 12268: 12265: 12264: 12263: 12260: 12258: 12255: 12253: 12250: 12249: 12247: 12245: 12241: 12235: 12232: 12230: 12227: 12225: 12222: 12218: 12215: 12214: 12213: 12210: 12209: 12207: 12203: 12195: 12192: 12191: 12190: 12189:Supreme Court 12187: 12184: 12181: 12178: 12175: 12172: 12169: 12165: 12162: 12158: 12155: 12153: 12150: 12149: 12148: 12145: 12143: 12140: 12138: 12135: 12134: 12133: 12130: 12129: 12127: 12123: 12117: 12114: 12110: 12107: 12105: 12102: 12100: 12097: 12096: 12095: 12092: 12090: 12087: 12085: 12082: 12080: 12077: 12073: 12070: 12069: 12068: 12065: 12063: 12060: 12058: 12055: 12051: 12048: 12047: 12046: 12043: 12039: 12036: 12035: 12034: 12031: 12029: 12026: 12022: 12019: 12018: 12017: 12014: 12012: 12009: 12005: 12002: 12000: 11997: 11996: 11995: 11992: 11991: 11989: 11985: 11982: 11980: 11976: 11966: 11963: 11961: 11958: 11956: 11953: 11951: 11948: 11946: 11943: 11941: 11938: 11936: 11933: 11932: 11930: 11926: 11920: 11917: 11915: 11912: 11908: 11905: 11904: 11903: 11900: 11898: 11895: 11891: 11888: 11887: 11886: 11883: 11882: 11880: 11878: 11874: 11871: 11869: 11865: 11859: 11856: 11854: 11851: 11849: 11846: 11844: 11841: 11839: 11836: 11834: 11831: 11829: 11826: 11824: 11821: 11819: 11816: 11814: 11811: 11809: 11806: 11804: 11801: 11799: 11796: 11792: 11791:The Holocaust 11789: 11787: 11784: 11783: 11781: 11778: 11776: 11773: 11771: 11768: 11766: 11763: 11761: 11758: 11756: 11753: 11751: 11748: 11744: 11741: 11739: 11736: 11735: 11734: 11731: 11729: 11726: 11725: 11723: 11721: 11717: 11712: 11705: 11700: 11698: 11693: 11691: 11686: 11685: 11682: 11670: 11662: 11661: 11658: 11652: 11649: 11645: 11642: 11640: 11637: 11635: 11632: 11630: 11627: 11625: 11624:Semyonovskoye 11622: 11620: 11617: 11615: 11612: 11610: 11607: 11606: 11604: 11602: 11599: 11597: 11594: 11592: 11589: 11587: 11584: 11583: 11581: 11579: 11575: 11566: 11563: 11558: 11555: 11550: 11547: 11542: 11539: 11534: 11531: 11526: 11523: 11518: 11515: 11510: 11507: 11502: 11501:Vasily Stalin 11499: 11496:(second wife) 11494: 11491: 11488:(adopted son) 11486: 11483: 11478: 11475: 11470: 11467: 11462: 11461:Kato Svanidze 11459: 11454: 11451: 11446: 11443: 11442: 11440: 11436: 11430: 11429: 11425: 11424: 11422: 11418: 11412: 11409: 11407: 11404: 11402: 11399: 11397: 11394: 11392: 11389: 11387: 11384: 11382: 11379: 11377: 11374: 11372: 11369: 11367: 11364: 11362: 11359: 11357: 11354: 11352: 11349: 11347: 11344: 11342: 11339: 11337: 11334: 11332: 11329: 11328: 11326: 11322: 11316: 11313: 11311: 11310: 11306: 11304: 11301: 11299: 11298: 11294: 11292: 11291: 11287: 11285: 11284: 11280: 11278: 11275: 11273: 11270: 11268: 11265: 11263: 11260: 11258: 11257:Ryutin Affair 11255: 11253: 11250: 11248: 11245: 11244: 11242: 11237:Criticism and 11234: 11228: 11225: 11223: 11220: 11218: 11215: 11213: 11210: 11208: 11205: 11203: 11202: 11198: 11196: 11193: 11191: 11188: 11186: 11183: 11181: 11178: 11177: 11175: 11173: 11169: 11163: 11160: 11157: 11153: 11151: 11150:Order No. 270 11148: 11146: 11145:Order No. 227 11143: 11141: 11140: 11136: 11134: 11131: 11129: 11126: 11124: 11123: 11119: 11117: 11114: 11112: 11111: 11107: 11105: 11102: 11100: 11097: 11094: 11090: 11087: 11083: 11080: 11076: 11073: 11069: 11066: 11062: 11061: 11059: 11055: 11049: 11046: 11044: 11043:Doctors' plot 11041: 11039: 11036: 11034: 11031: 11029: 11026: 11024: 11021: 11019: 11016: 11014: 11011: 11007: 11004: 11002: 11001:Nazino affair 10999: 10997: 10994: 10992: 10989: 10987: 10984: 10982: 10979: 10977: 10974: 10973: 10972: 10969: 10966: 10965:German–Soviet 10962: 10959: 10957: 10954: 10952: 10949: 10947: 10944: 10942: 10939: 10937: 10934: 10930: 10927: 10925: 10924:Slavists case 10921: 10918: 10916: 10913: 10911: 10908: 10907: 10905: 10901: 10898: 10896: 10893: 10891: 10890:Moscow Trials 10888: 10884: 10881: 10879: 10876: 10874: 10871: 