Texas–Indian wars

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his band would be treated honorably, and none charged with any offense. (The arrest and trial of Kiowa leaders in 1871 had made that a real possibility.) However, Sturm carried Mackenzie's personal vow to hunt down every man, woman, and child who refused to yield. Quanah later said he was ready to die but was loath to condemn the women and children to death. Quanah believed Colonel Mackenzie when he promised that if the Quahada did not surrender, every man, woman, and child would be hunted down and killed. Quanah rode to a mesa, where he saw a wolf come toward him, howl and trot away to the northeast. Overhead, an eagle "glided lazily and then whipped his wings in the direction of Fort Sill", as Jacob Sturm reported later. Quanah saw this as a sign, and on June 2, 1875, he led his band to Fort Sill and surrendered. On that day, the Plains Indians were extinct as a separate people, their way of life completely destroyed. Quanah went tirelessly to work to help his people adapt to the Anglo world which had crushed them. Appointed by Mackenzie as sole chief of the Comanches, he worked hard to bring education and the ability to survive in the white man's world to his people. He attempted to keep his people's land together, and when that became politically impossible, he tried to get the best bargain for his people he could.

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particular, had learned very well to counter. Certainly the Spanish, then the Mexicans, and later the Texians had learned that single-shot weapons were not enough to defeat the deadly Comanche light horse, whose mastery of cavalry tactics and mounted bowmanship were renowned. The Comanches' constant movement caused many of their opponents' older single-shot weapons to miss their targets in the chaos of battle. The Comanche could then easily kill their enemies before they had a chance to reload. And though it was understated, the Comanche learned to use single-shot firearms quite well, though they found bows superior in terms of rate of fire. The Comanche put an end to Spanish expansion in North America. They did what no other indigenous peoples had managed, defending their homeland – even expanding their homelands, in the face of the best military forces the Spanish could bring against them. In the late 18th century, the Comanche were said to have stolen every horse in New Mexico. Up until the introduction of repeating rifles and revolvers, weapons and tactics were definitely on the side of the Plains Indians, most especially the Comanche. It was not until the

4168: 1939:, induced the soldiers to quickly retreat. The day after, September 29, the Kotsoteka and Quahadi warriors attacked the military encampment, getting back the horses but not their women and children, so the Comanche prisoners were kept under guard and were transferred to Fort Concho, where they were kept prisoner through the winter. Mackenzie used the captives as a bargaining tool to force the off-reservation Indians back to the reservation, and to force them to free white captives. Mackenzie's stratagem worked, for shortly after the battle Mow-way and Parra-ocoom moved their bands to the vicinity of the Wichita Agency. Nokoni chief Horseback, who had family members among the Indian prisoners, took the initiative in persuading the Comanches to trade stolen livestock and white captives, including Clinton Smith, in exchange for their own women and children. 1729:; Guipago led the warriors to the first counterattack to protect the fleeing women and children. Satanta was said to have sounded bugle calls back to Carson's bugler, confusing their signals. Running low on supplies, Carson ordered his forces to withdraw in the afternoon. The Indians tried to block his retreat by firing the grass and brush down near the river. Carson set back-fires and retreated to higher ground, where the twin howitzers continued to hold off the Indians. When twilight came, Carson ordered part of his scouts to burn the lodges of the first village. The Kiowa-Apache chief Iron Shirt was killed when he refused to leave his tepee. The army declared Carson's mission a victory, despite his having been driven from the field. 1966:

unlike any prior attempts by the Army to pacify this region of the frontier. The "Red River War", as it was called, led to the end of the culture and way of life for the Southern Plains tribes and brought an end to the Plains tribes as a people. The campaign of the Red River War was fought during a time when buffalo hunters were hunting the great American Bison nearly to extinction. Both the bison and the people who lived off it nearly became extinct at the same time There were perhaps 20 engagements between Army units and the Plains Indians during the Red River War. The well-equipped and well-supplied Army simply kept the Indians running, and in the end they ran out of food, ammunition, and the ability to fight any longer.

2022: 1633:, a war party of between 500 and 1,000 Comanche and Kiowa headed by Kotsoteka chief Kuhtsu-tiesuat ("Little Buffalo") raided the middle Brazos River country, destroying 11 farms along the Elm Creek, stealing virtually every cow, horse, and mule in the area, and besieging the citizen stronghold of Fort Murrah. The home guard managed to hold the fort, and, after Kuhtsu-tiesuat's death in the fight, the war party returned north with 10 women and children captives. Black scout Britt Johnson, whose wife was among the stolen women, went out to look for the prisoners and managed to rescue all of them, with the aid of the friendly Penateka chief Asa-havey (who, after this, became a specialist in this job). 1291:

captives one at a time. The Texians demanded to know where the other captives were. Mukwooru responded that the other prisoners were held by differing bands of Comanche. He assured the Texians that he felt the other captives would be able to be ransomed, but it would be in exchange for a great deal of supplies, including ammunition and blankets. He then finished his speech with the comment, "how do you like that answer?" The Texian militia entered the courtroom and positioned themselves at intervals on the walls. When the Comanches would not, or could not, promise to return all captives immediately, the Texas officials said that chiefs would be held hostage until the white captives were released.

100: 824: 1123:. Evidence existed that a widespread conspiracy of Cherokee Indians and Mexicans had united to rebel against the new Republic of Texas and rejoin Mexico. Houston did not believe that his friends among the Cherokee were involved and refused to order them arrested. He used them to neutralize the anti-Texans among the group, identifying the Mexican network and having its members killed. The Cordova Rebellion was an example of Houston's ability to quash it without much bloodshed or wide unrest When Houston left office, the Texans were at peace with the Indians, but many captives were still held by the tribe's bands. 113: 1278: 1991:

warriors and made an attempt to attack the buffalo hunters encamped at the old ruins at Adobe Walls. On June 27, 1874, the allied Indian force attacked the 28 hunters and one woman encamped at Adobe Walls. Had the defenders been asleep, as the attackers hoped, they would have been overrun at once and all killed. But the defenders were awake, and their long-range buffalo guns rendered the attack useless. With Quanah Parker wounded, the Indians gave up the attack. It was the last great attempt to defend the Plains by the Indians, and the difference in weapons was simply too great to overcome.

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pay the presents promised to the Pentucka, who resumed raiding at once. For the same reason, the peace treaties signed for New Mexico broke down. By 1823 war raged the entire length of the Rio Grande. Most of the remaining Mexican settlements were destroyed; only those in the upper Rio Grande were secured. Thousands of surviving Mexican refugees fled to this area. The Comanche pushed out or killed most Europeans and Mexicans in the region, except the European-American Texans. In 1824, the Tonkawa entered into a treaty with Austin, pledging their support against the Comanche.

1928:, commander of the Department of Texas, sent a detachment from Fort Concho under Captain Napoleon Bonaparte McLaughlin on a two-month reconnaissance patrol in the spring of 1872. He returned to the fort, confirming that the main force of the Comanches were in camps on the Staked Plains. Ortiz further claimed that army columns could successfully maneuver in that country. General Augur then summoned Mackenzie to San Antonio where they held a strategy meeting. Out of this meeting, the army developed a campaign against the Comanche in their strongholds in the Staked Plains. 125: 1508:

and so could make treaties guaranteeing reservations for various groups. In Texas, however, the federal government could not do this. Texas adamantly refused to contribute public land for Indian reservations within the boundaries of Texas, meanwhile expecting the federal government to be responsible for the cost and details of Indian affairs. Since federal Indian agents in Texas knew that Indian land rights were the key to peace on the frontier, no peace could be possible with the uncooperative attitude of Texas officials on the question of Indian homelands.

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conflicts or when food are scarce, Indians would attack cowboys and their cattle in their land. One dire case happened to a black cowboy named Britton Johnson in 1864. His ranch was raided upon by a band of Comanches, who killed his son and kidnapped his wife and daughter. Although Johnson managed to negotiate with them for his family, the Comanches would not leave him alone. A band of 25 warriors attacked Johnson again with two of his cowboys during a routine cattle drive. Although they put up a fight, all of them perished during their last stand.

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Indian Territory of the United States. Houston, who had promised the Cherokee during the Córdova Rebellion that they would be given their promised titles, protested in vain. In May 1839, Lamar's administration learned of a letter in the possession of Manuel Flores, an agent of the Mexican Government, exposing plans by officials to enlist the Indians against the Texas settlers. Supported by popular opinion in the Republic, Lamar decided to expel the Cherokee Indians from East Texas. When they refused, he used force to compel their removal.

1475:. This battle signaled the beginning of the end of the Comanche as a viable people, as they were successfully attacked in force in the heart of their domain. Valuable Indian hunting grounds were plowed under, and grazing range for the Comanche horse herds lost. The Comanche realized their homeland was increasingly encroached on by Texas settlers, and the expedition showed the Comanches off the reservation they could expect no protection on it – and they struck back with a series of ferocious and bloody raids into Texas. 1567:

1859, he succeeded in moving the Indians without loss of life to a new reservation in Indian Territory. Forced to return to Texas on business, he stopped at the village near Fort Belknap. On September 14, 1859, while he was speaking with one settler, a man named Edward Cornett shot him in the back and killed him. Historians believe his assassination was a direct result of his actions protecting the Comanche. Neighbors probably did not even know his assassin. He was buried in the civilian cemetery at Fort Belknap.

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Rangers believed the Indians were at best subhumans who "had no right of soil" and savaged pure, noble, and innocent settlers. According to books by captives of the period (such as "The Boy Captives" and "Nine Years with the Indians"), the Rangers were the only force feared by the Indians. Killing Indians became government policy when President Lamar prescribed "an exterminating war" of "total extinction". In the Texian's side, almost every family at that time admitted to losing someone in the Indian Wars.

1861:("No Mocassins"), had prophesied that this small party would be followed by a larger one with more plunder for the taking. Three hours later the 10 mule-drawn wagons filled with army corn and fodder came to the spot: in front of the charging warriors, the supply train quickly shifted into a ring formation, and all the mules were put into the center of the ring, but the defenders were overwhelmed and the warriors destroyed the corn supplies, killing and mutilating seven of the wagoneer's bodies. 1295:

fight their way out of the room using arrows and knives. The Texian soldiers opened fire at point-blank range, killing both Indians and whites. The Comanche women and children waiting outdoors began firing their arrows after hearing the commotion inside. At least one Texian spectator was killed. When a small number of warriors managed to leave the council house, all of the Comanche began to flee. The soldiers who followed again opened fire, killing and wounding both Comanche and Texians.

812: 1721:, young war chief and nephew to Dohasan, managed to restrain the enemy. Marching forward to Adobe Walls, Carson dug in there about 10am, using one corner of the ruins for a hospital. Carson discovered to his dismay that there were numerous villages in the area, including one very large Comanche village, with a total of between 3,000–5,000 Indians, far more opposition than Carson had anticipated. The Kiowa led the first attack, by Dohäsan assisted by Satank ( 917:

attacks, thereby encouraging the Mexicans to become dilatory in payments. Because Comanche raiding was based on taking booty and captives, the proximity of American communities' proved more fruitful to Comanche raiding. Although Texan military force was much stronger than previous Mexican colonists, the sheer rapidity of advance and large numbers of the raiders overwhelmed many of these early Texan colonists. For example, in 1826 Comanches raided and burned

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used it as an excuse to kill women and children. According to the report by Col. Hugh McLeod, written March 20, 1840, of the 65 members of the Comanches' party, 35 were killed (30 adult males, 3 women, and 2 children), 29 were taken prisoner (27 women and children, and 2 old men), and one departed unobserved (described as a renegade Mexican). Seven Texians died, including a judge, a sheriff, and an army lieutenant, with 10 more wounded.

2081:. His destruction of the Indians' horses, 1,000 of them in Tule Canyon, destroyed the Indians' resistance by taking the last of their prized possessions, their horses, along with destroying their homes and food supplies. On November 5, 1874, Mackenzie's forces won a minor engagement, his last, with the Comanches. In March 1875 Mackenzie assumed command at Fort Sill and control over the Comanche-Kiowa and Cheyenne-Arapaho reservations. 1322:") wished to exact further revenge and gathered his own warriors and sent messengers to all the bands of the Comanche, all the divisions of the bands, and the Kiowa and Kiowa Apache. Most or all Comanche chiefs joined the raid. Gathering around 500 warriors and another 400 women and boys to provide comfort and do the work, Buffalo Hump took his war party and raided all the way from the Edwards Plateau to the gulf. Burning and looting 874: 3864: 1538:. Allegedly not aware that Buffalo Hump's band had recently signed a formal peace treaty with the United States, Van Dorn and his men killed eighty of the Comanches. This attack on a peaceful camp, housing Indians who had signed a peace treaty with the United States, was, nonetheless, reported by Van Dorn as a "battle" with the Comanche, and to this day is chronicled by some historians as the "Battle of Wichita Mountains". 1000:, and the resumed diplomatic efforts of Houston's second term. Houston led the republic to negotiate with the Comanche. They said they would stop raiding if they were given sufficient amounts of what they considered prerequisites for peaceful relations: gifts, trade, and regular face-to-face diplomacy. Houston, who enjoyed a good reputation among Indians, had married a mixed-race woman of Cherokee descent. He had lived in 969: 574: 586: 1359:

rage and revenge that had spiraled out of control under Lamar. Under Houston's policies, Texas Rangers were authorized to punish severely any infractions by the Indians, but they were never to initiate such conflict. When depredations occurred to either side, the troops were ordered to find and punish the actual perpetrators, rather than retaliating against innocent Indians simply because they were Indians.

