1483:) could be potentially be designed and chosen using standards that may or may not be based on adequate scientific data. Standards could reduce the variety of products and lead to convergence on fewer broad designs – which can often be efficiently mass-produced via common shared automated procedures and instruments – or formulations deemed to be the most healthy, most efficient or best compromise between healthiness and other factors. Standardization is sometimes or could also be used to ensure or increase or enable consumer health protection beyond the workplace and ergonomics such as standards in food, food production, hygiene products, tab water, cosmetics, drugs/medicine, drink and dietary supplements, especially in cases where there is robust scientific data that suggests detrimental impacts on health (e.g. of ingredients) despite being substitutable and not necessarily of consumer interest.
1754:
technology, further enhancing network effects. Other benefits of standardization to consumers are reduced uncertainty, because consumers can be more certain that they are not choosing the wrong product, and reduced lock-in, because the standard makes it more likely that there will be competing products in the space. Consumers may also get the benefit of being able to mix and match components of a system to align with their specific preferences. Once these initial benefits of standardization are realized, further benefits that accrue to consumers as a result of using the standard are driven mostly by the quality of the technologies underlying that standard.
589:
931:
810:. CEN develops standards for numerous kinds of products, materials, services and processes. Some sectors covered by CEN include transport equipment and services, chemicals, construction, consumer products, defence and security, energy, food and feed, health and safety, healthcare, digital sector, machinery or services. The European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) is the European Standardization organization developing standards in the electrotechnical area and corresponding to the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in Europe.
1758:
in the market, then consumers are deprived of the penetration pricing that often results when rivals are competing to rapidly increase market share in an attempt to increase the likelihood that their product will become the standard. It is also possible that a consumer will choose a product based upon a standard that fails to become dominant. In this case, the consumer will have spent resources on a product that is ultimately less useful to him or her as the result of the standardization process.
1534:, standardization often means the process of establishing standards of various kinds and improving efficiency to handle people, their interactions, cases, and so forth. Examples include formalization of judicial procedure in court, and establishing uniform criteria for diagnosing mental disease. Standardization in this sense is often discussed along with (or synonymously to) such large-scale social changes as modernization, bureaucratization, homogenization, and centralization of society.
3083:
Rand, Matt; Villagomez, Angelo; Ban, Natalie C.; Gurney, Georgina G.; Spalding, Ana K.; Bennett, Nathan J.; Briggs, Johnny; Morgan, Lance E.; Moffitt, Russell; Deguignet, Marine; Pikitch, Ellen K.; Darling, Emily S.; Jessen, Sabine; Hameed, Sarah O.; Di Carlo, Giuseppe; Guidetti, Paolo; Harris, Jean M.; Torre, Jorge; Kizilkaya, Zafer; Agardy, Tundi; Cury, Philippe; Shah, Nirmal J.; Sack, Karen; Cao, Ling; Fernandez, Miriam; Lubchenco, Jane (2021).
836:) was created in 1865 to set international standards in order to connect national telegraph networks, as a merger of two predecessor organizations (Bern and Paris treaties) that had similar objectives, but in more limited territories. With the advent of radiocommunication soon after the creation, the work of the ITU quickly expanded from the standardization of Telegraph communications, to developing standards for telecommunications in general.
1594:
1276:, which is often associated with traditional processes and results of standardization. Taxes and subsidies, and funding of research and development could be used complementarily. Standardized measurement is used in monitoring, reporting and verification frameworks of environmental impacts, usually of companies, for example to prevent underreporting of greenhouse gas emissions by firms.
567:, not including defective weights. They did not find statistically significant differences between weights that were excavated from five different layers, each measuring about 1.5 m in depth. This was evidence that strong control existed for at least a 500-year period. The 13.7-g weight seems to be one of the units used in the Indus valley. The notation was based on the
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incompatible, but after standardization each company can focus on providing an individual component of the system. When the shift toward competition based on individual components takes place, firms selling tightly integrated systems must quickly shift to a modular approach, supplying other companies with subsystems or components.
1091:, regulators in the United States are instructed by their government offices to adopt "voluntary consensus standards" before relying upon "industry standards" or developing "government standards". Regulatory authorities can reference voluntary consensus standards to translate internationally accepted criteria into
519:. The centralized weight and measure system served the commercial interest of Indus merchants as smaller weight measures were used to measure luxury goods while larger weights were employed for buying bulkier items, such as food grains etc. Weights existed in multiples of a standard weight and in categories.
751:: "Architects and engineers generally specify such unnecessarily diverse types of sectional material or given work that anything like economical and continuous manufacture becomes impossible. In this country no two professional men are agreed upon the size and weight of a girder to employ for given work."
3082:
Grorud-Colvert, Kirsten; Sullivan-Stack, Jenna; Roberts, Callum; Constant, Vanessa; Horta e Costa, Barbara; Pike, Elizabeth P.; Kingston, Naomi; Laffoley, Dan; Sala, Enric; Claudet, Joachim; Friedlander, Alan M.; Gill, David A.; Lester, Sarah E.; Day, Jon C.; Gonçalves, Emanuel J.; Ahmadia, Gabby N.;
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Probably the greatest downside of standardization for consumers is lack of variety. There is no guarantee that the chosen standard will meet all consumers' needs or even that the standard is the best available option. Another downside is that if a standard is agreed upon before products are available
2891:
Milder, Jeffrey C.; Arbuthnot, Margaret; Blackman, Allen; Brooks, Sharon E.; Giovannucci, Daniele; Gross, Lee; Kennedy, Elizabeth T.; Komives, Kristin; Lambin, Eric F.; Lee, Audrey; Meyer, Daniel; Newton, Peter; Phalan, Ben; Schroth, Götz; Semroc, Bambi; Rikxoort, Henk Van; Zrust, Michal (2015). "An
903:
and even the symbols used on circuit diagrams. Adjacent buildings would have totally incompatible electrical systems simply because they had been fitted out by different companies. Crompton could see the lack of efficiency in this system and began to consider proposals for an international standard
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The existence of a published standard does not necessarily imply that it is useful or correct. Just because an item is stamped with a standard number does not, by itself, indicate that the item is fit for any particular use. The people who use the item or service (engineers, trade unions, etc.) or
758:
was established in London in 1901 as the world's first national standards body. It subsequently extended its standardization work and became the
British Engineering Standards Association in 1918, adopting the name British Standards Institution in 1931 after receiving its Royal Charter in 1929. The
676:
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were rare; metal screws, when made at all, were usually for use in wood. Metal bolts passing through wood framing to a metal fastening on the other side were usually fastened in non-threaded ways (such as clinching or upsetting against a washer). Maudslay standardized the screw threads used in his
1782:
The negative effects of standardization on technology have to do with its tendency to restrict new technology and innovation. Standards shift competition from features to price because the features are defined by the standard. The degree to which this is true depends on the specificity of the
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Standardization has a variety of benefits for consumers, but one of the greatest benefits is enhanced network effects. Standards increase compatibility and interoperability between products, allowing information to be shared within a larger network and attracting more consumers to use the new
1050:
non-profit organization with members from both the private and public sectors. The determinants of whether an NSB for a particular economy is a public or private sector body may include the historical and traditional roles that the private sector fills in public affairs in that economy or the
1744:
The primary effect of standardization on firms is that the basis of competition is shifted from integrated systems to individual components within the system. Prior to standardization a company's product must span the entire system because individual components from different competitors are
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was an important figure in this process, introducing accurate methods and apparatus for measuring electricity. In 1857, he introduced a series of effective instruments, including the quadrant electrometer, which cover the entire field of electrostatic measurement. He invented the
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Much like the effect on consumers, the effect of standardization on technology and innovation is mixed. Meanwhile, the various links between research and standardization have been identified, also as a platform of knowledge transfer and translated into policy measures (e.g.