10869: 10866: 10864: 10861: 10859: 10856: 10854: 10851: 10849: 10846: 10844: 10841: 10839: 10836: 10834: 10831: 10829: 10826: 10824: 10821: 10819: 10816: 10815: 10814: 10811: 10809: 10806: 10805: 10804: 10801: 10799: 10796: 10794: 10791: 10787: 10784: 10783: 10782: 10779: 10777: 10774: 10772: 10769: 10767: 10764: 10762: 10759: 10757: 10754: 10752: 10749: 10747: 10744: 10742: 10739: 10737: 10734: 10733: 10731: 10725: 10719: 10716: 10714: 10711: 10709: 10706: 10704: 10701: 10699: 10696: 10694: 10691: 10689: 10686: 10684: 10681: 10679: 10676: 10674: 10671: 10669: 10666: 10664: 10661: 10659: 10656: 10654: 10653:Korenizatsiya 10651: 10649: 10648:Neo-Stalinism 10646: 10644: 10641: 10640: 10638: 10634: 10624: 10621: 10619: 10616: 10614: 10611: 10609: 10606: 10602: 10599: 10597: 10594: 10592: 10589: 10587: 10584: 10582: 10579: 10575: 10572: 10571: 10570: 10567: 10565: 10562: 10560: 10557: 10555: 10552: 10551: 10550: 10547: 10545: 10542: 10540: 10537: 10535: 10534:Ili Rebellion 10532: 10530: 10527: 10523: 10520: 10518: 10515: 10513: 10510: 10508: 10505: 10503: 10500: 10498: 10495: 10493: 10490: 10486: 10483: 10482: 10481: 10478: 10476: 10473: 10472: 10471: 10468: 10466: 10463: 10461: 10458: 10456: 10453: 10451: 10448: 10446: 10443: 10441: 10438: 10436: 10433: 10431: 10428: 10426: 10422: 10419: 10417: 10414: 10412: 10409: 10407: 10404: 10400: 10397: 10395: 10392: 10391: 10390: 10387: 10385: 10381: 10378: 10376: 10373: 10372: 10370: 10366: 10360: 10357: 10355: 10352: 10350: 10347: 10345: 10342: 10340: 10337: 10335: 10332: 10330: 10327: 10325: 10322: 10321: 10319: 10315: 10312: 10306: 10299: 10296: 10293: 10290: 10289: 10286: 10282: 10281:Joseph Stalin 10275: 10270: 10268: 10263: 10261: 10256: 10255: 10252: 10245: 10242: 10240: 10237: 10236:Nicolas Werth 10234: 10232: 10228: 10223: 10220: 10219: 10215: 10212: 10207: 10203: 10202: 10193: 10189: 10185: 10184: 10174: 10168: 10164: 10159: 10155: 10151: 10147: 10143: 10139: 10137:(2019): 1–24. 10136: 10132: 10129: 10125: 10123: 10119: 10115: 10112: 10108: 10104: 10100: 10096: 10092: 10088: 10084: 10083: 10075: 10071: 10067: 10064: 10060: 10056: 10050: 10046: 10045: 10039: 10035: 10029: 10025: 10024: 10018: 10014: 10008: 10004: 10000: 9996: 9992: 9986: 9982: 9981:Red Holocaust 9978: 9974: 9970: 9964: 9960: 9955: 9951: 9945: 9941: 9937: 9933: 9929: 9923: 9919: 9915: 9911: 9907: 9901: 9897: 9893: 9889: 9885: 9881: 9880: 9875: 9874:Lyons, Eugene 9871: 9864: 9860: 9854: 9847: 9846: 9840: 9836: 9831: 9827: 9821: 9817: 9816: 9810: 9806: 9800: 9796: 9791: 9787: 9781: 9777: 9773: 9769: 9765: 9759: 9755: 9754:Belknap Press 9751: 9746: 9742: 9736: 9732: 9727: 9724: 9720: 9719: 9717: 9702: 9698: 9694: 9690: 9686: 9682: 9678: 9674: 9667: 9662: 9658: 9652: 9648: 9644: 9640: 9635: 9634: 9628: 9624: 9620: 9614: 9610: 9605: 9601: 9595: 9591: 9586: 9582: 9576: 9572: 9568: 9563: 9559: 9555: 9551: 9547: 9541: 9537: 9533: 9532: 9527: 9526:Klehr, Harvey 9523: 9519: 9515: 9509: 9505: 9501: 9496: 9492: 9486: 9482: 9478: 9474: 9470: 9464: 9460: 9455: 9451: 9445: 9441: 9437: 9433: 9429: 9423: 9419: 9418: 9413: 9409: 9405: 9399: 9395: 9394: 9388: 9384: 9378: 9374: 9373: 9367: 9363: 9357: 9353: 9348: 9347: 9336:, p. xx. 9335: 9334:Thurston 1998 9330: 9323: 9317: 9310: 9304: 9297: 9291: 9284: 9278: 9263: 9262: 9257: 9250: 9243: 9238: 9230: 9224: 9220: 9219: 9211: 9204: 9203:Conquest 2008 9199: 9192: 9191:Conquest 2008 9187: 9179: 9175: 9169: 9161: 9157: 9151: 9143: 9137: 9133: 9132: 9124: 9116: 9112: 9108: 9104: 9100: 9096: 9089: 9081: 9075: 9059: 9055: 9054: 9049: 9042: 9027: 9023: 9019: 9015: 9008: 9000: 8994: 8986: 8982: 8976: 8968: 8964: 8958: 8943:. 