Swarm behaviour - Knowledge

2006:, and it is this purpose which drives swarm behavior. Plants growing in close proximity have adapted their growth to assure optimal nutrient availability. This is accomplished by growing in a direction that optimizes the distance between nearby roots, thereby increasing their chance of exploiting untapped nutrient reserves. The action of this behavior takes two forms: maximization of distance from, and repulsion by, neighboring root apexes. The transition zone of a root tip is largely responsible for monitoring for the presence of soil-borne hormones, signaling responsive growth patterns as appropriate. Plant responses are often complex, integrating multiple inputs to inform an autonomous response. Additional inputs that inform swarm growth includes light and gravity, both of which are also monitored in the transition zone of a root's apex. These forces act to inform any number of growing "main" roots, which exhibit their own independent releases of inhibitory chemicals to establish appropriate spacing, thereby contributing to a swarm behavior pattern. Horizontal growth of roots, whether in response to high mineral content in soil or due to 1035:. This dance conveys information about the quality, direction, and distance of the new site. The more excited she is about her findings, the more vigorously she dances. If she can convince others they may take off and check the site she found. If they approve they may promote it as well. In this decision-making process, scouts check several sites, often abandoning their own original site to promote the superior site of another scout. Several different sites may be promoted by different scouts at first. After some hours and sometimes days, a preferred location eventually emerges from this decision-making process. When all scouts agree on the final location, the whole cluster takes off and swarms to it. Sometimes, if no decision is reached, the swarm will separate, some bees going in one direction; others, going in another. This usually results in failure, with both groups dying. A new location is typically a kilometre or more from the original hive, though some species, e.g., 2162: 469:. Stigmergy is a mechanism of indirect coordination between agents or actions. The principle is that the trace left in the environment by an action stimulates the performance of a next action, by the same or a different agent. In that way, subsequent actions tend to reinforce and build on each other, leading to the spontaneous emergence of coherent, apparently systematic activity. Stigmergy is a form of self-organization. It produces complex, seemingly intelligent structures, without need for any planning, control, or even direct communication between the agents. As such it supports efficient collaboration between extremely simple agents, who lack any memory, intelligence or even awareness of each other. 1294: 1351: 194: 2777: 1771:, form large swarms, sometimes reaching densities of 10,000–60,000 individual animals per cubic metre. Swarming is a defensive mechanism, confusing smaller predators that would like to pick out single individuals. The largest swarms are visible from space and can be tracked by satellite. One swarm was observed to cover an area of 450 square kilometres (175 square miles) of ocean, to a depth of 200 meters (650 feet) and was estimated to contain over 2 million tons of krill. Recent research suggests that krill do not simply drift passively in these currents but actually modify them. Krill typically follow a 1905: 1041:, may establish new colonies within as little as 500 meters from the natal nest. This collective decision-making process is remarkably successful in identifying the most suitable new nest site and keeping the swarm intact. A good hive site has to be large enough to accommodate the swarm (about 15 litres in volume), has to be well-protected from the elements, receive an optimal amount of sunshine, be some height above the ground, have a small entrance and be capable of resisting ant infestation - that is why tree cavities are often selected. 411: 927: 2268:—the idea that a colony of ants works better than one alone. Each pilot acts like an ant searching for the best airport gate. "The pilot learns from his experience what's the best for him, and it turns out that that's the best solution for the airline," Lawson explains. As a result, the "colony" of pilots always go to gates they can arrive and depart quickly. The program can even alert a pilot of plane back-ups before they happen. "We can anticipate that it's going to happen, so we'll have a gate available," says Lawson. 2067: 2762: 40: 9564: 963:

then follow the stronger trail, so more ants arrive at the high quality food source, and a positive feedback cycle ensures, resulting in a collective decision for the best food source. If there are two paths from the ant nest to a food source, then the colony usually selects the shorter path. This is because the ants that first return to the nest from the food source are more likely to be those that took the shorter path. More ants then retrace the shorter path, reinforcing the pheromone trail.

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trail, which, in turn, provides a stimulus to other ants. Here each ant is an autonomous unit that reacts depending only on its local environment and the genetically encoded rules for its variety. Despite the lack of centralized decision making, ant colonies exhibit complex behaviours and have even been able to demonstrate the ability to solve geometric problems. For example, colonies routinely find the maximum distance from all colony entrances to dispose of dead bodies.

892:. The group coordination that emerges is often just a consequence of the way individuals in the colony interact. These interactions can be remarkably simple, such as one ant merely following the trail left by another ant. Yet put together, the cumulative effect of such behaviours can solve highly complex problems, such as locating the shortest route in a network of possible paths to a food source. The organised behaviour that emerges in this way is sometimes called 1306: 2696: 2653:, where the units shift the point of attack, is also a part of military swarming. Military swarming involves the use of a decentralized force against an opponent, in a manner that emphasizes mobility, communication, unit autonomy and coordination or synchronization. Historically military forces used principles of swarming without really examining them explicitly, but now active research consciously examines military doctrines that draw ideas from swarming. 2681: 2513: 1527: 1778:. By moving vertically through the ocean on a 12-hour cycle, the swarms play a major part in mixing deeper, nutrient-rich water with nutrient-poor water at the surface. Until recently it has been assumed that they spend the day at greater depths and rise during the night toward the surface. It has been found that the deeper they go, the more they reduce their activity, apparently to reduce encounters with predators and to conserve energy. 2633: 1917: 1009: 764:. Particle swarm optimization has been applied in many areas. It has few parameters to adjust, and a version that works well for a specific applications can also work well with minor modifications across a range of related applications. A book by Kennedy and Eberhart describes some philosophical aspects of particle swarm optimization applications and swarm intelligence. An extensive survey of applications is made by Poli. 2750: 1212: 2708: 2202: 2190: 1721: 1550: 574: 247: 235: 223: 1808: 1753: 1782:

Antarctic carbon cycle. Krill with empty stomachs were found to swim more actively and thus head towards the surface. This implies that vertical migration may be a bi- or tri-daily occurrence. Some species form surface swarms during the day for feeding and reproductive purposes even though such behaviour is dangerous because it makes them extremely vulnerable to predators. Dense swarms may elicit a

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five percent of the flock changed direction the others would follow. If one person was designated as a predator and everyone else was to avoid him, the flock behaved very much like a school of fish. Understanding how humans interact in crowds is important if crowd management is to effectively avoid casualties at football grounds, music concerts and subway stations.

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their northern locations in the United States and Canada in the spring. How the species manages to return to the same overwintering spots over a gap of several generations is still a subject of research; the flight patterns appear to be inherited, based on a combination of the position of the sun in the sky and a time-compensated Sun compass that depends upon a

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basis. But no single individual makes the entire round trip. Female monarchs deposit eggs for the next generation during these migrations. The length of these journeys exceeds the normal lifespan of most monarchs, which is less than two months for butterflies born in early summer. The last generation of the summer enters into a non-reproductive phase known as

930: 929: 935: 933: 928: 969:, unlike most ant species, do not construct permanent nests; an army ant colony moves almost incessantly over the time it exists, remaining in an essentially perpetual state of swarming. Several lineages have independently evolved the same basic behavioural and ecological syndrome, often referred to as "legionary behaviour", and may be an example of 1092:. Such cloud-like swarms often form in early evening when the sun is getting low, at the tip of a bush, on a hilltop, over a pool of water, or even sometimes above a person. The forming of such swarms is not out of instinct, but an adaptive behavior – a "consensus" – between the individuals within the swarms. It is also suggested that swarming is a 793: 934: 282:

itself from its neighbours to avoid collision. Slightly further away, in the "zone of alignment", the focal animal will seek to align its direction of motion with its neighbours. In the outermost "zone of attraction", which extends as far away from the focal animal as it is able to sense, the focal animal will seek to move towards a neighbour.

888:, such as ants, bees, wasps and termites) has always been a source of fascination for children, naturalists and artists. Individual insects seem to do their own thing without any central control, yet the colony as a whole behaves in a highly coordinated manner. Researchers have found that cooperation at the colony level is largely 932: 1265:. The distance can vary from species to species, but in most cases these movements involve large numbers of individuals. In some cases the individuals that migrate in one direction may not return and the next generation may instead migrate in the opposite direction. This is a significant difference from 2808:

have a reputation as fearless fish that swarm in ferocious and predatory packs. However, recent research, which started "with the premise that they school as a means of cooperative hunting", discovered that they were in fact rather fearful fish, like other fish, who schooled for protection from their

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project, and the Open-source Micro-robotic Project swarm, which are being used to research collective behaviours. Swarms are also more resistant to failure. Whereas one large robot may fail and ruin a mission, a swarm can continue even if several robots fail. This could make them attractive for space

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are especially noted for their lengthy annual migration. In North America they make massive southward migrations starting in August until the first frost. A northward migration takes place in the spring. The monarch is the only butterfly that migrates both north and south as the birds do on a regular

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which causes the locust to change colour, eat much more, become mutually attracted, and breed much more easily. Researchers propose that swarming behaviour is a response to overcrowding and studies have shown that increased tactile stimulation of the hind legs or, in some species, simply encountering

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chemical. More pheromone is laid for higher quality food sources. Thus, if two equidistant food sources of different qualities are found simultaneously, the pheromone trail to the better one will be stronger. Ants in the nest follow another simple rule, to favor stronger trails, on average. More ants

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leading to emergence in the natural world occurs in ant colonies. The queen does not give direct orders and does not tell the ants what to do. Instead, each ant reacts to stimuli in the form of chemical scents from larvae, other ants, intruders, food and buildup of waste, and leaves behind a chemical

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by swarming off cliffs when they migrate. Driven by strong biological urges, some species of lemmings may migrate in large groups when population density becomes too great. Lemmings can swim and may choose to cross a body of water in search of a new habitat. In such cases, many may drown if the body

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A collection of people can also exhibit swarm behaviour, such as pedestrians or soldiers swarming the parapets. In Cologne, Germany, two biologists from the University of Leeds demonstrated flock like behaviour in humans. The group of people exhibited similar behavioural pattern to a flock, where if

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Moths may exhibit synchronized mating, during which pheromones released by females initiate searching and swarming behavior in males. Males sense pheromones with sensitive antennae and may track females as far as several kilometers away. Swarm mating involves female choice and male competition. Only

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In contrast macroscopic robots, colloidal particles at microscale can also be adopted as agents to perform collective behaviors to conduct tasks using mechanical and physical approaches, such as reconfigurable tornado-like microswarm mimicking schooling fish, hierarchical particle species mimicking

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than related non-migratory species that remain in the tropics. As the days shorten in autumn, the birds return to warmer regions where the available food supply varies little with the season. These advantages offset the high stress, physical exertion costs, and other risks of the migration such as

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only a few meters from the hive. The bees cluster about the queen and send out 20–50 scouts to find suitable new nest locations. The scouts are the most experienced foragers in the cluster. If a scout finds a suitable location, she returns to the cluster and promotes it by dancing a version of the

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Simulations demonstrate that a suitable "nearest neighbour rule" eventually results in all the particles swarming together, or moving in the same direction. This emerges, even though there is no centralized coordination, and even though the neighbours for each particle constantly change over time.

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Fish use many traits to choose shoalmates. Generally they prefer larger shoals, shoalmates of their own species, shoalmates similar in size and appearance to themselves, healthy fish, and kin (when recognised). The "oddity effect" posits that any shoal member that stands out in appearance will be

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and may live seven months or more. During diapause, butterflies fly to one of many overwintering sites. The generation that overwinters generally does not reproduce until it leaves the overwintering site sometime in February and March. It is the second, third and fourth generations that return to

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Cockroaches are mainly nocturnal and will run away when exposed to light. A study tested the hypothesis that cockroaches use just two pieces of information to decide where to go under those conditions: how dark it is and how many other cockroaches there are. The study conducted by José Halloy and

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usually form swarms in late spring. A swarm typically contains about half the workers together with the old queen, while the new queen stays back with the remaining workers in the original hive. When honey bees emerge from a hive to form a swarm, they may gather on a branch of a tree or on a bush

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for food. A colony of ants can collectively select (i.e. send most workers towards) the best, or closest, food source from several in the vicinity. Such collective decisions are achieved using positive feedback mechanisms. Selection of the best food source is achieved by ants following two simple

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on the subject of the simulation of adaptive human behaviour. It shared mechanisms to increase impulse buying and get people "to buy more by playing on the herd instinct." The basic idea is that people will buy more of products that are seen to be popular, and several feedback mechanisms to get

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as a special case of the boids model introduced in 1986 by Reynolds. An SPP swarm is modelled by a collection of particles that move with a constant speed and respond to random perturbations by adopting at each time increment the average direction of motion of the other particles in their local

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in 1986, simulates swarm behaviour following the above rules. Many subsequent and current models use variations on these rules, often implementing them by means of concentric "zones" around each animal. In the "zone of repulsion", very close to the animal, the focal animal will seek to distance

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save energy by flying in the updraft of the wingtip vortex generated by the previous animal in the formation. Thus, the birds flying behind do not need to work as hard to achieve lift. Studies show that birds in a V formation place themselves roughly at the optimum distance predicted by simple

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benefits and minimize cost by governing the onset and magnitude of pheromone deployed. Too little pheromone will not attract a mate, too much allows less fit males to sense the signal. After copulation, females lay the eggs on a host plant. Quality of host plant may be a factor influencing the

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Swarm intelligence research is multidisciplinary. It can be divided into natural swarm research studying biological systems and artificial swarm research studying human artefacts. There is also a scientific stream attempting to model the swarm systems themselves and understand their underlying

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Later work suggested that swimming activity in krill varied with stomach fullness. Satiated animals that had been feeding at the surface swim less actively and therefore sink below the mixed layer. As they sink they produce faeces which may mean that they have an important role to play in the

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obtained so far by any particle in the local neighbourhood. The remaining particles then move through the problem space following the lead of the optimum particles. At each time iteration, the particle swarm optimiser accelerates each particle toward its optimum locations according to simple

310:, rather than a metric, rule. It remains to be seen whether this applies to other animals. Another recent study, based on an analysis of high-speed camera footage of flocks above Rome and assuming minimal behavioural rules, has convincingly simulated a number of aspects of flock behaviour. 1374:

Approximately 1800 of the world's 10,000 bird species are long-distance migrants. The primary motivation for migration appears to be food; for example, some hummingbirds choose not to migrate if fed through the winter. Also, the longer days of the northern summer provide extended time for

1181:. The largest swarms can cover hundreds of square miles and contain billions of locusts. A locust can eat its own weight (about 2 grams) in plants every day. That means one million locusts can eat more than one tonne of food each day, and the largest swarms can consume over 100,000 521:

interacting locally with one another and with their environment. The agents follow very simple rules, and although there is no centralized control structure dictating how individual agents should behave, local, and to a certain degree random, interactions between such agents lead to the

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other individuals causes an increase in levels of serotonin. The transformation of the locust to the swarming variety can be induced by several contacts per minute over a four-hour period. Notably, an innate predisposition to aggregate has been found in hatchlings of the desert locust,

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However recent studies of starling flocks have shown that each bird modifies its position, relative to the six or seven animals directly surrounding it, no matter how close or how far away those animals are. Interactions between flocking starlings are thus based on a

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An individual locust's response to a loss of alignment in the group appears to increase the randomness of its motion, until an aligned state is again achieved. This noise-induced alignment appears to be an intrinsic characteristic of collective coherent motion.