1211:, strategic product support/obstruction, requirements and bans as well as their accordance with a scientific basis, the robustness and applicability of a scientific basis, whether adoption of the certifications is voluntary, and the socioeconomic context (systems of
1314:, to ensure safety or healthiness or efficiency or performance or sustainability of products. It can be carried out by the manufacturer, an independent laboratory, a government agency, a magazine or others on a voluntary or commissioned/mandated basis.
4491:
Cowan, Robin. "High
Technology and the Economics of Standardization." Paper presented at the International Conference on Social and Institutional Factors Shaping Technological Development: Technology at the Outset, Berlin, Germany, May 27–28, 1991. p.
4289:
Cowan, Robin. "High
Technology and the Economics of Standardization." Paper presented at the International Conference on Social and Institutional Factors Shaping Technological Development: Technology at the Outset, Berlin, Germany, May 27–28, 1991. p.
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became concerned by the large range of different standards and systems used by electrical engineering companies and scientists in the early 20th century. Many companies had entered the market in the 1890s and all chose their own settings for
1546:, standardization refers to the process of developing an international standard that enables organizations to focus on customer service, while at the same time providing recognition of success through a third party organization, such as the
923:. He presented a paper on standardisation, which was so well received that he was asked to look into the formation of a commission to oversee the process. By 1906 his work was complete and he drew up a permanent constitution for the
952:
After the war, ISA was approached by the recently formed United
Nations Standards Coordinating Committee (UNSCC) with a proposal to form a new global standards body. In October 1946, ISA and UNSCC delegates from 25 countries met in
726:
was originally based on almost the same imperial fractions. The
Unified thread angle is 60° and has flattened crests (Whitworth crests are rounded). Thread pitch is the same in both systems except that the thread pitch for the
790:
At a regional level (e.g. Europa, the
Americas, Africa, etc) or at subregional level (e.g. Mercosur, Andean Community, South East Asia, South East Africa, etc), several Regional Standardization Organizations exist (see also
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Increased adoption of a new technology as a result of standardization is important because rival and incompatible approaches competing in the marketplace can slow or even kill the growth of the technology (a state known as
2961:
Tayleur, Catherine; Balmford, Andrew; Buchanan, Graeme M.; Butchart, Stuart H. M.; Ducharme, Heather; Green, Rhys E.; Milder, Jeffrey C.; Sanderson, Fiona J.; Thomas, David H. L.; Vickery, Juliet; Phalan, Ben (2017).
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927:. The body held its first meeting that year in London, with representatives from 14 countries. In honour of his contribution to electrical standardisation, Lord Kelvin was elected as the body's first President.
1779:). The shift to a modularized architecture as a result of standardization brings increased flexibility, rapid introduction of new products, and the ability to more closely meet individual customer's needs.
1027:
NSBs may be either public or private sector organizations, or combinations of the two. For example, the three NSBs of Canada, Mexico and the United States are respectively the
Standards Council of Canada
745:
By the end of the 19th century, differences in standards between companies, was making trade increasingly difficult and strained. For instance, an iron and steel dealer recorded his displeasure in
672:
Maudslay's work, as well as the contributions of other engineers, accomplished a modest amount of industry standardization; some companies' in-house standards spread a bit within their industries.
720:
lines, many of which had previously used their own standard both for threads and for bolt head and nut profiles, and improving manufacturing techniques, it came to dominate
British manufacturing.
3588:
Clark, Michael; Springmann, Marco; Rayner, Mike; Scarborough, Peter; Hill, Jason; Tilman, David; Macdiarmid, Jennie I.; Fanzo, Jessica; Bandy, Lauren; Harrington, Richard A. (16 August 2022).
3141:
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specify it (building codes, government, industry, etc.) have the responsibility to consider the available standards, specify the correct one, enforce compliance, and use the item correctly:
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that would make nuts and bolts consistently to those standards, so that any bolt of the appropriate size would fit any nut of the same size. This was a major advance in workshop technology.
3660:
Advances in
Ergonomics in Design: Proceedings of the AHFE 2017 International Conference on Ergonomics in Design, July 17−21, 2017, The Westin Bonaventure Hotel, Los Angeles, California, USA
1502:
In the context of assessment, standardization may define how a measuring instrument or procedure is similar to every subjects or patients. For example, educational psychologist may adopt
798:
The three regional standards organizations in Europe – European
Standardization Organizations (ESOs), recognised by the EU Regulation on Standardization (Regulation (EU) 1025/2012) – are
498:, a situation in which all parties can realize mutual gains, but only by making mutually consistent decisions. Divergent national standards impose costs on consumers and can be a form of
4301:
1994:(PDF). International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank and Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB). Standards Chapter, pages 45-68. ISBN 978-1-4648-1372-6.
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Agile standardization. A group of entities, themselves or through an association, creates and publishes a drafted version shared for public review based on actual examples of use.
989:
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national standards were adopted universally throughout the country, and enabled the markets to act more rationally and efficiently, with an increased level of cooperation.
223:
945:(ISA) was founded in 1926 with a broader remit to enhance international cooperation for all technical standards and specifications. The body was suspended in 1942 during
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1264:
Such standardization is not limited to the domain of electronic devices like smartphones and phone chargers but could also be applied to e.g. the energy infrastructure.
3202:
997:
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Tirloni, Adriana Seára; Reis, Diogo Cunha dos; Bornia, Antonio Cezar; Andrade, Dalton Francisco de; Borgatto, Adriano Ferreti; Moro, Antônio Renato Pereira (2016).