9 June 2010 8942: 8938: 8932: 8917: 8913: 8909: 8905: 8901: 8895: 8879: 8873: 8857: 8853: 8847: 8840: 8834: 8827: 8822: 8820: 8811: 8805: 8801: 8800: 8795: 8789: 8781: 8775: 8771: 8770: 8765: 8759: 8757: 8755: 8746: 8740: 8736: 8735: 8727: 8719: 8713: 8709: 8708: 8700: 8692: 8686: 8682: 8681: 8673: 8666: 8662: 8656: 8649: 8643: 8636: 8632: 8628: 8625: 8621: 8618: 8614: 8609: 8602: 8598: 8594: 8590: 8584: 8577: 8573: 8569: 8566: 8560: 8553: 8547: 8539: 8533: 8529: 8525: 8518: 8511: 8505: 8498: 8492: 8484: 8480: 8476: 8472: 8468: 8464: 8463: 8455: 8448: 8441: 8440:Thurston 1998 8436: 8428: 8422: 8418: 8411: 8396: 8392: 8385: 8377: 8371: 8367: 8366: 8358: 8351: 8350:Conquest 2008 8346: 8339: 8338:Conquest 2008 8334: 8327: 8326:Conquest 2008 8322: 8315: 8314:Conquest 2008 8310: 8303: 8302:Conquest 2008 8298: 8296: 8288: 8287:Conquest 2008 8283: 8275: 8271: 8265: 8259:, p. 33. 8258: 8253: 8246: 8241: 8235:, p. 32. 8234: 8229: 8214: 8213: 8208: 8201: 8186: 8180: 8176: 8175: 8167: 8158: 8142: 8138: 8137: 8132: 8126: 8119: 8115: 8109: 8102: 8101:Kuromiya 2007 8097: 8090: 8085: 8078: 8074: 8070: 8066: 8061: 8046: 8039: 8032: 8031:Conquest 2008 8027: 8019: 8015: 8009: 8001: 7995: 7991: 7990: 7982: 7974: 7968: 7964: 7963: 7955: 7946: 7939: 7938:Conquest 2008 7934: 7928: 7924: 7920: 7916: 7910: 7895: 7891: 7884: 7882: 7874: 7870: 7866: 7860: 7851: 7849: 7847: 7837: 7830: 7829: 7822: 7807: 7803: 7797: 7789: 7783: 7779: 7778: 7770: 7762: 7756: 7752: 7751: 7743: 7735: 7729: 7725: 7724: 7716: 7708: 7702: 7698: 7697: 7689: 7681: 7677: 7671: 7663: 7657: 7653: 7652: 7644: 7636: 7632: 7628: 7624: 7620: 7616: 7612: 7608: 7604: 7597: 7589: 7583: 7579: 7578: 7570: 7562: 7556: 7552: 7551: 7543: 7535: 7529: 7525: 7524: 7516: 7508: 7502: 7498: 7497: 7489: 7481: 7475: 7471: 7470: 7462: 7454: 7448: 7444: 7443: 7435: 7427: 7426: 7418: 7410: 7404: 7400: 7399: 7391: 7383: 7377: 7373: 7372: 7364: 7356: 7350: 7346: 7345: 7337: 7329: 7323: 7319: 7318: 7310: 7302: 7296: 7292: 7291: 7283: 7275: 7271: 7267: 7263: 7259: 7255: 7251: 7247: 7243: 7236: 7228: 7224: 7220: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7201: 7199: 7190: 7184: 7180: 7179: 7171: 7163: 7157: 7153: 7152: 7144: 7136: 7130: 7126: 7125: 7117: 7109: 7103: 7099: 7098: 7090: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7058: 7054: 7047: 7031: 7025: 7018: 7017: 7012: 7008: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6992: 6988: 6984: 6980: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6964: 6960: 6956: 6952: 6948: 6944: 6943: 6936: 6928: 6924: 6918: 6910: 6904: 6900: 6893: 6885: 6879: 6875: 6874: 6866: 6858: 6852: 6848: 6847: 6839: 6831: 6825: 6821: 6820: 6812: 6804: 6798: 6794: 6793: 6785: 6777: 6771: 6767: 6766: 6758: 6750: 6744: 6740: 6739: 6731: 6723: 6717: 6713: 6712: 6704: 6696: 6690: 6686: 6685: 6677: 6669: 6663: 6659: 6652: 6645: 6644: 6639: 6633: 6626: 6625:Conquest 2008 6621: 6614: 6610: 6609:Conquest 2008 6605: 6598: 6595:Stephen Lee, 6592: 6585: 6584:Courtois 1999 6580: 6573: 6572:Conquest 2008 6568: 6553: 6549: 6543: 6535: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6502: 6494: 6488: 6484: 6483: 6475: 6473: 6471: 6455: 6451: 6444: 6436: 6432: 6428: 6424: 6421:(4): 813–61. 6420: 6416: 6409: 6402: 6395: 6391: 6386: 6378: 6374: 6368: 6360: 6354: 6350: 6343: 6335: 6329: 6325: 6324: 6319: 6313: 6306: 6300: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6262: 6256: 6249: 6248: 6240: 6238: 6236: 6228: 6227:Courtois 1999 6223: 6215: 6211: 6204: 6202: 6193: 6186: 6184: 6182: 6180: 6178: 6170: 6169: 6155: 6151: 6142: 6133: 6131: 6123: 6119: 6114: 6106: 6102: 6096: 6094: 6092: 6090: 6082: 6076: 6068: 6064: 6058: 6056: 6049:. pp. 667–68. 6048: 6042: 6033: 6026: 6025:Conquest 2008 6021: 6014: 6013:Conquest 2008 6009: 6002: 6001:Koestler 1940 5997: 5988: 5979: 5977: 5968: 5961: 5953: 5946: 5939: 5938:Conquest 2008 5934: 5925: 5923: 5914: 5910: 5904: 5896: 5892: 5888: 5882: 5878: 5871: 5862: 5856:, p. 87. 