1435: 1959:, thus reducing their impact. Many planktonic copepods feed near the surface at night, then sink into deeper water during the day to avoid visual predators. Their moulted exoskeletons, faecal pellets and respiration at depth all bring carbon to the deep sea. 9245: 2259:

An ant-based computer simulation using only six interaction rules has also been used to evaluate aircraft boarding behaviour. Airlines have also used ant-based routing in assigning aircraft arrivals to airport gates. An airline system developed by

871: 1955:, and perhaps more than all other groups of organisms together. The surface layers of the oceans are currently believed to be the world's largest carbon sink, absorbing about 2 billion tonnes of carbon a year, the equivalent to perhaps a third of 546:, working with the density of the swarm and deriving mean field properties. It is a hydrodynamic approach, and can be useful for modelling the overall dynamics of large swarms. However, most models work with the Lagrangian approach, which is an 1855:, and in lakes. Swarms densities were about one million copepods per cubic metre. Typical swarms were one or two metres in diameter, but some exceeded 30 cubic metres. Copepods need visual contact to keep together, and they disperse at night. 742:

the social behaviour and choreography of bird flocks and fish schools. The algorithm was simplified and it was observed to be performing optimization. The system initially seeds a population with random solutions. It then searches in the

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wrote that plant growth resembled swarms observed elsewhere in nature. While he was referring to more broad observations of plant morphology, and was focused on both root and shoot behavior, recent research has supported this claim.

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in 1992, and has since been diversified to solve a wider class of numerical problems. Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site, a process akin to

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constitute swarms, because they are "hit-and-run". Even though the ambush may have several points of attack on the enemy, the guerillas withdraw when they either have inflicted adequate damage, or when they are endangered.

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Merely because multiple units converge on a target, they are not necessarily swarming. Siege operations do not involve swarming, because there is no manoeuvre; there is convergence but on the besieged fortification. Nor do

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Radakov estimated herring schools in the North Atlantic can occupy up to 4.8 cubic kilometres (1.2 cu mi) with fish densities between 0.5 and 1.0 fish/cubic metre, totalling several billion fish in one school.

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The term "shoal" can be used to describe any group of fish, including mixed-species groups, while "school" is used for more closely knit groups of the same species swimming in a highly synchronised and polarised manner.

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Early studies of swarm behaviour employed mathematical models to simulate and understand the behaviour. The simplest mathematical models of animal swarms generally represent individual animals as following three rules:

171:(boids) that are allowed to move according to a set of basic rules. The model was originally designed to mimic the flocking behaviour of birds, but it can be applied also to schooling fish and other swarming entities. 1844:, they are so small that in most species this thin armour, and the entire body, is almost totally transparent. Copepods have a compound, median single eye, usually bright red, in the centre of the transparent head. 1943:. Because of their smaller size and relatively faster growth rates, however, and because they are more evenly distributed throughout more of the world's oceans, copepods almost certainly contribute far more to the 1391:

Many birds migrate in flocks. For larger birds, it is assumed that flying in flocks reduces energy costs. The V formation is often supposed to boost the efficiency and range of flying birds, particularly over long

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trails. In recent years this behaviour has been researched for insight into pedestrian and traffic models. Simulations based on pedestrian models have also been applied to crowds which stampede because of panic.

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were found in radar studies to fly 5 km per hour faster in flocks than when they were flying alone. The birds flying at the tips and at the front are rotated in a timely cyclical fashion to spread flight

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The shape of these zones will necessarily be affected by the sensory capabilities of a given animal. For example, the visual field of a bird does not extend behind its body. Fish rely on both vision and on

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for modelling the behaviour of krill swarms. The algorithm is based on three main factors: " (i) movement induced by the presence of other individuals (ii) foraging activity, and (iii) random diffusion."

1096:, because there is rarely any male midge by itself and not in a swarm. This could have formed due to the benefit of lowering inbreeding by having males of various genes gathering in one spot. The genus 3879:

In: Proceedings of Conference on Swarming and Network Enabled Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (C4ISR), McLean, Virginia, USA, 3 January 2003.

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which occur at many different scales, some of which are both universal and robust. It has become a challenge in theoretical physics to find minimal statistical models that capture these behaviours.

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live in oceans and lakes. When certain conditions are present, such as high nutrient or light levels, these organisms reproduce explosively. The resulting dense swarm of phytoplankton is called an

1998:, in particular, display observable swarm behavior, growing in patterns that exceed the statistical threshold for random probability, and indicate the presence of communication between individual 205:(left), the focal fish (yellow) pays attention to all fish within the small zone of repulsion (red), the zone of alignment (lighter red) and the larger zone of attraction (lightest red). In the 1499:, can be counted in hundreds of thousands in autumn. Other barriers, such as mountain ranges, can also cause funnelling, particularly of large diurnal migrants. This is a notable factor in the 318:

In order to gain insight into why animals evolve swarming behaviours, scientists have turned to evolutionary models that simulate populations of evolving animals. Typically these studies use a

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of water is so wide as to stretch their physical capability to the limit. This fact combined with some unexplained fluctuations in the population of Norwegian lemmings gave rise to the myth.

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following the individual agents (points or particles) that make up the swarm. Individual particle models can follow information on heading and spacing that is lost in the Eulerian approach.

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for mating. Other cockroaches will follow these trails to discover sources of food and water, and also discover where other cockroaches are hiding. Thus, groups of cockroaches can exhibit

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Beckers, R.; Deneubourg, J. L.; Goss, S (1993). "Modulation of trail laying in the ant Lasius niger (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and its role in the collective selection of a food source".

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The concept of emergence—that the properties and functions found at a hierarchical level are not present and are irrelevant at the lower levels–is often a basic principle behind

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One puzzling aspect of shoal selection is how a fish can choose to join a shoal of animals similar to themselves, given that it cannot know its own appearance. Experiments with

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have been recently described as clustered in lines along the ocean floor. The animals were all mature adults, and were all facing the same direction as though they had formed a

4418: 1975:. Blooms can cover hundreds of square kilometres and are easily seen in satellite images. Individual phytoplankton rarely live more than a few days, but blooms can last weeks. 2624:

predating behavior of mammals, micro-object manipulation using a transformable microswarm. The fabrication of such colloidal particles is usually based on chemical synthesis.

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Unlike social insects, swarms of non-social insects that have been studied primarily seem to function in contexts such as mating, feeding, predator avoidance, and migration.

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preferentially targeted by predators. This may explain why fish prefer to shoal with individuals that resemble them. The oddity effect would thus tend to homogenise shoals.

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migratory bottleneck. This concentration of birds during migration can put species at risk. Some spectacular migrants have already gone extinct, the most notable being the

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flocks have shown that each bird modifies its position, relative to the six or seven animals directly surrounding it, no matter how close or how far away those animals are.

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form swarms, dancing in the air. Swarming serves multiple purposes, including the facilitation of mating by attracting females to approach the swarm, a phenomenon known as

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Fish derive many benefits from shoaling behaviour including defence against predators (through better predator detection and by diluting the chance of capture), enhanced

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do not exhibit complex behaviours, yet a colony of ants collectively achieves complex tasks such as constructing nests, taking care of their young, building bridges and

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Beni, G., Wang, J. Swarm Intelligence in Cellular Robotic Systems, Proceed. NATO Advanced Workshop on Robots and Biological Systems, Tuscany, Italy, June 26–30 (1989)

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have shown that shoal preference is a learned ability, not innate. A zebrafish tends to associate with shoals that resemble shoals in which it was reared, a form of

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SPP models predict that swarming animals share certain properties at the group level, regardless of the type of animals in the swarm. Swarming systems give rise to

1507:. During migration the flocks were a mile (1.6 km) wide and 300 miles (500 km) long, taking several days to pass and containing up to a billion birds. 121:

and are not self-propelled the way animals are. By extension, the term "swarm" is applied also to inanimate entities which exhibit parallel behaviours, as in a

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Attanasi, A.; Cavagna, A.; Del Castello, L.; Giardina, I.; Grigera, T. S.; Jelić, A.; Melillo, S.; Parisi, L.; Pohl, O.; Shen, E.; Viale, M. (September 2014).

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Baluška, František; Mancuso, Stefano; Volkmann, Dieter; Barlow, Peter W. (1 July 2010). "Root apex transition zone: a signalling–response nexus in the root".

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of thousands of tiny robots which together perform a useful task, such as finding something hidden, cleaning, or spying. Each robot is quite simple, but the

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of the swarm is more complex. The whole set of robots can be considered as one single distributed system, in the same way an ant colony can be considered a

8324: 8300:"A multi-agent system approach to a simulation study comparing the performance of aircraft boarding using pre-assigned seating and free-for-all strategies" 7103: 5813:

Dicke E, Byde A, Cliff D, Layzell P (2004). "An ant-inspired technique for storage area network design". In A. J. Ispeert, M. Murata, N. Wakamiya (eds.).

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over many generations. These studies have investigated a number of hypotheses attempting to explain why animals evolve swarming behaviours, such as the

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Phytologia: Or, The Philosophy of Agriculture and Gardening. With the Theory of Draining Morasses and with an Improved Construction of the Drill Plough

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among fish, birds and mammal predators, especially near the surface. When disturbed, a swarm scatters, and some individuals have even been observed to

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behaviour arising from simple rules that are followed by individuals and does not involve any central coordination. Swarm behaviour is also studied by

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mechanisms, and an engineering stream focused on applying the insights developed by the scientific stream to solve practical problems in other areas.

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exploration missions, where failure is normally extremely costly. In addition to ground vehicles, swarm robotics includes also research of swarms of

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Other open questions of shoaling behaviour include identifying which individuals are responsible for the direction of shoal movement. In the case of

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Ballerini M, Cabibbo N, Candelier R, Cavagna A, Cisbani E, Giardina I, Lecomte V, Orlandi A, Parisi G, Procaccini A, Viale M, Zdravkovic V (2008).

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Ants are behaviourally unsophisticated; collectively they perform complex tasks. Ants have highly developed sophisticated sign-based communication.

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released a video showing tests of a swarm of small autonomous drone attack boats that can steer and take coordinated offensive action as a group.

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John, Alexander; Andreas Schadschneider; Debashish Chowdhury; Katsuhiro Nishinari (March 2008). "Characteristics of ant-inspired traffic flow".

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equally among the flock members. The formation also makes communication easier and allows the birds to maintain visual contact with each other.

8738:"Coordination and navigation of heterogeneous MAV–UGV formations localized by a hawk-eye-like approach under a model predictive control scheme" 7766:

Ciszak, Marzena; Comparini, Diego; Mazzolai, Barbara; Baluska, Frantisek; Arecchi, F. Tito; Vicsek, Tamás; Mancuso, Stefano (17 January 2012).

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The Mediterranean and other seas present a major obstacle to soaring birds, which must cross at the narrowest points. Massive numbers of large

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The Smart Swarm: How understanding flocks, schools, and colonies can make us better at communicating, decision making, and getting things done

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exhibited by entities, particularly animals, of similar size which aggregate together, perhaps milling about the same spot or perhaps moving

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Ben-Jacob E, Cohen I, Shochet O, Czirok A, Vicsek T (1995). "Cooperative Formation of Chiral Patterns during Growth of Bacterial Colonies".

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is a behaviour where autonomous or partially autonomous units of action attack an enemy from several different directions and then regroup.

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Bertin, E; Droz; Grégoire, G (2009). "Hydrodynamic equations for self-propelled particles: microscopic derivation and stability analysis".

8612: 5756:"Evolution of the army ant syndrome: The origin and long-term evolutionary stasis of a complex of behavioral and reproductive adaptations" 5485: 3854: 1836:(living on the ocean floor). Copepods are typically 1 to 2 millimetres (0.04 to 0.08 in) long, with a teardrop shaped body and large 7680: 2722: 1744:, creates spectacular feeding frenzies along the coastline as marine predators, such as dolphins, sharks and gannets attack the schools. 5817:

Proceedings of Biologically Inspired Approaches to Advanced Information Technology: First International Workshop, BioADIT 2004 LNCS 3141

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Rappel WJ, Nicol A, Sarkissian A, Levine H, Loomis WF (1999). "Self-organized vortex state in two-dimensional Dictyostelium dynamics".

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was the first movie to make use of swarm technology for rendering, realistically depicting the movements of a group of bats using the

4465: 8302: 3677: 3287:"Zwermen en scholen - Swarming - Permanente expo - Bezoek onze expo's & workshops! - Science LinX - Rijksuniversiteit Groningen" 1358:. There are significant aerodynamic gains. All birds can see ahead, and towards one side, making a good arrangement for protection. 6886: 2809:

predators, such as cormorants, caimans and dolphins. A researcher described them as "basically like regular fish with large teeth".

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Chowdhury, D (2006). "Collective effects in intra-cellular molecular motor transport: coordination, cooperation and competition".

77:

is applied particularly to insects, but can also be applied to any other entity or animal that exhibits swarm behaviour. The term

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Ribeiro, Pedro; André Frazão Helene; Gilberto Xavier; Carlos Navas; Fernando Leite Ribeiro (1 April 2009). Dornhaus, Anna (ed.).

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Pyle, Robert Michael, "National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies", p712-713, Alfred A. Knopf, New York,

5518: 4740: 4278: 2096: 755:. Each particle stores its position as well as the best solution it has achieved so far. The particle swarm optimizer tracks the 9212: 8344:

Burd, Martin; N. Aranwela (February 2003). "Head-on encounter rates and walking speed of foragers in leaf-cutting ant traffic".

