Phytoplankton - Knowledge

775: 6617: 1250: 1527: 1589: 1509: 7313: 1769:, or the number of different species within a given area. This increase in plankton diversity is traced to warming ocean temperatures. In addition to species richness changes, the locations where phytoplankton are distributed are expected to shift towards the Earth's poles. Such movement may disrupt ecosystems, because phytoplankton are consumed by zooplankton, which in turn sustain fisheries. This shift in phytoplankton location may also diminish the ability of phytoplankton to store carbon that was emitted by human activities. Human (anthropogenic) changes to phytoplankton impact both natural and economic processes. 1207: 38: 1149: 758: 1047: 1471:, clouds, and climate (NAAMES stands for the North Atlantic Aerosols and Marine Ecosystems Study). The study focused on the sub-arctic region of the North Atlantic Ocean, which is the site of one of Earth's largest recurring phytoplankton blooms. The long history of research in this location, as well as relative ease of accessibility, made the North Atlantic an ideal location to test prevailing scientific hypotheses in an effort to better understand the role of phytoplankton aerosol emissions on Earth's energy budget. 5642: 1517:(A) Annual mean of monthly species richness and (B) month-to-month species turnover projected by SDMs. Latitudinal gradients of (C) richness and (D) turnover. Colored lines (regressions with local polynomial fitting) indicate the means per degree latitude from three different SDM algorithms used (red shading denotes ±1 SD from 1000 Monte Carlo runs that used varying predictors for GAM). Poleward of the thin horizontal lines shown in (C) and (D), the model results cover only <12 or <9 months, respectively. 1758:

variability in phytoplankton production. Moreover, other studies suggest a global increase in oceanic phytoplankton production and changes in specific regions or specific phytoplankton groups. The global Sea Ice Index is declining, leading to higher light penetration and potentially more primary production; however, there are conflicting predictions for the effects of variable mixing patterns and changes in nutrient supply and for productivity trends in polar zones.

1721: 7339: 521: 7327: 828: 1632:. Both utilize phytoplankton as food for the animals being farmed. In mariculture, the phytoplankton is naturally occurring and is introduced into enclosures with the normal circulation of seawater. In aquaculture, phytoplankton must be obtained and introduced directly. The plankton can either be collected from a body of water or cultured, though the former method is seldom used. Phytoplankton is used as a foodstock for the production of 1501: 6945: 1233: 4246: 3919: 3822: 2964: 2616: 1603:

phytoplankton which are in turn fed on by other organisms and so forth until the fourth trophic level is reached with apex predators. Approximately 90% of total carbon is lost between trophic levels due to respiration, detritus, and dissolved organic matter. This makes the remineralization process and nutrient cycling performed by phytoplankton and bacteria important in maintaining efficiency.

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phytoplankton density, particularly during El Nino phases can occur. The sensitivity of phytoplankton to environmental changes is why they are often used as indicators of estuarine and coastal ecological condition and health. To study these events satellite ocean color observations are used to observe these changes. Satellite images help to have a better view of their global distribution.

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have markedly faster turnover rates than trees (days versus decades). Therefore, phytoplankton respond rapidly on a global scale to climate variations. These characteristics are important when one is evaluating the contributions of phytoplankton to carbon fixation and forecasting how this production may change in response to perturbations. Predicting the effects of

1580:, circulation and changes in cloud cover and sea ice, resulting in an increased light supply to the ocean surface. Also, reduced nutrient supply is predicted to co-occur with ocean acidification and warming, due to increased stratification of the water column and reduced mixing of nutrients from the deep water to the surface. 1651:. A 2018 study estimated the nutritional value of natural phytoplankton in terms of carbohydrate, protein and lipid across the world ocean using ocean-colour data from satellites, and found the calorific value of phytoplankton to vary considerably across different oceanic regions and between different time of the year. 676:) of oceans and lakes. In comparison with terrestrial plants, phytoplankton are distributed over a larger surface area, are exposed to less seasonal variation and have markedly faster turnover rates than trees (days versus decades). As a result, phytoplankton respond rapidly on a global scale to climate variations. 831: 830: 835: 834: 829: 2921:

Cavicchioli, Ricardo; Ripple, William J.; Timmis, Kenneth N.; Azam, Farooq; Bakken, Lars R.; Baylis, Matthew; Behrenfeld, Michael J.; Boetius, Antje; Boyd, Philip W.; Classen, Aimée T.; Crowther, Thomas W.; Danovaro, Roberto; Foreman, Christine M.; Huisman, Jef; Hutchins, David A.; Jansson, Janet K.;

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of phytoplankton and seawater has become a fundamental principle to understand marine ecology, biogeochemistry and phytoplankton evolution. However, the Redfield ratio is not a universal value and it may diverge due to the changes in exogenous nutrient delivery and microbial metabolisms in the ocean,