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based on the consensus of different parties that include firms, users, interest groups, standards organizations and governments. Standardization can help maximize
1107:. These standards are usually developed in voluntary consensus standards bodies such as the United Nations Center for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business (
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803:
427:
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1934:
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1272:". Computers and the Internet are some of the tools that could be used to increase practicability and reduce suboptimal results, detrimental standards and
1192:
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1962:
Dickson, E. W.; Singh, S.; Cheung, D. S.; Wyatt, C. C.; Nugent, A. S. (2008). "Application of Lean Manufacturing Techniques in the Emergency Department".
686:'s screw thread measurements were adopted as the first (unofficial) national standard by companies around the country in 1841. It came to be known as the
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to systematically interview the people in concern. By delivering the same procedures, all subjects is evaluated using same criteria and minimising any
2793:
1146:" (RFCs). Nevertheless, these publications are often referred to as "standards", because they are the products of regular standardization processes.
1103:
In the context of information exchange, standardization refers to the process of developing standards for specific business processes using specific
3259:
3133:
253:
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Helander, Martin G.; Czaja, Sara J.; Drury, Colin G.; Cary, James M.; Burri, George (1 January 1987). "An Ergonomic Evaluation of Office Chairs".
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Baber, Zaheer (1996), The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India, State University of New York Press,
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policies "fostering standard design and interfaces, and promoting the re-use of modules and components across plants to develop more sustainable
807:
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1835:
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Standardization has a variety of benefits and drawbacks for firms and consumers participating in the market, and on technology and innovation.
958:
2582:
1398:
Standardization is also used to ensure safe design and operation of laboratories and similar potentially dangerous workplaces, e.g. to ensure
4312:
2628:
2280:
In the third millennium BCE the Indus measuring system was further developed in the ancient regions of Iran and Afghanistan -- Iwata, 2254.
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in a full consensus process: usually open to all interested and qualified parties and with formal procedures for due-process considerations
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is the pitch. The thread pitch increased with diameter in steps specified on a chart. An example of the use of the Whitworth thread is the
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420:
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1576:, standardization covers the process of specification and use of any item the company must buy in or make, allowable substitutions, and
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1005:
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1991:
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924:
2160:
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3019:
Schmitz-Hoffmann, Carsten; Hansmann, Berthold; Klose, Sophie (2014). "Voluntary Sustainability Standards: Measuring Their Impact".
2524:
1226:, and serve as, potentially evolving, guides for improving, planning and monitoring the protection-quality, -scopes and -extents.
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The development and implementation of concepts, doctrines, procedures and designs to achieve and maintain the required levels of
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The process of standardization can itself be standardized. There are at least four levels of standardization: compatibility,
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775:
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in a closed consensus process: Restricted membership and often having formal procedures for due-process among voting members
2783:"Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities"
3411:
Downar, Benedikt; Ernstberger, Jürgen; Reichelstein, Stefan; Schwenen, Sebastian; Zaklan, Aleksandar (1 September 2021).
2445:
Regulation (EU) No 1025/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2012 on European standardisation
2495:
559:, where they were further modified. Shigeo Iwata describes the excavated weights unearthed from the Indus civilization:
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Moreover, standardized scientific frameworks can enable evaluation of levels of environmental protection, such as of
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2106:"Standardization efforts: The relationship between knowledge dimensions, search processes and innovation outcomes"
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standard. Standardization in an area also rules out alternative technologies as options while encouraging others.
1338:
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364:
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agenda for assessing and improving conservation impacts of sustainability standards in tropical agriculture".
1200:
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gunboats. These were the first instance of "mass-production" techniques being applied to marine engineering.
575:
systems. 83% of the weights which were excavated from the above three cities were cubic, and 68% were made of
2019:
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) : Global Governance Through Voluntary Consensus
1547:
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In general, each country or economy has a single recognized National Standards Body (NSB). Examples include
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Before this, screw threads were usually made by chipping and filing (that is, with skilled freehand use of
499:
321:
301:
258:
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173:
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38:
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in the operational, procedural, material, technical and administrative fields to attain interoperability.
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218:
17:
3890:"Applied Anthropometrics in School Furniture Design: Which Criteria Should be Used for Standardization?"
3718:"Biosafety Guidelines for Handling Microorganisms in the Teaching Laboratory: Development and Rationale"
1446:
2444:
2214:
Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition)
1666:. These standardization processes create compatibility, similarity, measurement, and symbol standards.
1356:
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687:
606:
The implementation of standards in industry and commerce became highly important with the onset of the
588:
306:
4329:
Blind, K.; Gauch, S. (2009). "Research and standardisation in nanotechnology: evidence from Germany".
2964:"Global Coverage of Agricultural Sustainability Standards, and Their Role in Conserving Biodiversity"
1824:
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and measurement for construction. Uniform units of length were used in the planning of towns such as
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https://www.criterioneconomics.com/the-value-of-a-standard-versus-the-value-of-standardization.html
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1402:. There is research into microbiology safety standards used in clinical and research laboratories.
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Dyer, Chris K.; Moseley, Patrick T.; Ogumi, Zempachi; Rand, David A. J.; Scrosati, Bruno (2010).
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1046:, DGN is a governmental agency within the Mexican Ministry of Economy, and ANSI and AENOR are a
844:
By the mid to late 19th century, efforts were being made to standardize electrical measurement.
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Ho, Alfred Tat-Kei (2002). "Reinventing Local Governments and the E-Government Initiative".
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Gilbert, K. R.; Galloway, D. F. (1978). "Machine Tools". In Singer, C.; et al. (eds.).
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3601:
3413:"The impact of carbon disclosure mandates on emissions and financial operating performance"
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Schischke, Karsten; Proske, Marina; Nissen, Nils F.; Lang, Klaus-Dieter (September 2016).
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Xie, Zongjie; Hall, Jeremy; McCarthy, Ian P.; Skitmore, Martin; Shen, Liyin (2016-02-01).
8:
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results can be reported using official or informal standards. It can be done to increase
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3839:"Development and validation of instrument for ergonomic evaluation of tablet arm chairs"
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Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics
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104:
3908:"Center for Drug Evaluation and Research – Drug Quality Sampling and Testing Programs"
3023:. Natural Resource Management in Transition. Vol. 1. Springer. pp. 133–143.
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and products that can impact consumers' health. Some of such standards seek to ensure
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A Brief History of Standards and Standardization Organizations: A Chinese Perspective
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2003:
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1119:(TIA), and the Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (
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Voluntary standards which are published and available for people to consider for use.
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and reduce resource-needs such as by thereby requiring (or enabling) products to be
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as well as standardized product safety evaluation and dis/approval procedures (e.g.
737: in. (inch) bolt is 12 threads per inch (tpi) in BSW versus 13 tpi in the UNC.
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Kleinschmidt, Christian (2010). "Comparative Consumer Product Testing in Germany".