5855: 5854:Conquest 2008 5850: 5842: 5838: 5837:Labour Review 5834: 5827: 5820: 5819:Conquest 2008 5815: 5808: 5807:Conquest 2008 5803: 5796: 5795:Conquest 2008 5791: 5782: 5773: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5742:(3): 524–26. 5741: 5737: 5733: 5731: 5722: 5715: 5710: 5694: 5690: 5684: 5669: 5665: 5659: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5639: 5632: 5627: 5625: 5617: 5612: 5605: 5604:Conquest 1987 5600: 5598: 5589: 5583: 5579: 5578: 5570: 5562: 5555: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5538: 5530: 5515: 5511: 5505: 5489: 5485: 5479: 5472: 5467: 5459: 5452: 5437: 5433: 5426: 5424: 5422: 5420: 5418: 5409: 5405: 5399: 5391: 5387: 5381: 5379: 5377: 5375: 5373: 5365: 5361: 5355: 5348: 5344: 5338: 5323: 5319: 5313: 5305: 5298: 5283: 5279: 5273: 5265: 5259: 5255: 5254: 5246: 5238: 5232: 5228: 5227: 5219: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5172: 5164: 5160: 5153: 5146: 5141: 5134: 5128: 5121: 5120:Conquest 2008 5116: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5079:Slavic Review 5073: 5066: 5051: 5047: 5040: 5032: 5026: 5011: 5005: 5001: 5000: 4995: 4989: 4982: 4976: 4974: 4967:, p. 16. 4966: 4961: 4959: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4935: 4928: 4924: 4923:Conquest 2008 4919: 4912: 4907: 4906: 4901: 4894: 4892: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4837: 4835: 4827: 4826:world—history 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4795: 4788: 4786: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4775: 4760: 4759:Prague Spring 4757: 4754: 4751: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4737: 4733: 4730: 4729: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4711: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4693: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4657: 4651: 4649: 4642: 4637: 4633: 4631: 4626: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4593:According to 4590: 4586: 4584: 4580: 4578: 4573: 4571: 4570: 4565: 4550: 4543: 4538: 4531: 4526: 4522: 4515: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4495: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4475: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4455: 4450: 4443: 4438: 4437: 4436: 4434: 4430: 4425: 4423: 4418: 4414: 4412: 4408: 4403: 4401: 4397: 4392: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4376: 4366: 4362: 4357: 4355: 4351: 4346: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4310: 4300: 4295: 4292: 4288: 4286: 4282: 4276: 4274: 4270: 4267: 4263: 4260: 4255: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4227: 4221:Stalin's role 4218: 4216: 4208: 4203: 4199: 4196: 4195:J. Arch Getty 4193:According to 4191: 4189: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4169:According to 4167: 4165: 4161: 4151: 4149: 4145: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4131:rehabilitated 4127: 4124: 4116: 4111: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4084: 4082: 4081:Secret Speech 4078: 4074: 4073: 4068: 4062: 4059: 4055: 4054: 4049: 4046:, authors of 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4032: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4016:According to 4014: 4011: 4000: 3998: 3994: 3989: 3987: 3986:rehabilitated 3983: 3979: 3975: 3970: 3968: 3964: 3959: 3955: 3954: 3949: 3944: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3915: 3911: 3910: 3903: 3892: 3875: 3872: 3869: 3866: 3863: 3860: 3857: 3854: 3853: 3849: 3846: 3842: 3841:Israil Pliner 3838: 3834: 3830: 3820: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3787: 3783: 3773: 3770: 3766: 3760: 3750: 3741: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3726: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3687: 3676: 3662: 3658: 3655: 3651: 3650:Mykola Kulish 3647: 3644: 3640: 3637: 3633: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3619: 3616: 3615: 3610: 3606: 3603: 3599: 3596: 3593: 3589: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3571: 