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The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycles in the Equatorial Pacific area can affect phytoplankton. Biochemical and physical changes during ENSO cycles modify the phytoplankton community structure. Also, changes in the structure of the phytoplankton, such as a significant reduction in biomass and

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found the similarity of the phytoplankton's elemental composition to the major dissolved nutrients in the deep ocean. Redfield proposed that the ratio of carbon to nitrogen to phosphorus (106:16:1) in the ocean was controlled by the phytoplankton's requirements, as phytoplankton subsequently release

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McQuatters-Gollop, Abigail; Reid, Philip C.; Edwards, Martin; Burkill, Peter H.; Castellani, Claudia; Batten, Sonia; Gieskes, Winfried; Beare, Doug; Bidigare, Robert R.; Head, Erica; Johnson, Rod; Kahru, Mati; Koslow, J. Anthony; Pena, Angelica (2011). "Is there a decline in marine phytoplankton?".

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Behrenfeld, Michael J.; Hu, Yongxiang; o'Malley, Robert T.; Boss, Emmanuel S.; Hostetler, Chris A.; Siegel, David A.; Sarmiento, Jorge L.; Schulien, Jennifer; Hair, Johnathan W.; Lu, Xiaomei; Rodier, Sharon; Scarino, Amy Jo (2017). "Annual boom–bust cycles of polar phytoplankton biomass revealed by

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Mitra, Aditee; Flynn, Kevin J.; Tillmann, Urban; Raven, John A.; Caron, David; Stoecker, Diane K.; Not, Fabrice; Hansen, Per J.; Hallegraeff, Gustaaf; Sanders, Robert; Wilken, Susanne; McManus, George; Johnson, Mathew; Pitta, Paraskevi; Våge, Selina; Berge, Terje; Calbet, Albert; Thingstad, Frede;

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The compartments influenced by phytoplankton include the atmospheric gas composition, inorganic nutrients, and trace element fluxes as well as the transfer and cycling of organic matter via biological processes (see figure). The photosynthetically fixed carbon is rapidly recycled and reused in the

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Some studies indicate that overall global oceanic phytoplankton density has decreased in the past century, but these conclusions have been questioned because of the limited availability of long-term phytoplankton data, methodological differences in data generation and the large annual and decadal

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on primary productivity is complicated by phytoplankton bloom cycles that are affected by both bottom-up control (for example, availability of essential nutrients and vertical mixing) and top-down control (for example, grazing and viruses). Increases in solar radiation, temperature and freshwater

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fixation (net global primary production of ~50 Pg C per year) and half of the oxygen production despite amounting to only ~1% of global plant biomass. In comparison with terrestrial plants, marine phytoplankton are distributed over a larger surface area, are exposed to less seasonal variation and

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Boyd, P. W.; Jickells, T.; Law, C. S.; Blain, S.; Boyle, E. A.; Buesseler, K. O.; Coale, K. H.; Cullen, J. J.; De Baar, H. J. W.; Follows, M.; Harvey, M.; Lancelot, C.; Levasseur, M.; Owens, N. P. J.; Pollard, R.; Rivkin, R. B.; Sarmiento, J.; Schoemann, V.; Smetacek, V.; Takeda, S.; Tsuda, A.;

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Based on allocation of resources, phytoplankton is classified into three different growth strategies, namely survivalist, bloomer and generalist. Survivalist phytoplankton has a high ratio of N:P (>30) and contains an abundance of resource-acquisition machinery to sustain growth under scarce

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The dynamic stoichiometry shown in unicellular algae reflects their capability to store nutrients in an internal pool, shift between enzymes with various nutrient requirements and alter osmolyte composition. Different cellular components have their own unique stoichiometry characteristics, for

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on the global population of phytoplankton is an area of active research. Changes in the vertical stratification of the water column, the rate of temperature-dependent biological reactions, and the atmospheric supply of nutrients are expected to have important effects on future phytoplankton

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Phytoplankton contribute to not only a basic pelagic marine food web but also to the microbial loop. Phytoplankton are the base of the marine food web and because they do not rely on other organisms for food, they make up the first trophic level. Organisms such as zooplankton feed on these

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NAAMES was designed to target specific phases of the annual phytoplankton cycle: minimum, climax and the intermediary decreasing and increasing biomass, in order to resolve debates on the timing of bloom formations and the patterns driving annual bloom re-creation. The NAAMES project also

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resources. Bloomer phytoplankton has a low N:P ratio (<10), contains a high proportion of growth machinery, and is adapted to exponential growth. Generalist phytoplankton has similar N:P to the Redfield ratio and contain relatively equal resource-acquisition and growth machinery.