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3165:"In a setback for Apple, the European Union seeks a common charger for all phones"
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Essentials of educational psychology : big ideas to guide effective teaching
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Implementation of technical standards based on the consensus of different parties
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961:(ISO); the new organization officially began operations in February 1947.
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3260:"Want to save the Earth? Then don't buy that shiny new iPhone | John Naughton"
1219:), with possibly most certifications being so far mostly largely ineffective.
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1207:) can protect the environment. This effect may depend on associated modified
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This new standard specified a 55° thread angle and a thread depth of 0.640327
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Graphic representation of formulae for the pitches of threads of screw bolts
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sizes for the first time and paved the way for the practical application of
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3111:
3081:
2939:
1983:
1899:
1577:
1184:
1072:
standards which are part of legally binding contracts, laws or regulations.
946:
629:
611:
556:
548:
89:
3199:
Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs - European Commission
2922:
774:
was set up in Germany in 1917, followed by its counterparts, the American
3321:
3226:"Modular products: Smartphone design from a circular economy perspective"
2457:
1884:
1864:
1659:
1507:
1425:
1273:
1204:
1130:
that govern the operation and interaction of devices and software on the
710:
661:
652:
138:
3564:"These are the UK supermarket items with the worst environmental impact"
3439:
3287:"Modularisation as enabler of circular economy in energy infrastructure"
2128:
1380:), especially when related to safety, are often standardized, sometimes
1237:, compatible (with other products, infrastructures, environments, etc),
479:. It can also facilitate a normalization of formerly custom processes.
2988:
2963:
2913:
1468:
1459:
In some cases, standards are being used in the design and operation of
1246:
1212:
1159:
1066:
which means they are followed by informal convention or dominant usage.
706:
564:
536:
143:
94:
3285:
Mignacca, Benito; Locatelli, Giorgio; Velenturf, Anne (1 April 2020).
2038:"Standardization in History: A Review Essay With an Eye to the Future"
1087:
To avoid the proliferation of industry standards, also referred to as
3815:
3410:
1860:
1850:
1700:
1663:
1460:
1393:
1108:
1047:
985:
896:
755:
747:
563:
A total of 558 weights were excavated from Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and
540:
532:
487:
153:
74:
4581:
3888:
Castellucci, Ignacio; Arezes, Pedro; Molenbroek, Johan (June 2014).
3134:"Apple opposes EU plans to make common charger port for all devices"
2819:
Using and referencing ISO and IEC standards to support public policy
2736:
Friendship among equals - Recollections from ISO's first fifty years
2184:
Standardizing the World: EU Trade Policy and the Road to Convergence
1593:
675:
4430:
The Innovator's Solution: Creating and Sustaining Successful Growth
4133:
The Innovator's Solution: Creating and Sustaining Successful Growth
1992:
Ensuring Quality to Gain Access to Global Markets: A Reform Toolkit
1367:
1131:
943:
International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations
766:, similar national bodies were established in other countries. The
99:
3085:"The MPA Guide: A framework to achieve global goals for the ocean"
2212:
Iwata, Shigeo (2008), "Weights and Measures in the Indus Valley",
1669:
There are typically four different techniques for standardization
551:. The weights and measures of the Indus civilization also reached
2247:
edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 258–266, Thomson Gale,
1163:
1069:
717:
572:
544:
148:
4523:
COoperation Platform for Research And Standards (COPRAS project)
4511:
COoperation Platform for Research And Standards (COPRAS project)
3662:. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing. Vol. 588.
3587:
2960:
1410:
In the context of defense, standardization has been defined by
1373:
1330:
1329:
in supermarkets – could e.g. be used to inform consumers or in
1155:
954:
935:
870:
648:
552:
528:
468:
3590:"Estimating the environmental impacts of 57,000 food products"
3018:
2890:
2656:
Colonel Crompton and the Evolution of the Electrical Industry
1472:
1024:. An NSB is likely the sole member from that economy in ISO.
779:
641:
576:
4425:
4128:
3653:
3651:
3518:"Testing by Competitors in Enforcement of Product Standards"
2240:
Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (2006), "Indus Valley Civilization",
4463:
Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy
4397:
Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy
4302:"The impact of standardisation and standards on innovation"
4267:
The Value of a Standard Versus the Value of Standardization
4237:
Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy
4199:
Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy
4166:
Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy
4100:
Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy
3887:
1799:
1411:
1261:
and conform to versatile, optimal standards and protocols.
1139:
1134:, which do not use the term "standard" in their names. The
965:
892:
3284:
4366:"Motives to standardize: Empirical evidence from Germany"
3648:
3223:
1135:
1112:
993:
942:
4434:. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. pp.
4104:. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. pp.
3836:
2859:. International Organization for Standardization. 2010.
2605:
Degrees Kelvin: A Tale of Genius, Invention, and Tragedy
1724:
Written by a corporation, union, trade association, etc.
4467:. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. p.
4401:. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. p.
4241:. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. p.
4203:. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. p.
4170:. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. p.
4137:. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. p.
3388:"Circular by design – Products in the circular economy"
2400:
2376:"BSI Group Annual Report and Financial Statements 2010"
2103:
1961:
1333:. For example, such may be useful for approaches using
839:
3801:
3938:"Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994"
2708:. 1906. pp. 46–47 (25–26 in PDF). Archived from
1935:
United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names
1293:
1171:
4458:
4392:
4232:
4194:
4161:
4095:
2668:
2180:
1138:, for example, publishes "Recommendations", and the
515:
Standard weights and measures were developed by the
4426:Christensen, Clayton M.; Michael E. Raynor (2003).
4228:
4226:
4224:
4129:Christensen, Clayton M.; Michael E. Raynor (2003).
1432:
4519:"Which type of standards should my project pursue"
4427:
4130:
3767:"Interoperability and Standardization within NATO"
1557:
1550:. An international standard has been developed by
785:
523:enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in
37:"Nonstandard" redirects here. For other uses, see
2792:. United States Office of Management and Budget.
2304:, EAST-WEST CENTER WORKING PAPERS, archived from
2181:Duina, Francesco; Viju-Miljusevic, Crina (2023).
628:in 1800. This allowed for the standardization of
4627:
4363:
4221:
4032:
2112:. Innovation and Standardization. 48–49: 69–78.
455:) is the process of implementing and developing
4558:"International standards and private standards"
4529:International Organization for Standardization
3722:Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education
3594:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2342:
1339:targeted alteration of (ultimate overall) costs
1279:
3997:Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis; Jones, Brett D. (2018).