3820: 756: 1210: 1881:, to stand trial for murder. Satank attempted escape and was killed while traveling to Fort Richardson for trial: he began singing his death song and managed to wrestle a rifle from one of his guards; he was shot to death before he could manage to fire. His body lay unburied in the road, with his people afraid to claim it, though Mackenzie assured the family they could safely claim Satank's remains. 1970: 734:, the use of the horse for hunting and fighting, the adoption of other migrating Shoshone, and women and children taken captive during raids and warfare. The Comanche based their warfare on speed and calculated violence, developing superb light cavalry skill. Ultimately, their warriors made such effective use of the horse that the Comanche became the most powerful Indian nation of the plains. 1112: 1249:

honored by the Comanche who obtained concessions but did not return the hostages or dragged out indefinitely the return of them. Secretary of War Albert Sidney Johnston issued instructions which made clear that Lamar expected the Comanche to act in good faith in returning the hostages and to yield to his threats of force. Johnston sent militia to San Antonio with explicit instructions:

1829:("Arrowpoint"). Seeing the soldiers arriving, Tahka, the war chief, led the Comanche warriors in a charge, but he was killed and the village and the stocks were destroyed. Kiowa warriors led by Manyi-ten came to take part in the fight; only one soldier was killed. In December 1868, exhausted after lack of food and freezing weather, the Nokoni went to Fort Cobb and there surrendered. 1935:, the 4th U.S. Cavalry under Colonel Mckenzie attacked a village of Kotsoteka Comanche. The battle was an ambush on the village with the killing of 23 men, women, and children and the capture of 120 or 130 women and children and more than 1,000 horses. Most of the village's inhabitants were captured, but the Quahadi Comanche warriors arriving from a nearby village, led by 1241:

the Comanches had in the Texan imagination. Thus, they reasoned great concessions could be gained from the Texans. Consequently, the Comanche offered to meet with the Texans in an effort to negotiate peace in return for a recognized boundary between the Republic and the Comancheria and the return of the hostages. The most notable Penateka war chief Potsʉnakwahipʉ ("

1894:, under enormous pressure from leaders of the so-called Quaker Peace Policy, decided to overrule the court, and the punishment for both was changed to life imprisonment. Thanks to the stubborn behaviour of Guipago, who forced the U.S. Government to agree seriously threatening a new bloody war, Satanta and Big Tree were freed after two years of imprisonment at the 1621:, the Comanche and other Plains tribes began to push back settlement from the Comancheria. The frontier was eventually pushed back over 100 miles (160 km), and the Texas plains were riddled with abandoned and burned out farms and settlements. The Indian population was not high enough, however, to restore control over all of the Comancheria. 1173:

peacefully but refused to sign the treaty because of a clause in the treaty that would require that they be escorted out of Texas under armed guard. On July 15, 1839, under orders from the militia, the commissioners told the Indians that the Texans would march on their village immediately and that those willing to leave peacefully should fly a

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massed might of the United States and the state of Texas, so he led the Comanche delegation to the treaty talks at Council Springs that signed a treaty with the United States. As war chief of the Penatucka Comanches, Buffalo Hump dealt peacefully with American officials throughout the late 1840s and 1850s. He negotiated a non-government

1379:, Tawakoni, Kiowa, Kiowa Apache, and Wichita, also agreed to join in the treaty. By the end of his second term as president, Houston had spent less than $ 250,000, brought peace to the frontier and a treaty between the Comanches and their allies, and the Republic awaited only the United States legislature's ratification for statehood. 1597:, his father was not present that day, and the Comanches killed were virtually all women and children in a buffalo hide drying and meat curing camp. In any event, all parties agree that at sunrise on December 18, 1860, Rangers and militia under Sul Ross found and surprised a group of Comanche camped on Mule Creek, a tributary of the 1521:

victory feast that evening.". "The coat of mail worn by old Iron Jacket covered his dead body "like shingles on a roof". The Rangers cut up the mail and divided the pieces as trophies. The attacks in the Antelope Hills showed that the Comanche no longer were able to assure the safety of their villages in the heart of the Comancheria

1375:, signed a treaty at Tehuacana Creek in which they agreed to surrender white captives in total and to cease raiding Texan settlements. In exchange for this, the Texans would cease military action against the tribe, establish more trading posts, and recognize the boundary between Texas and Comanchería. Comanche allies, including the 2126:, where revolvers were used for the first time against the Comanche, that the Texians began to gain a clear military advantage by superior weaponry. Despite that disadvantage, it was disease and pure numbers which probably ended the Plains tribes. By 1860, there were fewer than 8,000 Indians and 600,000 colonists in Texas. 773:. This area extended from southwestern Oklahoma across the Texas Panhandle into New Mexico. The Apaches were driven out in a series of wars, and the Comanche came to control the area. This domain extended south from the Arkansas River across central Texas to the vicinity of San Antonio, including the entire 2118:

and 1816–17. Many historians believe their population went from over 20,000 to less than 8,000 in these two rounds of disease. Thus, while technology and warfare with Anglo-Texans may have completed the process, the foremost cause of the decline of the Plains Indians came from diseases brought by conflict.

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Plains tribes. The Comanche, however, had learned from Plum Creek and had no intention of massing again for the militia to use cannon and massed rifle fire on them. Lamar spent 2.5 million dollars against the Comanche in 1840 – more than the entire revenue of the Republic during Lamar's two-year term.

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and others, were destroyed by disease and conflicts with settlers. The Akokisas may have been absorbed into other tribes at the wake of the Texas Revolution, while members of the Bidai joined neighboring tribes after epidemics reduced their numbers by over half. According to author Gary Anderson, the

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Kiyou was appointed as Comanche head chief and was ordered to select the "worst" Comanche chiefs and warriors to be indicted as responsible for the uprising at Palo Duro. Nine Comanche and 27 Kiowa were deported to Fort Marion, Florida. All the principal Comanche leaders (Quanah, Mow-way, Tababanika,

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Other Indians never forgot the Tonkawa's allying with Texan colonists. Despite pleas from the aging Placido to protect his people from their enemies, the Tonkawa were moved from their reservation on the Brazos, and put on a reservation in Oklahoma with the Delaware, Shawnee and Caddo tribes. In 1862,

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to be in charge of Indian affairs and took over that role in Texas after it became a state in 1846. But under the terms of Texas' accession to the Union, the new state retained control of its public lands. In all other new states, the federal government controlled both public lands and Indian affairs

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sat on chairs on a platform facing them. Lockhart had informed them that she had seen 15 other prisoners at the Comanche's principal camp several days before. She maintained that the Indians had wanted to see how high a price they could get for her and that they then planned to bring in the remaining

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Should the Comanche come in without bringing with them the Prisoners, as it is understood they have agreed to do, you will detain them. Some of their number will be dispatched as messengers to the tribe to inform them that those detained, will be held as hostages until the Prisoners are delivered up,

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Lamar's success in ethnically cleansing the Cherokee, a neutral tribe, from Texas emboldened him to do the same with the Plains tribes. Lamar needed an army to carry out his Indian policies, and he set out to build one, at great cost. But at independence, the best estimates were that the republic had

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The Indians attempted to resist at the village, and when that failed they tried to re-form, which also failed. Approximately 100 Indians were killed, including Chief Bowles, to only three militia. When killed, Chief Bowles was carrying the sword given to him by Houston. After the battle, the Cherokee

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and subsequent removal of the Cherokee from Texas began shortly after Lamar took office. Lamar demanded that the Cherokee, who had been promised title to their land if they remained neutral during the Texas War of Independence, voluntarily relinquish their lands and all their property and move to the

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Lamar was the first official of Texas to attempt "removal", the deportation of Indian tribes to places beyond the reach of white settlers. As carried out, the policy was based on establishing a permanent Indian frontier, i.e., a line beyond which the various "removed" tribes would be able to carry on

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Houston supported the "Solemn Declaration", which gave the Cherokee rights to the land in Texas on which they lived. He negotiated a treaty with the Cherokee and other tribes on February 23, 1836, in Chief Bowles' village. It was the first treaty made by the Republic of Texas, signed by allied tribes

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The Mexican government negotiated additional treaties, signed in 1826 and 1834, but in each case failed to meet the terms of the agreements. Although such events would have proven catastrophic in early years as the Comanche raided towards Mexico City, the presence of American militias obstructed such

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has identified no fewer than thirty major epidemics, consisting mainly of smallpox and cholera, which took place between the years 1528 and 1890, which he believes responsible for wiping out close to 95% of Texas Indians. Over half of the Comanche population was wiped out in the epidemics of 1780–81

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pursued Quanah Parker and his followers through late 1874 into 1875. He led a five-unit movement to converge on the Indian hideouts along the eastern edge of the Staked Plains. Mackenzie, in the most daring and decisive battle of the campaign, destroyed five Indian villages on September 28, 1874, in

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During the night the Comanche tents and stock were burnt. The following day, August 23, the fight went on, with four Army and 14 warriors wounded (one of them killed), until Nokoni and Kiowa retreated, burning the prairie and killing some white men near Anadarko and along the Beaver Creek. Friendly

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During the summer of 1874, the Army launched a campaign to remove the Comanche, Kiowa, Kiowa Apache, the Southern band of the Cheyenne, and Arapaho Indian tribes from the Southern Plains. This campaign was meant to enforce their removal to reservations in Indian Territory. The campaigns of 1874 were

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opted to oppose the entire process and argued that the two chiefs were not subject to civilian jurisdiction since their people were at war with the United States. Nor were the Indians apologetic; at his trail Satanta warned what might happen if he was hanged: " I am a great chief among my people. If

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to allow his cowboy to get help. Although Loving managed to escape the onslaught, he was mortally wounded and died soon after. Goodnight also had to face raids along the way, once being wounded during an attack together with another fellow cowboy. These attacks affected the booming Texas economy. By

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Armed citizens joined the battle, but claiming they could not differentiate between warriors and women and children since all of the Comanche were fighting, they shot at all the Comanche. According to Anderson, such "confusion" between Native American men and women was convenient to the Texians, who

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Thirty-three Penateka chiefs and warriors accompanied by 32 other Comanches arrived in San Antonio on March 19, 1840, to meet with Texas officials. Commissioners of the Texas government demanded the return of all captives held by the Penateka. In addition, Texas officials insisted that the Comanches

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The Comanche and Kiowa however, had in the 1830s a population estimated between 20,000 and 30,000. They were well supplied with high-quality firearms and had a large surplus of horses. In addition, by the 1830s the Comanche had established a large network of Indian allies and a vast trading network.

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had already been granted a tract of land within what were defined as Cherokee treaty lands. The treaty was declared "null and void" on December 26, 1837. Throughout his presidency, Houston tried to restore the provisions of the treaty and asked General Thomas J. Rusk, commander of the Texas militia,

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for years and learned about their cultures. He was willing to meet with the Comanche on their terms and believed, as a matter of policy, that it was worth it to buy a few thousand dollars worth of presents. The republic could not support the huge cost of a standing army for defense, and it might not

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area around 1721. The Comanche had not arrived into the northern area of the state until roughly the early 18th century; they did not become the predominant nation in the area until the late 18th century, following their successful adoption of the horse. Most other Plains Indians had already arrived

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Mackenzie sent Jacob J. Sturm, a physician and post interpreter, to negotiate the Quahada's surrender. Sturm found Quanah, whom he called "a young man of much influence with his people", and made his case for yielding peacefully. Mackenzie had sent his personal word that if Quanah surrendered, all

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When General Sherman decided to send the Kiowa war chiefs to Jacksboro for trial, he wanted an example made. What he did not want, and what happened, was that the trial became a circus. First, the two attorneys appointed to represent the two Kiowa actually represented them, instead of participating

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Houston's Indian policy was to disband the vast majority of the regular Army troops but muster four new companies of Rangers to patrol the frontier. Houston ordered the Rangers to protect the Indian lands from encroachment by settlers and illegal traders. Houston wanted to do away with the cycle of

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The interpreter warned the Texian officials that if he delivered that message, the Comanches would attempt to escape by fighting. He was instructed to relay the warning and left the room as soon as he finished translating. After learning that they were being held hostage, the Comanches attempted to

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attacks along the northern border of Comanche territory coupled with huge losses in the two preceding generations in several smallpox epidemics had the Penateka chiefs convinced a treaty might be in their best interests. Additionally, they now realized the huge importance the captive Texans held by

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negotiated a truce with the Penatucka Comanche, the band closest to the settlements in East and Central Texas. Following that truce, he was able to complete a treaty of peace and friendship, which was signed in Mexico City in December 1821. But, within twelve months the Mexican government failed to

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American families to move into the region. As Austin used his network and government sponsors to spread the word of rich lands in Texas, thousands of additional colonists from the United States flooded into the region, many illegally. Many had no interest in being ruled by the government of Mexico.