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Flynn, Kevin J; Mitra, Aditee; Anestis, Konstantinos; Anschütz, Anna A; Calbet, Albert; Ferreira, Guilherme Duarte; Gypens, Nathalie; Hansen, Per J; John, Uwe; Martin, Jon Lapeyra; Mansour, Joost S; Maselli, Maira; Medić, Nikola; Norlin, Andreas; Not, Fabrice (26 July 2019).

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Behrenfeld, Michael J.; o'Malley, Robert T.; Siegel, David A.; McClain, Charles R.; Sarmiento, Jorge L.; Feldman, Gene C.; Milligan, Allen J.; Falkowski, Paul G.; Letelier, Ricardo M.; Boss, Emmanuel S. (2006). "Climate-driven trends in contemporary ocean productivity".

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Karl, David M.; Koskella, Britt; Mark Welch, David B.; Martiny, Jennifer B. H.; Moran, Mary Ann; Orphan, Victoria J.; Reay, David S.; Remais, Justin V.; Rich, Virginia I.; Singh, Brajesh K.; Stein, Lisa Y.; Stewart, Frank J.; Sullivan, Matthew B.; et al. (2019).

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instance, resource (light or nutrients) acquisition machinery such as proteins and chlorophyll contain a high concentration of nitrogen but low in phosphorus. Meanwhile, growth machinery such as ribosomal RNA contains high nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations.

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Phytoplankton serve as the base of the aquatic food web, providing an essential ecological function for all aquatic life. Under future conditions of anthropogenic warming and ocean acidification, changes in phytoplankton mortality due to changes in rates of

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cultures of less than 1L to several tens of thousands of litres for commercial aquaculture. Regardless of the size of the culture, certain conditions must be provided for efficient growth of plankton. The majority of cultured plankton is marine, and

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Behrenfeld, Michael J.; o'Malley, Robert T.; Boss, Emmanuel S.; Westberry, Toby K.; Graff, Jason R.; Halsey, Kimberly H.; Milligan, Allen J.; Siegel, David A.; Brown, Matthew B. (2016). "Revaluating ocean warming impacts on global phytoplankton".

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of illumination should be approximately 6,500 K, but values from 4,000 K to upwards of 20,000 K have been used successfully. The duration of light exposure should be approximately 16 hours daily; this is the most efficient artificial day length.

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Mitra, Aditee; Caron, David A.; Faure, Emile; Flynn, Kevin J.; Leles, Suzana Gonçalves; Hansen, Per J.; McManus, George B.; Not, Fabrice; do Rosario Gomes, Helga; Santoferrara, Luciana F.; Stoecker, Diane K.; Tillmann, Urban (27 February 2023).

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of phytoplankton. The stoichiometry or elemental composition of phytoplankton is of utmost importance to secondary producers such as copepods, fish and shrimp, because it determines the nutritional quality and influences energy flow through the

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The effects of anthropogenic ocean acidification on phytoplankton growth and community structure has also received considerable attention. The cells of coccolithophore phytoplankton are typically covered in a calcium carbonate shell called a

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Holding, J. M.; Duarte, C. M.; Sanz-Martín, M.; Mesa, E.; Arrieta, J. M.; Chierici, M.; Hendriks, I. E.; García-Corral, L. S.; Regaudie-De-Gioux, A.; Delgado, A.; Reigstad, M.; Wassmann, P.; Agustí, S. (2015). "Temperature dependence of

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De Baar, Hein J. W.; De Jong, Jeroen T. M.; Bakker, Dorothée C. E.; Löscher, Bettina M.; Veth, Cornelis; Bathmann, Uli; Smetacek, Victor (1995). "Importance of iron for plankton blooms and carbon dioxide drawdown in the Southern Ocean".

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The production of phytoplankton under artificial conditions is itself a form of aquaculture. Phytoplankton is cultured for a variety of purposes, including foodstock for other aquacultured organisms, a nutritional supplement for captive

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that is sensitive to ocean acidification. Because of their short generation times, evidence suggests some phytoplankton can adapt to changes in pH induced by increased carbon dioxide on rapid time-scales (months to years).

861:(other small phytoplankton) Opacity indicates concentration of the carbon biomass. In particular, the role of the swirls and filaments (mesoscale features) appear important in maintaining high biodiversity in the ocean. 4720:

Levitan, O.; Rosenberg, G.; Setlik, I.; Setlikova, E.; Grigel, J.; Klepetar, J.; Prasil, O.; Berman-Frank, I. (2007). "Elevated CO2 enhances nitrogen fixation and growth in the marine cyanobacterium Trichodesmium".