3512:
2744:International Organization for Standardization
2653:
2458:"CEN - European Committee for Standardization"
2274:
1836:International Organization for Standardization
1321:in a standardized way – as has been done with
959:International Organization for Standardization
4269:, 68 BAYLOR L. REV. at 3 (Forthcoming 2016),
2856:International standards and private standards
2671:Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources
2546:"Pre-1865 International Telegraph Agreements"
1361:
1229:Moreover, technical standards could decrease
1033:
907:In 1904, Crompton represented Britain at the
690:, and was widely adopted in other countries.
421:
4612:European Committee for Standardization (CEN)
3968:"Dietary Supplements & Herbal Medicines"
3657:
3469:
2236:
2234:
1552:The International Customer Service Institute
957:and agreed to join forces to create the new
767:
4507:"Benefits of standards and standardization"
4311:. NESTA Working Paper 13/15. Archived from
3996:
3658:Rebelo, Francisco; Soares, Marcelo (2018).
2208:
2206:
2204:
2062:
2016:
1622:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1149:
624:developed the first industrially practical
4328:
2406:
2065:"The History of Standardisation in Europe"
1997:
1830:International Classification for Standards
1721:Written by a government or regulatory body
813:
740:
636:(an idea that was already taking hold) to
428:
414:
4377:
3864:
3854:
3741:
3631:
3613:
3438:
3428:
3320:
3310:
2987:
2921:
2706:International Electrotechnical Commission
2637:International Electrotechnical Commission
2294:
2231:
2136:
2127:
2117:
1642:Learn how and when to remove this message
925:International Electrotechnical Commission
832:) the International Telegraph Union (now
2607:. National Academic Press. p. 293.
2201:
929:
780:Commission Permanente de Standardisation
674:
595:'s famous early screw-cutting lathes of
587:
583:
3230:2016 Electronics Goes Green 2016+ (EGG)
3162:
2602:
2485:
2455:
2035:
1761:
1530:In the context of social criticism and
1294:§ Ergonomics, workplace and health
1172:§ Ergonomics, workplace and health
1117:Telecommunications Industry Association
1098:
972:Spanish Association for Standardization
14:
4628:
4546:"Good Standardization Practices (GSP)"
3764:
3715:
3195:"One common charging solution for all"
3175:from the original on 10 September 2022
2388:from the original on 26 September 2012
2290:
2288:
2286:
2257:
2220:, pp. 2254–2255, Springer,
1875:The Java Community Process(SM) Program
1748:
1497:
1319:environmental impacts of food products
4459:Shapiro, Carl; Hal R. Varian (1999).
4393:Shapiro, Carl; Hal R. Varian (1999).
4299:
4233:Shapiro, Carl; Hal R. Varian (1999).
4195:Shapiro, Carl; Hal R. Varian (1999).
4162:Shapiro, Carl; Hal R. Varian (1999).
4096:Shapiro, Carl; Hal R. Varian (1999).
4028:
4026:
2364:. Vol. LXI. London: Smith Elder.
2142:
2050:from the original on 28 December 2013
1794:American National Standards Institute
1447:Regulation of chemicals § Issues
1040:American National Standards Institute
834:International Telecommunication Union
3978:from the original on 28 October 2021
3918:from the original on 28 October 2021
3783:from the original on 2 February 2014
3205:from the original on 19 October 2021
3163:Peltier, Elian (23 September 2021).
3144:from the original on 18 October 2021
3063:from the original on 22 October 2021
2763:from the original on 26 October 2012
2327:
2036:Russell, Andrew L. (9 August 2013).
1620:adding citations to reliable sources
1587:
1032:), the General Bureau of Standards (
840:International Standards Associations
716:With the adoption of BSW by British
667:
4364:Blind, K.; Mangelsdorf, A. (2016).
4001:(Fifth ed.). NY, NY: Pearson.
3948:from the original on 6 January 2021
3516:; Taylor, Terry A. (1 April 2019).
2357:
2283:
1537:
1181:Standardized product certifications
1051:development stage of that economy.
934:Memorial plaque of founding ISA in
24:
4379:10.1016/j.technovation.2016.01.001
4331:The Journal of Technology Transfer
4023:
3351:
2822:. Geneva, Switzerland: ISO. 2015.
2702:The minutes from our first meeting
2119:10.1016/j.technovation.2015.12.002
1954:
1739:
1691:Types of standardization process:
1111:), the World Wide Web Consortium (
25:
4652:
4594:"Standards & economic growth"
4499:
4035:Essentials of abnormal psychology
3776:. thebolingroup.com. p. 11.
2654:Johnson, J.; Randell, W. (1948).
2017:Murphy, C. N.; Yates, J. (2008).
1930:Transport standards organizations
1673:Simplification or variety control
1525:
921:Institute of Electrical Engineers
909:International Electrical Congress
510:
400:Outline of prehistoric technology
307:History of electrical engineering
3765:Moreno, Juan A. (8 April 2009).
3716:Emmert, Elizabeth A. B. (2013).
2361:Dictionary of National Biography
2000:Standardization and Expectations
1592:
1433:Ergonomics, workplace and health
610:and the need for high-precision
32:Standardization (disambiguation)
4485:
4452:
4419:
4386:
4357:
4322:
4293:
4283:
4259:
4188:
4155:
4122:
4089:
4077:from the original on 2016-06-22
4059:
3990:
3960:
3930:
3900:
3881:
3830:
3795:
3758:
3709:
3684:
3581:
3556:
3506:
3463:
3404:
3380:
3345:
3278:
3252:
3217:
3187:
3156:
3126:
3075:
3045:
3012:
2954:
2884:
2873:from the original on 2021-10-06
2847:
2836:from the original on 2021-10-02
2810:
2799:from the original on 2017-12-19
2775:
2727:
2695:"Report of Preliminary Meeting"
2687:
2662:
2647:
2621:
2596:
2585:from the original on 2020-01-01
2567:
2556:from the original on 2019-12-25
2538:
2527:from the original on 2019-05-31
2509:
2498:from the original on 2022-01-01
2479:
2468:from the original on 2021-11-26
2449:
2438:
2427:from the original on 2014-02-01
2368:
2351:
2336:
2163:from the original on 2016-09-27
2077:from the original on 2016-11-10
1558:Supply and materials management
1168:Environmental impact assessment
919:as part of a delegation by the
786:Regional standards organization
756:Engineering Standards Committee
494:is close to the solution for a
365:Timeline of historic inventions
2407:McWilliam., Robert C. (2001).
2321:
2174:
2097:
1976:10.1016/j.jemermed.2007.11.108
1815:Embrace, extend and extinguish
1810:Cost accounting,standard costs
1514:. Some other example includes
1465:occupational safety and health
830:Intergovernmental Organization
770:Deutsches Institut für Normung
660:workshop and produced sets of
13:
1:
3942:Office of Dietary Supplements
3692:"LABORATORY BIOSAFETY MANUAL"
2090:
1964:Journal of Emergency Medicine
1548:British Standards Institution
1298:Advertising § Criticisms
913:Louisiana Purchase Exposition
596:
342:History of nuclear technology
4641:Second Industrial Revolution
3804:Office Technology and People
3417:Review of Accounting Studies
3354:Public Administration Review
2410:BSI: The first hundred years
2149:. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
2063:Wenzlhuemer, Roland (2010).