1173:. Some species can breed rapidly under suitable conditions and subsequently become gregarious and migratory. They form bands as 585:

Ant colony optimization is a widely used algorithm which was inspired by the behaviours of ants, and has been effective solving

9775: 5278: 3117:"Interaction ruling animal collective behavior depends on topological rather than metric distance: Evidence from a field study" 3876: 2776: 9514: 9288: 9271: 9255: 9238: 9222: 9205: 9188: 9171: 9150: 9080: 9002: 8273:

Complexity and the Aerospace Industry: Understanding Emergence by Relating Structure to Performance using Multi-Agent Systems

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Animation showing how herrings hunting in a synchronised way can capture the very alert and evasive copepod (click to view).

8203: 4301:, Czirok A, Ben-Jacob E, Cohen I, Shochet O (1995). "Novel type of phase transition in a system of self-driven particles". 1569:

success, and higher success in finding a mate. It is also likely that fish benefit from shoal membership through increased

9055:

Crowd modelling: Simulating the behaviour of crowds of people, or swarms of animals, has both frivolous and important uses

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researcher, which is appealing to supermarkets because it can "increase sales without the need to give people discounts."

1595:

movement, most members of a shoal seem to know where they are going. In the case of foraging behaviour, captive shoals of

826:

migrate in single-file queues; it has also been suggested that the formation is the precursor for mating, as with the fly

5705: 5102:

Allison C, Hughes C (1991). "Bacterial swarming: an example of prokaryotic differentiation and multicellular behaviour".

5011:

Hubbard S, Babak P, Sigurdsson S, Magnusson K (2004). "A model of the formation of fish schools and migrations of fish".

4491: 2834: 2246: 1740:

and then follow a current of cold water northward along the east coast of South Africa. This great migration, called the

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model (right), the focal fish only pays attention to the six or seven closest fish (green), regardless of their distance.

9524: 9411: 8577:

Kushleyev, Alex; Mellinger, Daniel; Powers, Caitlin; Kumar, Vijay (2013). "Towards a swarm of agile micro quadrotors".

6033:

Seeley, Thomas (2003). "Consensus building during nest-site selection in honey bee swarms: The expiration of dissent".

278: 185:

In recent decades, scientists have turned to modeling swarm behaviour to gain a deeper understanding of the behaviour.

8669: 4880:

Vannier, J; Vidal, M; Marchant, R; El Hariri, K; Kouraiss, K; Pittet, B; El Albani, A; Mazurier, A; Martin, E (2019).

9717: 7885: 6664: 5830: 3394: 1811:

This copepod has its antenna spread (click to enlarge). The antenna detects the pressure wave of an approaching fish.

913: 559: 369: 6111:"A challenge for a male noctuid moth? Discerning the female sex pheromone against the background of plant volatiles" 5918: 5895:, How bees, ants and other animals avoid dumb collective decisions; Science News, May 9th, 2009; Vol.175 #10 (p. 16) 2161: 1102:, also known as biting midges, have displayed swarming behavior which are believed to cause confusion in predators. 996:

has led to studies of ant locomotion, search engines that make use of "foraging trails", fault-tolerant storage and

9278: 539: 6705: 6078:"Moth Mating: Modeling Female Pheromone Calling and Male Navigational Strategies to Optimize Reproductive Success" 1126: 9614: 7578: 2318: 608:

Routing problem ants drop different pheromones used to compute the "shortest" path from source to destination(s).

8871:

Mou, Fangzhi; Li, Xiaofeng; Xie, Qi; Zhang, Jianhua; Xiong, Kang; Xu, Leilei; Guan, Jianguo (20 December 2019).

8321: 6963:

Drag Reduction from Formation Flight. Flying Aircraft in Bird-Like Formations Could Significantly Increase Range

5495: 4229:, actes de la première conférence européenne sur la vie artificielle, Paris, Elsevier Publishing, 134–142, 1991. 9355: 7560:

Beyond the Golden Gate – Oceanography, Geology, Biology, and Environmental Issues in the Gulf of the Farallones

997: 2231:

is a common technology, and has found uses in animation. Flocking simulations have been used in many films to

1916: 9107: 8634: 8183: 5919:"Choosing a home: how the scouts in a honey bee swarm perceive the completion of their group decision making" 2256:, during battle scenes. Swarm technology is particularly attractive because it is cheap, robust, and simple. 1293: 1134: 7219:

Reebs, S.G. (2000). "Can a minority of informed leaders determine the foraging movements of a fish shoal?".

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Topaz C, Bertozzi A (2004). "Swarming patterns in a two-dimensional kinematic model for biological groups".

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U. Kils; P. Marshall (1995). "Der Krill, wie er schwimmt und frisst – neue Einsichten mit neuen Methoden ("

1413:

aerodynamic theory. Geese in a V-formation may conserve 12–20% of the energy they would need to fly alone.

1334: 514: 339: 168: 2707: 1882:

when a predator is sensed and can jump with high speed over a few millimetres (see animated image below).

1870:, and are in turn major food organisms for many other marine animals. In particular, copepods are prey to 1404:

of the bird ahead. The upwash assists each bird in supporting its own weight in flight, in the same way a

152:

of systems in thermodynamic equilibrium. In this regard, swarming has been compared to the mathematics of

9952: 9732: 9685: 6680: 2761: 2571: 1476:, for example, migrate in close single-file formation "lobster trains", sometimes for hundreds of miles. 727: 722: 180: 59: 6076:

Stepien, T.L.; Zmurchok, C.; Hengenius, J.B.; Caja Rivera, R.M.; D'Orsogna, M.R.; Lindsay, A.E. (2000).

1350: 9947: 9441: 6398: 2680: 805:

The earliest evidence of swarm behaviour in animals dates back about 480 million years. Fossils of the

8322:"Planes, Trains and Ant Hills: Computer scientists simulate activity of ants to reduce airline delays" 7603:

Gandomi, A.H.; Alavi, A.H. (2012). "Krill Herd Algorithm: A New Bio-Inspired Optimization Algorithm".

6975:

Hummel D.; Beukenberg M. (1989). "Aerodynamische Interferenzeffekte beim Formationsfl ug von Vogeln".

6601:

Yates, CA; Erban, R; Escudero, C; Couzin, ID; Buhl, J; Kevrekidis, IG; Maini, PK; Sumpter, DJ (2009).

4994: 3653: 3520:"Evolving the selfish herd: emergence of distinct aggregating strategies in an individual-based model" 2734: 9962: 9927: 9619: 9590: 9490: 8498:

Helbing, Dirk; Farkas, Illés; Vicsek, Tamás (2000). "Simulating dynamical features of escape panic".

5885: 1369: 145: 7710: 5673: 5546: 4167: 3436: 3071: 2603:. The largest swarms so far created is the 1024 robot Kilobot swarm. Other large swarms include the 2124: 1649: 1177:

and swarms as adults—both of which can travel great distances, rapidly stripping fields and greatly

612:

Rauch, EM; Millonas, MM; Chialvo, DR (1995). "Pattern formation and functionality in swarm models".

193: 9937: 9932: 9770: 8873:"Active Micromotor Systems Built from Passive Particles with Biomimetic Predator–Prey Interactions" 4066: 2666: 1603:) are led by a small number of experienced individuals who knew when and where food was available. 1083: 1063:

location of swarming and egg-laying. In one case, researchers observed pink-striped oakworm moths (

694: 665: 378: 133: 9017: 7725: 6367: 1629: 730:

is another algorithm widely used to solve problems related to swarms. It was developed in 1995 by

132:

From a more abstract point of view, swarm behaviour is the collective motion of a large number of

9851: 9636: 5904: 5822: 4303: 4161:. Modeling and Simulation in Science, Engineering and Technology. Vol. 3. pp. 297–336. 4028:

Toner J and Tu Y (1995) "Long-range order in a two-dimensional xy model: how birds fly together"

3893: 3785:"Exploring the evolution of a trade-off between vigilance and foraging in group-living organisms" 2010:

growth, produces branched growth that establish to also form their own, independent root swarms.

1775: 1585: 748: 499: 447: 426: 415: 8737: 8437: 4680: 1118: 897: 9871: 9531: 9404: 9070: 8696: 8616: 7713: 7564: 6730:"Antennal Circadian Clocks Coordinate Sun Compass Orientation in Migratory Monarch Butterflies" 6296: 5668: 5541: 4417:

Buhl J, Sumpter DJT, Couzin D, Hale JJ, Despland E, Miller ER, Simpson SJ, et al. (2006).

4162: 4061: 3431: 3066: 2119: 2023: 1944: 1878:, both of which can assemble in vast, million-strong swarms. Some copepods have extremely fast 1644: 1530: 1521: 1496: 1220: 840: 373: 98: 31: 9372: 9360: 9120: 7688: 7554: 5046:

Rauch E, Millonas M, Chialvo D (1995). "Pattern formation and functionality in swarm models".

4097:

Topaz C, Bertozzi A, Lewis M (2006). "A nonlocal continuum model for biological aggregation".

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Coordination and Navigation of Heterogeneous UAVs-UGVs Teams Localized by a Hawk-Eye Approach

4706: 2280: 1983:

Scientists have attributed swarm behavior to plants for hundreds of years. In his 1800 book,

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which provide food for copepods. Planktonic copepods are usually the dominant members of the

1237: 1195: 1137:. The robots were also specially scented so that they would be accepted by the real roaches. 989: 941: 761: 586: 17: 8122:

Helbing, D; Keltsch, J; Molnar, P (1997). "Modelling the evolution of human trail systems".

5814: 5423:

Helbing D, Farkas IJ, Vicsek T (2000). "Freezing by heating in a driven mesoscopic system".

3988: 2695: 2436:

Helbing D, Farkas IJ, Vicsek T (2000). "Freezing by heating in a driven mesoscopic system".

9891: 9856: 9694: 9641: 9548: 9377: 9366: 9314: 9034: 8939: 8517: 8392: 8141: 8073: 7998: 7842: 7779: 7651: 7612: 7518: 7306: 7175: 6919: 6854: 6741: 6614: 6565: 6268: 6042: 5991: 5933: 5767: 5720: 5660: 5533: 5442: 5381: 5320: 5244: 5191: 5138: 5065: 5020: 4970: 4893: 4823: 4566: 4506: 4433: 4383: 4322: 4053: 4003: 3956: 3806: 3739: 3692: 3632: 3484: 3327: 3240: 3138: 3012: 2955: 2455: 2400: 2345: 2111: 1376: 1316: 1065: 1021: 970: 631: 595: 487: 27:

Collective behaviour of a large number of (usually) self-propelled entities of similar size

8559:"Swarming the shelves: How shops can exploit people's herd mentality to increase sales?". 7265:

Israel Program for Scientific Translation, translated by Mill H. Halsted Press, New York.

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Czirók A, Vicsek T (2006). "Collective behavior of interacting self-propelled particles".

3375:"Critical interplay between density-dependent predation and evolution of the selfish herd" 1847:

Copepods also swarm. For example, monospecific swarms have been observed regularly around

1133:

that appear to the roaches as other roaches and can thus alter the roaches' perception of

1121:, in which group or swarm behaviour emerges from a simple set of individual interactions. 8: 9901: 9876: 9866: 9456: 8299: 5301:

Helbing D, Keltsch J, Molnar P (1997). "Modelling the evolution of human trail systems".

4578: 3300: 3063:

Proceedings of the 14th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques

2646: 2641: 2326:

Helbing D, Keltsch J, Molnar P (1997). "Modelling the evolution of human trail systems".

2041: 836: 828: 777: 739: 735: 327: 149: 79: 9318: 8943: 8872: 8521: 8396: 8145: 8077: 8002: 7846: 7783: 7655: 7616: 7522: 7310: 7179: 6923: 6858: 6745: 6618: 6569: 6430: 6272: 6046: 5995: 5937: 5771: 5724: 5664: 5537: 5446: 5385: 5324: 5248: 5195: 5142: 5069: 5024: 4974: 4897: 4827: 4570: 4510: 4437: 4387: 4326: 4232: 4057: 4007: 3960: 3810: 3743: 3696: 3636: 3488: 3331: 3286: 3244: 3142: 3016: 2959: 2459: 2404: 2349: 2115: 2036:. Myxobacteria swarm together in "wolf packs", actively moving using a process known as 1073:

site, where decomposition likely increased soil nutrient levels and host plant quality.

832:. The findings suggest animal collective behaviour has very early evolutionary origins. 635: 9881: 9742: 9737: 9330: 9304: 9178: 8968: 8927: 8908: 8849: 8830: 8760: 8594: 8541: 8507: 8465: 8447: 8415: 8380: 8361: 8165: 8131: 8097: 8063: 8022: 7988: 7954: 7903: 7810: 7767: 7480: 7387: 7330: 7244: 7201: 6992: 6945: 6878: 6844: 6810: 6762: 6729: 6637: 6602: 6583: 6514: 6237: 6177: 6137: 6110: 6058: 6015: 5949: 5867: 5815: 5736: 5686: 5633: 5620: 5603: 5466: 5432: 5405: 5371: 5362:

Helbing D, Farkas I, Vicsek T (2000). "Simulating dynamical features of escape panic".

5344: 5310: 5260: 5234: 5207: 5181: 5081: 5055: 4982: 4914: 4881: 4847: 4791: 4764: 4582: 4556: 4457: 4399: 4373: 4346: 4312: 4200: 4132: 4106: 4079: 3916: 3827: 3796: 3784: 3765: 3658: 3593: 3568: 3544: 3519: 3457: 3400: 3374: 3350: 3315: 3263: 3228: 3197: 3161: 3128: 3116: 3094: 3033: 3002: 2990: 2971: 2945: 2854: 2839: 2749: 2600: 2592: 2524: 2479: 2445: 2424: 2390: 2381:

Helbing D, Farkas I, Vicsek T (2000). "Simulating dynamical features of escape panic".

2369: 2335: 2265: 2253: 2228: 2078: 1999: 1678: 1662: 1463: 1058:

one male in the swarm—typically the first—will successfully copulate. Females maximize

985: 893: 773: 744: 710: 647: 621: 507: 483: 478: 345: 8231: 7011: 5790: 5755: 5567: 4395: 4275: 3727: 2145: 605:

Ants communicate using pheromones; trails are laid that can be followed by other ants.