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Behrenfeld, Michael J.; Moore, Richard H.; Hostetler, Chris A.; Graff, Jason; Gaube, Peter; Russell, Lynn M.; Chen, Gao; Doney, Scott C.; Giovannoni, Stephen; Liu, Hongyu; Proctor, Christopher (22 March 2019).

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World concentrations of surface ocean chlorophyll as viewed by satellite during the northern spring, averaged from 1998 to 2004. Chlorophyll is a marker for the distribution and abundance of phytoplankton.

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is available. For growth, phytoplankton cells additionally depend on nutrients, which enter the ocean by rivers, continental weathering, and glacial ice meltwater on the poles. Phytoplankton release

832: 1576:. All of these factors are expected to undergo significant changes in the future ocean due to global change. Global warming simulations predict oceanic temperature increase; dramatic changes in 1007:

but a multitude of resources depending on its spectral composition. By that it was found that changes in the spectrum of light alone can alter natural phytoplankton communities even if the same

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Redfield, Alfred C. (1934). "On the Proportions of Organic Derivatives in Sea Water and their Relation to the Composition of Plankton". In Johnstone, James; Daniel, Richard Jellicoe (eds.).

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surface ocean, while a certain fraction of this biomass is exported as sinking particles to the deep ocean, where it is subject to ongoing transformation processes, e.g., remineralization.

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Sarmiento, J. L.; Slater, R.; Barber, R.; Bopp, L.; Doney, S. C.; Hirst, A. C.; Kleypas, J.; Matear, R.; Mikolajewicz, U.; Monfray, P.; Soldatov, V.; Spall, S. A.; Stouffer, R. (2004).

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Engel, Anja; Bange, Hermann W.; Cunliffe, Michael; Burrows, Susannah M.; Friedrichs, Gernot; Galgani, Luisa; Herrmann, Hartmut; Hertkorn, Norbert; Johnson, Martin; Liss, Peter S.;

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are added to the culture medium to facilitate the growth of plankton. A culture must be aerated or agitated in some way to keep plankton suspended, as well as to provide dissolved

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Heinrichs, Mara E.; Mori, Corinna; Dlugosch, Leon (2020). "Complex Interactions Between Aquatic Organisms and Their Chemical Environment Elucidated from Different Perspectives".

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Stomp, Maayke; Huisman, Jef; de Jongh, Floris; Veraart, Annelies J.; Gerla, Daan; Rijkeboer, Machteld; Ibelings, Bas W.; Wollenzien, Ute I. A.; Stal, Lucas J. (November 2004).

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on phytoplankton biodiversity is not well understood. Should greenhouse gas emissions continue rising to high levels by 2100, some phytoplankton models predict an increase in

2205:"From webs, loops, shunts, and pumps to microbial multitasking: Evolving concepts of marine microbial ecology, the mixoplankton paradigm, and implications for a future ocean" 1039:, are able to migrate vertically, they are still incapable of actively moving against currents, so they slowly sink and ultimately fertilize the seafloor with dead cells and 729:

microscopic protists and bacteria that inhabit the upper sunlit layer of marine and fresh water bodies of water on Earth. Paralleling plants on land, phytoplankton undertake

683:. They account for about half of global photosynthetic activity and at least half of the oxygen production, despite amounting to only about 1% of the global plant biomass. 3803:

Righetti, D., Vogt, M., Gruber, N., Psomas, A. and Zimmermann, N.E. (2019) "Global pattern of phytoplankton diversity driven by temperature and environmental variability".

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Steinacher, M.; Joos, F.; Frölicher, T. L.; Bopp, L.; Cadule, P.; Cocco, V.; Doney, S. C.; Gehlen, M.; Lindsay, K.; Moore, J. K.; Schneider, B.; Segschneider, J. (2010).

3096:"Influence of El Niño Southern Oscillation phenomenon on coastal phytoplankton in a mixohaline ecosystem on the southeastern of South America: Río de la Plata estuary" 3039:"Influence of El Niño Southern Oscillation phenomenon on coastal phytoplankton in a mixohaline ecosystem on the southeastern of South America: Río de la Plata estuary" 5288:

Kirchman, David L.; Morán, Xosé Anxelu G.; Ducklow, Hugh (2009). "Microbial growth in the polar oceans – role of temperature and potential impact of climate change".

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Charlson, Robert J.; Lovelock, James E.; Andreae, Meinrat O.; Warren, Stephen G. (1987). "Oceanic phytoplankton, atmospheric sulphur, cloud albedo and climate".