1387:
1280:Product testing and analysis
1193:possibly sustainable seafood
322:History of materials science
302:History of computer hardware
259:Arab Agricultural Revolution
174:Fourth Industrial Revolution
134:Second Industrial Revolution
39:Nonstandard (disambiguation)
7:
3312:10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111371
3029:10.1007/978-3-642-35716-9_9
2517:"Overview of ITU's History"
2486:Verdera, Francisco (2020).
2456:Verdera, Francisco (2020).
2187:. Oxford University Press.
2002:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
1990:Kellermann, Martin (2019).
1786:
1685:Statistical process control
1564:Supply chain sustainability
1486:
1266:Policy-makers could develop
1082:validation and verification
1035:Dirección General de Normas
776:National Standard Institute
159:Third Industrial Revolution
124:First Industrial Revolution
10:
4657:
3430:10.1007/s11142-021-09611-x
3021:Voluntary Standard Systems
2575:"Focus on Standardization"
2347:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
2146:The economics of standards
1731:
1583:
1561:
1490:
1436:
1405:
1391:
1382:on the international level
1365:
1362:Public information symbols
1357:Workplace safety standards
1354:
1348:
1337:(or similar quota) or for
1335:personal carbon allowances
1283:
1153:
1042:(ANSI). SCC is a Canadian
911:, held in connection with
904:for electric engineering.
826:International Organization
817:
688:British Standard Whitworth
505:
36:
29:
4343:10.1007/s10961-008-9089-8
4033:Durand, V. Mark. (2015).
3896:– via ResearchGate.
3668:10.1007/978-3-319-60582-1
3484:10.1017/S0007680500001264
2358:Lee, Sidney, ed. (1900).
1825:Harmonization (standards)
1703:, market domination, etc.
1516:mental status examination
1344:
768:
521:Technical standardisation
517:Indus Valley civilization
375:Complete list by category
337:History of simple machine
3238:10.1109/EGG.2016.7829810
3057:Greenpeace International
3053:"Destruction: Certified"
2746:. 1997. pp. 15–18.
2295:Wang Ping (April 2011),
1855:environmental management
1150:Environmental protection
1054:
697:and a radius of 0.137329
500:non-tariff trade barrier
370:Technological revolution
312:History of manufacturing
297:History of communication
292:History of biotechnology
4534:"Benefits of Standards"
3615:10.1073/pnas.2120584119
3472:Business History Review
3366:10.1111/0033-3352.00197
3104:10.1126/science.abf0861
2673:. Newnes. p. 540.
2603:Lindley, David (2005).
2345:A history of technology
2328:Rolt, L. T. C. (1962).
2070:European History Online
2021:. New York: Routledge.
1998:Langenberg, T. (2005).
1920:Standards organizations
1570:supply chain management
1443:Cosmetics § Safety
1197:regulation of chemicals
970:AENOR (now called UNE,
814:International standards
741:National standards body
724:American Unified Coarse
118:Proto-industrialization
4067:"Developing standards"
3856:10.17179/excli2016-568
3734:10.1128/jmbe.v14i1.531
3534:10.1287/mnsc.2017.3023
1905:Quality infrastructure
1871:Java Community Process
1841:International standard
1820:Environmental standard
1708:Standards organization
1224:marine protected areas
1034:
938:
820:International standard
793:Standards Organization
680:
603:
581:
327:History of measurement
287:History of agriculture
254:Medieval Islamic world
164:Digital transformation
3774:NATO Standards Agency
3140:. 23 September 2021.
2643:on September 3, 2010.
2243:Encyclopedia of India
1805:Conformity assessment
1491:Further information:
1392:Further information:
1349:Further information:
1290:Life-cycle assessment
1284:Further information:
1270:energy infrastructure
1144:Requests for Comments
933:
869:specification of the
678:
616:interchangeable parts
608:Industrial Revolution
591:
584:18th century attempts
561:
395:Outline of technology
281:By type of technology
208:By historical regions
196:Emerging technologies
56:By technological eras
48:History of technology
4037:. Cengage Learning.
2968:Conservation Letters
2894:Conservation Biology
1915:Standard (metrology)
1777:market fragmentation
1762:Effect on technology
1616:improve this section
1574:materials management
1508:confounding variable
1504:structured interview
1099:Information exchange
853:, also known as the
496:coordination problem
359:Technology timelines
347:History of transport
85:Neolithic Revolution
30:For other uses, see
3914:. 3 February 2021.
3606:2022PNAS..11920584C
3600:(33): e2120584119.
3303:2020EnPol.13911371M
3266:. 18 September 2021
2980:2017ConL...10..610T
2906:2015ConBi..29..309M
1945:World Standards Day
1851:ISO 14000 standards
1749:Effect on consumers
1498:Clinical assessment
1451:Consumer protection
1372:Public information
1325:of >57,000 food
1312:consumer protection
1286:Product information
626:screw-cutting lathe
525:angular measurement
457:technical standards
332:History of medicine
317:History of maritime
224:Indian subcontinent
4582:"Research Library"
4318:on 29 August 2017.
4300:Blind, K. (2013).
4276:2016-10-10 at the
4265:J. Gregory Sidak,
3522:Management Science
3514:Plambeck, Erica L.
3169:The New York Times
3098:(6560): eabf0861.
2989:10.1111/conl.12314
2914:10.1111/cobi.12411
2629:"Colonel Crompton"
2492:CENELEC in Genorma
2413:. London: Thanet.
2143:Blind, K. (2004).
1925:Technical standard
1656:interchangeability
1568:In the context of
1542:In the context of
1439:Nutrient profiling
1422:interchangeability
1064:de facto standards
1059:Standards can be:
939:
681:
634:interchangeability
604:
269:Renaissance Europe
4608:"Standards Myths"
3677:978-3-319-60581-4
3038:978-3-642-35715-2
2866:978-92-67-10518-5
2829:978-92-67-10633-5
2226:978-1-4020-4559-2
2194:978-0-19-768188-6
2156:978-1-84376-793-0
2028:978-0-415-77429-1
1697:de facto standard
1680:Value engineering
1652:
1651:
1644:
1481:steps of research
1176:Air quality index
1089:private standards
1044:Crown Corporation
947:World War II
888:R. E. B. Crompton
824:The first modern
668:National standard
438:
437:
239:Hellenistic world
234:Maya civilization
16:(Redirected from
4648:
4622:
4620:
4618:
4601:
4589:
4577:
4565:
4553:
4541:
4526:
4514:
4493:
4489:
4483:
4482:
4466:
4456:
4450:
4449:
4433:
4423:
4417:
4416:
4400:
4390:
4384:
4383:
4381:
4372:. 48–49: 13–24.