3567: 3564: 3560: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3538: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3524: 3520: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3506: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3484: 3480: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3451: 3445: 3444:Zinaida Raikh 3441: 3437: 3434: 3430: 3429:Boris Pilnyak 3426: 3423: 3418: 3417:André Malraux 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3362:Fritz Noether 3360: 3356: 3353: 3352:cybernetician 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3285: 3284:Boris Numerov 3281: 3278: 3277: 3272: 3269: 3266: 3263: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3232:Lev Shubnikov 3229: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3199: 3196: 3192: 3189: 3185: 3184: 3182: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3149: 3144: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3122: 3117: 3110: 3105: 3098: 3093: 3086: 3081: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3054: 3052: 3048: 3042: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3014: 3012: 3006: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2971: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2944: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2925:Eric D. Weitz 2921: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2890:Vadim Rogovin 2887: 2876: 2873: 2865: 2862:February 2022 2855: 2851: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2835:This section 2833: 2824: 2823: 2814: 2811: 2803: 2800:February 2022 2793: 2789: 2783: 2782: 2777:This section 2775: 2771: 2766: 2765: 2758: 2749: 2746: 2737: 2732: 2724: 2722: 2718: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2639: 2636: 2632: 2627: 2625: 2621: 2615: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2593: 2588: 2584: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2545: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2530: 2523: 2519: 2514: 2510: 2507: 2502: 2500: 2496: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2472: 2469: 2465: 2463: 2459: 2454: 2452: 2447: 2445: 2441: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2398: 2396: 2392: 2387: 2378: 2376: 2372: 2371:rehabilitated 2368: 2364: 2360: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2336: 2330: 2327: 2323: 2316: 2315:revolutionary 2313: 2309: 2305: 2296: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2285:Jay Lovestone 2282: 2281:Bertram Wolfe 2278: 2272: 2270: 2264: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2249: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2210:Yakov Agranov 2207: 2203: 2198: 2187: 2182: 2180: 2175: 2172: 2162: 2154: 2150: 2147: 2146: 2145: 2141: 2139: 2134: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2121:For example, 2119: 2117: 2113: 2107: 2097: 2095: 2089: 2086: 2082: 2074: 2070: 2067: 2063: 2062:Yuri Piatakov 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2038: 2037: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2018: 2008: 2007:Moscow trials 2001:Moscow trials 1995: 1991: 1988: 1986: 1982: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1969: 1968: 1967: 1963: 1961: 1955: 1953: 1948: 1943: 1941: 1937: 1932: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1901:party leader 1900: 1896: 1892: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1868: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1845:Ryutin affair 1841: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1825: 1823: 1819: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1801: 1797: 1792: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1759: 1754: 1749: 1739: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1720: 1718: 1714: 1713:Volga Germans 1710: 1706: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1678:Yezhovshchina 