1707:. In addition to constant aeration, most cultures are manually mixed or stirred on a regular basis. Light must be provided for the growth of phytoplankton. The 6771: 1847: 1076:, which are required in relatively large quantities for growth. Their availability in the surface ocean is governed by the balance between the so-called 504: 991:

is possible. During photosynthesis, they assimilate carbon dioxide and release oxygen. If solar radiation is too high, phytoplankton may fall victim to

2443: 1540:. Understanding the response of phytoplankton to changing environmental conditions is a prerequisite to predict future atmospheric concentrations of CO 4304:

McVey, James P., Nai-Hsien Chao, and Cheng-Sheng Lee. CRC Handbook of Mariculture Vol. 1 : Crustacean Aquaculture. New York: CRC Press LLC, 1993.

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of the variable underwater light. This implies different species can use the wavelength of light different efficiently and the light is not a single

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Lohbeck, Kai T.; Riebesell, Ulf; Reusch, Thorsten B. H. (8 April 2012). "Adaptive evolution of a key phytoplankton species to ocean acidification".

2063: 6801: 2037: 2348: 2328: 705:. However, when present in high enough numbers, some varieties may be noticeable as colored patches on the water surface due to the presence of 6250: 5403:

An annotated key to the identification of commonly occurring and dominant genera of Algae observed in the Phytoplankton of the United States

672:, as trees and other plants do on land. This means phytoplankton must have light from the sun, so they live in the well-lit surface layers ( 6293: 1750:

and consequently reduce transport of nutrients from deep water to surface waters, which reduces primary productivity. Conversely, rising CO

774: 6641: 2108:"The Mixoplankton Database (MDB): Diversity of photo-phago-trophic plankton in form, function, and distribution across the global ocean" 1606:

Phytoplankton blooms in which a species increases rapidly under conditions favorable to growth can produce harmful algal blooms (HABs).

6386: 2385:"Defining Planktonic Protist Functional Groups on Mechanisms for Energy and Nutrient Acquisition: Incorporation of Diverse Mixotrophic" 552: 4519: 5331:

Benedetti, Fabio; Vogt, Meike; Elizondo, Urs Hofmann; Righetti, Damiano; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; Gruber, Nicolas (1 September 2021).

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for survival. Areas in the ocean have been identified as having a major lack of some B Vitamins, and correspondingly, phytoplankton.

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into the ocean. Controversy about manipulating the ecosystem and the efficiency of iron fertilization has slowed such experiments.

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Behrenfeld, M.J. and Boss, E.S. (2018) "Student's tutorial on bloom hypotheses in the context of phytoplankton annual cycles".

5430: 5411: 4274: 4229: 3481: 3167: 2254: 1907: 3938:"Marine phytoplankton stoichiometry mediates nonlinear interactions between nutrient supply, temperature, and atmospheric CO 845:

This visualization shows a model simulation of the dominant phytoplankton types averaged over the period 1994–1998. * Red =

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of macronutrients generally available throughout the surface oceans. However, across large areas of the oceans such as the

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Monastersky, Richard (1995). "Iron versus the Greenhouse: Oceanographers Cautiously Explore a Global Warming Therapy".

6796: 2461: 1636:, which are in turn used to feed other organisms. Phytoplankton is also used to feed many varieties of aquacultured 7368: 6431: 6286: 4766:"Contrasting effects of rising CO2 on primary production and ecological stoichiometry at different nutrient levels" 4382: 1249: 1108: 4319:"Distributions of phytoplankton carbohydrate, protein and lipid in the world oceans from satellite ocean colour" 1526: 7258: 545: 4874:

Boyce, Daniel G.; Lewis, Marlon R.; Worm, Boris (2010). "Global phytoplankton decline over the past century".

3548:; Daufresne, Tanguy; Levin, Simon A. (2004). "Optimal nitrogen-to-phosphorus stoichiometry of phytoplankton". 4801: 1468: 408: 3983:"Interactive Effects of Ocean Acidification and Nitrogen-Limitation on the Diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum" 7278: 7263: 6245: 1677: 448: 1482: 819:. This recognition has important consequences for how we view the functioning of the planktonic food web. 7273: 6279: 6170: 5681: 3936:

Moreno, Allison R.; Hagstrom, George I.; Primeau, Francois W.; Levin, Simon A.; Martiny, Adam C. (2018).

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Verspagen, Jolanda M. H.; Van De Waal, Dedmer B.; Finke, Jan F.; Visser, Petra M.; Huisman, Jef (2014).