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Spanish settlers sometimes captured American Indian children. Often it was common practice to have the child baptized and then adopt them into their homes, where they were raised to be servants. At first the practice involved primarily Apaches, and eventually Comanche children were likewise adopted

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from Fort Sill. On August 22, 1874, near Anadarko, with the Kiowa laughing at the Comanche, a cavalry detachment was sent to Pearua-akup-akup's village all of their weapons, and when the Nokoni warriors reacted, the soldiers fired on them. Guipago, Satanta, Manyi-ten, Pa-tadal ("Poor Buffalo") and

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to begin an offensive against the Kiowa and Comanches on the plains of West Texas and Oklahoma, and either kill them or drive them to reservations. The army essentially adopted Mackenzie's tactics of the 1872 campaign at North Fork—attack the Comanche in their winter strongholds, and destroy their

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On October 1, 1858, while camped in the Wichita Mountains with the Kotsoteka band under Quohohateme, the Yambarika band under Hotoyokowat, and probably the Nokoni band under Quenaevah, the remains of the once mighty Penateka Band, under Buffalo Hump, were attacked by United States troops under the

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The Battle of Little Robe Creek epitomized Texas Indian fighting in its attitude towards women and children casualties. Ford, accused of killing women and children in every battle he fought against the Plains Indians, shrugged it off by stating it was hard to distinguish "warriors from squaws"—but

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The decision of chiefs from one band of the Comanche to negotiate, as well as the offer of returning of the hostages, appears to have convinced Lamar that the Comanche tribe was ready to surrender the hostages. However, the majority of past negotiations concerning the return of hostages were never

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Mirabeau Bonaparte Lamar, second president of the Republic of Texas, was hostile toward the natives. Lamar's cabinet boasted that it would remove Houston's "pet" Indians. In 1839, Lamar announced his policy: "The white man and the red man cannot dwell in harmony together", he said, "Nature forbids

793:. As the epidemic was very severe, the Comanche temporarily suspended raids, and some Comanche divisions were disbanded. A second smallpox epidemic struck during the winter of 1816–1817. The best estimates are that more than half the total population of the Comanche were killed by these epidemics. 746:

allies launched deep raids, sending hundreds of warriors into Mexico; they successfully captured and enslaved or adopted into the tribe thousands of Hispanics, Anglos, and Indians of other tribes. Eventually, the numbers were so large that persons not born Comanche made up nearly thirty percent of

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In 1872 the Quaker Peace Policy had partly failed. It had reduced battles between tribes and the U.S. military greatly but not entirely. Troops out of Fort Sill could not officially be deployed against the Comanche. However, some army officers were eager to attack the Comanche in the heart of the

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Cynthia Ann Parker was returned to her white family, who watched her very closely to prevent her from returning to her husband and children. After her daughter died from influenza, she starved herself to death when her guardians would not allow her to return to the Comanche to attempt to find her

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With the aid of federal troops, whom he finally shamed and politically forced to assist him, he managed to hold back the white people from the reservations. Convinced, however, that the Indians would never be safe in Texas, he determined to move them to safety in the Indian territories. In August

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and Camp Cooper, near the reservations, failed to give adequate support to his resident agents and him, and adequate protection to the Indians. In spite of continuous threats of various people to take his life, Neighbors never faltered in his determination to do his duty, and carry out the law to

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Houston set out to negotiate with the Indians. The Caddos were the first to respond, and in August 1842 a treaty was reached. Houston then expanded it to all tribes except the Comanche, who still wanted permanent war. In March 1843, Houston reached agreement with the Delaware, Wichitas, and other

1354:

When Sam Houston left the presidency of Texas the first time, the population seemed to support Lamar's strong anti-Indian policies. After the Great Raid and hundreds of lesser raids, with the Republic bankrupt and all of the captives either recovered or murdered by the Indians, Texans turned away

1172:

On July 12, 1839, the militia sent a peace commission to negotiate for the Indians' removal. The Cherokee reluctantly agreed to sign a treaty of removal that guaranteed to them the profit from their crops and the cost of the removal. During the next 48 hours the Cherokee insisted they would leave

1138:

rivers, into Comanche hunting ranges and the borders of Comancheria. As a result the Texan-Comanche relationship turned violent. Houston made efforts to restore peace and the Comanches. Alarmed at the vigor of Texan settlement, he considered a fixed boundary, contrary to their traditional notions

964:

had negotiated with local Indians. Because these Native Americans were subject nations to the Comanche, the tribe did not feel bound to observe the peace. The killing of colonist militia at Fort Parker also resulted in the Comanche taking two women and three children as captives. The Parkers were

850:

In contrast to the neglected military capabilities of the Mexicans, authorities considered Americans extremely aggressive in combat, and they were subsequently encouraged to establish settlements on the frontier in present-day Texas as a defensive bulwark to Comanche raids further south. Although

2046:

Satanta killed himself on October 11, 1878, by jumping from a high window of the prison hospital. Ado'ete was also rearrested, but unlike Satanta, he was not sent back to Huntsville, since it could not be proven that he was present at the Second Battle of Adobe Walls. Both Satank and Satanta are

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to protect cattle. However, exporting the cattle was a dangerous task for the new ranches. The best routes to drive the cattle run straight through the Comanche territory. Relationships between them were mutual; cowboys are permitted to go across as long as they paid a toll. However, in times of

1678:

was given command of the First Cavalry, New Mexico Volunteers, and told to proceed and campaign against the winter campgrounds of the Comanches and Kiowas. The campgrounds in question were reported to be somewhere on the south side of the Canadian River. On November 10, 1864, Carson started from

1345:

The remainder of the Lamar presidency was spent in daring but exhausting round of raids and rescue attempts, managing to recover several dozen more captives. Buffalo Hump continued his war against the Texans, and Lamar hoped for another pitched battle to use his Rangers and militia to remove the

1330:, then the second biggest port in Texas, the Comanches gathered thousands of horses and mules and a fortune in goods from the Linnville warehouses The population of Linnville prudently fled to the waters of the gulf, where they watched helplessly while the Comanche looted the town and burned it. 2121:

At the time of the Texas Revolution, there were 30,000 Anglo nomadic colonists and Mexican mestizos in Texas, and approximately 20,000 Comanches, plus thousands each of Cherokee, Shawnee, Coushatta, and a dozen other tribes. Colonists were armed with single-shot weapons, which the Comanche, in

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Satanta was released in 1873 (and Ado'ete was released too) and was alleged to be soon back attacking buffalo hunters and was present at the raid on Adobe Walls. His very presence at the battle violated his parole, and the government called for his arrest; he surrendered in October 1874 and was

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The entry of Texas into the United States marked the beginning of the end for the Plains Indians. The United States had the resources and manpower to realistically apply a policy of "removal", and they did so. In May 1846 Buffalo Hump became convinced that even he could not continue to defy the

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by hiring 10 men; they were paid to fight Indians and protect the colonial settlements. Soon the colonists organized additional Ranger companies. After the Republic was created, this trend continued. Without the resources for a standing army, Texas created small Ranger companies mounted on fast

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In response to this devastating loss of numbers, the Comanche effectively allied with the Kiowa and Kiowa Apache after one Kiowa warrior spent a fall season with the Comanche in 1790. Fehrenbach believes the union came from the necessity to protect their hunting grounds from settler incursions.

2039:

After he was returned to the penitentiary in 1874, he saw no hope of escape. For awhile he was worked on a chain gang which helped to build the M.K. & T. Railway. He became sullen and broken in spirit, and would be seen for hours gazing through his prison bars toward the north, the hunting

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The Tonkawa warriors with the Rangers celebrated the victory by decorating their horses with the bloody hands and feet of their Comanche victims as trophies. "The Rangers noted most of their dead foes were missing various body parts, and the Tonkawa had bloody containers, portending a dreadful

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on the same day annexation took effect, December 29, 1845. One of the primary motivations for annexation on the Republic of Texas side was that the republic had incurred huge debts which the United States agreed to assume upon annexation. In 1852, in return for this assumption of debt, a large

201:

during the 19th-century. Conflict between the Plains Indians and the Spanish began before other European and Anglo-American settlers were encouraged—first by Spain and then by the newly Independent Mexican government—to colonize Texas in order to provide a protective-settlement buffer in Texas

1990:

came during the Red River War as the Plains tribes realized, with increasing desperation, that the buffalo hunters were killing off their food supply and thus the very means of survival for their people. A combined force of Comanche, Kiowa, Cheyenne, and other Plains tribes raised almost 700

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The U.S. Army proved wholly unable to stem the violence. Federal units were being transferred out of the area for reasons that seemed driven more by political than military considerations. At the same time, federal law and numerous treaties forbade incursion by state forces into the federally

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tribes. At that point, Buffalo Hump, who trusted Houston, began to talk. In August 1843, a temporary treaty accord led to a ceasefire between the Comanches and their allies, and the Texians. In October 1843, the Comanches agreed to meet with Houston to try to negotiate a treaty similar to the

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and Ed Burleson, plus all Ranger companies and their Tonkawa allies, engaged the war party in a huge running gun battle. The Rangers and militia overran the Comanche guarding their loot and eventually in a running gun-fight recovered several dozen captives held by the Comanche and eventually

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Texans were disturbed by accounts of the continued captivity of thousands of children and women, especially because of the stories by those rescued or ransomed. They made increased demands for the republic to retaliate against the Comanche. Under Lamar, the Republic of Texas waged war on the

1942:

This marked the first time the United States had successfully attacked the Comanches in the heart of the Comancheria and emphasized that if the Army wished to force the Comanches onto reservations, the way to do it was destroy their villages and leave them unable to survive off reservation.

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in Indian Territory in Oklahoma. There, in spite of his reported enormous sadness at the end of the Comanches' traditional way of life, he asked for a house and farmland so that he could set an example for his people. Attempting to live out his life as a rancher and farmer, he died in 1870.

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30,000 Anglo-Americans and Hispanic residents. The Cherokee had less than 2,000 tribesmen in Texas, so removal of them was not a terrible drain on the republic, especially since the Cherokee War was relatively brief and bloodless for Texas, though certainly not for the Cherokee.

1148:

it." His answer to the 'Indian Problem' was "to push a rigorous war against them; pursuing them to their hiding places without mitigation or compassion, until they shall be made to feel that flight from our borders without hope of return, is preferable to the scourges of war."

1022:

Houston's first presidency was focused on maintaining the Republic of Texas as an independent country. He had no resources to fight a full-scale war against the Plains Indians. Houston had spent much of his childhood with the Cherokee Indians in Tennessee, among them Cherokee

797:

First, the Kiowa and the Comanche agreed to share hunting grounds and unite in war. The Kiowa Apache, as allies of the Kiowa, ultimately joined this alliance. Eventually, the three tribes agreed to share the same hunting grounds and had a mutual self-defense and war pact.

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One of Houston's first acts as president of the republic was to send the treaty to be ratified by the Texas Senate. After the treaty stalled in the Senate for a year, lawmakers decided that it would be detrimental to the citizens of Texas, reportedly because settler

1706:. Carson had decided to march first to Adobe Walls, with which he was familiar from his employment there over 20 years earlier. Inclement weather, including an early snow storm, caused slow progress, and on November 25, the First Cavalry reached Mule Springs in 1885:

in the kind of civics lesson which the Army had wanted. Their trial strategy of arguing that the two chiefs were simply fighting a war for their people's survival attracted worldwide attention and galvanized opposition to the entire process. Moreover, the

1317:

As revenge for the killing of 33 Comanche chiefs at the Council House Fight, all but three of the remaining captives held by the Indians were executed slowly by torture; the three who were spared had been previously adopted into the tribe. Potsʉnakwahipʉ

1517:

morbid jokes of Ford's made clear he did not care about the age or sex of his victims. Ford considered the deaths of settlers, including women and children, during Indian raids, to open the door to make all Indians, regardless of age or sex, combatants.

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the fledgling republic. More importantly, although the Texas forces succeeded in rescuing large numbers of hostages, thousands remained in captivity. Houston was elected to his second term in large part because of the failure of Lamar's Indian policies.

1853:, but less than an hour later the teamsters spotted a large group of riders ahead. Hidden in a thicket of scrub in the Salt Creek Prairie, the Kiowa had observed, without attacking, the slow approach of Sherman's inspection retinue. The previous night, 1478:

By 1858, only five of the twelve Comanche bands still existed, and one, the Penateka, had dwindled to only a few hundred on the reservation. Realizing their way of life was disappearing, the remaining free Comanche struck back with incredible violence.

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counties. The treaty stated that these lands could not be sold or leased to anyone who was not a member of the tribe, including Texas citizens. After the signing of this treaty, Houston presented Chief Bowles with a sword, a red silk vest, and a sash.

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warriors from these tribes united to attack the Tonkawas. 133 out of the remaining 309 Tonkawas were killed in the massacre. Included in the dead was the elderly Placido. Today less than 15 families of Tonkawa remain on their reservation in Oklahoma.

2013:

Tosawi and Asa-havey led the Penateka to Fort Sill; Kiyou probably judged wiser to go, with his friendly Nokoni band, to the Wichita agency. The Yamparika and Nokoni, joined the Quahadi and Kotsoteka, camping at Chinaberry Trees, Palo Duro Canyon.

1232:, for instance, where they could catch them during winter. At the end of 1839 however, some of the Comanche chiefs of the Penateka band had come to believe that they could not drive the colonists completely from their homes as they had the Apache. 1466:

The years 1856–58 were particularly vicious and bloody on the Texas frontier as settlers continued to expand their settlements into the Comancheria, and 1858 was marked by the first Texan incursion into the heart of the Comancheria, the so-called

751:

but were divided into almost a dozen autonomous groups. The bands had as many as 45 distinct divisions. These groups shared the same language and culture but at times fought internally in ritualized combat, even as they cooperated at other times.

1391:, had the government follow Houston's policies, with the exception that Jones, like most Texas politicians, did not wish to put a boundary on the Comancheria, thus he supported those in the Legislature who derailed that provision of the treaty. 835:. Colonial authorities did not encourage colonization in this area, as it was too far from their bases. The number of colonists was extremely limited, and they were always at risk of Comanche raids. By the early 19th century, as a result of the 1999:

After Adobe Walls, several bands went to Fort Sill agency for the census and the distribution of annuities, but only Isa-nanica was allowed to stay in Fort Sill reserve, and the other chiefs had to lead their people to the Wichita agency at

1864:

The Kiowa warriors lost three of their own but left with 40 mules heavily laden with supplies. Five white men managed to escape, one of which was Thomas Brazeale who reached Fort Richardson on foot, some 20 miles away. As soon as Colonel

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their lives free from white settlement or attacks. Lamar became convinced that the Cherokee could not be allowed to stay in Texas after their part in the 1838-39 Córdova Rebellion (and after some disaffected Cherokee carried out the 1838

1285:

The talks were held at the council house, a one-story stone building adjoining the jail on the corner of Main Plaza and Calabosa (Market) Street. During the council, the Comanche warriors sat on the floor, as was their custom, while the

1800:. During the journey, Loving had to separate from the group to scout ahead. This proved to be fatal as Loving and his ranch hand were soon attacked by 200 armed Comanche warriors patrolling the border. Loving made his last stand in the 1487:, were engaged in farming and living as peaceful settlers. Other tribes, such as the Comanche and Kiowa, continued to use that part of the Indian Territories that was the Comancheria to live in while raiding white settlements in Texas. 1225:

The republic had a militia but no standing army, and its tiny navy had been greatly decreased during Houston's presidency. Lamar had neither the manpower nor the money to pursue his policy after the Cherokee War but was not deterred.