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Swarm behaviour was first simulated on a computer in 1986 with the simulation program

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Hamner, WM; Hamner, PP; Strand, SW; Gilmer, RW (1983). "Behavior of Antarctic Krill,

7266: 7236: 7193: 7057: 7034: 6937: 6870: 6814: 6802: 6767: 6703:

Butterflies Guided By Body Clocks, Sun Scientists Shine Light on Monarchs' Pilgrimage

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Rogers SM, Matheson T, Despland E, Dodgson T, Burrows M, Simpson SJ (November 2003).

6363: 6229: 6142: 6007: 5826: 5795: 5625: 5559: 5507: 5458: 5397: 5336: 5284: 5154: 5111: 5085: 5077: 4986: 4941: 4919: 4839: 4796: 4648: 4449: 4338: 4180: 4124: 3832: 3757: 3708: 3678:"Which conditions promote negative density dependent selection on prey aggregations?" 3598: 3549: 3500: 3449: 3390: 3355: 3268: 3166: 3084: 3038: 2967: 2916: 2658: 2608: 2507: 2471: 2416: 2361: 2261: 2174: 2137: 2037: 2019: 1837: 1670: 1423: 1355: 1338: 1272: 1216: 1059: 889: 792: 756: 651: 643: 547: 495: 443: 422: 391: 349: 319: 299: 206: 8598: 8469: 8365: 8101: 7958: 7334: 7205: 6587: 6518: 6241: 6062: 6019: 5953: 5871: 5740: 5690: 5637: 5470: 5264: 5032: 4851: 4586: 4403: 4350: 4136: 4083: 3920: 3769: 3662: 3644: 3461: 3404: 2483: 410: 364:

Mach, Robert; Schweitzer, Frank (2003). "Multi-Agent Model of Biological Swarming".

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Yu, Jiangfan; Wang, Ben; Du, Xingzhou; Wang, Qianqian; Zhang, Li (21 August 2018).

8884: 8806: 8764: 8752: 8586: 8525: 8457: 8410: 8400: 8353: 8227: 8169: 8149: 8081: 8026: 8006: 7936: 7850: 7805: 7787: 7659: 7620: 7526: 7472: 7314: 7248: 7228: 7183: 7134: 7026: 6984: 6927: 6882: 6862: 6794: 6757: 6749: 6632: 6622: 6573: 6498: 6461: 6338: 6276: 6219: 6211: 6169: 6132: 6122: 6089: 6050: 5999: 5941: 5859: 5785: 5775: 5728: 5678: 5615: 5551: 5450: 5389: 5348: 5328: 5252: 5211: 5199: 5146: 5073: 5028: 4978: 4909: 4901: 4831: 4786: 4776: 4721: 4574: 4514: 4441: 4391: 4330: 4172: 4151: 4116: 4071: 4011: 3964: 3908: 3822: 3814: 3747: 3700: 3648: 3640: 3588: 3580: 3539: 3531: 3492: 3441: 3382: 3345: 3335: 3258: 3248: 3207: 3156: 3146: 3076: 3028: 3020: 2975: 2963: 2908: 2845: 2768: 2584: 2463: 2408: 2373: 2353: 2232: 2218: 2129: 2061: 1816: 1654: 1611: 1504: 1401: 1242: 1231: 1146: 885: 639: 491: 383: 353: 126: 67: 9326: 8545: 7854: 6996: 6949: 5409: 4835: 4461: 3098: 2428: 1682: 9942: 9157: 8405: 8328: 8306: 8190: 8105: 7792: 7750: 7732: 7318: 6714: 6709: 6003: 5892: 4781: 4747: 4707:"Analysis of the publications on the applications of particle swarm optimisation" 4630: 4282: 4176: 3912: 3379:

Proceedings of the 15th annual conference on Genetic and evolutionary computation

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Reynolds CW (1987). "Flocks, herds and schools: A distributed behavioral model".

2879: 2863: 1940: 1879: 1500: 1405: 1282: 1178: 1174: 852: 784:

of entities can, over time, evolve and result in more effective swarm behaviour.

543: 387: 198: 7624: 7138: 5555: 5454: 5256: 5203: 5150: 4882:"Collective behaviour in 480-million-year-old trilobite arthropods from Morocco" 4334: 4213: 4159:

Mathematical Modeling of Collective Behavior in Socio-Economic and Life Sciences

4015: 2467: 2133: 698: 148:, and as such requires the development of tools beyond those available from the 9886: 9820: 9797: 9631: 9626: 9609: 9602: 9495: 8951: 8723:

Swarms of micro aerial vehicles stabilized under a visual relative localization

8030: 7361: 6965:; Defense Technical Information Center; April 2002; Retrieved February 27, 2008 6894: 5760:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4905: 4285:

Interactive simulations, 2005, University of Colorado. Retrieved 10 April 2011.

3704: 3496: 3445: 3340: 2588: 2536: 2520: 2497: 2291: 2237: 2066: 2057: 1988: 1956: 1783: 1696: 1592: 1393: 1363: 1266: 1017: 848: 752: 357: 122: 89: 9563: 8590: 8461: 8276:(Thesis). Manchester: University of Manchester Doctoral Thesis. Archived from 7664: 7639: 7531: 7506: 7188: 6932: 6907: 6054: 5945: 4522: 4518: 4120: 4075: 3969: 3944: 2936:

O'Loan; Evans (1998). "Alternating steady state in one-dimensional flocking".

2912: 2555: 1724: 1553: 577: 330:

the predator confusion effect, the dilution effect, and the many eyes theory.

39: 9921: 9760: 9502: 9473: 9451: 8959: 8896: 8818: 8782:. IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS). 8756: 8085: 7895: 7801: 7476: 7435:

Hoare, Ben (2009). Animal Migration. London: Natural History Museum. p. 107.

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Hoare, Ben (2009). Animal Migration. London: Natural History Museum. p. 107.

6535: 6197:"The Mothematics of female pheromone signaling: Strategies for aging virgins" 6160:

Greenfield, M.D. (1981). "Moth sex pheromones: an evolutionary perspective".

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Reluga TC, Viscido S (2005). "Simulated evolution of selfish herd behavior".

2848: – the repeated increase and decrease of a species' population over time 2819: 2596: 2300: 2074: 2029: 2003: 1968: 1863: 1794:

behind as a decoy. In 2012, Gandomi and Alavi presented what appears to be a

1596: 1384: 1326: 1322: 1188:

Swarming in locusts has been found to be associated with increased levels of

1156: 823: 810: 250: 238: 157: 141: 108: 8888: 8810: 7350:

The Antarctic krill – how it swims and feeds – new insights with new methods

6798: 6753: 6627: 6502: 5780: 5604:"Trail pheromones: an integrative view of their role in colony organisation" 4445: 3752: 3419: 3386: 3212: 3185: 3151: 2842: – Natural phenomenon that occurs in Mobile Bay, Alabama, United States 1151: 9841: 9815: 9805: 9782: 9663: 8977: 8904: 8826: 8537: 8424: 8093: 8018: 7950: 7941: 7924: 7862: 7819: 7540: 7326: 7240: 7232: 7197: 6941: 6874: 6806: 6771: 6646: 6510: 6475: 6343: 6322: 6233: 6146: 6011: 5799: 5629: 5563: 5462: 5401: 5158: 4923: 4800: 4453: 4342: 4128: 3836: 3761: 3712: 3602: 3584: 3553: 3535: 3504: 3453: 3359: 3272: 3170: 3042: 2875: 2869: 2798: 2617: 2503: 2475: 2420: 2276: 2272: 2166: 2141: 2033: 1932: 1737: 1674: 1570: 1480: 1408:

can climb or maintain height indefinitely in rising air. Geese flying in a

1037: 1032: 977: 921: 844: 590: 513:

Swarm intelligence systems are typically made up of a population of simple

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http://psychcentral.com/news/2008/02/15/herd-mentality-explained/1922.html

8161: 7038: 7030: 5863: 5340: 5115: 4990: 4843: 4726: 4615:

Kennedy, J. (1997). "The particle swarm: social adaptation of knowledge".

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has been used to explain the dependencies of customers' mutual behaviour.

9861: 9810: 9651: 9507: 9054: 8512: 8482: 8136: 8068: 7993: 6908:"Conservation ecology: area trumps mobility in fragment bird extinctions" 5957: 5437: 5376: 5315: 5186: 5060: 4670:"An analysis of publications on particle swarm optimisation applications" 4378: 4317: 3728:"Predatory Fish Select for Coordinated Collective Motion in Virtual Prey" 2950: 2825: 2539:, while swarm intelligence refers to the more general set of algorithms. 2450: 2395: 2340: 2070: 1972: 1948: 1895: 1871: 1867: 1859: 1841: 1741: 1702: 1409: 1330: 1166: 993: 626: 307: 202: 153: 112: 8778:

Saska, Martin; Vonasek, Vojtech; Krajnik, Tomas; Preucil, Libor (2012).

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Saska, Martin; Vonasek, Vojtech; Krajnik, Tomas; Preucil, Libor (2014).

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Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Evolutionary Computation

3818: 3080: 822:. It has been suggested they line up in this manner to migrate, much as 9668: 9646: 8483:

Are we nearly there yet? Motorists could learn a thing or two from ants

7120:"The Influence of Sex and Phenotype on Shoaling Decisions in Zebrafish" 6988: 6702: 6446:"Mechanosensory-induced behavioural gregarization in the desert locust 6181: 5732: 5682: 5519:"Complexity, pattern and evolutionary trade-offs in animal aggregation" 2310: 2097:"Complexity, pattern and evolutionary trade-offs in animal aggregation" 1995: 1848: 1825: 1772: 1768: 1706: 1666: 1380: 1305: 1224: 1114: 1098: 1089: 909: 877: 815: 6466: 6445: 6224: 4765:"A quantitative test of Hamilton's rule for the evolution of altruism" 4111: 3024: 2512: 1526: 589:

problems related to swarming. The algorithm was initially proposed by

9896: 9536: 8529: 7389:

Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals

6281: 6256: 5393: 3989:"Minimal mechanisms for school formation in self-propelled particles" 2612: 2412: 2309:

product popularity information to consumers are mentioned, including

2295: 2205: 2193: 1923: 1875: 1852: 1581: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1258: 1250: 1189: 1170: 1110: 1027: 959: 806: 523: 466: 460: 437: 323: 137: 94: 8010: 7559: 6603:"Inherent noise can facilitate coherence in collective swarm motion" 6173: 3618:"Simulating predator attacks on schools: Evolving composite tactics" 2632: 1658: 1630:"Self-Organized Fish Schools: An Examination of Emergent Properties" 9825: 9787: 9519: 9461: 7504: 7451: 6215: 6075: 5097: 5095: 4298: 3186:"Self-organized aerial displays of thousands of starlings: a model" 2988: 2741: 2170: 1829: 1566: 1414: 1298: 1277: 981: 966: 958:

rules. First, ants which find food return to the nest depositing a

954: 917: 526:

of intelligent global behaviour, unknown to the individual agents.

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systems, natural or artificial. The concept is employed in work on

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Ji, Fengtong; Jin, Dongdong; Wang, Ben; Zhang, Li (23 June 2020).

8725:. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA). 8452: 8226:. Advances in the Study of Behavior. Vol. 32. pp. 1–75. 8153: 7678: 6849: 5332: 4561: 3801: 3316:"Collective Motion as an Ultimate Effect in Crowded Selfish Herds" 3202: 3133: 3007: 2866:– recently (2020) recognised new state of self propelled particles 2728:

People swarming through an exit do not always behave like a fluid.

2636:

Contrast between guerrilla ambush and true swarming (Edwards-2003)

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such as ants and bees, researchers are modelling the behaviour of

2357: 1472:

Other animals may use similar drafting techniques when migrating.

1457: 1113:

leave chemical trails in their feces as well as emitting airborne

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Kennedy, J.; Eberhart, R. (1995). "Particle Swarm Optimization".

2991:"Information transfer and behavioural inertia in starling flocks" 2805: 2794: 2687: 2516: 2085: 1936: 1833: 1821: 1787: 1733: 1534: 1473: 1070: 819: 5092: 3615: 3114: 1211: 772:

Researchers in Switzerland have developed an algorithm based on

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Bee Swarms Follow High-speed 'Streaker' Bees To Find A New Nest

5704:

Goss, S.; Aron, S.; Deneubourg, J. L.; Pasteels, J. M. (1989).

5010: 4602:

Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Neural Networks

3569:"Predator confusion is sufficient to evolve swarming behaviour" 2604: 2007: 1791: 1600: 1418: 1397: 1254: 1246: 1162: 1093: 44: 7765: 7640:"Copepod swarms: Attributes and role in coral reef ecosystems" 2040:

and keeping together with the help of intercellular molecular

1807: 1752: 751:

to find the best solutions. The solutions it finds are called

136:. From the perspective of the mathematical modeller, it is an 9722: 9180:

The perfect swarm: the science of complexity in everyday life

9072:

The perfect swarm: the science of complexity in everyday life

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Johannes Dürbaum & Thorsten Künnemann (5 November 1997).

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rely both on vision and hydrodynamic signals relayed through

295: 274: 164: 118: 8648: 7832: 7605:

Communications in Nonlinear Science and Numerical Simulation

6323:"Observations of female and mixed sex swarming behaviour in 465:

A further key concept in the field of swarm intelligence is

9468: 9389: 8047:

Neda Z, Ravasz E, Brechet Y, Vicsek T, Barabasi AL (2002).

7736: 5846:

Oldroyd, BP (1998). "Colony relatedness in aggregations of

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Herrnkind, W (1969). "Queuing behavior of spiny lobsters".

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Phytologia: or, The philosophy of agriculture and gardening

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in some direction. It is a highly interdisciplinary topic.

8777: 8735: 8631:"Centibots 100-Robot Collaborative Reconnaissance Project" 7431: 7429: 7427: 7354:

Biologie der Polarmeere – Erlebnisse und Ergebnisse (

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Olson RS, Hintze A, Dyer FC, Knoester DB, Adami C (2013).

9035:"Dive and Discover: Scientific Expedition 10: Antarctica" 8795:"Light-Driven Hovering of a Magnetic Microswarm in Fluid" 7012:"Energy savings in formation flight of Pink-footed Geese" 4416: 4263:

Ant Algorithms for Discrete Optimization, Artificial Life

3986: 3616:

Demsar J, Hemelrijk CK, Hildenbrandt H, Bajec IL (2015).