1161: 37: 6581: 6160: 5661: 5626: 3673: 3501:; Levin, Simon A. (2004). "Phytoplankton growth and stoichiometry under multiple nutrient limitation". 3261: 3158:. In Hallegraeff, Gustaaf M.; Anderson, Donald Mark; Cembella, Allan D.; Enevoldsen, Henrik O. (eds.). 1876: 1467:

to investigated aspects of phytoplankton dynamics in ocean ecosystems, and how such dynamics influence

499: 231: 106: 2712:"Detection of anthropogenic climate change in satellite records of ocean chlorophyll and productivity" 2269: 247: 6889: 6783: 6215: 4765: 3895:"Phytoplankton as Key Mediators of the Biological Carbon Pump: Their Responses to a Changing Climate" 3633:"The North Atlantic Aerosol and Marine Ecosystem Study (NAAMES): Science Motive and Mission Overview" 2356: 1573: 1508: 1340: 730: 538: 463: 236: 2325: 7363: 7342: 7135: 7130: 6426: 5877: 5749: 5736: 3429:

Fanning, Kent A. (1989). "Influence of atmospheric pollution on nutrient limitation in the ocean".

1861: – The ecological observation of high plankton diversity despite competition for few resources 1825: 1820: 1012: 2156:"Mixotrophic protists and a new paradigm for marine ecology: where does plankton research go now?" 7043: 6854: 6748: 6476: 6466: 6155: 6135: 5601: 2688: 1858: 1460: 1224:. Phytoplankton concentrates along the boundaries of the eddies, tracing the motion of the water. 1177:

in the ocean – remarkable due to the small number of links – is that of phytoplankton sustaining

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Phytoplankton form the base of marine and freshwater food webs and are key players in the global

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levels can increase phytoplankton primary production, but only when nutrients are not limiting.

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Hutchins, D. A.; Boyd, P. W. (2016). "Marine phytoplankton and the changing ocean iron cycle".

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was a five-year scientific research program conducted between 2015 and 2019 by scientists from

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and nanoplankton (also referred to as picoflagellates and nanoflagellates), mostly composed of

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Irwin, Andrew J.; Finkel, Zoe V.; Müller-Karger, Frank E.; Troccoli Ghinaglia, Luis (2015).

2541: 7373: 7023: 6985: 6316: 5962: 5762: 5666: 5631: 5449: 5344: 5245: 5186: 5145: 5096: 5041: 4989: 4934: 4883: 4838: 4780: 4730: 4678: 4642: 4601: 4566: 4534: 4483: 4447: 4412: 4330: 4171: 4112: 4053: 3994: 3953: 3857: 3740: 3557: 3510: 3438: 3387: 3277: 3227: 3152: 3107: 3050: 2999: 2882: 2774: 2723: 2553: 2542:"Changes in spectral quality of underwater light alter phytoplankton community composition" 2490: 2284: 2216: 2155: 1941: 1747: 1479:

in order to understand how phytoplankton bloom cycles affect cloud formations and climate.

388: 152: 3678:"The Ocean's Vital Skin: Toward an Integrated Understanding of the Sea Surface Microlayer" 2986:

Masotti, I.; Moulin, C.; Alvain, S.; Bopp, L.; Tagliabue, A.; Antoine, D. (4 March 2011).

2797: 1995:"Exploration of marine phytoplankton: from their historical appreciation to the omics era" 8: 7245: 6899: 6708: 6666: 6436: 6396: 6205: 6140: 5907: 5896: 5773: 5756: 3753: 3728: 2988:"Large-scale shifts in phytoplankton groups in the Equatorial Pacific during ENSO cycles" 1954: 1929: 1852: 1812: – A hypothesised negative feedback loop connecting the marine biota and the climate 1725:

Plot demonstrating increases in phytoplankton species richness with increased temperature

472: 393: 311: 5453: 5348: 5249: 5190: 5149: 5134:"Bridging ocean color observations of the 1980s and 2000s in search of long-term trends" 5100: 5045: 4993: 4938: 4887: 4842: 4784: 4734: 4682: 4646: 4605: 4538: 4487: 4451: 4416: 4334: 4175: 4116: 4057: 3998: 3957: 3861: 3744: 3561: 3514: 3442: 3391: 3281: 3231: 3111: 3054: 3003: 2886: 2778: 2727: 2557: 2494: 2288: 2220: 2107: 1945: 7165: 7160: 7028: 6970: 6864: 6713: 6631: 6516: 6496: 6406: 6349: 5373: 5332: 5313: 5209: 5174: 5114: 5065: 5013: 4958: 4907: 4746: 4702: 4558: 4499: 4359: 4318: 4235: 4076: 4041: 4017: 3982: 3875: 3774: 3581: 3526: 3454: 3411: 3301: 3243: 3200: 2948: 2923: 2850: 2817: 2669: 2577: 2522: 2308: 1975: 1831: 1708: 1572:

The figure gives an overview of the various environmental factors that together affect

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Pierella Karlusich, Juan José; Ibarbalz, Federico M.; Bowler, Chris (3 January 2020).