901:, with the longterm goal of freedom. Americans did not like this policy and also objected to the central government's actions in tightening political and economic control over the territory. Eventually these tensions resulted in the 937:. As early as 1823, Austin recognized the need to have specific forces designated to fight the Plains tribes, especially the Comanche. They did not distinguish between Mexicans and Americans in their raids. Austin created the first 1601:. Almost all (including a gallant warrior Nobah, who died trying to protect his chief's wife and daughter) were killed except one woman, who, being recognized as a white woman, was allowed to live. She was later discovered to be 768:

Prior 1750, the Apaches were highly influential in west Texas, but this changed with the Comanche incursions. Beginning in the 1740s, the Comanche began crossing the Arkansas River and established themselves on margins of the

896:

throughout Mexico, the immigrants from the U.S. were exempted in some colonies or actively evaded governmental efforts to enforce this abolition in the territory. Under the change, many slaves in Mexico were reclassified as

737:

When the Comanche encountered and entered conflict against Spanish colonists, they blocked Spanish expansion to the east from New Mexico and prevented direct communication with the new Spanish settlements north of the

206:. The conflicts continued after Texas secured its independence from Mexico in 1836 and did not end until 30 years after Texas became a state of the United States, when in 1875 the last free band of Plains Indians, the 1869:

learned of the incident, he informed Sherman. Sherman and Mackenzie searched for the warriors responsible for the raid. The ambush had been planned by a large band of Kiowa warriors under the leadership of Satanta.

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protected Indian Territories. The U.S. Army was likewise instructed not to attack Indians in the Indian Territories or to permit such attacks. The reasoning behind the order was that many native tribes, such as the

1502:

The relationship between the federal government, Texas and the native tribes was further complicated by a unique legal issue which arose as a result of Texas' annexation. The federal government is charged by the

2089:

Isa-rosa, Hitetetsi aka Tuwikaa-tiesuat, Kobay-oburra) were made safe. Guipago, Manyi-ten, Tsen-tainte and Mamanti were sent to Fort Marion. Sent back to Fort Sill in 1879, Guipago died of malaria in July 1879.

1821:. On December 25, six companies of the 6th Cavalry and one company of the 37th Infantry, on the way from Fort Bascom (New Mexico) to the Antelope Hills, came on the Nokoni village (about 60 tipis) of Kiyou ( 1367:. (That this included Potsʉnakwahipʉ "Buffalo Hump", after the events at the Council House, showed extraordinary Comanche belief in Houston) In early 1844, Buffalo Hump and other Comanche leaders, including 859:, who was given a Spanish land grant in Texas. When Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821, its government continued to recruit Americans, as it wanted to develop its depopulated northern provinces. 1710:, approximately 30 miles west of Adobe Walls. Scouts reported the presence of a large Indian encampment at Adobe Walls, and Carson ordered his cavalry forward, to be followed by the wagons and howitzers. 932:

tribes, enemies of the Comanche, allied with the new immigrants, trying to gain allies themselves against these traditional enemies. The Comanche detested the Tonkawa, in particular, for allegedly being

3675:

Gelo, Daniel J. "Two Episodes in Texas Indian History Reconsidered: Getting the Facts Right about the Lafuente Attack and the Fort Parker Raid." Southwestern Historical Quarterly 120.4 (2017): 440-460.

1274:("Spirit Talker") was in charge of the delegation. The Comanche chiefs at the meeting had brought along one white captive (Matilda Lockhart), and several Mexican children who had been captured. 1890:

you kill me, it will be like a spark on the prairie. It will make a big fire – a terrible fire!" Satanta was found guilty of murder and sentenced to death, as was Big Tree; but Texas Governor

855:, the Comanche's subsequent raids deep into Mexico showed the practicality of Americans in holding the frontier. Consequently, the new regime quickly recruited Americans, the first of which was 3594: 1805:

the end of the 1860s, the Comanches had driven much of the livestock businesses out of West Texas. However over the years, Comanches would surrender or sell their lands to Texas cattlemen.

513:

occupied areas to the east. Archaeologists have found that three major indigenous cultures lived in this region and reached their developmental peak before the first European contact. The

984:

on April 21, 1836. Most Texans were busy trying to return to what was left of their former homes and dealing with their own losses as well as skirmishes with the retreating Mexican Army.

1270:

abandon Central Texas, cease interfering with Texan settlements, cease conspiring with Mexicans, and avoid all white settlements. The prominent Penateka chief and medicine man

960:. Completed in March 1834, it had been regarded by the colonists as a stronghold, sufficient to protect them from any Native Americans not observing the peace treaties Elder 202:

between the Plains Indians and the rest of Mexico. As a consequence, conflict between Anglo-American settlers and Plains Indians occurred during the Texas colonial period as

1197:

Nation and northern Mexico, meaning East Texas was virtually free of organized communities of Indians, and their lands guaranteed by treaty were given to American settlers.

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After the Texas Senate removed the boundary provision from the final version of the treaty, Buffalo Hump repudiated it and hostilities resumed. On February 28, 1845, the

884:

In the 1820s, seeking additional colonists as a means of conquering the area, Mexico reached an agreement with Austin reauthorizing his Spanish land grants. That allowed

229:, which was largely settled by Anglo-Americans, was a threat to the indigenous people of the region. The wars between the Plains Indians and Texas settlers and later the 4559: 1877:, and Sherman ordered their trial, making them the first Native American Leaders to be tried for raids in a U.S. court. Sherman ordered the three Kiowa chiefs taken to 225:

The more than half-century struggle between the Plains tribes and the Texans became particularly intense after the Spanish, and then Mexicans, left power in Texas. The

548:, members of new cultures entered and settled in the area; through competition for resources and power, they became adversaries. All were relative newcomers to Texas; 1126:

The Texas Congress passed laws opening up all Indian lands to white settlement and overrode Houston's veto. The settlement frontier quickly moved north along the

928:

During the period of 1821 to 1835, colonists had difficulty with Comanche raids, despite the formation of full-time militia ranger companies in 1823. Tonkawa and

299: 1768:

After the Civil War, Texas' growing cattle industry managed to regain much of its economy. Beef became a commodity after the war, and supplies from Texas were

1617:

The Civil War brought incredible bloodshed and chaos to the plains. As the cavalry left Indian Territory for other battles, and many Rangers enlisted in the

1245:") disagreed with this decision and did not trust Lamar or his representatives. None of the other 11 bands of the Comanche were involved in the peace talks. 3771:

Richardson, Rupert N., Adrian Anderson, Cary D. Wintz & Ernest Wallace, "Texas: the Lone Star State", 9th edition, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 0131835505

2563: 506: 1659:. The battle was one of the largest engagements in terms of numbers engaged between whites and Indians on the Great Plains. It came about because General 714:. Once they acquired horses, which gave them greater mobility and hunting access, the Comanche became a separate tribe from the Shoshone. Their original 1699: 2211: 4677: 1139:

about borders. However, Houston was forbidden by Texas law to yield any land claimed by the Republic. He still made peace with the Comanche in 1838.

383: 2922: 2324: 2271: 1849:. On May 18, 1871, travelling down the Jacksboro-Belknap road heading towards Salt Creek Crossing, the supplies wagon train encountered General 1097:

to delineate the boundary. He was unsuccessful in this effort, and Houston could take no more action on the matter before his presidency ended.

4662: 3852: 980:, called for vengeance and help to recover the captives. This event took place near the close of the Texas Revolution and Texan victory at the 790: 3808:

Yancey, William C. In justice to our Indian allies: The government of Texas and her Indian allies, 1836–1867. University of North Texas, 2008.

3576: 1454:'s expedition part of the way from San Antonio to El Paso, and in 1856 he led his people to the newly established Comanche reservation on the 2346: 2167: 2009:

Ado'ete came in with their Kiowa braves, and the remnant companies of 10th Cavalry came too, to face 200 or 300 Nokoni Comanche and Kiowa.

1228:

Lamar's term was marked by escalating violence between the Comanche and colonists. There were not enough Rangers to battle the Comanche at

1780:

became their new habitat and breeding ground. Hundreds of ranchers and farms sprang out by the end of the war, and veterans were hired as

3118: 292: 1977:

depicting a battle between Southern Plains Indians and the U.S. Army during the Red River War (Battle of Buffalo Wallow September 1874).

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Satanta boasted his deed, stating that Satank and Ado-ete were also involved, and Sherman ordered their capture. They were arrested at

1554:

During this period, when settlers began to actually attack the Indians on the reservations established in Texas, federal Indian agent

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A dark cloud rests upon your nation: Lipan Apache sovereignty and relations with Mexico, the United States, and the Republic of Texas

1907: 1858: 448: 71: 3692:

Lipscomb, Carol A. "Sorrow Whispers in the Winds: The Republic of Texas's Comanche Policy." Diss. University of North Texas, 1994.

3014: 2639: 2491:

Empire of the Summer Moon: Quanah Parker and the Rise and Fall of the Comanches, the Most Powerful Indian Tribe in American History

697: 3474:

William H. Leckie, The Buffalo Soldiers: A Narrative of the Negro Cavalry in the West (University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1967)

1605:. The only other known survivors were a 10-year-old boy saved by Sul Ross and Cynthia Parker's infant daughter, "Prairie Flower". 4637: 1826: 3830: 3499: 251:

was the most powerful entity and persistently hostile to the Spanish, the Mexicans, the Texans, and finally the Americans. When

4199: 4194: 4078: 3824: 3382:

Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York, 1970)

2961: 2749: 285: 684:. The Tonkawa continued their southern migration into Texas and northern Mexico where they then allied with the Lipan Apache. 4610: 4189: 4052: 3989: 3742: 2776: 2661: 2529: 2504: 2005: 1581:

There are two distinctly different stories about what happened on Mule Creek on December 18, 1860, near Margaret, Texas, in

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Nonetheless, an aged and weary Buffalo Hump led and settled his remaining followers on the Kiowa-Comanche reservation near

3766:

The Comanche Barrier to South Plains Settlement: A Century and a Half of Savage Resistance to the Advancing White Frontier

3730: 2994:

The Comanche Barrier to South Plains Settlement: A Century and a Half of Savage Resistance to the Advancing White Frontier

3754: 3624:

Elam, Earl H. "Anglo-American relations with the Wichita Indians in Texas, 1822-1859." Diss. Texas Tech University, 1967.

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and his forces managed to catch the Quahadi Band of the Comanche by surprise and wiped them out, including their leader

3845: 3526: 3281: 3038: 1769: 1005:

be able to defeat the assembled might of the entire Comanche-Kiowa alliance, especially if they received Mexican help.

2431: 1920:, Edwardo Ortiz, had told the army that the Comanches were on their winter hunting grounds along the Red River on the 1713:

Approximately two hours after daybreak on November 26, Carson's cavalry attacked a Kiowa village of 150 lodges. Chief

851:

most of these early Americans were ultimately killed, executed or driven from Texas by Spanish authorities during the

4073: 3645: 3611: 3261: 1504: 2163:

From H.M.C. Brown to Peter P. Pitchlynn. Re: rumors of a band of Comanches and Apaches of hostile nature gathering.

852: 681: 4012: 3912: 2033:

returned to the state penitentiary. In his book "History of Texas," Clarance Wharton reports of Satanta in prison:

1796:, together with their cowboys, attempted to drive their livestock around Comancheria in the trail now known as the 1671:. The Indians saw the wagon-trains as trespassers who killed buffalo and other game the Indians needed to survive. 1400: 1327: 4672: 4407: 4335: 4235: 3907: 1368: 468: 1558:

became hated among white Texans. Neighbors alleged that the United States Army officers located at the posts of

4667: 4632: 4270: 4265: 4122: 3603: 398: 4392: 1702:, twenty-seven wagons, an ambulance, and forty-five days' rations, proceeded down the Canadian River into the 1355:

from continuation of war and toward more diplomatic initiatives by electing Houston to his second presidency.

3838: 2021: 1443: 956:

On May 19, 1836, a huge war party of Comanche, Kiowa, Wichita, and Delaware attacked the colonist outpost of

844: 473: 166: 4387: 4300: 4225: 4152: 4027: 3953: 3882: 2215: 2004:; following some killings by the Kiowa, the 25th Infantry sent to garrison Anadarko with four companies of 1987: 453: 263:, he observed that this event would be felt in every family in Texas, as every one had lost someone in the 3327:

God Dogs and Education: Comanche Traditional Cultural Innovation and Three Generations of Tippeconnic Men.

1813:

On December 19, 1868, a large Comanche and Kiowa band faced a company of the 10th Cavalry on the way from

1009:

Comanche, invaded Comancheria, burned villages, attacked and destroyed numerous war bands, but the effort

233:

was characterized by deep animosity, slaughter on both sides, and, in the end, near-total conquest of the

4554: 4490: 4250: 4083: 4032: 3968: 1642: 1472: 840: 747:

the Comanche nation. The Comanches were decentralized; historically, they did not form a single cohesive

423: 413: 3176: 2113:

Disease brought largely by Europeans caused a dramatic decline of the native population. Anthropologist

992:

The Republic of Texas era with the Indians can be divided into three phases: the diplomacy of President

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are a confederacy of tribes indigenous to central Texas. Tribes indigenous to east Texas include the

598: 408: 4452: 4382: 4157: 4002: 3978: 3943: 3568: 1886: 1850: 1814: 1664: 1656: 1364: 1218: 836: 3785:. Monograph of the American Ethnological Society, No. 21. Locust Valley, NY: J. J. Augustin, 1953. 4526: 4516: 4475: 4422: 3860: 3458: 2350: 1838: 1746: 1618: 1135: 1076: 549: 463: 443: 438: 373: 2164: 4579: 4460: 4340: 4096: 4047: 4007: 2601:, Vol. 6, No. 3, Fall 1982, East Texas Genealogical Society, at US GenWeb, accessed 30 May 2014 2123: 1726: 1698:. On November 12 Carson's force, supplied with two mountain howitzers under the command of Lt. 1586: 1406: 1277: 1178: 1101: 1072: 957: 816: 378: 333: 252: 3115: 3098: 2693:

The Poet President of Texas: The Life of Mirabeau B. Lamar, President of the Republic of Texas

2061: 909: 4437: 4240: 2135: 1576: 981: 961: 938: 530: 522: 418: 240:

Although several native tribes occupied territory in the area, the preeminent nation was the

3026: 2923:"Hugh McLeod's Report on the Council House Fight, March 1840 - Page 3 - Texas State Library" 2496: 2489: 4364: 4315: 3066: 2272:""Timeline of History". The University of Texas Institute of Texan Cultures at San Antonio" 2025: 1925: 1822: 1742: 1695: 1660: 1559: 1312: 1186: 1177:. On July 15–16, 1839, a combined militia force under General K. H. Douglass, Ed Burleson, 951: 898: 781:

and then north again following the foothills of the Rocky Mountains to the Arkansas River.