1675: 1671: 1667: 1666: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1628: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1613: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1587:Joseph Stalin 1585: 1577: 1561: 1551: 1550:Yezhovshchina 1546: 1535: 1530: 1524: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1495: 1490: 1488: 1483: 1481: 1476: 1475: 1473: 1472: 1469: 1459: 1458: 1451: 1448: 1446: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1436: 1435:Soviet Empire 1433: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1401: 1398: 1397: 1391: 1390: 1381: 1380: 1375: 1374: 1373: 1370: 1368: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1353: 1350: 1348: 1345: 1343: 1340: 1338: 1335: 1334: 1328: 1327: 1318: 1315: 1313: 1310: 1306: 1303: 1301: 1298: 1297: 1296: 1293: 1291: 1288: 1286: 1283: 1281: 1278: 1276: 1273: 1271: 1268: 1266: 1263: 1261: 1258: 1256: 1253: 1251: 1250:Black January 1248: 1246: 1243: 1241: 1238: 1236: 1233: 1232: 1231: 1228: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1190: 1189: 1186: 1182: 1179: 1175: 1172: 1171: 1170: 1167: 1165: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1156: 1155: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1145: 1142: 1140: 1137: 1135: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1126: 1122: 1117: 1116: 1109: 1106: 1104: 1103:Polish strike 1101: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1089: 1088: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1077: 1074: 1072: 1069: 1065: 1062: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1050: 1047: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1037: 1036: 1035: 1032: 1028: 1025: 1024: 1023: 1022:Prague Spring 1020: 1018: 1015: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1001: 998: 996: 993: 992: 991: 988: 986: 983: 981: 978: 976: 973: 971: 968: 966: 963: 962: 958: 953: 952: 945: 942: 940: 939:Space program 937: 935: 932: 930: 927: 925: 922: 920: 917: 915: 912: 910: 907: 905: 902: 897: 893: 892: 891: 888: 886: 883: 881: 878: 876: 873: 871: 868: 867: 863: 858: 857: 850: 847: 845: 842: 840: 837: 835: 832: 830: 827: 825: 822: 820: 817: 813: 810: 808: 805: 803: 800: 798: 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 783: 780: 779: 778: 775: 771: 770:Moscow trials 768: 767: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 753: 747: 744: 742: 739: 738: 737: 734: 733: 732: 729: 727: 724: 723: 719: 714: 713: 706: 703: 701: 698: 696: 693: 691: 688: 686: 685:War communism 683: 681: 678: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 662: 658: 653: 652: 645: 642: 640: 637: 635: 632: 628: 625: 623: 620: 618: 615: 614: 613: 610: 608: 605: 603: 600: 599: 593: 592: 588: 584: 583: 580: 577: 576: 572: 568: 567: 557: 552: 550: 545: 543: 538: 537: 535: 534: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 505: 504: 503: 499: 498: 493: 490: 486: 483: 482: 481: 478: 476: 473: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 425: 424: 421: 420: 419: 418: 415: 412: 411: 406: 403: 401: 398: 396: 393: 391: 388: 386: 383: 382: 381: 380: 377: 374: 373: 366: 363: 361: 358: 357: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 340:War communism 338: 337: 336: 335: 331: 330: 324: 323: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 288:and others), 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 266:Joseph Stalin 264: 260: 255: 251: 247: 241: 238: 236: 233: 231: 228: 226: 223: 221: 218: 217: 215: 209: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 179: 176: 172: 169: 165: 161: 158: 154: 149: 145: 139: 134: 131: 126: 121: 115: 111: 110: 106: 100: 96: 92: 88: 77: 74: 66: 63:November 2023 56: 50: 48: 43:This article 41: 32: 31: 19: 12836: 12608:Demographics 12598:Antisemitism 12451:Central Bank 12369:Forced labor 12358: 12317:Spetsnaz GRU 12137:organisation 12045:Human