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Self-organization and collective behavior in vertebrates

7739:, Center of Excellence for Great Lakes and Human Health. 7290: 7117: 7009: 6600: 6547: 6532:

Blocking 'happiness' chemical may prevent locust plagues

4152:"Particle, kinetic, and hydrodynamic models of swarming" 4149: 1840:. Although like other crustaceans they have an armoured 9094:"Lemming Suicide Myth Disney Film Faked Bogus Behavior" 8046: 7925:"Myxobacteria, producers of novel bioactive substances" 7424: 5602:

Czaczkes, T.J.; Grüter, C.; Ratnieks, F. L. W. (2015).

5516: 4260: 3566: 3420:"Evolving collective behavior in an artificial ecology" 2830:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

2620:

and heterogeneous teams of ground and aerial vehicles.

2094: 2002:. The primary function of plant roots is the uptake of 578:

Swarmanoid robots find shortest path over double bridge

9349:

New York Times article on investigations into swarming

8994:

Swarming on the Battlefield: Past, Present, and Future

6974: 5982:

Morse, R.A. (1963). "Swarm orientation in honeybees".

5601: 3229:"Some causes of the variable shape of flocks of birds" 2317:

technology. A "swarm-moves" model was introduced by a

1627: 1129:

and other European institutions created a set of tiny

884:

The behaviour of social insects (insects that live in

6108: 5812: 5650: 5588:

Bonabeau E and Theraulaz G (2008) "Swarm Smarts". In

4245: 3226: 1495:

at migration times. More common species, such as the

542:

approach. The Eulerian approach views the swarm as a

9194:

Kennedy JF, Kennedy J, Eberhart RC and Shi Y (2001)

8121: 7295:: Chemoreception, Feeding, Schooling and Molting'". 7102:

Hoare DJ, Krause J, Peuhkuri N and Godin JGJ (2000)

5300: 5045: 4865:

Fossil 'conga lines' reveal origins of animal swarms

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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

2850:

Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

2325: 611: 538:

Swarm algorithms follow a Lagrangian approach or an

87:

can refer specifically to swarm behaviour in birds,

8721:Saska, Martin; Jan, Vakula; Libor, Preucil (2014). 8497: 7971: 7567:

Circular 1198, 2001. URLs last accessed 2010-06-04.

7505:Geraint A. Tarling & Magnus L. Johnson (2006). 7356:

Biology of the Polar Oceans Experiences and Results

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Many species are 835:Examples of biological swarming are found in 8997:. Rand Monograph MR-1100. Rand Corporation. 8925: 8381:"Ants can learn to forage on one-way trails" 8216: 7908:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 7602: 7507:"Satiation gives krill that sinking feeling" 6828:Nagy, M; Akos Zs, Biro D; Vicsek, T (2010). 6785:Kyriacou CP (2009). "Unraveling Traveling". 6254: 5496:Biological Foundations of Swarm Intelligence 4960:"The structure and function of fish schools" 4957: 4540: 4419:"From disorder to order in marching locusts" 4363: 3887: 3885: 3313: 2898: 2896: 1619:"The structure and function of fish schools" 30:"Swarm" redirects here. For other uses, see 7218: 6784: 6357: 6327:LATREILLE, 1809 (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae)" 5579: 4251:Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), pp. 143–179 3982: 3980: 3869: 3517: 3060: 1939:on earth. They compete for this title with 1628:Parrish JK, Viscido SV, Grunbaum D (2002). 1165:are the swarming phase of the short-horned 659: 144:physicists as a phenomenon which is not in 9412: 9398: 8745:International Journal of Robotics Research 8431: 8337: 7685:Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg 7051: 6159: 5494:Beekman M, Sword GA and Simpson SK (2008) 4763:Waibel, M; Floreano, D; Keller, L (2011). 4410: 4288: 3654:11370/0bfcbb69-a101-4ec1-833a-df301e49d8ef 3056: 3054: 3052: 2902: 980:have been studied in computer science and 776:of kin selection. The algorithm shows how 553: 9308: 8967: 8511: 8451: 8414: 8404: 8135: 8067: 7992: 7940: 7809: 7791: 7719: 7663: 7530: 7187: 7159:Engeszer RE, Ryan MJ, Parichy DM (2004). 7108:Journal of Fish Biology, 57(6) 1351-1366. 6931: 6848: 6761: 6636: 6626: 6577: 6488: 6465: 6389:Lemonick, Michael D. 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(2005). 7835:Trends in Plant Science 6799:10.1126/science.1178935 6754:10.1126/science.1176221 6701:Gugliotta, Guy (2003): 6628:10.1073/pnas.0811195106 6503:10.1126/science.1169280 6115:Frontiers in Physiology 5781:10.1073/pnas.1137809100 5754:Brady, Seán G. 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Springer. pp. 4958:Partridge BL (1982). 3213:10.1093/beheco/arq149 2686:A swarm of migrating 2635: 2611:/ActivMedia Robotics 2515: 2281:Bidirectional traffic 2248:The Lord of the Rings 2164: 2088: 2069: 1926:also prey on copepods 1810: 1755: 1529: 1439: 1353: 1296: 1238:Lepidoptera migration 1214: 1196:Schistocerca gregaria 1154: 1011: 998:networking algorithms 942:Oecophylla smaragdina 938: 875: 795: 596:swarming in honeybees 587:discrete optimization 413: 196: 42: 9892:Spatial organization 9857:Decentralised system 9695:Sea turtle migration 9549:Swarming (honey bee) 8676:on 27 September 2007 7364:. pp. 201–210. 7089:In: Pitcher TJ (ed) 7076:Pitcher et al. 1982. 6460:(Pt 22): 3991–4002. 6401:on 16 November 2007. 4471:on 29 September 2011 4201:"Swarmanoid project" 3945:"Swarm intelligence" 3625:Ecological Modelling 3573:J. R. Soc. Interface 2769:swarm of earthquakes 1824:are a group of tiny 1767:, small shrimp-like 1617:Partridge BL (1982) 1317:Flocking (behaviour) 1066:Anisota virginiensis 1022:Swarming (honey bee) 971:convergent evolution 898:biological emergence 488:collective behaviour 207:topological distance 60:collective behaviour 9867:Group size measures 9429:Biological swarming 9319:2012PhR...517...71V 9069:Fisher, Len (2009) 8944:2018NatCo...9.3260Y 8619:on 26 October 2014. 8522:2000Natur.407..487H 8397:2009PLoSO...4.5024R 8298:Livermore R (2008) 8280:on 19 December 2014 8146:1997Natur.388...47H 8078:2000PhRvE..61.6987N 8003:2002Natur.419..131F 7847:2010TPS....15..402B 7784:2012PLoSO...729759C 7656:1979LimOc..24....1H 7617:2012CNSNS..17.4831G 7523:2006CBio...16..R83T 7393:. Greenwood Press. 7311:1983Sci...220..433H 7180:2004CBio...14..881E 7052:Newton, I. (2008). 6924:2007CBio...17.R283S 6867:10.1038/nature08891 6859:2010Natur.464..890N 6793:(5948): 1629–1630. 6746:2009Sci...325.1700M 6740:(5948): 1700–1704. 6683:on 15 December 2012 6619:2009PNAS..106.5464Y 6570:2012InsSc..19..649G 6418:National Geographic 6301:MDC Discover Nature 6273:2019FrEE...17..184M 6204:American Naturalist 6095:10.3390/app10186543 6047:2003BEcoS..53..417S 5996:1963Sci...141..357M 5938:2003BEcoS..54..511S 5772:2003PNAS..100.6575B 5725:1989NW.....76..579G 5713:Naturwissenschaften 5665:1993JIBeh...6..751B 5538:1999Sci...284...99P 5489:National Geographic 5447:2000PhRvL..84.1240H 5386:2000Natur.407..487H 5325:1997Natur.388...47H 5249:2006PhyA..372...84C 5196:1999PhRvL..83.1247R 5143:1995PhRvL..75.2899B 5070:1995PhLA..207..185R 5025:2004EcMod.174..359H 4975:1982SciAm.246f.114P 4967:Scientific American 4898:2019NatSR...914941V 4868:National Geographic 4828:1969Sci...164.1425H 4822:(3886): 1425–1427. 4727:10.1155/2008/685175 4647:. Morgan Kaufmann. 4619:. pp. 303–308. 4571:2009JPhA...42R5001B 4511:2005AnPhy.318..170T 4438:2006Sci...312.1402B 4432:(5778): 1402–1406. 4388:2000PhyA..281...17C 4327:1995PhRvL..75.1226V 4058:2004APS..MAR.t9004T 4008:2008PhyD..237..699L 3961:2007SchpJ...2.1462D 3851:"Hierarchy of Life" 3819:10.1098/rsos.150135 3811:2015RSOS....250135O 3744:2012Sci...337.1212I 3738:(6099): 1212–1215. 3697:2011JThBi.281...24T 3637:2015EcMod.304...22D 3530:(1618): 1637–1642. 3489:2005JThBi.234..213R 3332:2019NatSR...9.6618Y 3289:. 10 November 2007. 3245:2011PLoSO...622479H 3143:2008PNAS..105.1232B 3081:10.1145/37401.37406 3017:2014NatPh..10..691A 2960:1999JPhA...32L..99O 2642:Swarming (military) 2585:colonies of insects 2460:2000PhRvL..84.1240H 2405:2000Natur.407..487H 2350:1997Natur.388...47H 2283:can be observed in 2116:1999Sci...284...99P 1622:Scientific American 1554:Foraging efficiency 1273:Monarch butterflies 1217:monarch butterflies 829:Leptoconops torrens 788:Biological swarming 711:emergent behaviours 636:1995PhLA..207..185R 328:selfish herd theory 314:Evolutionary models 189:Mathematical models 150:statistical physics 9953:Periodic phenomena 9882:Predator satiation 9743:Swarm (simulation) 9738:Swarm intelligence 9713:Agent-based models 9544:Swarming behaviour 9197:Swarm intelligence 9024:, 13 October 2014. 8440:Swarm Intelligence 8327:2010-11-24 at the 7731:2010-06-16 at the 7456:Euphausia pacifica 7261:Radakov DV (1973) 6989:10.1007/BF01647158 6708:2006-03-05 at the 5963:on 31 January 2009 5733:10.1007/BF00462870 5683:10.1007/BF01201674 4886:Scientific Reports 4870:, 17 October 2019. 4746:2012-09-15 at the 4645:Swarm Intelligence 4281:2012-10-14 at the 3320:Scientific Reports 3303:. 25 October 2012. 3190:Behavioral Ecology 2855:Swarm (simulation) 2840:Mobile Bay jubilee 2665:In 2014 the U. S. 2659:guerrilla ambushes 2638: 2601:swarm intelligence 2593:emergent behaviour 2529: 2525:Harvard University 2266:swarm intelligence 2229:flocking behaviour 2178: 2091: 2083: 2030:predatory bacteria 1813: 1776:vertical migration 1761: 1538: 1464:The Trials of Life 1442: 1360: 1356:echelon formations 1313: 1297:Recent studies of 1228: 1207:Migratory behavior 1160: 1125:colleagues at the 1119:emergent behaviour 1045:Non-social insects 1014: 947: 894:swarm intelligence 882: 803: 797:Linear cluster of 762:mathematical rules 484:Swarm intelligence 479:Swarm intelligence 473:Swarm intelligence 419: 346:Agent-based models 294:, while Antarctic 211: 49: 9948:Fisheries science 9915: 9914: 9902:Military swarming 9847:Animal navigation 9766:Collective motion 9753:Collective motion 9620:reverse migration 9554:Swarming motility 9361:CDF player (free) 9289:978-0-691-14843-4 9272:978-3-540-33868-0 9256:978-1-58333-390-7 9239:978-3-642-04224-9 9223:978-0-19-850818-2 9211:Krause, J (2005) 9206:978-1-55860-595-4 9200:Morgan Kaufmann. 9189:978-0-465-01884-0 9172:978-0-691-11624-2 9151:978-3-540-74088-9 9092:Woodford, Riley. 9081:978-0-465-01884-0 9004:978-0-8330-2779-5 8851:Barracuda Tornado 8751:(10): 1393–1412. 8579:Autonomous Robots 8506:(6803): 487–490. 8241:978-0-12-004532-7 8056:Physical Review E 7987:(6903): 131–132. 7611:(12): 4831–4845. 7458:in Saanich Inlet" 7441:978-0-565-09243-6 7419:978-0-565-09243-6 7400:978-0-313-33922-6 7385:R. Piper (2007). 7371:978-3-334-60950-7 7293:Euphausia superba 7271:978-0-7065-1351-6 7063:978-0-12-517367-4 6895:Supplementary pdf 6843:(7290): 890–893. 6467:10.1242/jeb.00648 6364:Discovery Channel 6358:Jennifer Viegas. 5990:(3578): 357–358. 5512:978-3-540-74088-9 5370:(6803): 487–490. 5289:978-0-521-46024-8 5137:(15): 2899–2902. 5048:Physics Letters A 4946:978-0-19-217705-6 4705:Poli, R. (2008). 4668:Poli, R. (2007). 4654:978-1-55860-595-4 4499:Annals of Physics 4186:978-0-8176-4945-6 3090:978-0-89791-227-3 3025:10.1038/nphys3035 2922:978-981-287-750-5 2755:A swarm of robots 2647:Military swarming 2609:SRI International 2581: 2580: 2508:Robotic materials 2389:(6803): 487–490. 2262:Douglas A. Lawson 2211: 2210: 2175:1906 World Series 2038:bacterial gliding 2020:Swarming motility 1730: 1729: 1559: 1558: 1470: 1469: 1466: 1437: 1339:Mobbing behaviour 936: 873: 691: 690: 614:Physics Letters A 583: 582: 548:agent-based model 423:Self-organization 406:Self-organization 397:978-3-540-20057-4 350:Intelligent agent 320:genetic algorithm 256: 255: 251:Efloys simulation 239:iFloys simulation 16:(Redirected from 9970: 9963:Animal cognition 9928:Animal migration 9728:Crowd simulation 9705:Swarm algorithms 9676:Insect migration 9581:Animal migration 9573:Animal migration 9566: 9491:Mobbing behavior 9414: 9407: 9400: 9391: 9390: 9338: 9312: 9214:Living in Groups 9177:Fisher L (2009) 9127: 9118: 9112: 9111: 9105: 9097: 9089: 9083: 9067: 9061: 9052: 9046: 9045: 9043: 9041: 9031: 9025: 9015: 9009: 9008: 8988: 8982: 8981: 8971: 8923: 8917: 8916: 8868: 8862: 8861: 8860: 8858: 8845: 8839: 8838: 8805:(6): 6990–6998. 8790: 8784: 8783: 8775: 8769: 8768: 8742: 8733: 8727: 8726: 8718: 8712: 8711: 8709: 8707: 8692: 8686: 8685: 8683: 8681: 8666: 8660: 8659: 8657: 8655: 8645: 8639: 8638: 8637:on 14 July 2011. 8627: 8621: 8620: 8615:. Archived from 8609: 8603: 8602: 8574: 8565: 8564: 8556: 8550: 8549: 8530:10.1038/35035023 8515: 8513:cond-mat/0009448 8495: 8489: 8480: 8474: 8473: 8455: 8435: 8429: 8428: 8418: 8408: 8376: 8370: 8369: 8346:Insectes Sociaux 8341: 8335: 8319: 8313: 8296: 8290: 8289: 8287: 8285: 8267: 8261: 8260: 8258: 8256: 8251:on 13 March 2012 8250: 8244:. Archived from 8225: 8214: 8208: 8207: 8200: 8194: 8180: 8174: 8173: 8139: 8137:cond-mat/9805158 8119: 8113: 8112: 8111:on 11 June 2011. 8110: 8104:. Archived from 8071: 8069:cond-mat/0006423 8062:(6): 6987–6992. 8053: 8044: 8038: 8037: 8036:on 10 July 2007. 8035: 8029:. Archived from 7996: 7994:cond-mat/0210073 7978: 7969: 7963: 7962: 7944: 7920: 7914: 7913: 7907: 7899: 7873: 7867: 7866: 7830: 7824: 7823: 7813: 7795: 7763: 7757: 7756: 7746: 7740: 7723: 7717: 7707: 7701: 7700: 7698: 7696: 7687:. Archived from 7676: 7670: 7669: 7667: 7644:Limnol. Oceanogr 7635: 7629: 7628: 7600: 7594: 7593: 7591: 7589: 7574: 7568: 7551: 7545: 7544: 7534: 7502: 7496: 7495: 7494:on 20 July 2011. 7493: 7487:. Archived from 7462: 7449: 7443: 7433: 7422: 7411: 7405: 7404: 7392: 7382: 7376: 7375: 7345: 7339: 7338: 7288: 7282: 7279: 7273: 7259: 7253: 7252: 7221:Animal Behaviour 7216: 7210: 7209: 7191: 7165: 7156: 7150: 7149: 7148:on 25 July 2011. 7147: 7141:. Archived from 7124: 7115: 7109: 7100: 7094: 7083: 7077: 7074: 7068: 7067: 7049: 7043: 7042: 7016: 7007: 7001: 7000: 6972: 6966: 6960: 6954: 6953: 6935: 6918:(8): R283–R286. 6903: 6897: 6893: 6891: 6885:. Archived from 6852: 6834: 6825: 6819: 6818: 6782: 6776: 6775: 6765: 6725: 6719: 6699: 6693: 6692: 6690: 6688: 6679:. Archived from 6673: 6667: 6657: 6651: 6650: 6640: 6630: 6598: 6592: 6591: 6581: 6545: 6539: 6529: 6523: 6522: 6486: 6480: 6479: 6469: 6441: 6435: 6434: 6427: 6421: 6409: 6403: 6402: 6397:. Archived from 6386: 6380: 6379: 6377: 6375: 6366:. Archived from 6355: 6349: 6348: 6346: 6318: 6312: 6311: 6309: 6307: 6293: 6287: 6286: 6284: 6282:10.1002/fee.2027 6252: 6246: 6245: 6227: 6201: 6192: 6186: 6185: 6157: 6151: 6150: 6140: 6130: 6106: 6100: 6099: 6097: 6082:Applied Sciences 6073: 6067: 6066: 6030: 6024: 6023: 5979: 5973: 5972: 5970: 5968: 5962: 5956:. Archived from 5923: 5914: 5908: 5902: 5896: 5882: 5876: 5875: 5852:Insectes Sociaux 5843: 5837: 5836: 5820: 5810: 5804: 5803: 5793: 5783: 5751: 5745: 5744: 5710: 5701: 5695: 5694: 5676: 5648: 5642: 5641: 5623: 5599: 5593: 5586: 5577: 5574: 5573:on 20 July 2011. 5572: 5566:. Archived from 5549: 5532:(5411): 99–101. 5523: 5504:シュプリンガー・ジャパン株式会社 5481: 5475: 5474: 5440: 5438:cond-mat/9904326 5431:(6): 1240–1243. 5420: 5414: 5413: 5394:10.1038/35035023 5379: 5377:cond-mat/0009448 5359: 5353: 5352: 5318: 5316:cond-mat/9805158 5298: 5292: 5275: 5269: 5268: 5242: 5222: 5216: 5215: 5189: 5187:patt-sol/9811001 5180:(6): 1247–1250. 5169: 5163: 5162: 5126: 5120: 5119: 5104:Science Progress 5099: 5090: 5089: 5063: 5061:adap-org/9507003 5054:(3–4): 185–193. 5043: 5037: 5036: 5008: 5002: 5001: 4999: 4993:. Archived from 4964: 4955: 4949: 4934: 4928: 4927: 4917: 4877: 4871: 4862: 4856: 4855: 4811: 4805: 4804: 4794: 4784: 4760: 4754: 4738: 4732: 4731: 4729: 4711: 4702: 4696: 4695: 4693: 4691: 4685: 4679:. Archived from 4674: 4665: 4659: 4658: 4640: 4634: 4627: 4621: 4620: 4612: 4606: 4605: 4597: 4591: 4590: 4564: 4544: 4538: 4537: 4535: 4533: 4527: 4521:. Archived from 4496: 4487: 4481: 4480: 4478: 4476: 4470: 4464:. Archived from 4423: 4414: 4408: 4407: 4381: 4379:cond-mat/0611742 4361: 4355: 4354: 4320: 4318:cond-mat/0611743 4311:(6): 1226–1229. 4295: 4286: 4273: 4267: 4266: 4258: 4252: 4249: 4243: 4236: 4230: 4223: 4217: 4211: 4205: 4204: 4197: 4191: 4190: 4170: 4156: 4147: 4141: 4140: 4114: 4105:(7): 1601–1623. 4094: 4088: 4087: 4069: 4046:SIAM J Appl Math 4041: 4035: 4026: 4020: 4019: 3993: 3984: 3975: 3974: 3972: 3940: 3934: 3931: 3925: 3924: 3898: 3889: 3880: 3873: 3867: 3866: 3864: 3862: 3847: 3841: 3840: 3830: 3804: 3780: 3774: 3773: 3755: 3723: 3717: 3716: 3682: 3676:Tosh CR (2011). 3673: 3667: 3666: 3656: 3622: 3613: 3607: 3606: 3596: 3579:(85): 20130305. 3564: 3558: 3557: 3547: 3515: 3509: 3508: 3472: 3466: 3465: 3439: 3415: 3409: 3408: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3353: 3343: 3311: 3305: 3304: 3297: 3291: 3290: 3283: 3277: 3276: 3266: 3256: 3224: 3218: 3217: 3215: 3205: 3196:(6): 1349–1359. 