4361:
4355:
4354:
4326:
4320:
4319:
4317:
4306:
4297:
4291:
4287:
4281:
4263:
4257:
4256:
4240:
4230:
4219:
4218:
4202:
4192:
4186:
4185:
4169:
4159:
4153:
4152:
4136:
4126:
4120:
4119:
4103:
4093:
4087:
4086:
4084:
4082:
4063:
4057:
4056:
4030:
4021:
4020:
3994:
3988:
3987:
3985:
3983:
3964:
3958:
3957:
3955:
3953:
3934:
3928:
3927:
3925:
3923:
3904:
3898:
3897:
3885:
3879:
3878:
3868:
3858:
3834:
3828:
3827:
3816:10.1108/eb022651
3799:
3793:
3792:
3790:
3788:
3782:
3771:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3745:
3713:
3707:
3706:
3704:
3702:
3696:
3688:
3682:
3681:
3655:
3646:
3645:
3635:
3617:
3585:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3574:
3560:
3554:
3553:
3528:(4): 1735–1751.
3510:
3504:
3503:
3467:
3461:
3460:
3442:
3432:
3423:(3): 1137–1175.
3408:
3402:
3401:
3399:
3397:
3392:
3384:
3378:
3377:
3349:
3343:
3342:
3324:
3314:
3282:
3276:
3275:
3273:
3271:
3256:
3250:
3249:
3232:. pp. 1–8.
3221:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3210:
3191:
3185:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3160:
3154:
3153:
3151:
3149:
3130:
3124:
3123:
3089:
3079:
3073:
3072:
3070:
3068:
3049:
3043:
3042:
3016:
3010:
3009:
2991:
2958:
2952:
2951:
2925:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2851:
2845:
2844:
2842:
2841:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2805:
2804:
2798:
2787:
2779:
2773:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2762:
2741:
2731:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2720:
2714:
2699:
2691:
2685:
2684:
2666:
2660:
2659:
2658:. Longman Green.
2651:
2645:
2644:
2639:. Archived from
2625:
2619:
2618:
2600:
2594:
2593:
2591:
2590:
2571:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2561:
2542:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2532:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2504:
2503:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2473:
2453:
2447:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2433:
2432:
2404:
2398:
2397:
2395:
2393:
2387:
2380:
2372:
2366:
2365:
2355:
2349:
2348:
2340:
2334:
2333:
2332:. Bell and Sons.
2325:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2310:
2303:
2292:
2281:
2278:
2272:
2261:
2255:
2238:
2229:
2210:
2199:
2198:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2168:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2121:
2101:
2085:
2083:
2082:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2049:
2042:
2032:
2013:
1987:
1846:Interoperability
1647:
1640:
1636:
1633:
1627:
1596:
1588:
1544:customer service
1538:Customer service
1520:personality test
1510:that reduce the
1400:biosafety levels
1351:Safety standards
1308:product analysis
1243:energy-efficient
1231:electronic waste
1209:consumer choices
1105:formal languages
1038:, DGN), and the
1037:
882:electric current
782:, both in 1918.
778:and the French
773:
772:
736:
735:
731:
684:Joseph Whitworth
601:
598:
465:interoperability
445:American English
430:
423:
416:
249:Byzantine Empire
44:
43:
21:
4656:
4655:
4651:
4650:
4649:
4647:
4646:
4645:
4626:
4625:
4616:
4614:
4606:
4592:
4580:
4568:
4556:
4544:
4532:
4517:
4505:
4502:
4497:
4496:
4490:
4486:
4479:
4457:
4453:
4446:
4424:
4420:
4413:
4391:
4387:
4362:
4358:
4327:
4323:
4315:
4304:
4298:
4294:
4288:
4284:
4278:Wayback Machine
4264:
4260:
4253:
4231:
4222:
4215:
4193:
4189:
4182:
4160:
4156:
4149:
4127:
4123:
4116:
4094:
4090:
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4065:
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4060:
4045:
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4009:
3995:
3991:
3981:
3979:
3966:
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3936:
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3931:
3921:
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3906:
3905:
3901:
3886:
3882:
3835:
3831:
3800:
3796:
3786:
3784:
3780:
3769:
3763:
3759:
3714:
3710:
3700:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3689:
3685:
3678:
3656:
3649:
3586:
3582:
3572:
3570:
3562:
3561:
3557:
3511:
3507:
3468:
3464:
3409:
3405:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3386:
3385:
3381:
3350:
3346:
3283:
3279:
3269:
3267:
3258:
3257:
3253:
3222:
3218:
3208:
3206:
3201:. 5 July 2016.
3193:
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3127:
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2800:
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2776:
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2764:
2760:
2754:
2739:
2733:
2732:
2728:
2718:
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2663:
2652:
2648:
2627:
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2622:
2615:
2601:
2597:
2588:
2586:
2573:
2572:
2568:
2559:
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2544:
2543:
2539:
2530:
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2515:
2514:
2510:
2501:
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2454:
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2443:
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2430:
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2405:
2401:
2391:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2374:
2373:
2369:
2356:
2352:
2341:
2337:
2330:Great Engineers
2326:
2322:
2314:
2312:
2308:
2301:
2293:
2284:
2279:
2275:
2262:
2258:
2239:
2232:
2211:
2202:
2195:
2179:
2175:
2166:
2164:
2157:
2141:
2137:
2102:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2080:
2078:
2053:
2051:
2047:
2040:
2029:
2010:
1957:
1955:Further reading
1952:
1950:
1789:
1764:
1751:
1742:
1740:Effect on firms
1734:
1648:
1637:
1631:
1628:
1613:
1597:
1586:
1566:
1560:
1540:
1528:
1500:
1495:
1489:
1471:. For example,
1457:
1455:Living standard
1435:
1408:
1396:
1390:
1370:
1364:
1359:
1353:
1347:
1317:Estimating the
1304:product testing
1300:
1282:
1178:
1152:
1126:There are many
1101:
1057:
851:current balance
842:
822:
816:
788:
764:First World War
743:
733:
729:
728:
670:
599:
586:
513:
508:
492:standardization
484:social sciences
453:British English
449:standardisation
441:Standardization
434:
405:
404:
390:
388:Article indices
380:
379:
360:
352:
351:
282:
274:
273:
264:Medieval Europe
209:
201:
200:
191:Post-industrial
179:Imagination Age
169:Information Age
129:Standardization
57:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4654:
4644:
4643:
4638:
4624:
4623:
4604:
4603:
4602:
4590:
4578:
4570:"Publications"
4566:
4554:
4542:
4527:
4515:
4501:
4500:External links
4498:
4495:
4494:
4484:
4477:
4451:
4444:
4418:
4411:
4385:
4356:
4337:(3): 320–342.