496: 368: 353: 328: 264: 28: 1120: 8: 4427: 4220: 3997: 2707: 1866: 1818: 1707: 1630: 1582: 1542: 1264: 1084: 1068: 677: 514: 358: 32: 3552: 3538: 3437: 3420: 3396: 3274:

Cowboys, Ranchers and the Cattle Business: Cross-Border Perspectives on Ranching History

3205: 3083: 3006: 2881: 2801: 2725: 2631: 2610: 2595:

Howard O. Pollan, "The Cherokees of Texas: Cherokee, Henderson & Smith Counties, TX"

2548: 2193: 552:

began permanently settling in Texas around the Rio Grande and upwards toward modern-day

4603: 4584: 4521: 4470: 4465: 4245: 4037: 3618: 2001: 1932: 1648: 1602: 1308: 1080: 965:

well known, and the destruction of most of their clan produced shock throughout Texas.

831:

European and especially mixed-race Mexican colonists reached Texas prior to the end of

561: 363: 268: 256: 230: 3365: 1027:. Bowles later led a group of Cherokee who migrated into Texas, trying to escape from 4642: 4480: 4417: 4042: 4017: 3897: 3738: 3641: 3607: 3522: 3496: 3277: 3257: 2886: 2821: 2806: 2772: 2730: 2657: 2525: 2500: 1789: 1758: 1498:

was made captain and commander of the Texas Ranger, Militia, and Allied Indian Forces

1447: 1153: 1010: 997: 934: 885: 877: 856: 602: 541:

in northern Mexico peaked around AD 500 and declined over the 8th to 10th centuries.

502: 428: 343: 338: 226: 130: 2958: 2946: 811: 4325: 3963: 3933: 3902: 3868: 3634: 2140: 2098: 2078: 1878: 1688: 1555: 1495: 1451: 1410: 1337:, the Rangers and militia caught up to the Comanche. Several hundred militia under 1229: 1001: 902: 650: 234: 75: 2753: 1647:

The first battle of Adobe Walls occurred on November 26, 1864, in the vicinity of

4442: 4320: 4310: 4285: 4260: 4138: 3758: 3599: 3503: 3231: 3122: 2965: 2784: 2669: 2537: 2435: 2328: 2171: 1958: 1895: 1891: 1738: 1717:

and his people fled, passing the alarm to allied Comanche villages nearby, while

1703: 1338: 1334: 1323: 1185:

attacked the Cherokees, Delaware, and Shawnee under Cherokee Chief Bowles at the

1182: 1093: 1067:, Tahocullake, and Mataquo. The areas granted in the treaty included present-day 1048: 1040: 977: 922: 774: 715: 676:, Caddos, Wichitas, Comanche and Yojuanes in 1758 and attacked and decimated the 594: 79: 3042: 3039:"The Avalon Project at Yale Law School: Texas – From Independence to Annexation" 1737:

On January 18, 1865, a force of Confederate Texans attacked a peaceful tribe of

815:

A map showing Texas and areas in the Americas claimed or permanently settled by

4647: 4498: 4432: 4305: 4209: 3958: 3153: 2145: 1921: 1837:

Henry Warren was contracted to haul supplies to forts in West Texas, including

1773: 1668: 1652: 1651:, the ruins of William Bent's abandoned adobe trading post and saloon near the 1490: 1131: 1119:

The Indian problems of the first Houston administration were symbolized by the

1056: 1028: 770: 731: 723: 606: 578: 557: 526: 510: 271:, when the U.S. Army was unavailable to protect the frontier, the Comanche and 198: 142: 3751: 4626: 4402: 4255: 3892: 3887: 2114: 2065: 1952: 1936: 1793: 1691: 1594: 1535: 1105: 868: 832: 806: 727: 654: 638: 433: 393: 323: 211: 203: 154: 275:

pushed white settlements back more than 100 miles along the Texas frontier.

4230: 3795: 2428: 1842: 1722: 1455: 1319: 1242: 1127: 918: 890: 719: 707: 2347:"Chief returns » Local News » San Marcos Record, San Marcos, TX" 1342:

recovered mules with several hundred thousand dollars in bullion on them.

4589: 4536: 4412: 4345: 4295: 4280: 1857:("He Walking-above"), the powerful shaman rival of Tene-angopte's friend 1846: 1801: 1680: 1598: 1590: 1388: 1376: 1214: 993: 778: 661:

migrated from the west into present-day Texas prior to European contact.

630: 618: 553: 538: 534: 388: 260: 246: 1788:

Another well-documented attack happened in the spring of 1867. Ranchers

4290: 3517:

American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492

1974: 1917: 1777: 1684: 1675: 1431: 1414: 1174: 739: 573: 518: 730:. Their population increased dramatically because of the abundance of 3312:

Buried Treasures: Famous and Unusual Gravesites in New Mexico History

1874: 1060: 545: 215: 501:

Texas developed in the region between two major cultural centers of

277: 4107: 2681:

http://files.usgwarchives.net/tx/smith/military/indian/cherokee.txt

1854: 1484: 1427: 1419: 1271: 1233: 873: 703: 241: 219: 207: 179: 3687:

The Buffalo Soldiers: A Narrative of the Negro Cavalry in the West

3595:

San Antonio de Bexar: A Community on New Spain's Northern Frontier

2102: 1718: 1714: 1435: 1372: 1287: 1237: 1194: 968: 893: 711: 702:

Until around the mid-17th century, the Comanche were part of the

665: 646: 642: 610: 2174:, Western Histories Collection, University of Oklahoma Libraries 1962:

villages and ability to live independently off the reservation.

789:

After driving out the Apaches, the Comanches were stricken by a

585: 3819: 1781: 1423: 1052: 1044: 929: 847:, Mexican resistance to Comanche attacks had almost collapsed. 755: 743: 634: 626: 622: 118: 1387:

The remaining period of the Republic of Texas under President

1209: 3917: 3863: 3699:. Vero Beach, Florida 32964: Rourke Publications, Inc., 1992. 2296:

The Indian Southwest, 1580–1830: Ethnogenesis and Reinvention

2106: 1969: 1694:, whom Carson had recruited from Lucien Maxwell's ranch near 1064: 748: 673: 658: 614: 272: 194: 105: 55: 3718:

The Junior Library of American Indians: The Comanche Indians

1901: 1111: 3747:

The Comanche Empire: A Study of Indigenous Power, 1700–1875

2335:, Tulsa: Oklahoma Historical Society (retrieved 8 Feb 2009) 1108:

on November 10, 1837; they were outnumbered and defeated.

537:

civilization was centered south of Texas. The influence of

244:, known as the "Lords of the Plains". Their territory, the 3329:

University of New Mexico - Main Campus. November 11, 2016.

3314:, Santa Fe, New Mexico: Sunstone Press, 2007, p. 105 1100:

During Houston's presidency, the Texas Rangers fought the

1017: 942:

horses to pursue and fight Comanches on their own terms.

1349: 3768:. Glendale, California: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1933. 3191:"Cattle Drives Started in Earnest After the Civil War" 1957:

On July 20, 1874, General Sherman telegraphed General

1302: 593:

The people indigenous to northern Texas including the

3256:. New York: Franklin Watts, Inc., 1971, p. 42. 2047:

buried at the Chief's Knoll at Fort Sill, Oklahoma.