rights 11994:Constitution 11877:Subdivisions 11774: 11755:Russian SFSR 11711:Soviet Union 11568:(son-in-law) 11560:(son-in-law) 11557:Yuri Zhdanov 11464:(first wife) 11453:Keke Geladze 11426: 11315:Antisemitism 11307: 11295: 11288: 11281: 11272:Kremlin Plot 11199: 11137: 11121: 11108: 11013:Tax on trees 10971:Deportations 10802: 10708:Stakhanovite 10569:Eastern Bloc 10470:World War II 10423: / 10310:and politics 10217: 10192:Meryl Streep 10187: 10162: 10149: 10145: 10134: 10127: 10117: 10110: 10086: 10080: 10062: 10043: 10022: 10002: 9980: 9958: 9939: 9917: 9895: 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The term 1534:Year of '37 1506:Great Purge 1290:August Coup 1260:War of Laws 1139:Perestroika 990:Vietnam War 980:Six-Day War 765:Great Purge 720:: Stalinism 639:World War I 468:Legislation 395:Great Purge 230:Mass murder 212:Attack type 193:Trotskyists 178:Main phase: 123:Great Purge 103:‹ The 12871:Categories 12752:Opposition 12742:Television 12722:Propaganda 12695:Literature 12569:Naukograds 12564:Sharashkas 12498:(currency) 12476:Inventions 12419:Censorship 12349:Red Terror 12033:Government 11907:Autonomous 11890:Autonomous 11823:Stagnation 11786:Evacuation 11639:Lake Ritsa 11619:Uspenskoye 11536:(grandson) 11520:(grandson) 11512:(daughter) 11267:Trotskyism 11239:opposition 10915:Lysenkoism 10601:Korean War 10480:Winter War 10368:Chronology 10359:Death toll 10324:Early life 9714:See also: 9267:1 December 9064:6 November 8659:Quoted in 8601:0817929029 8576:0300110669 7927:0253209153 7873:1929631146 6985:. p. 200; 6983:0142000639 6969:. p. 460; 6967:1400040051 6953:. p. 101; 6552:goarmy.com 6305:Bloodlands 6292:0465002390 6120:, p. 6118:Figes 2007 5652:1400040051 5616:Figes 2007 5546:B0711N78KN 5519:3 December 5327:2 December 5145:Figes 2007 5055:3 December 4925:, p. 4766:References 4749:(Cambodia) 4710:Lustration 4575:Historian 4549:Sandarmokh 4481:Krasny Bor 4243:Kaganovich 4239:Voroshilov 4117:, Mongolia 3978:Ivan Fedko 3817:Hoja-Niyaz 3807:, General 3734:Sandarmokh 3691:Statue of 3563:Les Kurbas 3310:astronomer 3205:geneticist 3061:See also: 2975:Bolsheviks 2962:, Spanish 2960:Andreu Nin 2952:Trotskyist 2916:and other 2888:historian 2886:Trotskyist 2846:improve it 2702:commissars 2418:White Army 2310:, Russian 2195:See also: 2171:Karl Radek 2138:Not Guilty 2116:John Dewey 2058:Karl Radek 1992:1938, the 1983:1937, the 1970:1936, the 1952:Red Terror 1816:The term " 1746:See also: 1742:Background 1574:period of 1548:) and the 1425:Leadership 1352:Khrushchev 1305:referendum 1280:Referendum 1164:Baltic Way 839:Korean War 680:Red Terror 607:Bolshevism 596:Background 480:Censorship 385:Red Terror 365:Kazakhstan 308:and others 286:Ivan Serov 142:People of 55:editing it 12947:Stalinism 12813:Republics 12801:Republics 12789:Republics 12640:Languages 12504:Transport 12386:Holodomor 12279:Militsiya 12217:President 12109:Stalinism 12011:Elections 11885:Republics 11868:Geography 11858:Nostalgia 11770:Stalinism 11629:New Athos 10895:Hotel Lux 10878:Vinnytsia 10833:Chortkiv 10823:Berezwecz 10818:Berezhany 10786:Holodomor 10643:Stalinism 10581:Cominform 10317:Overviews 9774:(1973) . 9701:205667754 9645:(1998) . 9483:. 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Knopf. 6646:, p. 214 6534:1252-6576 6320:(2009) . 5895:843206645 5764:151381912 5756:1351-8046 5699:24 August 5673:24 August 5494:22 August 5202:0966-8136 5107:163664533 4867:1252-6576 4771:Citations 4720:Holodomor 4523:, Ukraine 4467:, Belarus 4385:Gorbachev 4083:in full. 3931:USSR and 3929:Sovnarkom 3813:Ma Shaowu 3809:Ma Hushan 3577:Esperanto 3490:dialectic 3188:physicist 3119:Botanist 3071:Sharashka 3005:) lived. 2983:Politburo 2956:anarchist 2920:parties. 2910:Hungarian 2894:Bulgarian 2850:verifying 2631:vis-à-vis 2620:genocidal 2604:Holodomor 2561:Bulgarian 2414:Far North 2377:in 1988. 