4321:
4292:
4282:
4258:
4251:
4220:
4213:
4187:
4180:
4154:
4147:
4121:
4114:
4088:
4058:
4044:978-1305633681
4043:
4022:
4007:
3989:
3959:
3929:
3899:
3880:
3829:
3810:(3): 247–263.
3794:
3757:
3708:
3683:
3676:
3647:
3580:
3555:
3505:
3478:(1): 105–124.
3462:
3403:
3379:
3360:(4): 434–444.
3344:
3277:
3251:
3216:
3186:
3155:
3125:
3074:
3044:
3037:
3011:
2974:(5): 610–618.
2953:
2923:2027.42/110892
2900:(2): 309–320.
2896:(in Spanish).
2883:
2865:
2846:
2828:
2809:
2790:whitehouse.gov
2774:
2752:
2726:
2686:
2679:
2661:
2646:
2620:
2614:978-0309096188
2613:
2595:
2566:
2537:
2508:
2478:
2448:
2437:
2420:978-0727730206
2419:
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2256:
2230:
2200:
2193:
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2155:
2135:
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2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2086:
2060:
2033:
2027:
2014:
2008:
1995:
1988:
1970:(2): 177–182.
1958:
1956:
1953:
1948:
1947:
1942:
1940:Vendor lock-in
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1910:Standard gauge
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1880:Network effect
1877:
1868:
1858:
1853:- a family of
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1790:
1788:
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1674:
1650:
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1600:
1598:
1591:
1585:
1582:
1559:
1556:
1539:
1536:
1532:social science
1527:
1526:Social science
1524:
1499:
1496:
1493:Clothing sizes
1488:
1485:
1477:active sitting
1434:
1431:
1407:
1404:
1389:
1386:
1378:hazard symbols
1363:
1360:
1346:
1343:
1281:
1278:
1151:
1148:
1128:specifications
1100:
1097:
1077:
1076:
1073:
1067:
1056:
1053:
859:Ampere balance
855:Kelvin balance
841:
838:
818:Main article:
815:
812:
787:
784:
742:
739:
669:
666:
622:Henry Maudslay
593:Henry Maudslay
585:
582:
512:
511:Early examples
509:
507:
504:
490:, the idea of
436:
435:
433:
432:
425:
418:
410:
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276:
275:
272:
271:
266:
261:
256:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
221:
216:
214:Ancient Africa
210:
207:
206:
203:
202:
199:
198:
193:
187:
186:
182:
181:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
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136:
131:
126:
121:
113:
112:
108:
107:
102:
97:
92:
87:
82:
72:
66:
65:
63:Pre-industrial
58:
55:
54:
51:
50:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4653:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4633:
4631:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4599:
4595:
4591:
4587:
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4579:
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4563:
4559:
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4551:
4547:
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4535:
4531:
4530:
4528:
4524:
4520:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4503:
4488:
4480:
4478:9780875848631
4474:
4470:
4465:
4464:
4455:
4447:
4445:9781578518524
4441:
4437:
4432:
4431:
4422:
4414:
4412:9780875848631
4408:
4404:
4399:
4398:
4389:
4380:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4360:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4325:
4314:
4310:
4303:
4296:
4286:
4279:
4275:
4272:
4268:
4262:
4254:
4252:9780875848631
4248:
4244:
4239:
4238:
4229:
4227:
4225:
4216:
4214:9780875848631
4210:
4206:
4201:
4200:
4191:
4183:
4181:9780875848631
4177:
4173:
4168:
4167:
4158:
4150:
4148:9781578518524
4144:
4140:
4135:
4134:
4125:
4117:
4115:9780875848631
4111:
4107:
4102:
4101:
4092:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4062:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4040:
4036:
4029:
4027:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4008:9780134894980
4004:
4000:
3993:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3963:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3933:
3917:
3913:
3909:
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3895:
3891:
3884:
3876:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3843:EXCLI Journal
3840:
3833:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3798:
3779:
3775:
3768:
3761:
3753:
3749:
3744:
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3727:
3723:
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3693:
3687:
3679:
3673:
3669:
3665:
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3654:
3652:
3643:
3639:
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3629:
3625:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3584:
3569:
3568:New Scientist
3565:
3559:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3509:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3466:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3407:
3389:
3383:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3348:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3323:
3322:11311/1204921
3318:
3313:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3291:Energy Policy
3288:
3281:
3265:
3261:
3255:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3220:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3190:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3159:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3129:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
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3101:
3097:
3093:
3086:
3078:
3062:
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3054:
3048:
3040:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3015:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2957:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2887:
2872:
2868:
2862:
2858:
2857:
2850:
2835:
2831:
2825:
2821:
2820:
2813:
2795:
2791:
2784:
2778:
2759:
2755:
2753:92-67-10260-5
2749:
2745:
2738:
2737:
2730:
2715:on 2 May 2019
2711:
2707:
2703:
2696:
2690:
2682:
2680:9780444527455
2676:
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2657:
2650:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2624:
2616:
2610:
2606:
2599:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2570:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2541:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2512:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2482:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2446:
2441:
2426:
2422:
2416:
2412:
2411:
2403:
2384:
2381:. p. 2.
2377:
2371:
2363:
2362:
2354:
2346:
2339:
2331:
2324:
2311:on 2019-06-12
2307:
2300:
2299:
2291:
2289:
2287:
2277:
2270:
2269:0-7914-2919-9
2266:
2260:
2254:
2253:0-684-31351-0
2250:
2246:
2244:
2237:
2235:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2218:Helaine Selin
2215:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2196:
2190:
2186:
2185:
2177:
2162:
2158:
2152:
2148:
2147:
2139:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2100:
2096:
2076:
2072:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2046:
2039:
2034:
2030:
2024:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2009:3-540-28112-6
2005:
2001:
1996:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1960:
1959:
1951:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1890:Open standard
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1811:
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1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1791:
1784:
1780:
1778:
1772:
1770:
1759:
1755:
1746:
1737:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1715:
1712:
1711:
1709:
1706:Written by a
1705:
1702:
1698:
1695:Emergence as
1694:
1693:
1692:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1672:
1671:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1646:
1643:
1635:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1611:
1610:
1606:
1601:This section
1599:
1595:
1590:
1589:
1581:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1565:
1555:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1535:
1533:
1523:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1494:
1484:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1430:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1418:compatibility
1413:
1403:
1401:
1395:
1385:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1369:
1358:
1352:
1342:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1315:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1262:
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