1549: 1409:passed a bill that authorized the United States to 2488: 2298:(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999) p. 85 1667:, decided to punish Comanche and Kiowa attacks on 1461: 996:during his first term, the hostility of President 3790:Indigenous Peoples of North America: The Comanche 1418:portion of Texas-claimed territory, now parts of 4624: 3514: 2194:"Frontier Forts: Texas and the Western Frontier" 1528: 1115:Comanches of West Texas in war regalia, c. 1830. 560:starting in the late 17th century; they reached 1981: 987: 193:were a series of conflicts between settlers in 3792:. San Diego: Lucent Books Incorporation, 2000. 3783:Changing Military Patterns on the Great Plains 3706:. Mankato, Minnesota: Bridgestone Books, 1997. 3376: 2811: (2002). Retrieved December 23, 2008. 2735: (2002). Retrieved December 23, 2008. 2470: 2468: 2423: 2421: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2413: 2411: 2409: 2407: 2333:Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History & Culture 2068:, the last major chief of the Comanche Indians 1636: 1570: 1382: 1281:The Comanche were known for their horsemanship 1200: 1142: 784: 722:, into a span of territory extending from the 653:, and Tamique lived along the Gulf coast. The 4123: 3846: 3805:. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1952. 3725:Carbine and Lance: The Story of Old Fort Sill 3713:, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1962. 3672:. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1989. 3629:Frontier Blood: The Saga of the Parker Family 3304: 2466: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2458: 2456: 2454: 2452: 2450: 2448: 2251:Frontier Blood: The Saga of the Parker Family 1394: 908:In 1821, while colonists were still welcome, 293: 3727:, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1983 3689:, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1967 3665:, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1996 3487:(University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1996) 2743: 2741: 1994: 1776:were the ones sought after, and the state's 1763: 3803:The Comanches: Lords of the Southern Plains 3778:. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1989. 3720:. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1993. 3648:. Later (2003) republished under the title 3349:, 1935, Washington D.C.: Enyon Printing Co. 2899: 2897: 2867: 2865: 2846: 2844: 2771:. Yale University Press. pp. 177–179. 2590: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2582: 2580: 2578: 2576: 2574: 2572: 2404: 2398:The Comanches: Lords of the Southern Plains 2364: 1808: 1725:), Guipago, Set-imkia (Stumbling Bear) and 862: 4130: 4116: 4069:Foreign relations of the Republic of Texas 3853: 3839: 3638:The Comanches: The Destruction of a People 3591: 3301:. Johnson Publication. May 1984 . pp.18-19 3171: 3169: 3167: 3060: 3058: 3056: 3054: 3052: 2906: 2766: 2720: 2718: 2716: 2651: 2626: 2624: 2622: 2519: 2445: 2392: 2390: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2376: 2188: 2186: 2184: 2182: 2180: 300: 286: 74:of many Indigenous nations, including the 3737:Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 3663:The Black Infantry in the West, 1869-1891 3485:The Black Infantry in the West, 1869-1891 3390: 3388: 3341: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3299:Ebony Jr., Black Settlers of the Old West 3276:, Univ Pr of Colorado (2000) p. 95. 3188: 3027:Treaty Negotiations – Texas State Library 2989: 2987: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2975: 2973: 2796: 2794: 2792: 2738: 2255: 2092: 1908:Battle of the North Fork of the Red River 1902:Battle of the North Fork of the Red River 1752: 4678:United States military history timelines 3801:Wallace, Ernest, and E. Adamson Hoebel. 3531: 3508: 3359: 3357: 3355: 2894: 2862: 2841: 2569: 2060: 2020: 1968: 1931:On September 28 near McClellan Creek in 1489: 1276: 1208: 1110: 967: 872: 822: 810: 754: 698:Spanish peace treaties with the Comanche 584: 572: 521:region were centered west of Texas. The 509:occupied the areas to the west, and the 3682:. University of Central Oklahoma, 2015. 3537:Campbell, Thomas N. "Akokisa Indians." 3363: 3293: 3291: 3289: 3164: 3133: 3064: 3049: 2853: 2832: 2713: 2708:"Texas Beyond History: The Die is Cast" 2702: 2700: 2619: 2542: 2373: 2245: 2243: 2241: 2239: 2237: 2235: 2233: 2177: 1732: 1612: 1593:. According to the son of Peta Nocona, 1438:, was ceded to the Federal government. 1018:First Houston administration: 1836–1838 742:. In turn, the Comanche and eventually 691: 4625: 4079:Supreme Court of the Republic of Texas 3796:"The Texas Comanches" on Texas Indians 3776:Indians of North America: The Comanche 3650:The Comanches: The History of a People 3385: 3332: 3197: 2970: 2789: 2747: 2685: 2656:. Yale University Press. p. 215. 2524:. Yale University Press. p. 214. 2486: 2476:Comanches, The Destruction of a People 2344: 1258: 4663:History of United States expansionism 4611:Military history of African Americans 4111: 3834: 3561: 3364:Association, Texas State Historical. 3352: 3266: 3134:Association, Texas State Historical. 3065:Association, Texas State Historical. 2999: 2748:Trevis, Michael (December 17, 2020). 2645: 2400:. University of Oklahoma Press. 1952. 2349:. Sanmarcosrecord.com. Archived from 2050: 1832: 800: 307: 281: 4137: 3704:Native Peoples: The Comanche Indians 3697:Native American People: The Comanche 3440:. Texasbeyondhistory.net. 2001-10-01 3286: 3212:. Texas State Historical Association 3087:. Texas State Historical Association 2880: Jodye Lynn Dickson Schilz: 2874: 2800: Jodye Lynn Dickson Schilz: 2697: 2230: 1350:Second Houston presidency: 1841–1844 490: 3556:Texas State Historical Association. 3116:Tonkawas – Indians of Central Texas 2891:. Retrieved December 23, 2008. 2750:"Cherokee War and Battle of Neches" 2214:. December 12, 2010. Archived from 1772:to other states for a great price. 1303:Great Raid and Battle of Plum Creek 1254:then the hostages will be released. 945: 791:smallpox epidemic from 1780 to 1781 763: 13: 4166: 3585: 3546: 3394: 3370:Texas State Historical Association 3203: 3182: 3140:Texas State Historical Association 3071:Texas State Historical Association 2314: 2097:Many tribes in Texas, such as the 14: 4689: 4074:Congress of the Republic of Texas 3812: 3099:"The Battle of Little Robe Creek" 1624: 581:near the time of European contact 16:19th century war in North America 4653:History of the Cherokee in Texas 3862: 3818: 1946: 1550:Murder of Robert Neighbors: 1859 1471:, led Ford and by marked by the 880:, known as the "Father of Texas" 173: 159: 147: 136: 123: 111: 98: 3490: 3477: 3468: 3451: 3430: 3413: 3319: 3254:An Album of the American Cowboy 3246: 3224: 3146: 3127: 3109: 3091: 3077: 3031: 3020: 2952: 2940: 2915: 2814: 2760: 2674: 2604: 2557: 2513: 2480: 2338: 2165:"Peter P. Pitchlynn Collection" 1585:. The official version is that 1462:Antelope Hills expedition: 1858 1159: 668:, and others settled along the 577:A map showing the range of the 568: 214:, surrendered and moved to the 68:Texan and United States victory 4638:Battles involving the Comanche 3604:University of New Mexico Press 3575:. Accessed September 7, 2007. 3521:University of Oklahoma Press. 3013:. Accessed September 7, 2007. 2638:. Accessed September 7, 2007. 2301: 2288: 2264: 2204: 2157: 1213:The approximate boundaries of 972:Comanche braves, c. 1867–1874. 706:people living along the upper 682:Mission Santa Cruz de San Sabá 672:. The Tonkawa allied with the 1: 3745:; originally his 2001 thesis 3592:de la Teja, Jesus F. (1956), 3540:The Handbook of Texas Online. 3465:. Accessed September 7, 2007. 3427:. Accessed September 7, 2007. 2724: Rebecca J. Herring: 2614:The Handbook of Texas Online. 2151: 1896:Huntsville State Penitentiary 1749:, and were soundly defeated. 1529:Attack on Buffalo Hump's camp 1039:including Shawnee, Delaware, 605:who include ancestors of the 485: 4153:United States Colored Troops 4053:Timelines of cities in Texas 3347:On the Border with Mackenzie 3234:. netstate.com. June 5, 2007 2996:. Arthur H. Clarke Co. 1933. 2636:The Handbook of Texas Online 2429:"Comanche History: Part One" 1988:Second Battle of Adobe Walls 1982:Second Battle of Adobe Walls 1663:, commander of the military 1629:In the late fall of 1864 in 1511: 1401:History of Texas (1845–1860) 988:Republic of Texas: 1836–1845 841:Mexican wars of Independence 7: 4658:History of Indian Territory 4084:Texas Historical Commission 3459:"The Battle of Adobe Walls" 3421:"The Red River War of 1874" 3136:"Neighbors, Robert Simpson" 2912:Anderson (2005), pp. 181 f. 2442:Accessed September 7, 2007. 2345:Walker, Jeff (2007-11-16). 2129: 1643:First Battle of Adobe Walls 1637:First Battle of Adobe Walls 1571:Battle of Pease River: 1860 1473:Battle of Little Robe Creek 1450:in 1847. In 1849 he guided 1411:annex the Republic of Texas 1383:Jones presidency: 1845–1846 1201:Lamar and the Plains tribes 1143:Lamar presidency: 1838–1841 785:Alliances with other tribes 449:North Fork of the Red River 10: 4694: 4550:Second Battle of the Marne 3752:Native Americans: Comanche 3397:"Battle of the North Fork" 2767:Hämäläinen, Pekka (2008). 2652:Hämäläinen, Pekka (2008). 2564:"Chief Bowles (1756–1839)" 2520:Hämäläinen, Pekka (2008). 2370:de la Teja (1956), p. 123. 2198:www.texasbeyondhistory.net 2072:Colonel Mackenzie and the 2057:Battle of Palo Duro Canyon 2054: 2016: 1950: 1905: 1756: 1640: 1574: 1398: 1395:Texas statehood: 1845–1861 1306: 1262: 1219:Comanche raids into Mexico 1033:Southeastern United States 949: 866: 845:collapse of colonial power 804: 718:took them to the southern 695: 529:region extended along the 494: 4598: 4572: 4545:Third Battle of the Aisne 4535: 4507: 4489: 4451: 4363: 4354: 4208: 4177: 4164: 4145: 4092: 4061: 3987: 3926: 3875: 3640:. New York: Knopf, 1974, 3635:Fehrenbach, Theodore Reed 3515:Russell Thornton (1990). 3457:Campbell, Edward (2005). 2599:East Texas Family Records 1995:Army attack near Anadarko 1764:Indian attacks on cowboys 1683:with 335 cavalry, and 75 1469:Antelope Hills expedition 599:Southern Plains villagers 589:Comanche territory c.1850 565:by the mid-18th century. 319: 91: 38: 26: 21: 4158:Bureau of Colored Troops 3723:Nye, Wilbur Sturtevant. 3678:Hampton, Neal McDonald. 3401:Handbook of Texas Online 3210:Handbook of Texas Online 3085:Handbook of Texas Online 3007:"Linnville raid of 1840" 2630:Kreneck, Thomas (2000). 2611:Stone Houses, Battle of. 2553:Handbook of Texas Online 2261:Richardson (2005), p. 9. 2212:"Native American Texans" 1887:Bureau of Indian Affairs 1851:William Tecumseh Sherman 1809:Battle of Antelope Hills 1665:Department of New Mexico 1657:Hutchinson County, Texas 863:Mexican Texas: 1821–1836 531:Mississippi River Valley 183:Other Indigenous nations 4555:Meuse–Argonne offensive 4517:Pancho Villa Expedition 4491:Philippine–American War 4200:25th Infantry Regiment 3627:Exley, Jo Ella Powell, 3621:, registration required 2616:(retrieved 6 Sept 2009) 2294:Gary Clayton Anderson, 2040:grounds of his people." 664:In the 1740s, Tonkawa, 210:led by Quahadi warrior 4673:19th-century conflicts 4580:Wham Paymaster Robbery 4341:William Othello Wilson 4195:24th Infantry Regiment 4171: 3764:Richardson, Rupert N. 3567:Close, George (2000). 3419:Close, George (2000). 3252:Malone, John William. 3175:Trosser, John (2004). 2487:Gwynne, S. C. (2011). 2427:Sultzman, Lee (2006). 2124:Battle of Bandera Pass 2093:Aftermath and analysis 2069: 2029: 1978: 1798:Goodnight–Loving Trail 1753:Final years: 1865–1875 1499: 1282: 1256: 1221: 1179:Albert Sidney Johnston 1116: 1102:Battle of Stone Houses 1075:counties and parts of 976:Survivors, especially 973: 881: 828: 820: 760: 590: 582: 4668:Texas Ranger Division 4453:Spanish–American War 4241:George Ritter Burnett 4190:10th Cavalry Regiment 4170: 3788:Streissguth, Thomas. 3709:Mayhall, Mildred P.. 3573:Texas Handbook Online 3543:(retrieved 2009-1-13) 3154:"Comanche-Part Three" 3011:Texas Handbook Online 3005:Roell, Craig (2002). 2903:Noyes (1993), p. 284. 2871:Noyes (1993), p. 283. 2850:Noyes (1993), p. 282. 2822:"Council House Fight" 2756:on November 21, 2007. 2495:. Scribner. pp. 2284:on September 1, 2006. 2136:Black Seminole Scouts 2064: 2024: 1972: 1757:Further information: 1669:Santa Fe wagon trains 1577:Battle of Pease River 1563:protect the Indians. 1493: 1280: 1251: 1212: 1114: 982:Battle of San Jacinto 971: 889:In 1829, when Mexico 876: 826: 814: 758: 588: 576: 523:Mississippian culture 495:Further information: 4560:Oise-Aisne Offensive 4365:American Indian Wars 4316:William H. Thompkins 4185:9th Cavalry Regiment 3827:at Wikimedia Commons 3425:Texas Beyond History 3179:. September 7, 2007. 3045:on December 5, 2006. 2859:Brice (1987), p. 23. 2838:Brice (1987), p. 22. 2710:, September 7, 2007. 2706:Dial, Steve (2005). 2566:, Legends of America 2309:The Indian Southwest 2218:on December 12, 2010 2074:4th Cavalry Regiment 1926:Christopher C. Augur 1743:Battle of Dove Creek 1733:Battle of Dove Creek 1696:Cimarron, New Mexico 1613:Civil War: 1861–1865 1313:Battle of Plum Creek 1187:Battle of the Neches 952:Fort Parker massacre 692:Rise of the Comanche 497:Pre-Columbian Mexico 469:Staked Plains Horror 464:Buffalo Hunters' War 29:American Indian Wars 4221:Edward L. Baker Jr. 3774:Rollings, Willard. 