3181: 3175: 3174: 3164: 3154: 3136: 3112: 3103: 3102: 3074: 3058: 3047: 3046: 3036: 3010: 2986: 2980: 2979: 2953: 2951:cond-mat/9811336 2933: 2927: 2926: 2900: 2860: 2851: 2846:Population cycle 2831: 2779: 2764: 2752: 2737: 2725: 2710: 2698: 2683: 2570: 2569: 2554: 2553: 2542: 2541: 2487: 2453: 2451:cond-mat/9904326 2444:(6): 1240–1243. 2432: 2413:10.1038/35035023 2398: 2396:cond-mat/0009448 2377: 2343: 2341:cond-mat/9805158 2219:Crowd simulation 2204: 2203: 2192: 2191: 2180: 2179: 2152: 2151:on 20 July 2011. 2150: 2144:. Archived from 2127: 2110:(5411): 99–101. 2101: 2062:Animal migration 1919: 1907: 1891: 1880:escape responses 1858:Spring produces 1817:Hunting copepods 1723: 1722: 1711: 1710: 1686: 1652: 1634: 1612:Eel life history 1552: 1551: 1540: 1539: 1505:passenger pigeon 1501:Central American 1461: 1456: 1455: 1444: 1443: 1440:Common starlings 1438: 1402:wingtip vortices 1400:from one of the 1308: 1243:Insect migration 1232:Insect migration 1147:Marching locusts 1081:Midges, such as 1069:) swarming at a 937: 874: 853:molecular motors 757:best local value 682: 681: 670: 669: 655: 629: 627:adap-org/9507003 576: 575: 564: 563: 508:cellular robotic 446:. An example of 401: 381: 354:Autonomous agent 249: 248: 237: 236: 227:Boids simulation 225: 224: 213: 212: 127:earthquake swarm 21: 9978: 9977: 9973: 9972: 9971: 9969: 9968: 9967: 9938:Group processes 9933:Aquatic ecology 9918: 9917: 9916: 9911: 9830: 9792: 9747: 9699: 9567: 9558: 9423: 9418: 9345: 9303:(3–4): 71–140. 9297:Physics Reports 9136: 9131: 9130: 9119: 9115: 9099: 9098: 9090: 9086: 9068: 9064: 9060:, 5 March 2009. 9053: 9049: 9039: 9037: 9033: 9032: 9028: 9016: 9012: 9005: 8989: 8985: 8924: 8920: 8869: 8865: 8856: 8854: 8846: 8842: 8791: 8787: 8776: 8772: 8740: 8734: 8730: 8719: 8715: 8705: 8703: 8693: 8689: 8679: 8677: 8668: 8667: 8663: 8653: 8651: 8647: 8646: 8642: 8629: 8628: 8624: 8611: 8610: 8606: 8575: 8568: 8558: 8557: 8553: 8496: 8492: 8488:, 10 July 2009. 8481: 8477: 8436: 8432: 8377: 8373: 8342: 8338: 8334:, 1 April 2008. 8329:Wayback Machine 8320: 8316: 8310:Open University 8307:Wayback Machine 8297: 8293: 8283: 8281: 8268: 8264: 8254: 8252: 8248: 8242: 8223: 8215: 8211: 8202: 8201: 8197: 8191:Wayback Machine 8181: 8177: 8130:(6637): 47–50. 8120: 8116: 8108: 8051: 8045: 8041: 8033: 8011:10.1038/419131a 7976: 7970: 7966: 7921: 7917: 7901: 7900: 7888: 7874: 7870: 7831: 7827: 7764: 7760: 7747: 7743: 7733:Wayback Machine 7724: 7720: 7708: 7704: 7694: 7692: 7677: 7673: 7636: 7632: 7601: 7597: 7587: 7585: 7575: 7571: 7552: 7548: 7511:Current Biology 7503: 7499: 7491: 7471:(11): 2000–10. 7460: 7450: 7446: 7434: 7425: 7412: 7408: 7401: 7383: 7379: 7372: 7346: 7342: 7305:(4595): 433–5. 7289: 7285: 7280: 7276: 7260: 7256: 7217: 7213: 7174:(10): 881–884. 7168:Current Biology 7163: 7157: 7153: 7145: 7122: 7116: 7112: 7101: 7097: 7084: 7080: 7075: 7071: 7064: 7050: 7046: 7014: 7008: 7004: 6973: 6969: 6961: 6957: 6912:Current Biology 6904: 6900: 6892:on 6 July 2010. 6889: 6832: 6826: 6822: 6783: 6779: 6726: 6722: 6715:Washington Post 6710:Wayback Machine 6700: 6696: 6686: 6684: 6675: 6674: 6670: 6658: 6654: 6599: 6595: 6546: 6542: 6530: 6526: 6497:(5914): 594–5. 6487: 6483: 6442: 6438: 6429: 6428: 6424: 6410: 6406: 6387: 6383: 6373: 6371: 6356: 6352: 6319: 6315: 6305: 6303: 6295: 6294: 6290: 6253: 6249: 6199: 6193: 6189: 6174:10.2307/3494597 6158: 6154: 6107: 6103: 6074: 6070: 6031: 6027: 5980: 5976: 5966: 5964: 5960: 5921: 5915: 5911: 5903: 5899: 5893:Wayback Machine 5883: 5879: 5844: 5840: 5833: 5811: 5807: 5752: 5748: 5719:(12): 579–581. 5708: 5702: 5698: 5674:10.1.1.161.9541 5649: 5645: 5600: 5596: 5587: 5580: 5570: 5547:10.1.1.560.5229 5521: 5482: 5478: 5421: 5417: 5360: 5356: 5309:(6637): 47–50. 5299: 5295: 5276: 5272: 5240:physics/0605053 5223: 5219: 5170: 5166: 5127: 5123: 5100: 5093: 5044: 5040: 5009: 5005: 5000:on 3 July 2011. 4997: 4962: 4956: 4952: 4936:Feare C (1984) 4935: 4931: 4878: 4874: 4863: 4859: 4812: 4808: 4761: 4757: 4751:genevalunch.com 4748:Wayback Machine 4739: 4735: 4709: 4703: 4699: 4689: 4687: 4686:on 16 July 2011 4683: 4672: 4666: 4662: 4655: 4641: 4637: 4628: 4624: 4613: 4609: 4598: 4594: 4545: 4541: 4531: 4529: 4528:on 18 July 2011 4525: 4494: 4488: 4484: 4474: 4472: 4468: 4421: 4415: 4411: 4362: 4358: 4296: 4289: 4283:Wayback Machine 4274: 4270: 4259: 4255: 4250: 4246: 4237: 4233: 4224: 4220: 4212: 4208: 4199: 4198: 4194: 4187: 4168:10.1.1.193.5047 4154: 4148: 4144: 4095: 4091: 4042: 4038: 4027: 4023: 3991: 3985: 3978: 3941: 3937: 3932: 3928: 3896: 3890: 3883: 3874: 3870: 3860: 3858: 3849: 3848: 3844: 3781: 3777: 3724: 3720: 3680: 3674: 3670: 3620: 3614: 3610: 3565: 3561: 3516: 3512: 3473: 3469: 3437:10.1.1.108.3956 3424:Artificial Life 3416: 3412: 3397: 3371: 3367: 3312: 3308: 3299: 3298: 3294: 3285: 3284: 3280: 3225: 3221: 3182: 3178: 3113: 3106: 3091: 3072:10.1.1.103.7187 3059: 3050: 2987: 2983: 2944:(8): L99–L105. 2934: 2930: 2923: 2901: 2894: 2889: 2882:simultaneously. 2880:synchronization 2864:Swirlonic state 2858: 2849: 2829: 2816: 2790: 2783: 2780: 2771: 2765: 2756: 2753: 2744: 2738: 2729: 2726: 2717: 2711: 2702: 2701:A swarm of bees 2699: 2690: 2684: 2675: 2644: 2630: 2567: 2551: 2545:External videos 2510: 2500: 2494: 2334:(6637): 47–50. 2233:generate crowds 2221: 2201: 2189: 2183:External images 2165:Police protect 2159: 2148: 2125:10.1.1.560.5229 2099: 2064: 2050: 2026: 2016: 1981: 1965: 1941:Antarctic krill 1927: 1920: 1911: 1908: 1899: 1892: 1819: 1805: 1750: 1720: 1709: 1699: 1693: 1659:10.2307/1543482 1650:10.1.1.116.1548 1632: 1624:, June:114–123. 1614: 1549: 1524: 1518: 1513: 1460: 1453: 1447:External videos 1429: 1372: 1366: 1348: 1341: 1319: 1303: 1302: 1291: 1283:circadian clock 1240: 1234: 1209: 1149: 1143: 1108: 1079: 1055: 1047: 1024: 1016:Main articles: 1006: 926: 924: 906: 867: 865: 849:bacteria swarms 801: 790: 774:Hamilton's rule 770: 725: 719: 705:neighbourhood. 693:The concept of 686: 679: 673:External videos 668: 662: 573: 562: 556: 536: 481: 475: 463: 457: 440: 434: 429: 408: 398: 360: 342: 336: 316: 246: 234: 222: 216:External images 199:metric distance 191: 183: 177: 160:(murmuration). 158:starling flocks 52:Swarm behaviour 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9976: 9966: 9965: 9960: 9955: 9950: 9945: 9940: 9935: 9930: 9913: 9912: 9910: 9909: 9904: 9899: 9894: 9889: 9887:Quorum sensing 9884: 9879: 9874: 9869: 9864: 9859: 9854: 9849: 9844: 9838: 9836: 9835:Related topics 9832: 9831: 9829: 9828: 9823: 9821:Swarm robotics 9818: 9813: 9808: 9802: 9800: 9798:Swarm robotics 9794: 9793: 9791: 9790: 9785: 9780: 9779: 9778: 9768: 9763: 9757: 9755: 9749: 9748: 9746: 9745: 9740: 9735: 9730: 9725: 9720: 9715: 9709: 9707: 9701: 9700: 9698: 9697: 9692: 9691: 9690: 9689: 9688: 9673: 9672: 9671: 9666: 9656: 9655: 9654: 9649: 9644: 9639: 9632:Fish migration 9629: 9627:Cell migration 9624: 9623: 9622: 9617: 9610:Bird migration 9607: 9606: 9605: 9603:coded wire tag 9600: 9599: 9598: 9588: 9577: 9575: 9569: 9568: 9561: 9559: 9557: 9556: 9551: 9546: 9541: 9540: 9539: 9529: 9528: 9527: 9522: 9512: 9511: 9510: 9500: 9499: 9498: 9496:feeding frenzy 9488: 9483: 9478: 9477: 9476: 9466: 9465: 9464: 9459: 9449: 9444: 9439: 9433: 9431: 9425: 9424: 9417: 9416: 9409: 9402: 9394: 9388: 9387: 9386: 9385: 9380: 9375: 9370: 9351: 9344: 9343:External links 9341: 9340: 9339: 9292: 9275: 9258: 9242: 9225: 9209: 9192: 9175: 9154: 9135: 9132: 9129: 9128: 9126:, 24 May 2005. 9124:New York Times 9113: 9084: 9062: 9047: 9026: 9010: 9003: 8983: 8918: 8883:(1): 406–414. 8863: 8840: 8785: 8770: 8728: 8713: 8687: 8661: 8640: 8622: 8604: 8585:(4): 287–300. 8566: 8551: 8490: 8475: 8430: 8371: 8336: 8314: 8291: 8262: 8240: 8209: 8195: 8175: 8114: 8039: 7964: 7915: 7886: 7868: 7841:(7): 402–408. 7825: 7758: 7741: 7718: 7702: 7691:on 26 May 2010 7671: 7630: 7595: 7569: 7546: 7497: 7444: 7423: 7406: 7399: 7377: 7370: 7362:Fischer Verlag 7340: 7283: 7274: 7254: 7211: 7151: 7110: 7095: 7078: 7069: 7062: 7044: 7025:(1): 251–261. 7002: 6967: 6955: 6898: 6820: 6777: 6720: 6694: 6668: 6652: 6613:(14): 5464–9. 6593: 6564:(6): 649–656. 6558:Insect Science 6540: 6524: 6481: 6436: 6422: 6404: 6381: 6370:on 4 July 2008 6350: 6337:(2): 191–197. 6313: 6288: 6247: 6216:10.1086/679614 6210:(3): 417–432. 6187: 6152: 6101: 6068: 6041:(6): 417–424. 6025: 5974: 5932:(5): 511–520. 5909: 5897: 5884:Milius, Susan 5877: 5838: 5831: 5805: 5766:(11): 6575–9. 5746: 5696: 5659:(6): 751–759. 5643: 5594: 5578: 5576: 5575: 5514: 5492: 5476: 5415: 5354: 5293: 5270: 5217: 5164: 5121: 5091: 5038: 5019:(4): 359–374. 5003: 4950: 4929: 4872: 4857: 4806: 4775:(5): 1000615. 4755: 4733: 4697: 4660: 4653: 4635: 4622: 4607: 4592: 4555:(44): 445001. 4539: 4505:(1): 170–244. 4482: 4409: 4372:(1–4): 17–29. 4356: 4287: 4268: 4253: 4244: 4231: 4218: 4206: 4192: 4185: 4142: 4099:Bull Math Biol 4089: 4067:10.1.1.88.3071 4052:(1): 152–174. 4036: 4021: 4002:(5): 699–720. 3976: 3935: 3926: 3907:(1): 136–149. 3881: 3868: 3857:on 3 July 2016 3842: 3775: 3718: 3668: 3608: 3559: 3510: 3483:(2): 213–225. 3467: 3430:(2): 191–209. 3410: 3395: 3365: 3306: 3292: 3278: 3219: 3176: 3104: 3089: 3048: 3001:(9): 691–696. 2995:Nature Physics 2981: 2928: 2921: 2891: 2890: 2888: 2885: 2884: 2883: 2873: 2867: 2861: 2852: 2843: 2837: 2832: 2823: 2815: 2812: 2811: 2810: 2803: 2789: 2786: 2785: 2784: 2781: 2774: 2772: 2766: 2759: 2757: 2754: 2747: 2745: 2739: 2732: 2730: 2727: 2720: 2718: 2712: 2705: 2703: 2700: 2693: 2691: 2685: 2678: 2674: 2671: 2640:Main article: 2629: 2626: 2579: 2578: 2574:Nature Video, 2563: 2562: 2547: 2546: 2537:swarm robotics 2521:Radhika Nagpal 2498:Swarm robotics 2496:Main article: 2493: 2490: 2489: 2488: 2433: 2378: 2292:Herd behaviour 2238:Batman Returns 2209: 2208: 2197: 2196: 2185: 2184: 2158: 2155: 2154: 2153: 2077:) control the 2058:Herd behaviour 2049: 2046: 2015: 2012: 2004:soil nutrients 1989:Erasmus Darwin 1980: 1977: 1964: 1961: 1929: 1928: 1921: 1914: 1912: 1909: 1902: 1900: 1893: 1886: 1804: 1801: 1784:feeding frenzy 1749: 1746: 1728: 1727: 1716: 1715: 1714:External image 1697:Fish migration 1695:Main article: 1692: 1691:Fish migration 1689: 1688: 1687: 1643:(3): 296–305. 1625: 1557: 1556: 1545: 1544: 1543:External image 1520:Main article: 1517: 1514: 1512: 1509: 1468: 1467: 1449: 1448: 1364:Bird migration 1362:Main article: 1347: 1346:Bird migration 1344: 1315:Main article: 1290: 1287: 1267:bird migration 1230:Main article: 1208: 1205: 1179:damaging crops 1169:of the family 1157:desert locusts 1142: 1139: 1107: 1104: 1078: 1075: 1054: 1051: 1046: 1043: 1018:Bees algorithm 1005: 1002: 905: 902: 890:self-organized 864: 863:Social insects 861: 824:spiny lobsters 796: 789: 786: 769: 766: 721:Main article: 718: 715: 689: 688: 675: 674: 664:Main article: 661: 658: 657: 656: 609: 606: 603: 581: 580: 569: 568: 567:External image 558:Main article: 555: 552: 535: 532: 496:self-organized 477:Main article: 474: 471: 459:Main article: 456: 453: 436:Main article: 433: 430: 407: 404: 403: 402: 396: 379:10.1.1.87.8022 358:Quorum sensing 338:Main article: 335: 332: 315: 312: 279:Craig Reynolds 271: 270: 267: 264: 254: 253: 242: 241: 230: 229: 218: 217: 190: 187: 176: 173: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9975: 9964: 9961: 9959: 9956: 9954: 9951: 9949: 9946: 9944: 9941: 9939: 9936: 9934: 9931: 9929: 9926: 9925: 9923: 9908: 9905: 9903: 9900: 9898: 9895: 9893: 9890: 9888: 9885: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9875: 9873: 9870: 9868: 9865: 9863: 9860: 9858: 9855: 9853: 9850: 9848: 9845: 9843: 9840: 9839: 9837: 9833: 9827: 9824: 9822: 9819: 9817: 9814: 9812: 9809: 9807: 9804: 9803: 9801: 9799: 9795: 9789: 9786: 9784: 9781: 9777: 9774: 9773: 9772: 9769: 9767: 9764: 9762: 9761:Active matter 9759: 9758: 9756: 9754: 9750: 9744: 9741: 9739: 9736: 9734: 9731: 9729: 9726: 9724: 9721: 9719: 9716: 9714: 9711: 9710: 9708: 9706: 9702: 9696: 9693: 9687: 9684: 9683: 9682: 9679: 9678: 9677: 9674: 9670: 9667: 9665: 9662: 9661: 9660: 9657: 9653: 9650: 9648: 9645: 9643: 9640: 9638: 9637:diel vertical 9635: 9634: 9633: 9630: 9628: 9625: 9621: 9618: 9616: 9613: 9612: 9611: 9608: 9604: 9601: 9597: 9594: 9593: 9592: 9589: 9587: 9584: 9583: 9582: 9579: 9578: 9576: 9574: 9570: 9565: 9555: 9552: 9550: 9547: 9545: 9542: 9538: 9535: 9534: 9533: 9530: 9526: 9523: 9521: 9518: 9517: 9516: 9513: 9509: 9506: 9505: 9504: 9501: 9497: 9494: 9493: 9492: 9489: 9487: 9484: 9482: 9479: 9475: 9474:herd behavior 9472: 9471: 9470: 9467: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9454: 9453: 9450: 9448: 9445: 9443: 9440: 9438: 9435: 9434: 9432: 9430: 9426: 9422: 9415: 9410: 9408: 9403: 9401: 9396: 9395: 9392: 9384: 9383:Propp Circles 9381: 9379: 9376: 9374: 9371: 9368: 9365: 9364: 9362: 9358: 9357: 9352: 9350: 9347: 9346: 9336: 9332: 9328: 9324: 9320: 9316: 9311: 9306: 9302: 9298: 9293: 9290: 9286: 9282: 9281: 9276: 9273: 9269: 9265: 9264: 9259: 9257: 9253: 9249: 9248: 9243: 9240: 9236: 9232: 9231: 9226: 9224: 9220: 9216: 9215: 9210: 9207: 9203: 9199: 9198: 9193: 9190: 9186: 9183:Basic Books. 9182: 9181: 9176: 9173: 9169: 9165: 9164: 9159: 9155: 9152: 9148: 9144: 9143: 9138: 9137: 9125: 9122: 9117: 9109: 9103: 9095: 9088: 9082: 9078: 9074: 9073: 9066: 9059: 9058:The Economist 9056: 9051: 9036: 9030: 9023: 9019: 9014: 9006: 9000: 8996: 8995: 8987: 8979: 8975: 8970: 8965: 8961: 8957: 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8125: 8118: 8107: 8103: 8099: 8095: 8091: 8087: 8083: 8079: 8075: 8070: 8065: 8061: 8057: 8050: 8043: 8032: 8028: 8024: 8020: 8016: 8012: 8008: 8004: 8000: 7995: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7975: 7968: 7960: 7956: 7952: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7935:(3): 149–56. 7934: 7930: 7926: 7919: 7911: 7905: 7897: 7893: 7889: 7887:9780199539543 7883: 7879: 7872: 7864: 7860: 7856: 7852: 7848: 7844: 7840: 7836: 7829: 7821: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7803: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7785: 7781: 7778:(1): e29759. 7777: 7773: 7769: 7762: 7754: 7753: 7745: 7738: 7734: 7730: 7727: 7722: 7715: 7712: 7706: 7690: 7686: 7682: 7675: 7666: 7661: 7657: 7653: 7649: 7645: 7641: 7634: 7626: 7622: 7618: 7614: 7610: 7606: 7599: 7584: 7580: 7573: 7566: 7562: 7561: 7556: 7553:Howard, D.: " 7550: 7542: 7538: 7533: 7528: 7524: 7520: 7516: 7512: 7508: 7501: 7490: 7486: 7482: 7478: 7474: 7470: 7466: 7459: 7457: 7448: 7442: 7438: 7432: 7430: 7428: 7420: 7416: 7410: 7402: 7396: 7391: 7390: 7381: 7373: 7367: 7363: 7359: 7355: 7351: 7344: 7336: 7332: 7328: 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Elselvier. 