7175: 7053: 7000: 6919: 6586: 6551: 6491: 6451: 6421: 6391: 6302: 6100: 6095: 6090: 5912: 5831: 5676: 5596: 5521: 5465: 5426: 5407: 5378: 5360: 5305: 5214: 5069: 5057: 5017: 5005: 4950: 4899: 4806: 4742: 4694: 4550: 4364: 4346: 4280: 4270: 4239: 4225: 4140: 4081: 4022: 3846:"Living in a high CO2world: Impacts of global climate change on marine phytoplankton" 3766: 3758: 3709: 3654: 3573: 3522: 3477: 3403: 3357: 3293: 3163: 3133: 3076: 2953: 2898: 2855: 2837: 2813: 2581: 2569: 2514: 2506: 2457: 2424: 2416: 2300: 2232: 2185: 2135: 2127: 2057: 1979: 1967: 1959: 1903: 1554: 1428: 1402: 812: 726: 630: 525: 418: 199: 125: 5317: 4750: 3879: 3778: 3530: 3415: 3204: 3119: 3062: 2312: 7283: 6975: 6879: 6831: 6743: 6636: 6334: 6042: 6022: 5946: 5820: 5767: 5706: 5457: 5368: 5352: 5297: 5253: 5204: 5194: 5175:"Trends in Ocean Colour and Chlorophyll Concentration from 1889 to 2000, Worldwide" 5153: 5118: 5104: 5049: 4997: 4962: 4942: 4925:

MacKas, David L. (2011). "Does blending of chlorophyll data bias temporal trend?".

4911: 4891: 4854: 4846: 4796: 4788: 4738: 4706: 4686: 4650: 4609: 4562: 4542: 4503: 4491: 4455: 4420: 4354: 4338: 4217: 4189: 4179: 4130: 4120: 4071: 4061: 4012: 4002: 3961: 3906: 3865: 3812: 3748: 3699: 3689: 3644: 3610: 3585: 3565: 3518: 3458: 3446: 3395: 3332: 3305: 3285: 3247: 3235: 3192: 3123: 3115: 3066: 3058: 3017: 3007: 2943: 2935: 2890: 2845: 2829: 2792: 2782: 2741: 2731: 2661: 2606: 2561: 2526: 2498: 2449: 2406: 2396: 2380: 2292: 2224: 2175: 2167: 2119: 2016: 2006: 1949: 1797: 1766: 1673: 1324: 1217: 1148: 992: 898: 741:

dissolved in the water. Phytoplankton form the base of — and sustain — the aquatic

734: 710: 571: 120: 79: 5440:

Martin, Ronald; Quigg, Antonietta (2013). "Tiny Plants That Once Ruled the Seas".

4520:"Mesoscale Iron Enrichment Experiments 1993-2005: Synthesis and Future Directions" 1292:. There are about 5,000 known species of marine phytoplankton. How such diversity 1262:

The term phytoplankton encompasses all photoautotrophic microorganisms in aquatic

1046: 47: 7253: 7220: 7081: 7033: 6909: 6884: 6693: 6646: 6571: 6416: 6401: 6150: 6027: 5853: 5837: 5825: 5641: 5566: 5199: 4221: 4007: 3474:

Ecological Stoichiometry: The Biology of Elements from Molecules to the Biosphere

3266:"The case against climate regulation via oceanic phytoplankton sulphur emissions" 2401: 2384: 2332: 1809: 1803: 1566: 1562: 1537: 1432: 1377: 1348: 1320: 1213: 1152: 1120: 1077: 1016: 854: 804: 757: 443: 341: 300: 290: 183: 5492:, a short film narrated by David Attenborough about the varied roles of plankton 3095: 3038: 2763:"Projected 21st century decrease in marine productivity: a multi-model analysis" 2610: 2479:"Adaptive divergence in pigment composition promotes phytoplankton biodiversity" 7117: 7071: 7066: 7038: 7005: 6874: 6733: 6661: 6651: 6501: 6446: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6220: 5951: 5866: 5742: 5401: 5356: 5173:

Wernand, Marcel R.; Van Der Woerd, Hendrik J.; Gieskes, Winfried W. C. (2013).

4383:"Nutrition study reveals instability in world's most important fishing regions" 4250: 3923: 3826: 3545: 3498: 3037:

Sathicqab, María Belén; Bauerac, Delia Elena; Gómez, Nora (15 September 2015).

2968: 2620: 1815: 1762: 1742: 1704: 1700: 1558: 1419: 1398: 1312: 1286: 1093: 1089: 1036: 988: 966: 947: 927: 913: 894: 874: 808: 738: 669: 634: 403: 383: 351: 256: 188: 98: 84: 4342: 3870: 3845: 3022: 2939: 2478: 1873: – Suspension of fine-grained calcium carbonate particles in water bodies 1593:

Role of phytoplankton on various compartments of the marine environment

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Global patterns of monthly phytoplankton species richness and species turnover

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Langley Research Center, NASA, Updated: 6 June 2020. Retrieved: 15 June 2020.