3735:The Comanche Empire 3685:Leckie, William H. 3558:(retrieved January) 3463:Texas State Library 3325:Tippeconnic, Eric. 3232:"The Texas Economy" 3177:"Adobe Walls Texas" 2947:University of Texas 2882:Council House Fight 2826:jack0204.tripod.com 2802:Council House Fight 2769:The Comanche Empire 2654:The Comanche Empire 2522:The Comanche Empire 1867:Ranald S. Mackenzie 1631:Young County, Texas 1333:At Plum Creek near 1265:Council House Fight 1259:Council House Fight 910:Jose Francisco Ruiz 899:indentured servants 853:Green Flag Republic 533:east of Texas. The 507:Southwestern tribes 505:North America. The 474:Yellow House Canyon 359:Council House Fight 133:(from 1836 to 1846) 33:Mexican Indian Wars 4604:United States Army 4585:Brownsville Affair 4246:Louis H. Carpenter 4172: 3798:(August 14, 2005). 3761:(August 13, 2005). 3757:2011-09-11 at the 3661:Fowler, Arlen L.. 3569:"Cherokee Indians" 3519:. p. 131,132. 3502:2008-01-08 at the 3158:www.dickshovel.com 3121:2008-05-13 at the 2964:2007-06-30 at the 2434:2019-06-05 at the 2327:2012-02-21 at the 2170:2021-08-17 at the 2070: 2051:Palo Duro campaign 2030: 1979: 1933:Gray County, Texas 1833:Warren wagon train 1603:Cynthia Ann Parker 1500: 1309:Great Raid of 1840 1283: 1222: 1117: 974: 882: 829: 821: 801:Europeans in Texas 761: 591: 583: 269:American Civil War 257:Cynthia Ann Parker 235:Indian territories 231:United States Army 167:Confederate States 4633:Texas–Indian Wars 4620: 4619: 4568: 4567: 4418:Victorio Campaign 4378:Texas–Indian wars 4105: 4104: 4062:Government agency 3898:Republic of Texas 3825:Texas–Indian Wars 3823:Media related to 3743:978-0-300-12654-9 3731:Hämäläinen, Pekka 3483:Arlen L. Fowler, 3395:Hosmer, Brian C. 3206:"CATTLE TRAILING" 3204:Skaggs, Jimmy M. 2887:Handbook of Texas 2807:Handbook of Texas 2778:978-0-300-12654-9 2731:Handbook of Texas 2726:Cordova Rebellion 2691:Siegel, Stanley. 2663:978-0-300-12654-9 2642:November 1, 2010. 2632:"Houston, Samuel" 2549:"Houston, Samuel" 2531:978-0-300-12654-9 2506:978-1-4165-9106-1 2474:Fehrenbach, T.R. 1790:Charles Goodnight 1759:Comanche campaign 1661:James H. Carleton 1505:U.S. Constitution 1448:John O. Meusebach 1413:. Texas became a 1154:Killough massacre 1121:Córdova Rebellion 998:Mirabeau B. Lamar 878:Stephen F. Austin 857:Stephen F. Austin 827:New Spain in 1819 819:in the mid-1700s. 670:San Gabriel River 603:Panhandle culture 491:Pre-Columbian era 482: 481: 429:Comanche Campaign 414:Little Robe Creek 339:Arroyo Seco Fight 311:Texas–Indian wars 227:Republic of Texas 197:and the Southern 191:Texas–Indian wars 187: 186: 131:Republic of Texas 87: 86: 80:Akokisa and Bidai 22:Texas Indian wars 4685: 4476:San Juan Heights 4428:Bannock Uprising 4361: 4360: 4355:Notable battles 4326:George H. Wanton 4139:Buffalo Soldiers 4132: 4125: 4118: 4109: 4108: 3903:Texas annexation 3869:History of Texas 3867: 3866: 3855: 3848: 3841: 3832: 3831: 3822: 3716:Mooney, Martin. 3654:Foster, Morris. 3616: 3580: 3579:January 9, 2008. 3565: 3559: 3553:"Bidai Indians." 3550: 3544: 3535: 3529: 3520: 3512: 3506: 3494: 3488: 3481: 3475: 3472: 3466: 3455: 3449: 3448: 3446: 3445: 3434: 3428: 3417: 3411: 3410: 3408: 3407: 3392: 3383: 3380: 3374: 3373: 3361: 3350: 3343: 3330: 3323: 3317: 3310:Richard Melzer, 3308: 3302: 3295: 3284: 3270: 3264: 3250: 3244: 3243: 3241: 3239: 3228: 3222: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3201: 3195: 3194: 3193:. Texas Almanac. 3186: 3180: 3173: 3162: 3161: 3150: 3144: 3143: 3131: 3125: 3113: 3107: 3106: 3103:www.usgennet.org 3095: 3089: 3081: 3075: 3074: 3062: 3047: 3046: 3041:. Archived from 3035: 3029: 3024: 3018: 3003: 2997: 2991: 2968: 2956: 2950: 2944: 2938: 2937: 2935: 2934: 2925:. Archived from 2919: 2913: 2910: 2904: 2901: 2892: 2878: 2872: 2869: 2860: 2857: 2851: 2848: 2839: 2836: 2830: 2829: 2818: 2812: 2798: 2787: 2782: 2764: 2758: 2757: 2752:. Archived from 2745: 2736: 2722: 2711: 2704: 2695: 2689: 2683: 2678: 2672: 2667: 2649: 2643: 2628: 2617: 2608: 2602: 2592: 2567: 2561: 2555: 2546: 2540: 2535: 2517: 2511: 2510: 2494: 2484: 2478: 2472: 2443: 2425: 2402: 2401: 2394: 2371: 2368: 2362: 2361: 2359: 2358: 2342: 2336: 2318: 2312: 2305: 2299: 2292: 2286: 2285: 2283: 2277:. Archived from 2276: 2268: 2262: 2259: 2253: 2247: 2228: 2227: 2225: 2223: 2208: 2202: 2201: 2190: 2175: 2161: 2141:Cherokee history 2079:Palo Duro Canyon 1879:Jacksboro, Texas 1747:Tom Green County 1700:George H. Pettis 1619:Confederate Army 1556:Robert Neighbors 1534:command of Maj. 1365:one at Fort Bird 1230:Palo Duro Canyon 1002:Indian Territory 946:Fort Parker raid 903:Texas Revolution 764:War with Sdot go 617:, including the 459:Palo Duro Canyon 399:Diablo Mountains 314: 312: 302: 295: 288: 279: 278: 178: 177: 176: 169:(from 1861-1865) 165: 163: 162: 153: 151: 150: 143:Choctaw Republic 141: 140: 139: 129: 127: 126: 117: 115: 114: 104: 102: 101: 40: 39: 19: 18: 4693: 4692: 4688: 4687: 4686: 4684: 4683: 4682: 4623: 4622: 4621: 4616: 4594: 4564: 4531: 4503: 4485: 4447: 4443:Meeker Massacre 4356: 4350: 4321:Augustus Walley 4311:Freddie Stowers 4286:William McBryar 4261:Clinton Greaves 4213: 4204: 4173: 4162: 4141: 4136: 4106: 4101: 4088: 4057: 3983: 3939:Border disputes 3922: 3871: 3861: 3859: 3815: 3759:Wayback Machine 3614: 3600:Albuquerque, NM 3588: 3586:Further reading 3583: 3566: 3562: 3551: 3547: 3536: 3532: 3513: 3509: 3504:Wayback Machine 3495: 3491: 3482: 3478: 3473: 3469: 3456: 3452: 3443: 3441: 3438:"Red River War" 3436: 3435: 3431: 3418: 3414: 3405: 3403: 3393: 3386: 3381: 3377: 3362: 3353: 3344: 3333: 3324: 3320: 3309: 3305: 3297:Lewis, Mary C. 3296: 3287: 3272:Carter, Sarah, 3271: 3267: 3251: 3247: 3237: 3235: 3230: 3229: 3225: 3215: 3213: 3202: 3198: 3189:Mary G. Ramos. 3187: 3183: 3174: 3165: 3152: 3151: 3147: 3132: 3128: 3123:Wayback Machine 3114: 3110: 3097: 3096: 3092: 3082: 3078: 3063: 3050: 3037: 3036: 3032: 3025: 3021: 3004: 3000: 2992: 2971: 2966:Wayback Machine 2959:Comanche Nation 2957: 2953: 2945: 2941: 2932: 2930: 2921: 2920: 2916: 2911: 2907: 2902: 2895: 2879: 2875: 2870: 2863: 2858: 2854: 2849: 2842: 2837: 2833: 2820: 2819: 2815: 2799: 2790: 2779: 2765: 2761: 2746: 2739: 2723: 2714: 2705: 2698: 2690: 2686: 2679: 2675: 2664: 2650: 2646: 2629: 2620: 2609: 2605: 2593: 2570: 2562: 2558: 2547: 2543: 2532: 2518: 2514: 2507: 2485: 2481: 2473: 2446: 2436:Wayback Machine 2426: 2405: 2396: 2395: 2374: 2369: 2365: 2356: 2354: 2343: 2339: 2329:Wayback Machine 2319: 2315: 2306: 2302: 2293: 2289: 2281: 2274: 2270: 2269: 2265: 2260: 2256: 2248: 2231: 2221: 2219: 2210: 2209: 2205: 2192: 2191: 2178: 2172:Wayback Machine 2162: 2158: 2154: 2132: 2095: 2059: 2053: 2019: 1997: 1984: 1959:Philip Sheridan 1955: 1949: 1910: 1904: 1839:Fort Richardson 1835: 1811: 1774:Texas Longhorns 1766: 1761: 1755: 1735: 1704:Texas Panhandle 1645: 1639: 1627: 1615: 1579: 1573: 1552: 1531: 1514: 1496:John "Rip" Ford 1464: 1403: 1397: 1385: 1352: 1339:Mathew Caldwell 1315: 1307:Main articles: 1305: 1267: 1261: 1203: 1183:David G. Burnet 1162: 1145: 1094:David G. Burnet 1020: 990: 978:James W. Parker 954: 948: 925:to the ground. 921:'s new town of 886:several hundred 871: 865: 809: 803: 787: 775:Edwards Plateau 766: 710:in present-day 700: 694: 597:are called the 571: 546:Colonial Mexico 517:from the upper 499: 493: 488: 483: 478: 454:2nd Adobe Walls 424:1st Adobe Walls 315: 310: 308: 306: 218:reservation in 182: 174: 172: 160: 158: 157: 148: 146: 145: 137: 135: 134: 124: 122: 121: 112: 110: 109: 99: 97: 58: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4691: 4681: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4635: 4618: 4617: 4615: 4614: 4607: 4599: 4596: 4595: 4593: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4576: 4574: 4570: 4569: 4566: 4565: 4563: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4541: 4539: 4533: 4532: 4530: 4529: 4524: 4519: 4513: 4511: 4505: 4504: 4502: 4501: 4499:Moro Rebellion 4495: 4493: 4487: 4486: 4484: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4457: 4455: 4449: 4448: 4446: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4433:Yaqui Uprising 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4383:Beecher Island 4380: 4375: 4369: 4367: 4358: 4352: 4351: 4349: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4336:Moses Williams 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4306:Emanuel Stance 4303: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4236:Benjamin Brown 4233: 4228: 4223: 4217: 4215: 4210:Medal of Honor 4206: 4205: 4203: 4202: 4197: 4192: 4187: 4181: 4179: 4178:Original units 4175: 4174: 4165: 4163: 4161: 4160: 4155: 4149: 4147: 4143: 4142: 4135: 4134: 4127: 4120: 4112: 4103: 4102: 4100: 4099: 4097:Years in Texas 4093: 4090: 4089: 4087: 4086: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4065: 4063: 4059: 4058: 4056: 4055: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4013:Corpus Christi 4010: 4005: 4000: 3994: 3992: 3985: 3984: 3982: 3981: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3954:Jewish history 3951: 3946: 3941: 3936: 3930: 3928: 3924: 3923: 3921: 3920: 3918:State of Texas 3915: 3913:Reconstruction 3910: 3905: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3879: 3877: 3873: 3872: 3858: 3857: 3850: 3843: 3835: 3829: 3828: 3814: 3813:External links 3811: 3810: 3809: 3806: 3799: 3793: 3786: 3781:Secoy, Frank. 3779: 3772: 3769: 3762: 3749: 3728: 3721: 3714: 3707: 3700: 3693: 3690: 3683: 3676: 3673: 3668:Frazier, Ian. 3666: 3659: 3656:Being Comanche 3652: 3632: 3625: 3622: 3612: 3587: 3584: 3582: 3581: 3560: 3545: 3530: 3527:978-0806122205 3507: 3489: 3476: 3467: 3450: 3429: 3412: 3384: 3375: 3351: 3345:Carter, R.G., 3331: 3318: 3303: 3285: 3282:978-1552380192 3265: 3245: 3223: 3196: 3181: 3163: 3145: 3126: 3108: 3090: 3076: 3067:"Buffalo Hump" 3048: 3030: 3019: 2998: 2969: 2951: 2939: 2914: 2905: 2893: 2873: 2861: 2852: 2840: 2831: 2813: 2788: 2777: 2759: 2737: 2712: 2696: 2684: 2673: 2662: 2644: 2618: 2603: 2568: 2556: 2541: 2530: 2512: 2505: 2479: 2444: 2403: 2372: 2363: 2337: 2313: 2300: 2287: 2263: 2254: 2249:Exley, J.A.. " 2229: 2203: 2176: 2155: 2153: 2150: 2149: 2148: 2146:Indian removal 2143: 2138: 2131: 2128: 2094: 2091: 2055:Main article: 2052: 2049: 2044: 2043: 2042: 2041: 2018: 2015: 1996: 1993: 1983: 1980: 1975:ledger drawing 1951:Main article: 1948: 1945: 1906:Main article: 1903: 1900: 1834: 1831: 1810: 1807: 1765: 1762: 1754: 1751: 1734: 1731: 1653:Canadian River 1641:Main article: 1638: 1635: 1626: 1625:Elm Creek raid 1623: 1614: 1611: 1575:Main article: 1572: 1569: 1551: 1548: 1530: 1527: 1513: 1510: 1463: 1460: 1399:Main article: 1396: 1393: 1384: 1381: 1351: 1348: 1304: 1301: 1263:Main article: 1260: 1257: 1202: 1199: 1161: 1158: 1144: 1141: 1029:Indian Removal 1019: 1016: 989: 986: 950:Main article: 947: 944: 867:Main article: 864: 861: 805:Main article: 802: 799: 786: 783: 771:Llano Estacado 765: 762: 724:Arkansas River 693: 690: 607:Wichita people 579:Plains Indians 570: 567: 492: 489: 487: 484: 480: 479: 477: 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 411: 409:Antelope Hills 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 361: 356: 351: 346: 341: 336: 331: 326: 320: 317: 316: 305: 304: 297: 290: 282: 204:part of Mexico 199:Plains Indians 185: 184: 170: 94: 93: 89: 88: 85: 84: 83: 82: 69: 64: 60: 59: 54: 52: 48: 47: 44: 36: 35: 24: 23: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4690: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4630: 4628: 4613: 4612: 4608: 4606: 4605: 4601: 4600: 4597: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4577: 4575: 4571: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4542: 4540: 4538: 4534: 4528: 4527:Ambos Nogales 4525: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4514: 4512: 4510: 4506: 4500: 4497: 4496: 4494: 4492: 4488: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4458: 4456: 4454: 4450: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4423:Fort Tularosa 4421: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4403:Red River War 4401: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4391: 4389: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4370: 4368: 4366: 4362: 4359: 4353: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4271:George Jordan 4269: 4267: 4266:Henry Johnson 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4256:Pompey Factor 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4218: 4216: 4211: 4207: 4201: 4198: 4196: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4182: 4180: 4176: 4169: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4150: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4133: 4128: 4126: 4121: 4119: 4114: 4113: 4110: 4098: 4095: 4094: 4091: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4077: 4075: 4072: 4070: 4067: 4066: 4064: 4060: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4001: 3999: 3996: 3995: 3993: 3991: 3986: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3974:Texas Rangers 3972: 3970: 3967: 3965: 3962: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3952: 3950: 3947: 3945: 3942: 3940: 3937: 3935: 3932: 3931: 3929: 3925: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3908:Civil War era 3906: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3893:Mexican Texas 3891: 3889: 3888:Spanish Texas 3886: 3884: 3881: 3880: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3865: 3856: 3851: 3849: 3844: 3842: 3837: 3836: 3833: 3826: 3821: 3817: 3816: 3807: 3804: 3800: 3797: 3794: 3791: 3787: 3784: 3780: 3777: 3773: 3770: 3767: 3763: 3760: 3756: 3753: 3750: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3729: 3726: 3722: 3719: 3715: 3712: 3708: 3705: 3701: 3698: 3695:Lodge, Sally. 