7055: 7048: 7040: 7036: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7013: 7006: 6998: 6994: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6971: 6964: 6959: 6951: 6947: 6943: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6925: 6921: 6917: 6913: 6909: 6902: 6896: 6888: 6884: 6880: 6876: 6872: 6868: 6864: 6860: 6856: 6851: 6846: 6842: 6838: 6831: 6824: 6816: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6800: 6796: 6792: 6788: 6781: 6773: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6755: 6751: 6747: 6743: 6739: 6735: 6731: 6724: 6717: 6716: 6711: 6707: 6704: 6698: 6682: 6678: 6672: 6666: 6665:0-394-51914-0 6662: 6656: 6648: 6644: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6597: 6589: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6571: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6553: 6544: 6537: 6536:New Scientist 6533: 6528: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6496: 6492: 6485: 6477: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6449: 6440: 6432: 6426: 6419: 6416: 6415: 6408: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6385: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6354: 6345: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6326: 6317: 6302: 6298: 6292: 6283: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6251: 6243: 6239: 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4646: 4639: 4632: 4626: 4618: 4611: 4603: 4596: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4563: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4543: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4493: 4486: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4420: 4413: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4380: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4360: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4319: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4305: 4300: 4294: 4292: 4284: 4280: 4277: 4272: 4264: 4257: 4248: 4241: 4235: 4228: 4222: 4215: 4210: 4202: 4196: 4188: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4160: 4153: 4146: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4113: 4112:q-bio/0504001 4108: 4104: 4100: 4093: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4068: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4040: 4034: 4031: 4025: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3990: 3983: 3981: 3971: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3939: 3930: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3895: 3888: 3886: 3878: 3872: 3856: 3852: 3846: 3838: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3803: 3798: 3795:(9): 150135. 3794: 3790: 3786: 3779: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3722: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3679: 3672: 3664: 3660: 3655: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3619: 3612: 3604: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3563: 3555: 3551: 3546: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3524:Proc Biol Sci 3521: 3514: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3471: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3438: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3414: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3396:9781450319638 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3369: 3361: 3357: 3352: 3347: 3342: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3310: 3302: 3296: 3288: 3282: 3274: 3270: 3265: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3239:(8): e22479. 3238: 3234: 3230: 3223: 3214: 3209: 3204: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3180: 3172: 3168: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3135: 3130: 3127:(4): 1232–7. 3126: 3122: 3118: 3111: 3109: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3073: 3068: 3064: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3044: 3040: 3035: 3030: 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2324: 2323: 2322: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2307: 2303: 2302: 2301:The Economist 2297: 2293: 2289: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2269: 2267: 2263: 2257: 2255: 2251: 2249: 2244: 2240: 2239: 2234: 2230: 2225: 2220: 2216: 2207: 2198: 2195: 2186: 2181: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2163: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2126: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2098: 2093: 2092: 2087: 2080: 2076: 2075:Border Collie 2072: 2068: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2045: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2025: 2021: 2011: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1990: 1986: 1976: 1974: 1970: 1969:phytoplankton 1960: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1925: 1918: 1913: 1906: 1901: 1897: 1890: 1885: 1884: 1883: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1864:phytoplankton 1861: 1856: 1854: 1850: 1845: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1818: 1809: 1800: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1779: 1777: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1759: 1754: 1745: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1726: 1717: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1698: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1651: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1631: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1616: 1615: 1613: 1608: 1604: 1602: 1598: 1597:golden shiner 1594: 1589: 1587: 1583: 1578: 1574: 1572: 1568: 1563: 1555: 1546: 1541: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1523: 1508: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1477: 1475: 1465: 1459: 1450: 1445: 1427: 1425: 1420: 1416: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1389: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1371: 1365: 1357: 1352: 1343: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1327:Bird landings 1324: 1323:Flock (birds) 1318: 1311: 1307: 1300: 1295: 1286: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1270: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1239: 1233: 1226: 1223:, where they 1222: 1218: 1213: 1204: 1200: 1198: 1197: 1191: 1186: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1158: 1153: 1148: 1138: 1136: 1135:critical mass 1132: 1128: 1122: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1103: 1101: 1100: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1085: 1074: 1072: 1068: 1067: 1061: 1050: 1042: 1040: 1039: 1034: 1029: 1023: 1019: 1010: 1001: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 979: 974: 972: 968: 964: 961: 956: 952: 944: 943: 923: 919: 915: 911: 901: 899: 895: 891: 887: 879: 860: 858: 854: 850: 846: 845:insect swarms 842: 838: 833: 831: 830: 825: 821: 817: 813: 812: 811:Ampyx priscus 808: 800: 799:Ampyx priscus 794: 785: 783: 779: 775: 765: 763: 758: 754: 750: 746: 745:problem space 741: 737: 733: 729: 724: 714: 712: 706: 703: 700: 696: 685: 676: 671: 667: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 628: 623: 619: 615: 610: 607: 604: 601: 600: 599: 597: 592: 588: 579: 570: 565: 561: 551: 549: 545: 541: 531: 527: 525: 520: 516: 511: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 492:decentralized 489: 485: 480: 470: 468: 462: 452: 449: 445: 439: 428: 424: 417: 412: 399: 393: 389: 385: 380: 375: 371: 367: 362: 361: 359: 355: 351: 347: 341: 331: 329: 325: 321: 311: 309: 303: 301: 297: 293: 292:lateral lines 289: 283: 280: 276: 268: 265: 262: 261: 260: 252: 243: 240: 231: 228: 219: 214: 208: 204: 200: 195: 186: 182: 172: 170: 166: 161: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 142:active matter 139: 135: 130: 128: 124: 120: 116: 115: 110: 109:Phytoplankton 106: 105: 101: 96: 92: 91: 86: 82: 81: 76: 71: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 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Retrieved 5958:the original 5929: 5925: 5912: 5900: 5880: 5855: 5851: 5848:Apis dorsata 5847: 5841: 5816: 5808: 5763: 5759: 5749: 5716: 5712: 5699: 5656: 5652: 5646: 5611: 5607: 5597: 5589: 5568:the original 5529: 5525: 5503: 5499: 5488: 5486:Swarm Theory 5479: 5428: 5424: 5418: 5367: 5363: 5357: 5306: 5302: 5296: 5279: 5273: 5233:(1): 84–95. 5230: 5226: 5220: 5177: 5173: 5167: 5134: 5130: 5124: 5107: 5103: 5051: 5047: 5041: 5016: 5012: 5006: 4995:the original 4966: 4953: 4938:The Starling 4937: 4932: 4892:(1): 14941. 4889: 4885: 4875: 4867: 4860: 4819: 4815: 4809: 4772: 4769:PLOS Biology 4768: 4758: 4750: 4736: 4717: 4713: 4700: 4688:. Retrieved 4681:the original 4676: 4663: 4644: 4638: 4625: 4616: 4610: 4601: 4595: 4552: 4548: 4542: 4530:. Retrieved 4523:the original 4502: 4498: 4485: 4473:. Retrieved 4466:the original 4429: 4425: 4412: 4369: 4365: 4359: 4308: 4302: 4271: 4265:. MIT Press. 4262: 4256: 4247: 4239: 4234: 4226: 4221: 4209: 4195: 4158: 4145: 4102: 4098: 4092: 4049: 4045: 4039: 4032: 4029: 4024: 3999: 3995: 3952: 3949:Scholarpedia 3948: 3938: 3929: 3904: 3900: 3871: 3859:. Retrieved 3855:the original 3845: 3792: 3788: 3778: 3735: 3731: 3721: 3691:(1): 24–30. 3688: 3684: 3671: 3628: 3624: 3611: 3576: 3572: 3562: 3527: 3523: 3513: 3480: 3476: 3470: 3427: 3423: 3413: 3378: 3368: 3323: 3319: 3309: 3295: 3281: 3236: 3232: 3222: 3193: 3189: 3179: 3124: 3120: 3062: 2998: 2994: 2984: 2941: 2937: 2931: 2904: 2876:Swarmalators 2870:Traffic wave 2799:mass suicide 2664: 2655: 2650: 2645: 2622: 2582: 2575: 2559: 2530: 2504:Ant robotics 2441: 2437: 2386: 2382: 2331: 2327: 2299: 2290: 2277:traffic wave 2273:traffic flow 2270: 2258: 2250:film trilogy 2247: 2236: 2226: 2222: 2167:Nick Altrock 2146:the original 2107: 2103: 2034:myxobacteria 2027: 1994: 1984: 1982: 1966: 1963:Algal blooms 1933:carbon cycle 1930: 1862:of swarming 1857: 1846: 1820: 1780: 1762: 1738:Agulhas Bank 1731: 1640: 1636: 1621: 1605: 1590: 1579: 1575: 1573:efficiency. 1571:hydrodynamic 1564: 1560: 1478: 1471: 1390: 1373: 1342: 1271: 1241: 1201: 1194: 1187: 1167:grasshoppers 1161: 1123: 1109: 1097: 1082: 1080: 1064: 1056: 1048: 1038:Apis dorsata 1036: 1033:waggle dance 1025: 978:ant colonies 975: 965: 948: 940: 922:Ant robotics 896:, a form of 883: 859:and people. 855:, quadruped 841:fish schools 834: 827: 809: 804: 798: 771: 726: 707: 701: 699:Tamás Vicsek 692: 687:– needs Java 620:(3–4): 185. 617: 613: 591:Marco Dorigo 584: 537: 528: 512: 504:Gerardo Beni 482: 464: 441: 365: 322:to simulate 317: 304: 288:hydrodynamic 284: 272: 257: 184: 162: 131: 113: 103: 99: 88: 84: 78: 74: 72: 63: 55: 51: 50: 36: 9862:Eusociality 9811:Microbotics 9681:butterflies 9652:sardine run 9586:altitudinal 9508:pack hunter 9359:– requires 9040:3 September 8938:(1): 3260. 7755:. P. Byrne. 7650:(1): 1–14. 7577:D. Howard. 7517:(3): 83–4. 6977:J. Ornithol 6306:19 November 6168:(1): 4–17. 5967:14 December 5886:Swarm Savvy 5614:: 581–599. 5013:Ecol. Model 4690:15 December 4238:M. Dorigo, 3955:(9): 1462. 3326:(1): 6618. 2826:Dyson swarm 2740:A swarm of 2607:swarm, the 2000:root apexes 1996:Plant roots 1973:algal bloom 1949:carbon sink 1896:ram feeding 1872:forage fish 1868:zooplankton 1849:coral reefs 1842:exoskeleton 1826:crustaceans 1769:crustaceans 1742:sardine run 1703:Sardine run 1599:(a kind of 1511:Marine life 1410:V formation 1388:predation. 1331:Bird strike 1259:butterflies 1251:dragonflies 1215:Cluster of 1111:Cockroaches 1106:Cockroaches 994:biomimetics 986:distributed 984:to produce 949:Individual 837:bird flocks 308:topological 203:fish school 201:model of a 154:superfluids 123:robot swarm 85:murmuration 73:As a term, 43:A flock of 9922:Categories 9776:clustering 9669:philopatry 9647:salmon run 9642:Lessepsian 9266:Springer. 9233:Springer. 9145:Springer. 8857:7 February 8680:28 October 8654:28 October 8352:(1): 3–8. 7695:8 December 6414:Locustidae 6325:Culicoides 6267:(3): 184. 6225:1885/13166 4549:J. Phys. A 2887:References 2535:is called 2502:See also: 2311:smart card 2213:See also: 2071:Sheep dogs 2052:See also: 2018:See also: 1922:Swarms of 1830:planktonic 1815:See also: 1707:Salmon run 1701:See also: 1637:Biol. Bull 1610:See also: 1586:imprinting 1491:, and the 1368:See also: 1321:See also: 1236:See also: 1225:overwinter 1185:each day. 1145:See also: 1115:pheromones 1099:Culicoides 1090:lek mating 1028:honey bees 1004:Honey bees 910:Ant colony 908:See also: 878:nematocera 816:conga line 740:simulating 534:Algorithms 421:See also: 344:See also: 179:See also: 9897:Stigmergy 9877:Mutualism 9537:bait ball 9353:From the 9335:119109873 9310:1010.5017 9250:Penguin, 9158:Franks NR 8960:2041-1723 8913:209435036 8897:1936-0851 8835:218976382 8819:1936-0851 8453:0903.1434 7904:cite book 7896:961862730 7802:1932-6203 7485:228567512 7133:: 70–81. 6850:1010.5394 6815:206522416 6687:27 August 5858:: 94–95. 5669:CiteSeerX 5542:CiteSeerX 5227:Physica A 5086:120567147 4562:0907.4688 4366:Physica A 4163:CiteSeerX 4062:CiteSeerX 3861:6 October 3802:1408.1906 3631:: 22–33. 3432:CiteSeerX 3203:0908.2677 3134:0709.1916 3067:CiteSeerX 3008:1303.7097 2742:ladybirds 2613:Centibots 2296:marketing 2120:CiteSeerX 1924:jellyfish 1876:jellyfish 1853:sea grass 1756:Swarming 1645:CiteSeerX 1593:migratory 1582:zebrafish 1535:anchovies 1531:Schooling 1493:Bosphorus 1489:Falsterbo 1485:Gibraltar 1415:Red knots 1394:migratory 1190:serotonin 1171:Acrididae 967:Army ants 960:pheromone 876:Swarm of 851:, molds, 807:trilobite 753:particles 652:120567147 524:emergence 510:systems. 467:stigmergy 461:Stigmergy 455:Stigmergy 438:Emergence 432:Emergence 374:CiteSeerX 324:evolution 104:schooling 95:tetrapods 68:migrating 9826:Symbrion 9788:BIO-LGCA 9591:tracking 9520:ant mill 9462:sort sol 9457:flocking 9421:Swarming 9102:cite web 8978:30131487 8905:31860277 8877:ACS Nano 8827:32463226 8799:ACS Nano 8599:18340816 8538:11028994 8470:18350336 8425:19337369 8385:PLOS ONE 8366:23876486 8325:Archived 8303:Archived 8255:14 April 8187:Archived 8102:14135891 8094:11088392 8019:12226653 7959:34964313 7951:11780785 7863:20621671 7820:22272246 7772:PLOS ONE 7729:Archived 7541:16461267 7335:22161686 7327:17831417 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