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Arrigo, Kevin R. (2005). "Marine microorganisms and global nutrient cycles".

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In terms of numbers, the most important groups of phytoplankton include the

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Sathicq, María Belén; Bauer, Delia Elena; Gómez, Nora (15 September 2015).

3080: 2957: 2859: 2518: 2428: 2304: 2139: 1993:

Pierella Karlusich, Juan José; Ibarbalz, Federico M; Bowler, Chris (2020).

1971: 1800: – Bacterial component of the plankton that drifts in the water column 1656: 1569:, thereby altering the amount of carbon transported to the ocean interior. 1500: 1456: 1360: 1186: 1073: 816: 746: 680: 398: 346: 336: 276: 172: 147: 74: 69: 4039: 3012: 2987: 2818:"Evolutionary potential of marine phytoplankton under ocean acidification" 2787: 2762: 2736: 2711: 1475:

investigated the quantity, size, and composition of aerosols generated by

7230: 7205: 7200: 7170: 6953: 6929: 6894: 6703: 6606: 6526: 6486: 6339: 6190: 6175: 6125: 5990: 5814: 5611: 5606: 5561: 5333:"Major restructuring of marine plankton assemblages under global warming" 5258: 5233: 5158: 5133: 4850: 4613: 4459: 4424: 4403:

Behrenfeld, Michael J. (2014). "Climate-mediated dance of the plankton".

4184: 4159: 3704: 2707: 1791: 1779: 1629: 1625: 1615: 1267: 1238: 1170: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 984: 961: 943: 939: 878: 803:). Many other organism groups formally named as phytoplankton, including 714: 706: 494: 489: 438: 378: 370: 281: 60: 5301: 5109: 5084: 5053: 5001: 4946: 4895: 4859: 4690: 3569: 3399: 3289: 3128: 3071: 2502: 2411: 2180: 2021: 1720: 1401:

are the more dominant phytoplankton and reflect a larger portion of the

1155:

in phytoplankton triggered by the agitation of waves crashing on a beach

7210: 7145: 6934: 6914: 6698: 6671: 6456: 6369: 6075: 6012: 5941: 5933: 5731: 5726: 5671: 5495: 4135: 4125: 4101:"Productivity of aquatic primary producers under global climate change" 4100: 3911: 3894: 2673: 2204: 1837: 1696: 1689: 1664: 1648: 1389: 1356: 1289: 1182: 1174: 1134: 1116: 906: 850: 791:

Phytoplankton are very diverse, comprising photosynthesizing bacteria (

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Phytoplankton are very diverse, comprising photosynthesizing bacteria (

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of 1.010 to 1.026 may be used as a culture medium. This water must be

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are the chief environmental factors that influence the physiology and

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nutrient composition of phytoplankton drives — and is driven by — the

893:, or other body of water. Phytoplankton account for about half of all 7235: 7140: 6924: 6688: 6681: 6656: 6566: 6271: 6145: 6130: 6070: 6052: 6032: 6007: 5968: 5956: 5796: 4654: 4495: 4264: 4194: 4099:

Häder, Donat-P.; Villafañe, Virginia E.; Helbling, E. Walter (2014).

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particle concentrations are low, can contribute to the population of

1323:, is responsible (in part) for the release of significant amounts of 1293: 1278: 1081: 1069: 973: 955: 931: 815:

but can also eat. These organisms are now more correctly termed

702: 622: 4977: 3729:"Resurrecting the Ecological Underpinnings of Ocean Plankton Blooms" 3265: 2924:"Scientists' warning to humanity: Microorganisms and climate change" 2665: 1544:. Temperature, irradiance and nutrient concentrations, along with CO 1119:. Large-scale experiments have added iron (usually as salts such as 7185: 6995: 6541: 6536: 6461: 6195: 5901: 5860: 5842: 5616: 5553: 5544: 5030: 4667: 4590: 3196: 2974: 2706:

Henson, S. A.; Sarmiento, J. L.; Dunne, J. P.; Bopp, L.; Lima, I.;

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Environmental factors that affect phytoplankton productivity

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nitrogen and phosphorus as they are remineralized. This so-called "

1282: 1263: 1057: 1040: 977: 924: 909: 742: 626: 220: 29: 2599:"Phytoplankton responses to marine climate change–an introduction" 2326:"NASA Satellite Detects Red Glow to Map Global Ocean Plant Health" 2079: 995:. Phytoplankton species feature a large variety of photosynthetic 877:

and must therefore live in the well-lit surface layer (termed the

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Most phytoplankton are too small to be individually seen with the

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