2312:Bolshevik 2251:Although 2179:Rightists 2053:executed. 1945:From the 1913:) in 1934 1899:Leningrad 1855:in which 1837:Civil War 1686:politburo 1523:romanized 1508:, or the 1415:Geography 1410:Education 1372:Gorbachev 1367:Chernenko 1255:Osh riots 1235:Jeltoqsan 1121:1982–1991 957:1964–1982 862:1953–1964 741:Holodomor 718:1927–1953 657:1917–1927 602:Communism 448:1975–1987 443:1958–1964 438:1928–1941 433:1921–1928 428:1917–1921 225:Massacres 144:Vinnytsia 112:is being 12856:Category 12409:Religion 12296:Chairmen 12142:Congress 12104:Leninism 12084:Propiska 11979:Politics 11838:Glasnost 11798:Cold War 11738:February 11669:Category 11609:Kuntsevo 11456:(mother) 11448:(father) 10883:Zolochiv 10868:Valozhyn 10838:Kurapaty 10636:Concepts 10549:Cold War 10072:(1996). 10001:(2005). 9979:(2009). 9938:(1996). 9916:(2010). 9894:(2002). 9876:(1937). 9693:19326595 9629:(1973). 9556:(1940). 9528:(2003). 9479:(2007). 9438:(2007). 9414:(1999). 8796:(1993). 8766:(2005). 8620:Archived 8595:, 2002. 8570:, 2008. 8212:Memorial 7227:24093868 6973:. 2002. 6957:. 2007. 6949:. 1995. 6459:6 August 6435:32917643 6276:. 2010. 5287:27 April 4996:(1999). 4951:(1): 13. 4875:20171081 4821:43510161 4734:and the 4654:See also 4507:, Russia 4487:, Russia 4461:Kuropaty 4407:Bykivnia 4396:Kurapaty 4389:glasnost 4354:Shelepin 4334:Pospelov 4326:Shvernik 4322:Furtseva 4266:Buddhist 4183:Kuropaty 4179:Vinnitsa 4040:Beatrice 3823:Timeline 3796:Xinjiang 3709:Xinjiang 3705:Mongolia 3625:de facto 3575:Russian 3486:Jan Sten 3295:rocketry 3209:botanist 3177:in 1938. 3047:gas vans 2914:Yugoslav 2884:Russian 2694:marshals 2686:Red Army 2602:and the 2590:Pianist 2557:Estonian 2458:Komsomol 2083:officer 1911:Svetlana 1877:Béla Kun 1787:and the 1736:Xinjiang 1694:sabotage 1690:wrecking 1652:Red Army 1617:allusion 1555:Ежовщина 1539:37-й год 1430:Politics 1377:List of 1362:Andropov 1357:Brezhnev 1347:Malenkov 1134:Glasnost 829:Cold War 571:a series 569:Part of 423:Religion 240:Genocide 197:Red Army 164:Xinjiang 156:Location 116:. › 105:template 12777:Symbols 12690:Fashion 12672:Culture 12586:Society 12531:Science 12496:Rouble 12438:Economy 12414:Science 12224:Premier 12205:Offices 12067:Leaders 11987:General 11955:Siberia 11928:Regions 11902:Oblasts 11743:October 11720:History 11644:Sukhumi 11605:Dachas 11596:Kureika 10986:Koreans 10873:Vileyka 10574:Comecon 10399:Sovkhoz 10394:Kolkhoz 10308:History 10231:YouTube 10154:ROSSPEN 9343:Sources 9115:2166597 8941:Reuters 8483:2166597 8274:memo.ru 8116:", in: 7254:Bibcode 7061:Bibcode 7036:21 June 6548:"Ranks" 5099:2495035 4738:(China) 4615:torture 4521:Donetsk 4338:Rudenko 4330:Aristov 4247:Zhdanov 4231:Molotov 4209:reserve 3661:sunspot 3600:writer 3556:Mari El 3427:Writer 3411:Writer 3405:Cherdyn 3304:Soviet 3225:genetic 3175:Butyrka 3173:in the 3041:again. 3003:Kalinin 2904:of the 2844:Please 2577:Chinese 2569:Iranian 2553:Latvian 2549:Finnish 2406:Siberia 2277:Kalinin 1881:killing 1619:to the 1582:), was 1568: 1525:: 1514:Russian 1420:History 1405:Economy 1400:Culture 1379:troikas 985:Détente 475:Science 463:Judaism 360:Ukraine 12796:Emblem 12784:Anthem 12732:Sports 12685:Cinema 12680:Ballet 12662:Racism 12635:Family 12125:Bodies 11713:topics 11438:Family 10863:Sambir 10169: 10122:online 10113:(2015) 10103:152781 10101: 10051: 10030: 10009: 9987: 9965: 9946: 9924: 9902: 9855: 9822: 9801: 9782: 9760: 9737: 9699: 9691: 9653: 9615: 9596: 9577: 9542: 9510: 9487: 9465: 9446: 9424: 9400: 9379: 9358: 9225: 9138: 9113: 9024: 8914: 8806: 8776: 8741: 8714: 8687: 8603:p. 111 8599: 8578:p. xix 8574: 8534: 8481: 8423: 8372: 8181: 8136:RTÉ.ie 7996: 7969: 7925: 7875:p. 111 7871: 7784: 7757: 7730: 7703: 7658: 7635:150306 7633: 7625: 7584: 7557: 7530: 7503: 7476: 7449: 7405: 7378: 7351: 7324: 7297: 7272: 7225: 7217: 7185: 7158: 7131: 7104: 7079: 7009:; 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