3694: 3691: 3688: 3684: 3681: 3677: 3674: 3671: 3667: 3664: 3660: 3657: 3653: 3651: 3647: 3646:0-394-48856-3 3643: 3639: 3636: 3633: 3630: 3626: 3623: 3620: 3615: 3613:0-8263-1613-1 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3596: 3590: 3589: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3564: 3557: 3554: 3549: 3542: 3541: 3534: 3528: 3524: 3518: 3511: 3505: 3501: 3498: 3493: 3486: 3480: 3471: 3464: 3460: 3454: 3439: 3433: 3426: 3422: 3416: 3402: 3398: 3391: 3389: 3379: 3371: 3367: 3360: 3358: 3356: 3348: 3342: 3340: 3338: 3336: 3328: 3322: 3316: 3313: 3307: 3300: 3294: 3292: 3290: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3269: 3263: 3262:0-531-01512-2 3259: 3255: 3249: 3233: 3227: 3211: 3207: 3200: 3192: 3185: 3178: 3172: 3170: 3168: 3159: 3155: 3149: 3141: 3137: 3130: 3124: 3120: 3117: 3112: 3104: 3100: 3094: 3088: 3086: 3080: 3072: 3068: 3061: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3044: 3040: 3034: 3028: 3023: 3017:July 9, 2011. 3016: 3012: 3008: 3002: 2995: 2990: 2988: 2986: 2984: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2974: 2967: 2963: 2960: 2955: 2948: 2943: 2929:on 2013-06-19 2928: 2924: 2918: 2909: 2900: 2898: 2890: 2888: 2883: 2877: 2868: 2866: 2856: 2847: 2845: 2835: 2827: 2823: 2817: 2810: 2808: 2803: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2786: 2780: 2774: 2770: 2763: 2755: 2751: 2744: 2742: 2734: 2732: 2727: 2721: 2719: 2717: 2709: 2703: 2701: 2694: 2688: 2682: 2677: 2671: 2665: 2659: 2655: 2648: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2627: 2625: 2623: 2615: 2612: 2607: 2600: 2596: 2591: 2589: 2587: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2579: 2577: 2575: 2573: 2565: 2560: 2554: 2550: 2545: 2539: 2533: 2527: 2523: 2516: 2508: 2502: 2498: 2493: 2492: 2483: 2477: 2471: 2469: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2459: 2457: 2455: 2453: 2451: 2449: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2430: 2424: 2422: 2420: 2418: 2416: 2414: 2412: 2410: 2408: 2399: 2393: 2391: 2389: 2387: 2385: 2383: 2381: 2379: 2377: 2367: 2353:on 2011-09-27 2352: 2348: 2341: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2323: 2317: 2310: 2304: 2297: 2291: 2280: 2273: 2267: 2258: 2252: 2246: 2244: 2242: 2240: 2238: 2236: 2234: 2217: 2213: 2207: 2199: 2195: 2189: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2173: 2169: 2166: 2160: 2156: 2147: 2144: 2142: 2139: 2137: 2134: 2133: 2127: 2125: 2119: 2116: 2115:John C. Ewers 2111: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2080: 2075: 2067: 2066:Quanah Parker 2063: 2058: 2048: 2038: 2037: 2036: 2035: 2034: 2028:, Kiowa chief 2027: 2023: 2014: 2010: 2007: 2003: 1992: 1989: 1976: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1960: 1954: 1953:Red River War 1947:Red River War 1944: 1940: 1938: 1934: 1929: 1927: 1923: 1922:Staked Plains 1919: 1914: 1913:Comancheria. 1909: 1899: 1897: 1893: 1888: 1882: 1880: 1876: 1871: 1868: 1862: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1830: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1815:Fort Arbuckle 1806: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1794:Oliver Loving 1791: 1786: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1760: 1750: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1730: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1711: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1692:Apache Scouts 1690: 1686: 1682: 1677: 1672: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1644: 1634: 1632: 1622: 1620: 1610: 1606: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1595:Quanah Parker 1592: 1588: 1584: 1578: 1568: 1564: 1561: 1557: 1547: 1544: 1539: 1537: 1536:Earl Van Dorn 1526: 1522: 1518: 1509: 1506: 1497: 1492: 1488: 1486: 1480: 1476: 1474: 1470: 1459: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1439: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1407:U.S. Congress 1402: 1392: 1390: 1380: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1360: 1356: 1347: 1343: 1340: 1336: 1331: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1314: 1310: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1289: 1279: 1275: 1273: 1266: 1255: 1250: 1246: 1244: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1226: 1220: 1216: 1211: 1207: 1198: 1196: 1190: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1170: 1167: 1157: 1155: 1149: 1140: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1124: 1122: 1113: 1109: 1107: 1103: 1098: 1095: 1089: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1015: 1012: 1006: 1003: 999: 995: 985: 983: 979: 970: 966: 963: 959: 953: 943: 940: 936: 931: 926: 924: 920: 914: 911: 906: 904: 900: 895: 892: 887: 879: 875: 870: 869:Mexican Texas 860: 858: 854: 848: 846: 842: 838: 837:Comanche wars 834: 825: 818: 813: 808: 807:Spanish Texas 798: 794: 792: 782: 780: 776: 772: 759:Tonkawa lands 757: 753: 750: 745: 741: 735: 733: 729: 728:Central Texas 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 699: 689: 688:as servants. 685: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 662: 660: 656: 655:Plains Apache 652: 648: 644: 640: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 587: 580: 575: 566: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 542: 540: 536: 532: 528: 527:Mound Builder 524: 520: 516: 512: 511:Plains tribes 508: 504: 503:pre-Columbian 498: 475: 472: 470: 467: 465: 462: 460: 457: 455: 452: 450: 447: 445: 444:Blanco Canyon 442: 440: 437: 435: 434:Red River War 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 404:Devil's River 402: 400: 397: 395: 394:Jicarilla War 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 374:Village Creek 372: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 357: 355: 352: 350: 347: 345: 342: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 327: 325: 324:Comanche Wars 322: 321: 318: 313: 303: 298: 296: 291: 289: 284: 283: 280: 276: 274: 270: 267:. During the 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 248: 243: 238: 236: 232: 228: 223: 221: 217: 213: 212:Quanah Parker 209: 205: 200: 196: 192: 181: 171: 168: 156: 155:United States 144: 132: 120: 107: 96: 95: 90: 81: 77: 73: 70: 67: 66: 65: 62: 61: 57: 53: 50: 49: 45: 42: 41: 37: 34: 30: 25: 20: 4609: 4602: 4461:Las Guasimas 4393:Beaver Creek 4377: 4373:Saline River 4231:Thomas Boyne 4146:Predecessors 3948: 3883:French Texas 3802: 3789: 3782: 3775: 3765: 3746: 3734: 3724: 3717: 3710: 3703: 3702:Lund, Bill. 3696: 3686: 3679: 3670:Great Plains 3669: 3662: 3655: 3649: 3637: 3628: 3593: 3572: 3563: 3555: 3548: 3539: 3533: 3516: 3510: 3492: 3484: 3479: 3470: 3462: 3453: 3442:. Retrieved 3432: 3424: 3415: 3404:. Retrieved 3400: 3378: 3369: 3346: 3326: 3321: 3311: 3306: 3298: 3273: 3268: 3253: 3248: 3236:. Retrieved 3226: 3214:. Retrieved 3209: 3199: 3184: 3157: 3148: 3139: 3129: 3111: 3102: 3093: 3084: 3079: 3070: 3043:the original 3033: 3022: 3010: 3001: 2993: 2954: 2942: 2931:. Retrieved 2927:the original 2917: 2908: 2885: 2876: 2855: 2834: 2825: 2816: 2805: 2785:Google Books 2768: 2762: 2754:the original 2729: 2692: 2687: 2676: 2670:Google Books 2653: 2647: 2635: 2613: 2606: 2598: 2559: 2552: 2544: 2538:Google Books 2521: 2515: 2490: 2482: 2475: 2439: 2397: 2366: 2355:. Retrieved 2351:the original 2340: 2332: 2320:May, Jon D. 2316: 2308: 2303: 2295: 2290: 2279:the original 2266: 2257: 2250: 2220:. Retrieved 2216:the original 2206: 2197: 2159: 2120: 2112: 2096: 2087: 2083: 2071: 2045: 2031: 2011: 2006:10th Cavalry 1998: 1985: 1964: 1956: 1941: 1930: 1915: 1911: 1892:Edmund Davis 1883: 1872: 1863: 1843:Fort Griffin 1836: 1812: 1787: 1767: 1736: 1723:Sitting Bear 1712: 1708:Moore County 1673: 1646: 1628: 1616: 1607: 1583:Foard County 1580: 1565: 1560:Fort Belknap 1553: 1540: 1532: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1501: 1481: 1477: 1465: 1456:Brazos River 1452:John S. Ford 1444:peace treaty 1440: 1404: 1386: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1344: 1332: 1320:Buffalo Hump 1316: 1297: 1293: 1284: 1268: 1252: 1247: 1243:Buffalo Hump 1227: 1223: 1204: 1193:fled to the 1191: 1171: 1166:Cherokee War 1163: 1160:Cherokee War 1150: 1146: 1125: 1118: 1104:against the 1099: 1090: 1037: 1025:Chief Bowles 1021: 1007: 991: 975: 955: 927: 919:Green DeWitt 915: 907: 883: 849: 833:Spanish rule 830: 795: 788: 777:west to the 767: 736: 720:Great Plains 708:Platte River 701: 686: 678:Lipan Apache 663: 601:, including 592: 569:Early tribes 543: 500: 379:Bandera Pass 349:San Gabriels 334:Stone Houses 309: 245: 239: 224: 190: 188: 108:(until 1821) 92:Belligerents 27:Part of the 4590:Bisbee Riot 4537:World War I 4438:Bear Valley 4413:Apache Wars 4357:(1866–1918) 4346:Brent Woods 4301:Thomas Shaw 4296:Isaac Payne 4281:Isaiah Mays 4226:Dennis Bell 4214:(1866–1918) 4212:recipients 4048:San Antonio 4008:Brownsville 3949:Indian Wars 3619:Read online 1916:A captured 1847:Fort Concho 1802:Pecos River 1681:Fort Bascom 1649:Adobe Walls 1609:lost sons. 1599:Pease River 1591:Peta Nocona 1389:Anson Jones 1215:Comancheria 1031:out of the 994:Sam Houston 962:John Parker 958:Fort Parker 779:Pecos River 749:tribal unit 631:Kadohadacho 562:Nacogdoches 554:San Antonio 539:Teotihuacan 535:Mesoamerica 439:Warren Raid 419:Pease River 389:Apache Wars 329:Fort Parker 265:Indian Wars 261:Pease River 247:Comancheria 72:Destruction 4627:Categories 4509:Border War 4408:Wichita II 4398:North Fork 4291:Adam Paine 4251:John Denny 4028:Fort Worth 3964:Revolution 3934:Annexation 3711:The Kiowas 3444:2022-04-12 3406:2007-07-15 2933:2015-12-07 2783:Online at 2668:Online at 2536:Online at 2357:2011-11-11 2307:Anderson, 2152:References 2099:Karankawan 1924:. General 1918:comanchero 1898:in Texas. 1778:open range 1676:Kit Carson 1432:New Mexico 1415:U.S. state 1369:Santa Anna 1175:white flag 1011:bankrupted 843:, and the 740:Rio Grande 696:See also: 519:Rio Grande 486:Background 369:Plum Creek 364:Great Raid 354:The Neches 4388:Wichita I 4331:John Ward 4033:Galveston 3876:By period 3366:"Satanta" 3238:April 29, 3216:March 22, 2884:from the 2804:from the 2728:from the 2322:"Tonkawa" 1875:Fort Sill 1823:Horseback 1819:Fort Cobb 1739:Kickapoos 1689:Jicarilla 1543:Fort Cobb 1512:Aftermath 1328:Linnville 1136:Guadalupe 1077:Van Zandt 1061:Coushatta 935:cannibals 891:abolished 817:Europeans 716:migration 651:Karankawa 595:Panhandle 550:Europeans 216:Fort Sill 208:Comanches 76:Karankawa 46:1820–1875 4643:Comanche 4573:See also 4522:Carrizal 4481:Santiago 4471:El Caney 4466:Tayacoba 4276:Fitz Lee 3998:Amarillo 3959:Oil boom 3927:By topic 3755:Archived 3577:Archived 3500:Archived 3119:Archived 3015:Archived 2962:Archived 2640:Archived 2432:Archived 2325:Archived 2222:July 25, 2168:Archived 2130:See also 2002:Anadarko 1973:A Kiowa 1674:Colonel 1587:Sul Ross 1485:Cherokee 1428:Oklahoma 1420:Colorado 1335:Lockhart 1324:Victoria 1272:Mukwooru 1234:Cheyenne 1132:Colorado 1073:Cherokee 1041:Kickapoo 923:Gonzales 704:Shoshone 680:and the 666:Yojuanes 344:Killough 255:rescued 253:Sul Ross 242:Comanche 220:Oklahoma 180:Comanche 78:and the 51:Location 31:and the 4038:Houston 4023:El Paso 3969:Slavery 3944:Forests 3733:(2008) 3497:Satanta 2311:, p. 89 2103:Akokisa 2026:Satanta 2017:Satanta 1859:Napawat 1855:Mamanti 1782:cowboys 1770:shipped 1727:Satanta 1719:Guipago 1715:Dohäsan 1436:Wyoming 1373:Old Owl 1288:Texians 1238:Arapaho 1195:Choctaw 1057:Alabama 939:Rangers 894:slavery 732:buffalo 712:Wyoming 647:Atakapa 643:Akokisa 611:Tonkawa 558:El Paso 544:During 4043:Laredo 4018:Dallas 4003:Austin 3741: 3644: 3610: 3525: 3280: 3260: 2889:Online 2809:Online 2775: 2733:Online 2660: 2528: 2503: 2497:7, 211 1937:Quanah 1845:, and 1825:) and 1494:Capt. 1434:, and 1424:Kansas 1134:, and 1128:Brazos 1106:Kichai 1049:Biloxi 1045:Quapaw 930:Lenape 839:, the 744:Apache 674:Bidais 641:. The 639:Kitsai 637:, and 635:Nacono 627:Hainai 623:Eyeish 609:. The 515:Pueblo 384:Muncey 164: 152: 128: 119:Mexico 116: 103: 63:Result 4648:Kiowa 2282:(PDF) 2275:(PDF) 2107:Bidai 1827:Tahka 1446:with 1085:Gregg 1069:Smith 1065:Caddo 659:Kiowa 615:Caddo 273:Kiowa 195:Texas 106:Spain 56:Texas 3990:city 3979:Vice 3739:ISBN 3642:ISBN 3608:ISBN 3523:ISBN 3278:ISBN 3258:ISBN 3240:2008 3218:2013 2773:ISBN 2658:ISBN 2526:ISBN 2501:ISBN 2224:2018 1986:The 1792:and 1687:and 1377:Waco 1371:and 1326:and 1311:and 1236:and 1217:and 1181:and 1164:The 1083:and 1081:Rusk 1071:and 1053:Ioni 657:and 619:Adai 556:and 189:The 43:Date 3988:By 1817:to 1741:at 1685:Ute 1655:in 1458:. 1156:). 726:to 525:or 259:at 4629:: 3617:- 3606:, 3602:: 3598:, 3571:. 3461:. 3423:. 3399:. 3387:^ 3368:. 3354:^ 3334:^ 3288:^ 3208:. 3166:^ 3156:. 3138:. 3101:. 3069:. 3051:^ 3009:. 2972:^ 2896:^ 2864:^ 2843:^ 2824:. 2791:^ 2740:^ 2715:^ 2699:^ 2634:. 2621:^ 2597:, 2571:^ 2551:, 2499:. 2447:^ 2438:. 2406:^ 2375:^ 2331:, 2232:^ 2196:. 2179:^ 2105:, 2101:, 1841:, 1745:, 1430:, 1426:, 1422:, 1318:(" 1189:. 1130:, 1079:, 1063:, 1059:, 1055:, 1051:, 1047:, 1043:, 1035:. 905:. 649:, 645:, 633:, 629:, 625:, 621:, 237:. 222:. 4131:e 4124:t 4117:v 3854:e 3847:t 3840:v 3658:. 3631:, 3447:. 3409:. 3372:. 3242:. 3220:. 3160:. 3142:. 3105:. 3073:. 2949:. 2936:. 2828:. 2781:. 2666:. 2534:. 2509:. 2440:. 2360:. 2226:. 2200:. 301:e 294:t 287:v 249:,

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Texas–Indian wars

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